Internship Project

Report

Internee name: Ahtasham Ahmad

Factory: HIT
Descom Display Center
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

The internship opportunity I had with was a great chance for learning and professional
development. Therefore, I consider myself as a very lucky individual as I was provided with an
opportunity to be a part of it. I am also grateful for having a chance to meet so many wonderful
people and professionals who led me though this internship period.

Bearing in mind previous I am using this opportunity to express my deepest gratitude and special
thanks to the MD of who in spite of being extraordinarily busy with his duties, took time out to
hear, guide and keep me on the correct path and allowing me to carry out my project at their
esteemed organization and extending during the training.

I express my deepest thanks to Sir Asghar [OIC] for taking part in useful decision & giving
necessary advices and guidance and arranged all facilities to make life easier. I choose this
moment to acknowledge his/her contribution gratefully.

I perceive as this opportunity as a big milestone in my career development. I will strive to use
gained skills and knowledge in the best possible way, and I will continue to work on their
improvement, in order to attain desired career objectives. Hope to continue cooperation with all
of you in the future,
Sincerely,

Ahtasham Ahmad

HIT Descom Display Center

Date: 6 September ,2019

Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: ...................................................................................................................................................... - 4 -
ABSTRACT:......................................................................................................................................................................... - 8 -
Introduction: ..................................................................................................................................................................... - 9 -
Oil pump:......................................................................................................................................................................... - 10 -
Function: ..................................................................................................................................................................... - 10 -
OIL PUMP SYSTEMS:.................................................................................................................................................... - 10 -
Gear pumps: ............................................................................................................................................................ - 10 -
Crescent-type pumps: ............................................................................................................................................. - 10 -
Rotor-type pumps: .................................................................................................................................................. - 11 -
Gear-type pumps: ................................................................................................................................................... - 11 -
Pressure relief valve: ............................................................................................................................................... - 11 -
Electronic oil pumps: ............................................................................................................................................... - 11 -
Oil pickup pipe: ........................................................................................................................................................... - 12 -
A note on oil pressure: ............................................................................................................................................ - 13 -
Oil filter types:................................................................................................................................................................. - 13 -
Anti-drain valve: .......................................................................................................................................................... - 14 -
Bypass valve: ............................................................................................................................................................... - 14 -
Main bearings: ............................................................................................................................................................ - 14 -
Big-end Bearings: ........................................................................................................................................................ - 14 -
Cylinder walls: ............................................................................................................................................................. - 14 -
Pistons: ........................................................................................................................................................................ - 15 -
Camshaft bearings: ..................................................................................................................................................... - 15 -
Cam followers: ............................................................................................................................................................ - 15 -
Oil restrictor: ............................................................................................................................................................... - 15 -
Methods of lubrication: .................................................................................................................................................. - 15 -
Boundary lubrication: ................................................................................................................................................. - 15 -
Hydrodynamic lubrication / force-fed lubrication: ..................................................................................................... - 15 -
Oil pan / Sump: ............................................................................................................................................................... - 16 -
Baffles: ........................................................................................................................................................................ - 16 -
Windage tray: .............................................................................................................................................................. - 16 -
Drain plug: ................................................................................................................................................................... - 17 -
Gear train: ....................................................................................................................................................................... - 17 -
Features of gears and gear trains: .............................................................................................................................. - 17 -
Mechanical advantage: ............................................................................................................................................... - 18 -
Gear:................................................................................................................................................................................ - 19 -
Types of Gears:............................................................................................................................................................ - 20 -
......................................................................................................................................................................................... - 21 -
 Spur Gear: ................................................................................................................................................................... - 21 -
Helical gear:................................................................................................................................................................. - 22 -
Gear Rack: ................................................................................................................................................................... - 22 -
Bevel Gear: ................................................................................................................................................................. - 23 -
Spiral Bevel Gear: ........................................................................................................................................................ - 24 -
Screw Gear: ................................................................................................................................................................. - 24 -
Miter Gear: .................................................................................................................................................................. - 25 -
Worm Gear:................................................................................................................................................................. - 26 -
Configuration: ............................................................................................................................................................. - 28 -
Precision class of gears: .............................................................................................................................................. - 28 -
Existence of teeth grinding: ........................................................................................................................................ - 28 -
Kinds of tooth shape: .................................................................................................................................................. - 28 -
Creation of Gears: ....................................................................................................................................................... - 29 -
The ways to use gears in mechanical design situations.............................................................................................. - 33 -
Why is it difficult to obtain needed gears ? ................................................................................................................ - 33 -
There is no standard for the gear itself................................................................................................................... - 33 -
There is a diversity of gear specifications ............................................................................................................... - 34 -
Cannot obtain the desired gears ............................................................................................................................. - 34 -
When only one gear is needed, the production cost is high .................................................................................. - 34 -
Possibility of using standard gears .......................................................................................................................... - 35 -
Fuel pump: ...................................................................................................................................................................... - 35 -
Mechanical pump: ...................................................................................................................................................... - 36 -
Plunger-Type Fuel Pump: ............................................................................................................................................ - 37 -
Electric pump: ............................................................................................................................................................. - 38 -
Fuel Feed Pumps (Automobile):...................................................................................................................................... - 39 -
Fuel Feed Pumps: ............................................................................................................................................................ - 39 -
Diaphragm Type Pumps: ............................................................................................................................................ - 40 -
Plunger Type Pumps: .................................................................................................................................................. - 41 -
AC Universal Electronic Solenoid Fuel Pump: .......................................................................................................... - 42 -
Port and Helix Type Pump:.......................................................................................................................................... - 42 -
Conclusion: ...................................................................................................................................................................... - 43 -
References ...................................................................................................................................................................... - 44 -
Figure 1 Oil Pump ........................................................................................................................................................... - 12 -
Figure 2Transmission of motion and force by gear wheels, compound train.............................................................. - 18 -
Figure 3Two meshing gears transmit rotational motion. ............................................................................................. - 18 -
Figure 4A sample box of various types of gears ............................................................................................................ - 20 -
Figure 5 Various Types of Gears..................................................................................................................................... - 21 -
Figure 6 A sketch of spur gear ........................................................................................................................................ - 21 -
Figure 7• A sketch of helical gears ............................................................................................................................. - 22 -
Figure 8 A sketch of gear rack ........................................................................................................................................ - 22 -
Figure 9 Gear Rack .......................................................................................................................................................... - 23 -
Figure 10 A sketch of bevel gears .................................................................................................................................. - 23 -
Figure 11A sketch of spiral bevel gears ......................................................................................................................... - 24 -
Figure 12A sketch of screw gears ................................................................................................................................... - 25 -
Figure 13 A sketch of miter gears .................................................................................................................................. - 25 -
Figure 14A sketch of worm gears................................................................................................................................... - 26 -
Figure 15A sketch of internal gear ................................................................................................................................. - 26 -
Figure 16 An overview of gears...................................................................................................................................... - 27 -
Figure 17 Spur Gears ...................................................................................................................................................... - 29 -
Figure 18 Pitch Cylinders ................................................................................................................................................ - 30 -
Figure 19 Pitch Cones ..................................................................................................................................................... - 31 -
Figure 20 Bevel Gears ..................................................................................................................................................... - 31 -
Figure 21 A high-pressure fuel pump on a Yanmar 2GM20 marine diesel engine....................................................... - 36 -
Figure 22 Mechanical fuel pump, fitted to cylinder head ............................................................................................. - 37 -
Figure 23 Diagram of diaphragm type fuel pump ......................................................................................................... - 38 -
Figure 24 Electric fuel pump........................................................................................................................................... - 38 -
Figure 25 AC lift pumps. A. Unitac model lever arm actuated. B. Directly actuated. .................................................. - 40 -
Figure 26 Plunger type pump (Bosch). A. Fuel transfer position. B. Fuel delivery condition. ..................................... - 41 -
Figure 27 AC Universal electronic solenoid pump. ....................................................................................................... - 42 -
 Project Title
a) Oil Pump Drive Shaft
b) Gear Sets of drive mechanism
c) Fuel feed pump drive gear
d) Tachometer Drive Shaft and Gear Set

ABSTRACT:

HIT is Part of Pakistan’s premier Defence Industry which was established in early 70s with an
objective of rebuilding the existing tanks. Over the last four decades it has evolved into a large
Military Industrial base and currently involved in manufacturing and rebuild of hi-tech
equipment like Tanks, APCs, Guns and other security related equipment including security
vehicles. Presently it comprises of Six production units, an in-house development and component
manufacturing facility and a leading Research and Development Center. The service life of a
gear-type oil pump with variable displacement is affected by the reliability of its drive system.
The shaft is may failed basic requirement of casting internal cleanliness before assembly of the
pump. The twist in the shaft is the main cause for the pump failure. Millipore value of the pump
is at higher side and it also may be the cause for the shaft automobile industry is striving to
develop a drive system that can operate without using fossil fuels, instead of developing an
internal combustion engine using fossil fuels. Electricity is attracting the most attention among
environmentally friendly alternative fuels. In this study, a new mechanism was designed and
presented as an alternative to the worm gear mechanism without its disadvantages. This novel
mechanism is referred to as a “ball worm gear mechanism”. The force of the worm gear
mechanism is transmitted by a sliding movement, which leads to high operating temperature and
low efficiency as well as wear on the bronze worm wheel. Therefore, a new mechanism was
designed with balls placed into the helical grooves on the worm shaft which move by rolling on
the worm wheel. The worm wheel of the newly designed mechanism is made of case-hardened
steel, which is less expensive than bronze. Thus, it is anticipated that not only the cost of the
worm wheel will be reduced, but also its life will be extended. This paper presents the
characteristic details of propeller shaft to substitute its material with composite material and
suitability of material is analyzed by evaluating and comparing stress distribution & deformation
with in the shaft to replace the steel drive shaft with a piece of E-glass/ epoxy and E-carbon/epoxy
with the help of material properties
Introduction:
The oil pump in an internal combustion engine circulates engine oil under pressure to the
rotating bearings, the sliding pistons and the camshaft of the engine. This lubricates the
bearings, allows the use of higher-capacity fluid bearings and also assists in cooling the engine.
As well as its primary purpose for lubrication, pressurized oil is increasingly used as
a hydraulic fluid to power small actuators. One of the first notable uses in this way was
for hydraulic tappets in camshaft and valve actuation. Increasingly common recent uses may
include the tensioner for a timing belt or variators for variable valve timing systems
A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or in the case of a
cogwheel, inserted teeth (called cogs), which mesh with another toothed part to
transmit torque. Geared devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of a power source.
Gears almost always produce a change in torque, creating a mechanical advantage, through
their gear ratio, and thus may be considered a simple machine. The teeth on the two meshing
gears all have the same shape.[1] Two or more meshing gears, working in a sequence, are
called a gear train or a transmission. A gear can mesh with a linear toothed part, called a rack,
producing translation instead of rotation.
The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a crossed, belt pulley system. An
advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slippage. A fuel pump is a frequently (but
not always) essential component on a car or other internal combustion engine device. Many
engines (older motorcycle engines in particular) do not require any fuel pump at all, requiring
only gravity to feed fuel from the fuel tank or under high pressure to the fuel injection system.
Often, carbureted engines use low pressure mechanical pumps that are mounted outside the
fuel tank, whereas fuel injected engines often use electric fuel pumps that are mounted inside
the fuel tank (and some fuel injected engines have two fuel pumps: one low pressure/high
volume supply pump in the tank and one high pressure/low volume pump on or near the
engine).[1] Fuel pressure needs to be within certain specifications for the engine to run
correctly. If the fuel pressure is too high, the engine will run rough and rich, not combusting all
of the fuel being pumped making the engine inefficient and a pollutant. If the pressure is too
low, the engine may run lean, misfire, or stall.
A tachometer (revolution-counter, tach, rev-counter, RPM gauge) is an instrument measuring
the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor or other machine.[1] The device usually
displays the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a calibrated analogue dial, but digital displays
are increasingly common. The word comes from Greek ταχος (tachos "speed")
and matron ("measure"). Essentially the words tachometer and speedometer have identical
meaning: a device that measures speed. It is by arbitrary convention that in the automotive
world one is used for engine and the other for vehicle speed. In formal engineering
nomenclature, more precise terms are used to distinguish the two.
An automatic transmission, also called auto, self-shifting transmission, n-speed
automatic (where n is its number of forward gear ratios), or AT, is a type of motor
vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves, freeing the
driver from having to shift gears manually. Like other transmission systems on vehicles, it
allows an internal combustion engine, best suited to run at a relatively high rotational speed, to
 provide a range of speed and torque outputs necessary for vehicular travel. The number of
forward gear ratios is often expressed for manual transmissions as well (e.g., 6-speed manual).
The most popular form found in automobiles is the hydraulic planetary automatic transmission.
Similar but larger devices are also used for heavy-duty commercial and industrial vehicles and
equipment. This system uses a fluid coupling in place of a friction clutch, and accomplishes
gear changes by hydraulically locking and unlocking a system of planetary gears. These
systems have a defined set of gear ranges, often with a parking pawl that locks the output shaft
of the transmission to keep the vehicle from rolling either forward or backward. Some
machines with limited speed ranges or fixed engine speeds, such as some forklifts and lawn
mowers, only use a torque converter to provide a variable gearing of the engine to the wheels.

Oil pump:
The oil pump is responsible for conveying the oil for engine lubrication and building up the oil
pressure in the lubrication system.

Function:

Oil pumps are usually operated by the crank shaft by way of auxiliary drives. The delivery of
the oil pump is governed by its size, speed and design.

There are several important reasons for engine lubrication:

 To supply all sliding components with sufficient oil to reduce friction and wear
 Cooling of engine components to prevent overheating
 Corrosion protection
 Damping of noise and vibration
 Fine sealing between piston and cylinder wall, with the piston rings being mainly responsible
for the sealing action
OIL PUMP SYSTEMS:

The following different oil pump systems are available:

Gear pumps:
Gear pumps are usually of the push-on type or designed as pumps with gear or chain drive.
Their speed can be selected by way of the transmission ratio. The delivery depends on the
speed and the tooth gaps of the gear wheels. Gear pumps are relatively inexpensive to
manufacture.

Crescent-type pumps:
Crescent-type pumps are located in a space-saving position on the control end of the
crankshaft. They are driven directly by the crankshaft and their speed is thus the same as that of
the crankshaft. As compared to a gear pump, a crescent-type pump can provide a higher
maximum oil pressure and a high delivery rate even at low speeds.

Rotor-type pumps:
Like crescent-type pumps, rotor-type pumps are located on the control end of the crankshaft
and driven directly by this. They attain high oil pressures and delivery rates and are also
very quiet-running. Rotor type pumps are the most common. Sometimes called gerotors ,
or trochoidal pumps . The pump has two gears - one inner gear, which is driven and one
outer gear which rotates around the inner gear. The inner gear has one less tooth than the
outer gear, leaving a space into which expands and sucks oil in to fill it. As the rotation
continues, that space is slowly closed as the gear teeth mesh together once again, and the oil
is forced out of the gap and out of the pump.
Gear-type pumps:
A gear-type oil pump has two gears of the same size, which mesh against each other. One gear
is driven, and interlocks with the undriven gear to mean that they both rotate at the same time.
As the teeth move around, they carry oil in the gap, until meeting in the middle and meshing
together once more - forcing the oil out.

Pressure relief valve:

Both these pump mechanisms will continue pumping oil up to extremely high pressures. In
order to prevent damage to the engine, an oil pump includes a pressure-relief valve which will
open when oil pressure becomes to high.

The pressure relief valve is on the output side of the pump. The oil on the output side pushes on
a piston, or ball bearing. That piston is held closed by a calibrated spring and once the pressure
reaches a determined level, the spring will flex and the piston will unseat, allowing oil to return
either to the inlet side of the pump or directly down into the sump.

Electronic oil pumps:

An electronic oil pump would be more controllable in relation to engine speed, and engines are
now starting to use electronic water pumps. But it's unlikely that oil pumps will ever be
electronic. Pumping cold, viscous oil is hard, and more importantly, the failure of an oil pump
is disastrous for an engine. With a mechanical pump there is the guarantee that if the engine is
running, the pump is turning. That said, some huge industrial engines and race engines are pre-
oiled using an electrical oil pump that runs before engine startup and after shutdown.
 Figure 1 Oil Pump

The earliest engines used a drip feed system for oil - dropping it into moving parts and then
collecting it in a tray underneath. On ships there was a position as ‘oiler’ whose job was to fill
up little pots of oil above moving components. From around 1900 onwards, internal
combustion engines moved to a forced-feed system, where oil is pumped around (forced) to the
various parts of the engine. All modern engines use a fully forced-feed lubrication system and
the key to this is the oil pump.

The oil pump is the heart of the lubrication system. It sucks oil up from the oil pan and forces it
around oilways in the engine, before the oil drops back into the sump and is recirculated. The
oil pump is a highly critical part of the engine - if an oil pump stops working it will lead to
expensive engine failure 100% of the time. That's one reason why the oil pump is so directly
driven from the crankshaft. (2019)

Oil pumps are situated in the oil pan, or more usually at the front of the engine.

Oil pickup pipe:

The oil pump sucks oil up from the sump through a pipe - called a pickup pipe. The pipe’s
nozzle sits below the surface of the oil, and it is covered by a gauze filter which prevents large
particles from being sucked up into the pump.
If this filter screen was to be completely blocked, then the engine would not pick up any oil
and the engine would at great risk of being destroyed. Therefore the pickup pipe may have
bypass valve in case the screen is blocked. In this situation it’s better that the engine continues
to receive oil and we take the chance of damage to the oil pump: an oil pump is considerably
cheaper than an engine rebuild.

Oil pumps

Most oil pumps are driven directly by the crankshaft. The pump illustrated here sits over the
nose of the crankshaft where its internal gear is driven directly.

All oil pumps are called positive displacement pumps - the amount of oil that leaves is the
same as that enters. In other words, the pump moves oil from one side, to the other. This can be
contrasted with a coolant pump, for example, which tries to move water but will not do so if
the pressure is too great on one side.

As engine RPM increases, the pump turns faster and more oil is pumped. This is convenient
because at higher engine speeds lubcrication and cooling requires a greater flow of oil.

A note on oil pressure:

It is important to note that oil pressure is not produced by the oil pump. The oil pressure is
caused by restrictions to the flow of oil - through narrow passageways, jet nozzles, and tight
bearing clearances. If we simply connected a pipe to the outlet side of the oil pump and
allowed it to discharge back into the sump, then there would be no oil pressure - the oil could
flow unrestricted.

Knowing this, it’s now clear why worn bearings (particularly main bearings) would lead to a
loss of oil pressure: the clearance in these bearings is now larger, and the oil’s flow is less
restricted.

Oil is pumped through the filter before circulating around the engine. The filter removes small
particles of dirt and tiny fragments of metal which are suspended in the oil. Unless removed,
this particle will dramatically increase wear between parts.

In the illustration, the oil filter is attached directly to the main oil gallery. Filters are generally
attached towards the bottom of the engine so that oil can flow through them first on its journey
up through the engine (howacarworks, 2019).

Oil filter types:

The first replaceable oil filters were cartridge types, where a replaceable paper filter element
sits in a permanent metal housing. In the 50’s, spin-on type oil filters were developed which are
the most common type today. In the spin-on type, the metal housing and filter element are
replaced together - which is faster and makes less mess than replacing the filter element itself.
These spin-on, or screw-fit, oil filters are somewhat wasteful of materials as the housing is
perfectly serviceable when changed but it thrown away regardless. There has thus been a trend
back towards cartridge elements since the 90s - the illustrated filter is from a Volvo.

Oil filters are almost universally of a screw fit type - and should be replaced at regular service
intervals specified by the manufacturer. Inside the filter housing is a paper or cotton filter
element.

Anti-drain valve:

When the engine stops running, the oil in the filter will attempt to drain downwards under
gravity - the position of the filter on the engine will dictate how much this happens. If the oil
drained out of the engine every time it stopped, then parts would be running dry for a short
time before the was pumped back around. To prevent this, oil filters may include a anti-
drainback valve to prevent this draining from happening and allow an immediate oil pressure
on engine startup.

Bypass valve:

All the engine oil passes through the oil filter before circulating around the engine. If the filter
were to become blocked then no oil whatsoever would reach the engine. To prevent this, as a
last chance effort to save the engine, there will be a bypass valve which will open under high
pressure to bypass the filter and allow unfiltered oil to lubricate the engine (howacarworks,
2019).

As oil leaves the filter, it makes its way to the following places in the engine:

Main bearings:

The main bearings support the crankshaft and experience the highest load of all the bearings in
the engine. Oil travels from the main gallery to the main bearings, where a hole in the engine
block, matched with a hole in the bearing shell, allows the oil to be forced between the
crankshaft journal and the bearing itself.

Big-end Bearings:

The big-ends of the connecting rods are lubricated with oil that travels up an oilway drilled
through the crankshaft. The oil is pushed from the main bearings to the big end bearings. In
some engines it will make its way through a passage drilled in the connecting rod to lubricate
the cylinder walls.

Cylinder walls:

The cylinder walls require a film of oil for the piston rings to travel smoothly up and down. At
the most basic, this film is maintained through oil being splashed onto the walls by the
spinning crankshaft. In other systems, oil can be directed onto the cylinder wall by holes in the
connecting rods, or by dedicated oil jets, as in our project Miata.

Pistons:

The underside of the pistons can be cooled by a stream of oil. The project Miata has oiljets
which direct a constant stream of oil onto the underside of the pistons. These jets have a check
valve which only opens once the oil pressure reaches a certain level - protecting the engine
components on startup while oil pressure builds up.

Camshaft bearings:

Like the crankshaft, the camshaft rotates in bearings which require a constant supply of oil.

Cam followers:

Oil holes in the cam follower bores allow a constant stream of oil to lubricate the clearance
between the follower and its bore. That oil drops down under gravity to lubricate the valve
spring and stem.

Oil restrictor:

Pressure can be maintained in the bottom end of the engine through the use of a restrictor,
which is a constricted passageway that reduces the flow of oil between the engine block and
cylinder head. In the illustrated engine, the oil restrictor is in the top of the engine block and all
the oil for the head flows through this restrictor.

Once ‘consumed’ in those in one of these lubricated parts, the oil makes its way back down to
the sump where it sits, cools and is then recirculated.

Methods of lubrication:
There are two mains ways that oil actually reduces the friction between moving parts.

Boundary lubrication:

It’s easy to understand boundary lubrication - if we coat the surfaces of two objects in a film of
oil, then they will have reduced friction between them. Inside the engine this type of
lubrication is used for all moving parts that aren’t fed with oil under pressure - the cylinder
walls and valve stems, for example.

Hydrodynamic lubrication / force-fed lubrication:

For bearing surfaces, which carry heavy loads at high speeds, the oil works in a different way,
known as hydrodynamic lubrication. Initially, when the shaft is stationary, it rests on the
bottom bearing surface and is separated by a film of leftover oil. As the shaft begins to rotate
inside the bearing, it will be lubricated only by boundary lubrication until pressurized oil fills
the clearance between the shaft and bearing.

Once up to speed, the shaft will drag around the oil, to create a wedge of lubricant underneath
(where pressure is highest) which lifts the shaft and centers it in the bearing. Since the bearing
is larger than the shaft, a gap known as the clearance, the type of oil must be matched to the
clearance (howacarworks, 2019).

Oil pan / Sump:

The oil pan, or sump , is a metal dish which covers the bottom of the engine block, and holds
the engine oil when it is not circulating around the engine.

The oil pump has a pickup tube that dangles into the sump and sucks up oil, once used, the
engine oil drops back into the sump.

As well as storing the oil, the oil pan has an important role in cooling it. As the car moves
forwards, air will flow under the sump, carrying away heat from the hot oil - this airflow may
be boosted by using bodywork to direct airflow around the sump. Cooling fins may also be
found on the sump to increase its surface area.

This is known as a wet sump system and is almost universal in standard production vehicles. It
is a wet sump because the sump always contains oil - its natural state is to be wet! Another
system is a dry-sump system in which the oil is pumped out of the sump into a remote
container. We discuss dry sump systems in another article.

Baffles:

Oil sitting in the pan will slosh around as the car accelerates and corners. If this happens a lot
then the oil can move away from the pickup pipe and cause oil to temporarily stop flowing
through the engine. Given that the engine is likely to be running fast at the same time as hard
cornering and acceleration - it’s a doubly bad situation if it is starved of oil.

Sumps, particularly those in sports-type vehicles, will likely have baffles to prevent oil moving
around. Baffles can take various forms, but their purpose is to impede the flow of a huge body
of liquid, while allowing ready flow of smaller amounts.

Windage tray:

Similar to baffles, a windage tray is a piece of sheet metal which prevents oil being splashed up
onto the spinning crankshaft, causing it to slow down. Windage trays may also have some form
of crankshaft scraper, which removes excess oil clinging to the crankshaft counterweights.
Drain plug:
As the lowest point of the lubrication system, the sump is where the oil drain plug is located.
Oil plugs are threaded bolts which are removed to allow dirty oil to drain. The drain plug will
have a washer - which should ideally be replaced whenever it is removed. Oil is more easily
drained when warm.
Dipstick:
Engines use a dipstick as a means of determining the amount of oil in the engine. The dipstick
will dip down into the oil pan and be marked to show the level of oil - with minimum and
maximum markings. Recent cars will include an electronic oil level sensor which shows the oil
level on a dashboard indicator (howacarworks, 2019).

Gear train:
A gear train is a mechanical system formed by mounting gears on a frame so the teeth of the
gears engage.
Gear teeth are designed to ensure the pitch circles of engaging gears roll on each other without
slipping, providing a smooth transmission of rotation from one gear to the next.[1]
The transmission of rotation between contacting toothed wheels can be traced back to
the Antikythera mechanism of Greece and the south-pointing chariot of China. Illustrations by
the Renaissance scientist Georgius Agricola show gear trains with cylindrical teeth. The
implementation of the involute tooth yielded a standard gear design that provides a constant
speed ratio.

Features of gears and gear trains:

Features of gears and gear trains include:

 The ratio of the pitch circles of mating gears defines the speed ratio and the mechanical
advantage of the gear set.
 A planetary gear train provides high gear reduction in a compact package.
 It is possible to design gear teeth for gears that are non-circular, yet still transmit torque
smoothly.
 The speed ratios of chain and belt drives are computed in the same way as gear ratios.
 Figure 2Transmission of motion and
force by gear wheels, compound train.

Mechanical advantage:

Gear teeth are designed so the number of teeth on a gear is proportional to the radius of its
pitch circle, and so the pitch circles of meshing gears roll on each other without slipping.
The speed ratio for a pair of meshing gears can be computed from ratio of the radii of the
pitch circles and the ratio of the number of teeth on each gear.

Figure 3Two meshing gears

transmit rotational motion.

Two meshing gears transmit rotational motion.

The velocity v of the point of contact on the pitch circles is the same on both gears, and is
given by
 𝑣 = 𝑟𝐴 𝑤𝐴 = 𝑟𝐵 𝑤𝐵

where input gear A with radius rA and angular velocity ωA meshes with output gear B with
radius rB and angular velocity ωB. Therefore,

𝑤𝐴 𝑟𝐵 𝑁𝐵
= =
𝑤𝐵 𝑟𝐴 𝑁𝐴

where NA is the number of teeth on the input gear and NB is the number of teeth on the
output gear.

The mechanical advantage of a pair of meshing gears for which the input gear
has NA teeth and the output gear has NB teeth is given by

𝑁𝐵
𝑀𝐴 =
𝑁𝐴

This shows that if the output gear GB has more teeth than the input gear GA, then the gear
train amplifies the input torque. And, if the output gear has fewer teeth than the input gear,
then the gear train reduces the input torque.

If the output gear of a gear train rotates more slowly than the input gear, then the gear train
is called a speed reducer. In this case, because the output gear must have more teeth than
the input gear, the speed reducer amplifies the input torque.

Gear:
A gear is a kind of machine element in which teeth are
cut around cylindrical or cone shaped surfaces with equal spacing. By meshing a pair of these
elements, they are used to transmit rotations and forces from the driving shaft to the driven shaft.
Gears can be classified by shape as involute, cycloidal and trochoidal gears. Also, they can be
classified by shaft positions as parallel shaft gears, intersecting shaft gears, and non-parallel and
non-intersecting shaft gears. The history of gears is old and the use of gears already appears in
ancient Greece in B.C. in the writing of Archimedes.
 Figure 4A sample box of various types of gears

Types of Gears:

There are many types of gears such as spur gears, helical gears, bevel gears, worm gears,
gear rack, etc. These can be broadly classified by looking at the positions of axes such as
parallel shafts, intersecting shafts and non-intersecting shafts.

It is necessary to accurately understand the differences among gear types to accomplish

necessary force transmission in mechanical designs. Even after choosing the general type, it
is important to consider factors such as: dimensions (module, number of teeth, helix angle,
face width, etc.), standard of precision grade (ISO, AGMA, DIN), need for teeth grinding
and/or heat treating, allowable torque and efficiency, etc.

Besides this page, we present more thorough gear technical information under Gear
Knowledge (separate PDF page). In addition to the list below, each section such as worm
gear, rack and pinion, bevel gear, etc. has its own additional explanation regarding the
respective gear type. If it is difficult to view PDF, please consult these sections.

It is best to start with the general knowledge of the types of gears as shown below. But in
addition to these, there are other types such as face gear, herringbone gear (double helical
gear), crown gear, hypoid gear, etc (wikipedia, 2019).
 Figure 5 Various Types of Gears

Spur Gear:

Gears having cylindrical pitch surfaces are called cylindrical gears. Spur gears belong to the
parallel shaft gear group and are cylindrical gears with a tooth line which is straight and
parallel to the shaft. Spur gears are the most widely used gears that can achieve high
accuracy with relatively easy production processes. They have the characteristic of having
no load in the axial direction (thrust load). The larger of the meshing pair is called the gear
and smaller is called the pinion.

Figure 6 A sketch of spur

gear
Helical gear:

Helical gears are used with parallel shafts similar to spur gears and are cylindrical gears
with winding tooth lines. They have better teeth meshing than spur gears and have superior
quietness and can transmit higher loads, making them suitable for high speed applications.
When using helical gears, they create thrust force in the axial direction, necessitating the
use of thrust bearings. Helical gears come with right hand and left hand twist requiring
opposite hand gears for a meshing pair.

Figure 7• A sketch of helical gears

Gear Rack:

Same sized and shaped teeth cut at equal distances along a flat surface or a straight rod is
called a gear rack. A gear rack is a cylindrical gear with the radius of the pitch cylinder
being infinite. By meshing with a cylindrical gear pinion, it converts rotational motion into
linear motion. Gear racks can be broadly divided into straight tooth racks and helical tooth
racks, but both have straight tooth lines. By machining the ends of gear racks, it is possible
to connect gear racks end to end.

Figure 8 A sketch of gear rack

 Figure 9 Gear Rack

Bevel Gear:

Bevel gears have a cone shaped appearance and are used to transmit force between two
shafts which intersect at one point (intersecting shafts). A bevel gear has a cone as its pitch
surface and its teeth are cut along the cone. Kinds of bevel gears include straight bevel
gears, helical bevel gears, spiral bevel gears, miter gears, angular bevel gears, crown gears,
zerol bevel gears and hypoid gears.

Figure 10 A sketch of bevel gears

Spiral Bevel Gear:

Spiral bevel gears are bevel gears with curved tooth lines. Due to higher tooth contact
ratio, they are superior to straight bevel gears in efficiency, strength, vibration and noise.
On the other hand, they are more difficult to produce. Also, because the teeth are curved,
they cause thrust forces in the axial direction. Within the spiral bevel gears, the one with
the zero twisting angle is called zerol bevel gear.

Figure 11A sketch of spiral bevel gears

Screw Gear:

Screw gears are a pair of same hand helical gears with the twist angle of 45° on non-parallel,
non-intersecting shafts. Because the tooth contact is a point, their load carrying capacity is low
and they are not suitable for large power transmission. Since power is transmitted by the
sliding of the tooth surfaces, it is necessary to pay attention to lubrication when using screw
gears. There are no restrictions as far as the combinations of number of teeth.
 Figure 12A sketch of screw
gears

Miter Gear:

Miter gears are bevel gears with a speed ratio of 1. They are used to change the direction
of power transmission without changing speed. There are straight miter and spiral miter
gears. When using the spiral miter gears it becomes necessary to consider using thrust
bearings since they produce thrust force in the axial direction. Besides the usual miter
gears with 90° shaft angles, miter gears with any other shaft angles are called angular
miter gears.

Figure 13 A sketch of miter gears

Worm Gear:

A screw shape cut on a shaft is the worm, the mating gear is the worm wheel, and together on
non-intersecting shafts is called a worm gear. Worms and worm wheels are not limited to
cylindrical shapes. There is the hour-glass type which can increase the contact ratio, but
production becomes more difficult. Due to the sliding contact of the gear surfaces, it is
necessary to reduce friction. For this reason, generally a hard material is used for the worm,
and a soft material is used for worm wheel. Even though the efficiency is low due to the sliding
contact, the rotation is smooth and quiet. When the lead angle of the worm is small, it creates a
self-locking feature.

Figure 14A sketch of worm

gears

Internal Gear:

Internal gears have teeth cut on the inside of cylinders or cones and are paired with external
gears. The main use of internal gears are for planetary gear drives and gear type shaft
couplings. There are limitations in the number of teeth differences between internal and
external gears due to involute interference, trochoid interference and trimming problems.
The rotational directions of the internal and external gears in mesh are the same while they

Figure 15A sketch of

internal gear
 are opposite when two external gears are in mesh.

Figure 16 An overview of gears

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature in this picture)

 Worm
 Worm wheel
 Internal gear
 Gear coupling
 Screw gear
 Involute spline shafts and bushings
 Miter gear
 Spur gear
 Helical gear
 Ratchet
 Pawl
 Rack
 Pinion
 Straight bevel gear
 Spiral bevel gear

There are three major categories of gears in accordance with the orientation of their axes
Configuration:

1. Parallel Axes / Spur Gear, Helical Gear, Gear Rack, Internal Gear
2. Intersecting Axes / Miter Gear, Straight Bevel Gear, Spiral Bevel Gear
3. Nonparallel, Nonintersecting Axes / Screw Gear, Worm, Worm Gear (Worm Wheel)
4. Others / Involute Spline Shaft and Bushing, Gear Coupling, Pawl and Ratchet

The difference between a gear and a sprocket

Simply said, a gear meshes with another gear while a sprocket meshes with a chain and is not a
gear. Aside from a sprocket, an item that looks somewhat like a gear is a ratchet, but its
motiion is limited to one direction.

Classification of types of gears from the point of positional relations of the attached shafts
When the gears’ two shafts are parallel (parallel shafts)
Spur gear, rack, internal gear and helical gear, etc.
Generally they have a high transmission efficiency.
When the gears’ two shafts intersect each other (intersecting shafts)
Bevel gear is in this category.
Generally they have a high transmission efficiency.
When the gears’ two shafts are not parallel or intersect (offset shafts)
Worm gear and screw gear belong in this group.
Because of the sliding contact, the transmission efficiency is relatively low.

Precision class of gears:

When a type of gears is grouped by accuracy, precision class is used. The precision class is
specified by the standards set by ISO, DIN, JIS, AGMA, etc. For example, JIS specifies each
precision class’ pitch error, tooth profile error, helix deviation, runout error, etc.

Existence of teeth grinding:

Existence of teeth grinding greatly affects the performance of gears. Therefore, in considering
types of gears, teeth grinding is an important elememt to consider. Grinding the teeth surface
makes gears quieter, increases force transmission capacity and affects the precision class. On
the other hand, the addition of teeth grinding process increases cost and is not suitable for all
gears. To obtain high precision other than by grinding, there is a process called shaving using
shaving cutters.

Kinds of tooth shape:

To broadly classify types of gears by their tooth shape, there are involute tooth shape, cycloid
tooth shape and trochoid tooth shape. Among these, involute tooth shape is most commonly
used. They are easy to produce and has the characteristic of being able to correctly mesh even
when the center distance is slightly off. Cycloid tooth shape is mostly used in clocks and
trochoid tooth shape is mainly in pumps.
Creation of Gears:

Gears are wheels with teeth and are sometimes called toothed wheels.

Gears are mechanical components that transmit rotation and power from one shaft to another, if
each shaft possesses appropriately shaped projections (teeth) equally spaced around its
circumference such that as it rotates, the successive tooth goes into the space between the teeth
of the other shaft. Thus, it is a machine component in which the rotary power is transmitted by
the prime mover’s tooth surface pushing the tooth surface of the driven shaft. As an extreme
case, when one side is a linear motion (this can be thought as rotational motion around an
infinite point), it is called a rack.

There are many ways to transmit rotation and power from one shaft to another such as by
rolling friction, wrapping transmission, etc. However, in spite of a simple structure and a
relatively small size, gears have many advantages such as certainty of transmission, accurate
angular speed ratio, long lasting and minimal loss of power.

From small clocks and precision measuring instruments (motion transmission applications) to
large gears used in marine transmission systems (power transmission applications), gears are
used widely and are ranked as one of the important mechanical components along with screws
and bearings.

There are many types of gears. However, the simplest and most commonly used gears are the
ones used to transmit specific speed ratio between two parallel shafts at a defined distance

Figure 17 Spur Gears

The simplest method to transmit specific angular speed ratio between two parallel shafts is a
rolling friction drive. This is accomplished as shown in Figure 1.2, by having two cylinders,
with diameters in inverse ratio to the speed ratio, in contact and rotating without slippage (if
two shafts are counter rotating, contact is on the outside; and if rotating in the same direction,
contact is on the inside). That is to say that the rotation is obtained from the friction force of the
rolling contact. However, it is impossible to avoid some slippage and, as a result, reliable
transmission cannot be hoped for. To get a larger power transmission requires heavier contact
forces which in turn result in high bearing loads. For these reasons, this arrangement is not
suitable for transmitting large amount of power. As a result, an idea to create suitable form of
teeth equally spaced on the rolling surfaces of the cylinders in such a way that at least one pair
or more of teeth are always in contact was invented. By pushing the teeth of the trailing shaft
with the teeth of the driving shaft, the certainty of a strong transmission is assured. This is
called a cylindrical gear and the reference cylinder on which the teeth are carved is the pitch
cylinder. Spur gears are one type of cylindrical gears.

Figure 18 Pitch Cylinders

When two shafts intersect, the references for carving teeth are the cones in rolling contact. These
are the bevel gears where the base cone on which teeth are carved is called the pitch cone.
 Figure 20 Bevel Gears

Figure 19 Pitch Cones

When the two shafts are not parallel and non-intersecting, there are no true rolling contacting
curved surfaces. Based on the type of gears, teeth are created on a pair of reference contacting
rotating surfaces. In all cases, it is necessary to set the tooth profile such that the relative
motion of the contacting pitch surfaces matches the relative motion of the meshing of the teeth
on the reference curved surfaces.
When gears are considered as rigid bodies, in order for two bodies to maintain a set angular
speed ratio while in contact at teeth surfaces, without running into each other or separating, it is
necessary for the common normal components of speed of the of the two gears at the contact
point to be equal. In other words, at that instant, there is no relative motion of the gear surfaces
in the direction of the common normal, and the relative motion exists only along the contact
surface at the point of contact. This relative motion is nothing but the sliding of gear surfaces.
The tooth surfaces, with the exception of special points, always involve the so-called sliding
contact transmission.

In order for the tooth forms to satisfy the conditions as explained above, utilization of the
enveloping surface can lead to the desired tooth form as a general method.

Now, specify one side of gear A’s surface as a curved surface FA, and give both gears a
specified relative rotation. Then on the coordinate system attached to gear B, a group of
successive positions of the gear surface FA is drawn. Now think of the envelope of this group
of curves and use it as the tooth surface FB of gear B. Then from the theory of envelope
surfaces, it is clear that the two gear surfaces are in constant line contact and the two gears will
have the desired relative motion.

It is also possible to lead to tooth forms by the following method. Consider, in addition to a
pair of gears A and B with specified relative motion, a third imaginary gear C in mesh where A
and B are in mesh and give it an arbitrary tooth form surface FC (curved surface only without
tooth body) and an appropriate relative motion.

Now, using the method as before, from the imagined meshing of gear A with the imaginary
gear C, obtain the tooth form FA as the envelope of tooth form FC. Designate the contact line
of tooth surfaces FA and FC as IAC. Similarly, obtain the contact line IBC and tooth surface
FB from the imaginary meshing of gear B and the imaginary gear C. Thus, the tooth surfaces
FA and FB are obtained by the mediation of FC. In this case, if the contact lines IAC and IBC
match, gears A and B are in line contact, and if IAC and IBC intersect, gears A and B will have
a point contact at that intersection.

That means, with this method, it is possible to lead to point contact tooth forms as well as line
contact tooth forms.

However, there are limits to geometrically obtained tooth forms as explained above, especially
when the tooth bodies of surfaces FA and FB invade each other, or when those areas cannot be
used as tooth forms. This invasion of one tooth body into another is called interference of tooth
profiles.

As clear from the above explanation, there are theoretically many ways to produce tooth forms
which create specified relative motion. However, in reality, consideration for the gear mesh,
tooth form strength and difficulties of tooth cutting will limit the usage of these kinds of tooth
forms to just a few.
The ways to use gears in mechanical design situations

Gears are primarily used to transmit power, but, based on ideas, they can be utilized as
machine elements in different ways. Below are introductions to some of the ways.

1. Grasping Mechanism
Use two spur gears of the same diameter in mesh so that when the driver gear is
reversed, the driven gear is also reversed. You can obtain a working piece grasping
mechanism by utilizing this motion. Work pieces of various sizes can be accommodated
by adjusting the opening angle of the grasping claw resulting in a versatile grasping
mechanism design.
2. Intermittent Motion Mechanism
There is the Geneva mechanism as an intermittent motion mechanism. However,
because of need for the specialized mechanical components, it is high priced. By using
the missing teeth gears, a low cost and simple intermittent mechanism can be obtained.
By missing teeth gear, we mean a gear in which any number of gear teeth have been
removed from their roots. The gear which is mated to the missing teeth gear will rotate
as long as it is meshed together but will stop as soon as it encounters the missing teeth
section of the driving gear. However, it has the disadvantage of shifting when external
force is applied while the gears are disengaged. In these cases, it is necessary to maintain
its position by means such as using a friction brake.
3. Special Power Transmission Mechanism
By mounting a one-way clutch (a mechanism that allows rotational motion in one
direction only) in one stage of a gear train of a gear speed reducer, you can create a
mechanism which transmits motion in one direction but idles in reverse.
By using this mechanism, you can create a system that operates a motor when the
electric power is on, but when the power is cut, it moves the output shaft by a spring
force.
By internally mounting a spring (torsion coil spring or spiral spring) that winds in the
rotational direction in a gear train, the speed reducer is operated as the spring is wound.
Once the spring is completely wound, the motor is stopped and the electromagnetic
brake built into the motor holds this position.
When the electricity is cut, the brake is released and the spring force will drive the gear
in the opposite direction to when the motor was driving. This mechanism is used to close
valves when the power is lost (emergency) and is called “spring return type emergency
shutoff valve”.

Why is it difficult to obtain needed gears ?

There is no standard for the gear itself

Gears have been used worldwide since ancient times in many applications and are
representative components of machine elements. However, as far as the precision class of
gears, there are industrial standards in various countries such as AGMA(US), JIS(Japan),
DIN(Germany), etc. On the other hand, there are no standards with regard to factors which
ultimately specifies [the gear itself] such as its form, size, bore diameter, material, hardness,
etc. As a result, there is no unified approach but it is a collection of the actual gear
specifications decided by the individual designers that suits the design of their machines or
those decided by the individual gear manufacturers.

There is a diversity of gear specifications

As mentioned above, there is a diversity of gear specifications. With the exception of very
simple gears, it is not an overstatement to say that there are as many kinds as there are places
where gears are used. For example, among many gears, when the pressure angle, tooth pitch
and number of teeth specifications are matched, there are many other specifications that define
gears such as bore size, face width, heat treatment, final hardness, surface roughness after
grinding, existence of shaft, etc. It can be said that the possibility of two gears being
compatible is low. This is one of the reasons why (when a gear breaks, for example) it is
difficult to obtain a replacement gear.

Cannot obtain the desired gears

Sometimes it occurs that you cannot obtain a replacement gear for a worn out or broken one at
the place the machine is being used. In this case, most of the time, there is no problem if there
is a manual or a parts list for the machine that contains the drawing necessary for the gear's
manufacture. There is also no problem if it is possible to contact the machine's manufacturer
and that the maker can supply the needed gear. Unfortunately, in many cases :
- The machine's manual does not show the drawing of the gear by itself
- It is not possible to obtain only the gear from the machine's manufacturer, etc
For such reasons, it is difficult to obtain the needed gear. In these cases, it becomes necessary
to make the manufacturing drawing of the broken gear. This is often difficult without
specialized technical gear knowledge. The situation is often similarly difficult for gear
manufacturers due to insufficient data for the gear. Also, to create the drawing from the broken
gear requires great deal of engineering manpower and this raised the question of who will be
burdened with this cost.

When only one gear is needed, the production cost is high

When the machine using a gear is mass produced, then so is the gear which is made to a certain
production lot size, spreading the unit cost of the gear by taking advantage of the economy of
scale. On the other hand, users utilizing the machine after it has been manufactured and when
one or two gears need replacement, they often face a high production cost making the final
repair cost at times very expensive. In short, the difference in the two production methods
(mass production or small lot production) has a large effect on the cost of the gear. For
example, a purchase of 300 gears in one shot for a new machinery production project (making
300 gears in one lot) compared to buying one replacement gear later (with the production lot of
1 piece) has a tremendous difference in manufacturing unit cost. This is the same situation at
the design stage of a new machine when one gear is needed for the prototype with the same
high cost.
Possibility of using standard gears

When designing a new machine, if the specifications of the gears used can be matched to those
of the gear manufacturer's standard gears, the problems mentioned above can be solved. By this
method:

 You can avoid the step of designing new gears during the design of a machine
 You can utilize 2D/3D CAD models, printable part drawings, strength calculations, etc.
provided by the gear maker
 Even if you need only one gear as a trial, the standard gears are normally mass produced
by the gear maker and are reasonably priced

These are some of the conveniences you can take advantage of.

Also, when a gear in a machine in use needs replacement, if its specifications are similar to
those of a gear maker's, it may be possible to interchange it with a standard gear by itself or a
standard gear with a secondary operation. In this situation also, it may be possible to avoid the
inconvenience of doing the following tasks :

 Look for drawings

 Create new drawings
 Look for a contractor to make the gear
 Accept the high cost of one-piece production

Fuel pump:
A fuel pump is a frequently (but not always) essential component on a car or other internal
combustion engine device. Many engines (older motorcycle engines in particular) do not
require any fuel pump at all, requiring only gravity to feed fuel from the fuel tank or under high
pressure to the fuel injection system. Often, carbureted engines use low pressure mechanical
pumps that are mounted outside the fuel tank, whereas fuel injected engines often use electric
fuel pumps that are mounted inside the fuel tank (and some fuel injected engines have two fuel
pumps: one low pressure/high volume supply pump in the tank and one high pressure/low
volume pump on or near the engine). Fuel pressure needs to be within certain specifications for
the engine to run correctly. If the fuel pressure is too high, the engine will run rough and rich,
not combusting all of the fuel being pumped making the engine inefficient and a pollutant. If
the pressure is too low, the engine may run lean, misfire, or stall.
 Figure 21 A high-pressure fuel pump on a
Yanmar 2GM20 marine diesel engine

Mechanical pump:
The two most widely used fuel feed pumps are diaphragm and plunger-type mechanical
pumps. Diaphragm pumps are a type of positive displacement pump. Diaphragm
pumps contain a pump chamber whose volume is increased or decreased by the flexing of a
flexible diaphragm, similar to the action of a piston pump. A check valve is located at both the
inlet and outlet ports of the pump chamber to force the fuel to flow in one direction only.
Specific designs vary, but in the most common configuration, these pumps are typically bolted
onto the engine block or head, and the engine's camshaft has an extra eccentric lobe that
operates a lever on the pump, either directly or via a pushrod, by pulling the diaphragm to
bottom dead center. In doing so, the volume inside the pump chamber increased, causing
pressure to decrease. This allows fuel to be pushed into the pump from the tank (caused by
atmospheric pressure acting on the fuel in the tank). The return motion of the diaphragm to top
dead center is accomplished by a diaphragm spring, during which the fuel in the pump chamber
is squeezed through the outlet port and into the carburetor. The pressure at which the fuel is
expelled from the pump is thus limited (and therefore regulated) by the force applied by the
diaphragm spring.
The carburetor typically contains a float bowl into which the expelled fuel is pumped. When
the fuel level in the float bowl exceeds a certain level, the inlet valve to the carburetor will
close, preventing the fuel pump from pumping more fuel into the carburetor. At this point, any
remaining fuel inside the pump chamber is trapped, unable to exit through the inlet port or
outlet port. The diaphragm will continue to allow pressure to the diaphragm, and during the
subsequent rotation, the eccentric will pull the diaphragm back to bottom dead center, where it
will remain until the inlet valve to the carburetor reopens.
Because one side of the pump diaphragm contains fuel under pressure and the other side is
connected to the crankcase of the engine, if the diaphragm splits (a common failure), it can leak
fuel into the crankcase. The capacity of both mechanical and electric fuel pump is measured in
psi (which stands for pounds per square inch). Usually, this unit is the general measurement for
pressure, yet it has slightly different meaning, when talking about fuel pumps.

Figure 22 Mechanical fuel pump,

fitted to cylinder head

Plunger-Type Fuel Pump:

Plunger-type pumps are a type of positive displacement pump that contain a pump chamber
whose volume is increased and/or decreased by a plunger moving in and out of a chamber full
of fuel with inlet and discharge stop Check Valves. It is similar to that of a piston pump, but
the high-pressure seal is stationary while the smooth cylindrical plunger slides through the seal.
These pumps typically run at a higher pressure than diaphragm type pumps. Specific designs
vary, but in the most common configuration, these pumps are mounted on the side of the
injection pump and driven by the camshaft, either directly or via a pushrod. When the camshaft
lobe is at top dead center, the plunger has just finished pushing the fuel through the discharge
valve. A spring is used to pull the plunger outward creating a lower pressure pulling fuel into
the chamber from the inlet valve. These pumps can run between 250 and 1,800 bar (3,625 and
26,000 psi). Because it is connected to the camshaft, the discharge pressure of these pumps is
constant, but the rate at which it pumps is directly correlated to the revolutions per minute
(rpm) of the engine.
Both pumps create negative pressure to draw the fuel through the lines. However, the low
pressure between the pump and the fuel tank, in combination with heat from the engine and/or
hot weather, can cause the fuel to vaporize in the supply line. This results in fuel starvation as
the fuel pump, designed to pump liquid, not vapor, is unable to suck more fuel to the engine,
causing the engine to stall. This condition is different from vapor lock, where high engine heat
on the pressured side of the pump (between the pump and the carburetor) boils the fuel in the
lines, also starving the engine of enough fuel to run. Mechanical automotive fuel pumps
generally do not generate much more than 10–15 psi, which is more than enough for most
carburetors.

Figure 23 Diagram of diaphragm

type fuel pump

Electric pump:
In many modern cars the fuel pump is usually electric and located inside the fuel Tank. The
pump creates positive pressure in the fuel lines, pushing the gasoline to the engine. The higher
gasoline pressure raises the boiling point. Placing the pump in the tank puts the component
least likely to handle gasoline vapor well (the pump itself) farthest from the engine, submersed
in cool liquid. Another benefit to placing the pump inside the tank is that it is less likely to start
a fire. Though electrical components (such as a fuel pump) can spark and ignite fuel vapors,
liquid fuel will not explode and therefore submerging the pump in the tank is one of the safest
places to put it. In most cars, the fuel pump delivers a constant flow of gasoline to the engine;
fuel not used is returned to the tank. This further reduces the chance of the fuel boiling, since it
is never kept close to the hot engine for too long.

Figure 24 Electric fuel pump

An advantage of an electric fuel pump is reduced fuel consumption because it does not have
the resistance associated with a mechanical drive and because the fuel supply can be monitored
more accurately by the electronic control unit (ECU). Pre-delivery of fuel can also be
accomplished by an electric fuel pump because it does not depend on engine rpm. Due to this,
rapid engine starting can be implemented to conserve gas. This is particularly important in
stop-start systems where the engine turns itself off when it senses no use, such as stopped at a
stoplight.
The ignition switch does not carry the power to the fuel pump; instead, it activates a relay
which will handle the higher current load. It is common for the fuel pump relay to become
oxidized and cease functioning; this is much more common than the actual fuel pump failing.
Modern engines utilize solid-state control which allows the fuel pressure to be controlled via
pulse-width modulation of the pump voltage. This increases the life of the pump, allows a
smaller and lighter device to be used, and reduces electrical load.
Cars with electronic fuel injection have an electronic control unit (ECU) and this may be
programmed with safety logic that will shut the electric fuel pump off, even if the engine is
running. In the event of a collision this will prevent fuel leaking from any ruptured fuel line.
Additionally, cars may have an inertia Switch (usually located underneath the front passenger
seat) that is "tripped" in the event of an impact, or a roll-over valve that will shut off the fuel
pump in case the car rolls over.
Some ECUs may also be programmed to shut off the fuel pump if they detect low or zero oil
pressure, for instance if the engine has suffered a terminal failure (with the subsequent risk of
fire in the engine compartment).
The fuel sending unit assembly may be a combination of the electric fuel pump, the filter, the
strainer, and the electronic device used to measure the amount of fuel in the tank via a float
attached to a sensor which sends data to the dash-mounted fuel gauge. The fuel pump by itself
is a relatively inexpensive part. But a mechanic at a garage might have a preference to install
the entire unit assembly.

Fuel Feed Pumps (Automobile):

Fuel Feed Pumps:
The fuel feed pump used for the diesel engine is similar to that of a fuel lift pump for the petrol
engine. It delivers the fuel from the tank to the injection pump continuously and at a reasonable
pressure. It is necessary because there is possibility of formation of vapour bubbles and
subsequently cavitation in the pump due to suction of the rapidly moving plungers of the
injection pump. This would lead to uncontrolled variations in the rate of delivery of fuel to the
cylinders, causing rough running and possibly even mechanical damage to the engine. Also
cavitation could cause mechanical damage in the injection pump. Generally delivery pressures
of between about 29 and 98 kPa adequate for preventing vapour formation on the suction side
of in-line type injection pumps. This pressure also ensures adequate supply of fuel for filling
the plunger elements at high speeds in a rotary or distribution pumps .
Diaphragm Type Pumps:
Diaphragm type fuel transfer pumps are like the lift pumps used for petrol engines. The AC
Unitac pump has a cam-and-lever actuation mechanism and its operation is same as described.
Also, the basic principle of operation of the AC pump shown in Fig. 10.6 B is like the above,
except that it is designed for direct cam actuation, without a lever type follower. In this case the
rod connected to the diaphragm is pulled up instead of pulled down by the cam mechanism.
The return spring used for the diaphragm is weaker than that used for the push rod.
Consequently, as the cam nose rotates past its top dead center, the push-rod is pulled down by
its return spring until the head formed at its upper end bears against the seating in the boss of
the diaphragm carrier, so that the diaphragm is pulled down with it. The pressure differential in
the chamber above the diaphragm causes the inlet
valve to open so that it is filled with fuel. On the return stroke, the inlet valve closes, and the
delivery valve opens, and the fuel is delivered by the action of the diaphragm return spring,

Figure 25 AC lift pumps. A. Unitac model lever arm actuated. B. Directly

actuated.
 Figure 26 Plunger type pump (Bosch). A. Fuel transfer position. B. Fuel delivery
condition.

however only at the rate to satisfy the demands of the engine.

Plunger Type Pumps:

Two plunger type pumps are available; one single and the other double acting. The former has
the disadvantage that in extreme conditions its delivery pressure can fall to zero between
pumping strokes. One some models these pumps can be flange-mounted on the injection
pumps,
and actuated by the cams. The single-acting version shown in Fig. 10.7 uses a cam-actuated
piston in a cylinder flanked by non-return valve. The piston is lifted by its return spring, so that
fuel is drawn into the pressure chamber through the port on the right and a filter and non-return
valve. When the cam, acting on a roller-follower and push rod, forces the piston down again,
the non-return valve on the inlet side closes and that over the transfer port on the other side
opens, allowing the fuel to pass up into the chamber above the piston.
As the cam follower and the push rod rise, the piston is pushed upwards by its return spring
generating pressure, which closes the non-return valve over the transfer port, displacing the
fuel above it through the outlet port to the injection pump at the rate required by the engine.
The double-acting version has no transfer valve, but has two inlet and two delivery valves.
With each stroke, fuel is drawn directly through the filter into the chamber on one side of the
piston while, that on the other side it is delivered to the injection pump.
AC Universal Electronic Solenoid Fuel Pump:
This pump was first introduced in 1981 as a diesel transfer pump. Subsequently it has been
modified to make it suitable also for pumping petrol and other fuels. The measure
modifications are induction of a more powerful coil, a special magnetic steel piston to improve
its stroking and a teflon piston ring. The AC UES pump has few moving parts, which do not
wear out. It can operate at high temperatures, is quiet, and reliable. The fuel inside the pump is
confined to a central tubular core, so the coil assembly and electronic components around it are
kept dry.
During the operation of the pump (Fig. 10.8) the coil is energised, which pulls the piston down
against the resistance offered by the returned spring. At the same time, the outlet valve in the
delivery port closes, and the inlet valve in the piston crown opens. As the piston moves
downwards, fuel enters the chamber above it. The electronic system switches off the current to
the coil, when the piston reaches the bottom of the stroke. The return stroke of the piston is
powered by its spring, forcing the fuel above it up through the outlet valve. This sequence is
repeated many times per second.

Port and Helix Type Pump:

Pumps for direct-injection engines - such as diesel engines and direct-injection
gasoline engines - operate at a much higher pressure due to the engine’s specs and are usually
mechanical pumps such as common rail radial piston pump, common rail two piston radial,
inline pump, port and helix, and metering unit design. Radial piston pumps used in cars and
trucks are fuel lubricated, this helps with keeping oil out of the high-pressure fuel. Oil in the
fuel can raise emissions and clog injectors. Many diesel engines are common rail, which means
all the injectors are supplied by one pipe full of high pressure fuel supplied by the fuel pump.
Common rails dampen the pressure fluctuations when fuel is used by each injector and pumped
into the cylinder. Common rails also make it easier for the fuel pressure to be measured by one
device instead of one per cylinder. Port and Helix (plunger type) high pressure fuel pumps are
most commonly used in marine diesels because of their simplicity, reliability, and its ability to
be scaled up in proportion to the engine size.

Figure 27 AC Universal electronic solenoid pump.

 Port and Helix pumps are cam driven plunger type pumps that run at one-half engine rpm
for four stoke engines and at the same rpm in the case of a two stroke. The pump is like that of
a radial piston type pump but instead of a piston it has a machined plunger that has no seals.
When the plunger is at top dead center, the injection to the cylinder is finished and it is
returned on its downward stroke by a compression spring. Because the height of the cam
lobe cannot be easily changed, the amount of fuel being pumped to the injector is controlled by
a rack and pinion device that rotates the plunger allowing variable amounts of fuel to the area
above the plunger. Inlet and outlet ports are located on two sides of the pumps cylinder walls
allowing fuel to flow through the compression chamber until the plunger is driven up closing
the two ports and starting the compression motion. The outlet port feeds back into the fuel
tank/settler of the engine. The fuel is then forced through a stop check valve, to prevent
backflow to the injector nozzle at pressures that can exceed 18,000 psi (what-when-how.,
2019).

Conclusion:
The result of this study provides theoretical support for
further optimizing the design of gear-type oil pumps with variable displacement. The reliability
of the driving shaft was calculated using the bending moment and torque obtained from the
simulation. Considering the interaction among the drive system units, the reliability of the
drive system was estimated. The reliability of the research object under two typical conditions
was higher than the allowable value and satisfied the engineering requirements. The structure
of the transmission developed in this paper has reduced the number of parts by sharing ring
gear and carrier gear through integration of two sets of planetary gear modules. As the research
progresses, the power transmission structure of the 3shaft I type arrangement is replaced with
the power transmission structure of the 3shaft triangular arrangement, which makes it easier to
lubricate and greatly reduce the size of the housing. The gears used in the transmissions were
designed with tooth profile by calculation of surface durability and bending strength. In the
newly designed ball worm gear mechanism, the ball pieces slide on the worm screw shaft and
proceed to move by rolling on the ball worm wheel. Since rolling friction requires less force
than sliding friction, the ball worm gear mechanism will have higher efficiency than the
conventional worm gear mechanism.
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