AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 139:204–221 (2009)
Economic Intensification and Degenerative Joint
Disease: Life and Labor on the Postcontact
North Coast of Peru
Haagen D. Klaus,1–3* Clark Spencer Larsen,4 and Manuel E. Tam5
1
Behavioral Science Department, Utah Valley University, Orem, Utah
2
Museo Nacional Sicán, Ferreñafe, Departamento de Lambayeque, Perú
3
Museo Nacional de Arqueologı́a y Etnografı́a Hans Henrich Brüning de Lambayeque, Lambayeque,
Departamento de Lambayeque, Perú
4
Department of Anthropology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
5
Universidad Nacional de Trujillo, Trujillo, Departamento de la Libertad, Perú
KEY WORDS osteoarthritis; bioarchaeology; odds ratios; Lambayeque; Andes
ABSTRACT This study tests the hypothesis that the
colonial economy of the Lambayeque region of northern
coastal Peru was associated with a mechanically strenu-
ous lifestyle among the indigenous Mochica population.
To test the hypothesis, we documented the changes in
the prevalence of degenerative joint disease (or DJD) in
human remains from the late pre-Hispanic and colonial
Lambayeque Valley Complex. Comparisons were made
using multivariate odds ratios calculated across four age
classes and 11 principle joint systems corresponding to
113 late pre-Hispanic and 139 postcontact adult Mochica
individuals. Statistically significant patterns of elevated
postcontact DJD prevalence are observed in the joint
systems of the shoulder, elbow, wrist, and knee. More
finely grained comparison between temporal phases
indicates that increases in prevalence were focused im-
mediately following contact in the Early/Middle Colonial
Contact between the Eastern and Western hemi-
spheres beginning in the late 15th century represented
an adaptive transition for Native Americans (Verano and
Ubelaker, 1992; Larsen and Milner, 1994; Baker and
Kealhofer, 1996; Larsen et al., 2001). Bioarchaeological
studies demonstrate that contact initiated a complex and
frequently negative disruption of many long-term biocul-
tural patterns throughout the New World (Larsen, 1994;
Stodder, 1996; Cohen et al., 1997; Steckel and Rose,
2002; Storey et al., 2002; Ubelaker and Newson, 2002;
Stojanowski, 2005; Hutchinson, 2006; Stojanowski et al.,
2007). The biology of postcontact indigenous peoples can
be tied to economic relationships in many colonial soci-
eties. Particularly in New Spain, daily life involved
interactions with a political economy that sought the
maximum extraction of natural wealth from the environ-
ment through the manipulation of indigenous labor (e.g.,
Stern, 1982; Hann, 1988).
Study of the patterns of degenerative joint disease
(DJD) can provide valuable perspectives on the interac-
tion between economies and habitual patterns of physi-
cal activity. DJD is a pathological condition affecting
joint systems often related to mechanical stress (Hough,
2001). Despite the extensive attention devoted to the
study of DJD in physical anthropology and a corpus of
studies on the postcontact adaptive shift, only a handful
of research programs have focused on postcontact DJD.
In a study of Omaha and Ponca peoples in Nebraska,
C 2009
V WILEY-LISS, INC.
period. Analysis of DJD by sex indicates postcontact
males experienced greater DJD prevalence than females.
Also, trends between pre- and postcontact females indi-
cate nearly universally elevated DJD prevalence among
native colonial women. Inferred altered behavioral uses
of the upper body and knee are contextualized within ec-
ological, ethnohistoric, and ethnoarchaeological frame-
works and appear highly consistent with descriptions of
the local postcontact economy. These patterns of DJD
appear to stem from a synergism of broad, hemispheric
level sociopolitical alterations, specific changes to Mo-
chica activity and behavior, regional economic intensifi-
cation, and local microenvironmental characteristics,
which were all focused into these biological outcomes by
the operation of a colonial Spanish political economy on
the north coast of Peru from A.D. 1536 to 1751. Am J
Phys Anthropol 139:204–221, 2009. V 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
C
Reinhard et al. (1994) coupled a detailed historical con-
text with evidence of hypertrophied muscle attachments
and DJD in the vertebral column, hip, and first metatar-
sals. They revealed horseback riding among men as a
major element in their interface with a thriving trading
economy. Sexual dimorphism in joint pathology suggests
a different but similarly active female economic partici-
pation. In Spanish Florida, prevalence of osteoarthritis
increased in most articular joints during the postcontact
period. Prevalence rates surged particularly in male
lumbar vertebrae and feet (Larsen et al., 1995). These
Grant sponsor: Wenner-Gren Foundation Dissertation Fieldwork
Grant, Grant number: 7302; Grant sponsor: The Tinker Foundation;
Grant sponsor: The Ohio State University Office of International
Affairs; Grant sponsor: The Ohio State University Center for Latin
American Studies; Grant sponsor: The Ohio State University
Department of Anthropology.
*Correspondence to: Haagen D. Klaus, Behavioral Science Depart-
ment, Mail Code 115, Utah Valley University, 800 West University
Parkway, Orem, Utah 84058, USA. E-mail: haagen.klaus@uvu.edu
Received 5 September 2008; accepted 16 October 2008
DOI 10.1002/ajpa.20973
Published online 12 January 2009 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com).
 DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE IN POSTCONTACT PERU
observations are consistent with the repartimiento draft
labor system, where Guale males were exploited as labor
and forced to make long-distance trips carrying heavy
loads. In Polynesia, Pietrusewsky and Douglas (1994)
reported a trend for increased DJD among native Hawai-
ians, especially in the shoulder. Ubelaker and Newson’s
(2002) study of DJD in Northern Andean Ecuador is lim-
ited by small sample sizes, but when compared with the
prehistoric population, no postcontact prevalence varia-
tions of DJD are apparent.
The paleoepidemiology of DJD in pre-Hispanic South
America is virtually unknown (Rojas-Sepúlveda et al.,
2008). Themes in recent bioarchaeological research in
Peru include ritual violence, diet, residential mobility,
genetic structuring, body modification, and identity (e.g.,
Verano, 2001; Blom, 2005; Shimada et al., 2005; Knud-
son and Buikstra, 2007; Tung, 2007). Investigations into
Andean DJD have been slower to develop, despite the
groundwork set by Hrdlička (1914) and Ortner (1968).
Some notable exceptions include considerations of Early
Intermediate period activity patterns on the central Pe-
ruvian coast (Pechenkina and Delgado, 2006) and the
study of late Moche-era DJD at Pacatnamú (Verano,
1997). Andrushko (2007) found that an elevated preva-
lence of DJD in the Late Horizon Inka heartland was
associated with increasing socioeconomic complexity and
intensified labor demands, particularly among men liv-
ing in peripheral communities. On the north coast of
Peru, analyses of enethses have been used to examine
occupational specialization (Nelson et al., 2000; Toyne,
2002). Population-level studies of DJD among late pre-
Hispanic groups by Farnum (2002) and Klaus (2008)
suggest that on the north coast, DJD was among the
most common pathological conditions. These studies
point to lifestyles that were active but did not involve ex-
cessive mechanical loading of articular joints.
Two primary questions underline the present study.
First, what were the biological consequences of the colo-
nial Spanish economy for the lifestyles of native Peru-
vians? Second, how may ethnohistoric descriptions of
economic activity contribute to the interpretation of DJD
lesions? Specifically, we hypothesize that the operation of
a Spanish political economy in Lambayeque will be asso-
ciated with an elevated prevalence of DJD as indigenous
lifestyles became more strenuous. Among the indigenous
Mochica population of Mórrope, this difference will be
measurable in statistically significant increased preva-
lence of DJD in the principle load bearing joint systems
of the appendicular and axial skeleton.
BIOCULTURAL CONTEXT
Economy in the late pre-Hispanic and colonial
Lambayeque Valley Complex
On the northern north coast of Peru, the Lambayeque
Valley Complex is composed of five linked drainages
(Motupe, La Leche, Lambayeque, Reque, and Zaña riv-
ers) that form the largest of all the coastal Peruvian
river valleys (see Fig. 1). An unparalleled amount of ara-
ble land (ca. 150,000 ha), access to one of the world’s
richest fishing grounds, and diverse terrestrial resources
granted an economic potential that was creatively
exploited by its peoples. These factors underwrote the
unprecedented economic power of the Middle Sicán state
(A.D. 900–1100). Later conquest of the Lambayeque
region by the Chimú (ca. A.D. 1375) and Inka (ca. A.D.
205
1470) proved to be an immense boon to both imperial
treasuries (Ramı́rez, 1990; Shimada, 2000). The majority
of the late pre-Hispanic population appears to form a
conservative cultural substratum and ethnic group,
called Mochica, which crystallized through a process of
ethnogenesis during the Moche era. Following the final
political disintegration of the Moche state around A.D.
750, local populations of the area continued to reproduce
a wide range of traditional Mochica mortuary rituals,
technologies, art styles, and language that can be sys-
tematically traced from A.D. 900 to 1750 (Klaus, 2008).
Thus, when speaking of the late pre-Hispanic Lambaye-
que Valley Complex populations, a distinction must be
drawn between the archaeological cultures, temporal
phases, and the Mochica ethnic identity of the local pop-
ulations that persisted in local ritual and other cultural
practices for 10 centuries after the Moche state’s political
demise.
Pre-Hispanic Lambayeque labor organization involved
a system that appears to date back at least to the Moche
V period (A.D. 550–750), which the Spanish called a par-
cialidad or ‘‘part of a whole’’ (Netherly, 1984, 1990; Shi-
mada, 2001). It involved a form of dualistic segmentary
organization based on principles of socioeconomic reci-
procity. Parcialidades were endogamous, guild-like, and
economically specialized entities functioning as collec-
tives of craft producers, fishers, agriculturalists, wea-
vers, and so forth. Reciprocal obligations existed between
the populace and a paramount lord, or curaca, who was
the focal point of all economic production and redistribu-
tion of wealth. A lord’s power and prestige was based on
the economic prosperity and well-being of his subjects
(Ramı́rez, 1996).
Beginning with the organized colonization of the Lam-
bayeque region in the 1560s, curacas were manipulated
into terminating ruler-subject obligations. Local peoples
began to work by fiat for the colonial administration,
which allowed for the abuse of their labor (Ramı́rez,
1996). A focus of the early colonial Lambayeque economy
was ranching. Tens of thousands of imported cattle, pigs,
sheep, and goats (slaughtered for the production of soap
and leather) were supported by the various scrub, or
monte, microenvironments. Unregulated encomenderos
began to exact increasingly large tribute demands from
their now politically powerless and poverty-stricken sub-
jects to include large quantities of cultigens, fowl, sheep,
blankets, and tribute cloth (Figueroa and Idrogo, 2004).
Far from mines such as Potosı́, labor taxes in Lambaye-
que were locally exacted. Ranches soon gave way to
plantations. Labor demands in the vineyards, farms, and
olive orchards between Chiclayo and Collique drew so
many indigenous men that a major demographic imbal-
ance transpired by 1590 (Cook, 1981). By the early
1600s, colossal monoculture haciendas were established
in the fertile alluvium of the upper valley and produced
vast quantities of sugar cane and alfalfa (Ramı́rez,
1974). In sum, a diverse redistributive pre-Hispanic
economy was replaced by a Spanish system that largely
focused on production of cash crops on an industrial
scale. This was underwritten by a one-way extractive
relationship of labor flowing from indigenous people into
the coffers of the colonial state in Lima.
MATERIALS
The small ethnically Mochica town of Mórrope is
located 803 km north of Lima on the Pan American
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
206 H.D. KLAUS ET AL.

Fig. 1. The Lambayeque Valley Complex, highlighting Mórrope (1), Sicán relgious/funerary precinct (2), Túcume (3), Huaca del
Pueblo Batán Grande (4), Illimo (5), Huaca Sialupe (6), La Caleta de San José (7), Cascajales (8), Cerro Cerrillos (9), and Úcupe
(10). Adapted from Klaus (2008).

American Journal of Physical Anthropology

 DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE IN POSTCONTACT PERU 207

Fig. 2. Plan view of the Chapel of San Pedro de Mórrope and excavated portions of the cemetery.

Highway on the northwestern periphery of the Lambaye-
que Valley Complex. It was founded as a colonial town in
1536. Large-scale excavation and laboratory analysis
were carried out by HDK and MET at the Chapel of San
Pedro de Mórrope from 2004 to 2006 as part of the Lam-
bayeque Valley Biohistory Project directed by HDK (see
Fig. 2). The Chapel was founded on 29 June 1536 and
abandoned between 1720 and 1751 (Modesto Rubiños,
1782 [1936]). Among the 322 burials recovered at the
Chapel, the remains of at least 867 individuals were
documented. Comparisons are drawn from a subsample
of 139 individuated adult skeletons from the Chapel of
San Pedro de Mórrope. Seriation and multiple correspon-
dence analysis of 27 mortuary variables validate a strati-
graphic Early/Middle Colonial and Middle/Late Colonial
mortuary sequence (Klaus, 2008). These skeletons were

American Journal of Physical Anthropology

208 H.D. KLAUS ET AL.
TABLE 1. Skeletal samples used in this study
Site Date
Huaca del Pueblo Batán Grande A.D. 900–1050/1100
Illimo A.D. 900–1050/1100
Huaca Sialupe A.D. 900–1050/1000
Huaca Cao Viejo, El Brujo Complex A.D. 900–1050/1100
Cerro Cerrillos ca. A.D. 900–1375(?)a
a
Cascajales ca. A.D. 1100–1375(?)
La Caleta de San José ca. A.D. 1375–1475a
Úcupe ca. A.D. 1375–1475a
Túcume–Huaca Larga A.D. 1475–1532
Túcume–South Cemetery A.D. 1475–1532
La Capilla de San Pedro de Mórrope Early-Middle Colonial (ca.
A.D. 1536–1640)
La Capilla de San Pedro de Mórrope Middle-Late Colonial (ca.
A.D. 1640-1750)
a
While several of these sites have been securely dated using radiometric techniques, most have been assigned chronological posi-
tion based on decorated grave goods. However, the seriation of these stylistic elements into major cultural/chronological phases has
been long-validated by multiple calibrated radiocarbon and AMS assays.
recovered through a representative cemetery sampling
strategy and appear to represent a low status Mochica
population. Age-at-death distribution and sex ratios of
the Mórrope sample closely match that expected of a
once-living Western population (Klaus, 2008).
Much of the late pre-Hispanic Lambayeque adult
Mochica DJD subsample (n 5 113; A.D. 900–1532) (Table 1)
is also derived from a representative sampling strat-
egy (Shimada et al., 2004) and appears to encompass the
population-level biological baseline of the late pre-His-
panic period. While originating from a diversity of re-
gional sites and cemeteries, we infer that the late pre-
Hispanic individuals shared a variety of pervasive and
persistent biocultural conditions including the conserva-
tive parcialidad social organization, subsistence econ-
omy, and middle to low social rank. While thought to be
representative, age distributions in the late pre-Hispanic
sample differ somewhat with greater representation of
adults, and unsurprisingly, diverge from a western de-
mographic structure (Klaus, 2008). General diachronic
stability of the foundations of local society is suggested
by ethnohistoric scholarship. Chimú and Inka dominion
over Lambayeque involved major political changes, but
little of daily life was probably altered (Ramı́rez, 1990).
This model of biocultural stability is a working hypothe-
sis, but initial statistical comparison of several biological
variables show no significant variation from the Middle
Sicán biological baseline among later Chimú/Chimú-Inka
period ethnically Mochica peoples (Klaus, 2008).
METHODS
Degenerative joint disease
Arthritic changes to joint surfaces encompass a variety
of chronic, age-progressive inflammatory and degenera-
tive processes. To encompass all of these, we use the
term degenerative joint disease, or DJD. Due to its near
ubiquity in both archaeological and living populations,
DJD has received extensive attention by physical
anthropologists. Since the 1960s, clinical, epidemiologi-
cal, experimental, and bioarchaeological studies have led
to the development of a ‘‘stress hypothesis’’ that holds
DJD results from a long-term physiological imbalance
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
N Context Source
9 Low-status Mochica craft producers Farnum, 2002
31 Low-middle Mochica status cemetery Klaus, 2008
15 Low-middle status Mochica craft Klaus, 2008
producers
50 Comparative lower Chicama Valley Farnum, 2002
low-middle status population
32 Low-middle status Mochica sacrifice Klaus, 2008
victims
8 Low-middle status Mochica Klaus, 2008
24 Inferred Mochica fishers Klaus, 2008
18 Higher status Mochica Klaus, 2008
22 Inferred elites and possible ascribed Toyne, 2002
elites
12 Middle-low status Mochica Toyne, 2002
386 Colonial Mochica Klaus, 2008
485 Colonial Mochica Klaus, 2008
between mechanical stress placed on joint tissue and the
ability of joint tissues to withstand that stress (Ortner,
1968; Radin et al., 1971; Radin et al., 1972; Radin, 1976;
Jurmain 1977; Radin, 1982; Merbs, 1983; Davies, 1988;
Felson, 1990; Radin et al., 1991; Larsen, 1997; Hemphill,
1999; Sofaer Devernski, 2000; Hough, 2001; Moskowitz
et al., 2004; Cope et al., 2005; Goldring and Goldring,
2007; Liverse et al., 2007; Brown et al., 2008; Rojas-
Sepúlveda et al., 2008). Also, activity-related injury to
joints—especially earlier in life—may be another key
risk factor in the development of DJD (Jurmain, 1999).
Cartilage breakdown is separated into three physiolog-
ical phases involving intricate biochemical alterations
that interfere with normal cell metabolism and signal-
ing, which promote altered cartilage repair and cartilage
loss (Lajeunesse, 2002). The metabolism of chondrocytes
is altered and increased enzyme production, including
metalloproteinases, attack the cartilaginous matrix.
While enzyme inhibitors are still produced they cannot
keep pace with the proteolytic process. Then, cartilage
begins to erode and break down into fibrils allowing pro-
teoglycans and collagen fragments to be released into
the joint space. The presence of these breakdown prod-
ucts ultimately produces an inflammatory response in
the synovial membrane involving increased production of
proteolytic enzymes and cytokines that destructively dif-
fuse into the cartilage. Over time, compensatory bone
overgrowth results from an attempt to repair the joint
(Waldron, 2007). In cases of injury, the normal vascular
barrier between cartilage and bone can become breached
by fibrillation. Capillaries then penetrate into the sub-
chondral plate and the deep calcified zone of articular
cartilage, which allows for the migration of osteocytes
(Jurmain, 1999). When cartilage becomes denuded, sub-
chondral bone is destroyed resulting in subchondral
resorption and joint surface porosity (Ortner, 2003). Con-
tinued joint use produces eburnation where bone-on-
bone contact leads to polishing and grooving parallel to
the lines of motion. In the amphiarthroidal joints of the
vertebral column, peripheral osteophytosis is often asso-
ciated with extrusion of the intervertebral disk resulting
from hernation (Ortner, 2003). Disk degeneration may
also result in focal pressure erosion of the vertebral body
 DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE IN POSTCONTACT PERU 209
TABLE 2. Joint systems definitions, adapted from Larsen et al., 1995
Joint system Articular surfaces
Shoulder Humeral head; glenoid fossa (true shoulder joint)
Elbow Trochlea and capitulum of the distal humerus; head of the radius; trochlear notch, radial notch,
and coronoid process of the ulna
Wrist Distal surface of the radius; distal surface ulna and styloid process of the ulna; lunate and scaphoid
articular surfaces
Hand Hamate, trapezoid, pisiform, capitate, trapezium, triquetral, and metacarpal and phalangeal articular surfaces
C-Spine Cervical vertebral body marginsa
T-Spine Thoracic vertebral body marginsa
L-Spine Lumbar vertebral body marginsa
Hip Acetabulum; femoral head
Knee Medial and lateral femoral condyles; patello-femoral surfaces; medial and lateral tibial condyles
Ankle Medial malleolus; distal articular surface of the tibia; distal malleolar articular surface of the fibula; articular
surfaces of the calcaneous and talus
Foot Cubiod, navicular, cuneiform, metatarsal, and pedal phalangeal articular surfaces
a
Superior and inferior articular facet data were not considered here as the etiology of this form of DJD is suspected to be under a
strong degree of genetic control rather than a result of biomechanical causation (Spector and McGregor, 2004).

caused by Schmorl’s nodes, which produce depressions
on the vertebral corpus itself.
Still, the underlying pathogenesis of DJD is highly
complex and remains to be fully understood. Despite
widespread support of the stress hypotheses, some epide-
miological and anthropological observations point out
the potential role of a host of important confounding
influences: normal anatomical variation, genetic predis-
positions, joint injury, and body mass (see review in
Weiss and Jurmain, 2007). Prevalence of DJD is also
clearly associated with age, and the older individuals
are, the more likely they are to manifest aspects of the
disorder (Ortner, 2003). While DJD is clearly related to
mechanical stress, it should not be uncritically inter-
preted as a straightforward indicator of lifestyle
(Bridges, 1992). The practice of inferring specific physi-
cal activities from DJD patterns (e.g., Kennedy, 1989) is
untenable; rather, patterns of more general motions and
habitual movements appear more accessible and are the
appropriate inferences gained from the study of DJD
(Knüsel, 2000; Pearson and Buikstra, 2006).
Analytical procedures
As defined in Table 2, the 11 load-bearing joint sys-
tems examined in this study include the shoulder, elbow,
wrist, hand, cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, lum-
bar vertebrae, hip, knee, ankle, and foot. Schmorl’s
depressions of the vertebral column were also scored as
an additional marker of activity and lifestyle. Joints
were scored when 50% or more of a joint surface was
present using a standardized coding scheme for lesion
location, type, and severity (Buikstra and Ubelaker,
1994). Pathological conditions that were scored included
the principle expressions of DJD (periarticular osteo-
phytic lipping, porosity, and eburnation) and Schmorl’s
depressions. Analysis began by collapsing individual
joints into categories of specific joint systems following
Larsen et al. (1995). Data were recoded as present or
absent in each joint system. DJD was scored if any one
or a combination of periarticular lipping, subchondral
bone resorption, and eburnation were observed in at
least one articular surface a joint system. Cases of barely
discernable or incipient joint changes were not consid-
ered. Less than 20% of affected joints systems exhibited
unilateral degeneration. Thus, it is justified to combine
TABLE 3. Age classes defined in this study
Age class Summary age range (years)
1 15.0–24.9
2 25.0–34.9
3 35.0–44.9
4 45-plus
data from left and right sides, which prevent DJD from
being scored twice for a particular joint system (Liverse
et al., 2007). Age of each individual was estimated using
the summary age statistic (Lovejoy et al., 1985) calcu-
lated based on an internally consistent seriation of pubic
symphysis, auricular surface, cranial suture closure, and
dental wear indicators for the pre- and postcontact Lam-
bayeque populations (Klaus, 2008). Sex was estimated
using the standard dimorphic variation of the skull and
pelvis (Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994).
When comparing two populations of nonidentical age
structures, crude prevalence rates can inflate, deflate, or
conflate true prevalence. Odds ratios (ORs) were used to
define differences between the late pre-Hispanic and
postcontact populations. An OR is an elaboration of a
risk ratio. If prevalence is higher in the first population
compared (in this case, the pre-Hispanic sample), OR 
1.0; if prevalence is higher in the second population
(here, the postcontact sample), OR  0.99. For example,
an OR of 3.6 would mean pathological condition preva-
lence is 3.6 times (or 360%) greater in the late pre-His-
panic sample. An OR of 0.23 would indicate 4.35 times
(or 435%) greater prevalence in the postcontact sample,
calculated as the inverse of the OR when OR  0.99 (1/
0.23 5 4.35). ORs were calculated separately for each
joint in each defined age cohort (Table 3) using custom
programs in SAS 9.1 (SAS Institute, Inc., 2003). When
summed and divided by total sample size, a common
odds ratio (ÔR) is generated. This summary statistic
expresses the overall prevalence difference between two
populations as an age-related proportion. An ÔR consid-
ers age-related proportional prevalence patterns in the
data, which is critical in the study of DJD (Waldron,
1994). Significance is assessed using a chi-square test.
Because some data reduction does take place, it is useful
to examine ORs within and between individual age
classes. While not definitive observations, crude preva-
lence patterns are examined in the Appendix.

American Journal of Physical Anthropology

210 H.D. KLAUS ET AL.
TABLE 4. Odds ratio results, late pre-Hispanic postcontact comparisons of DJD prevalence
Joint system O1a O2 O3 O4 ÔRb Interpretation
Shoulder 0.67 0.72 0.08 0.72 0.45c Significant postcontact increase
Elbow 0.05 0.47 1.15 0.42 0.37d Significant postcontact increase
Wrist 0.17 0.15 0.56 0.09 0.18d Significant postcontact increase
Hand 0.61 4.09 2.33 0.15 0.74 No significant change
C-Spine 0.92 1.63 0.58 0.20 0.57 No significant change
T-Spine 1.55 1.68 0.67 0.13 0.71 No significant change
L-Spine 0.83 0.85 1.17 0.27 0.70 No significant change
Schmorl’s Depressions 0.13 0.54 0.88 0.30 0.42 No significant change
Hip 0.54 8.50 1.33 1.09 1.78 No significant change
Knee 0.05 0.29 0.57 0.44 0.28d Significant postcontact increase
Ankle 1.36 6.92 0.40 1.33 1.52 No significant change
Foot 1.25 1.24 0.70 1.54 1.20 No significant change
a
O1 thru O4 correspond to odds ratios for individual age classes 1 thru 4.
b
ÔR, or common odds ratio, for each joint system.
c
Significant at the 0.05 level, v2; df 5 1.
d
Significant at the 0.01 level, v2; df 5 1.

RESULTS Middle and Middle/Late Colonial periods. Within-tempo-

Overall prevalence changes
Evaluation of DJD prevalence is first assessed through
an overall late pre-Hispanic-Colonial period comparison
(Table 4). A statistically significant elevation of DJD in the
joint systems of the upper limb is observed: the postcontact
shoulder joint is 2.2 times more likely to be affected by DJD
than the late pre-Hispanic population (see Fig. 3), elbow
prevalence increases 2.7 times (see Fig. 4), and DJD is 5.6
times greater in the wrist (see Fig. 5). The only other signif-
icant change is found in the knee joint, where postcontact
prevalence of DJD was elevated 3.6 times (see Fig. 6). Indi-
vidual ORs by age class reveals that the greatest magni-
tude of significant postcontact change is often concentrated
among the younger age classes 1 and 2. DJD in the elbow
and knee, for example, is 20 times more likely among age
class 1 postcontact young adults. Crude prevalence data
(Table A1, Fig. A1) mirror these patterns.
Comparison by temporal period
Late pre-Hispanic-Early/Middle Colonial period com-
parisons (Table 5) reveal all statistically significant dif-
ferences are found in Early/Middle Colonial individuals.
Early/Middle Colonial DJD prevalence in the shoulder
rises 3.2 times, 4.8 times in the elbow, 9.9 times in the
wrist joint, 2.9 times in the hand, and 2.3 times in the
knee. Statistically significant changes in vertebral DJD
not detected earlier are, however, evident in this finer
temporal comparison. Early/Middle Colonial DJD preva-
lence increases 2.6 times in cervical vertebrae, 2.4 times
in the thoracic vertebrae, and 2.2 times in the lumbar
vertebrae (Figs. 7 and 8). Following these changes, the
Middle/Late Colonial population shows no significant
variation. Crude prevalence reflects similar patterns of
increased Early/Middle Colonial period DJD and rela-
tively unchanged prevalence during the Middle/Late
Colonial phase (Table A2, A3; Figs. A2 and A3).
Comparison by sex
Comparisons of DJD by sex can be accomplished via
within- and between-group comparisons for late pre-His-
panic and postcontact periods; sample sizes become too
small for statistical study when subdivided into Early/
ral period evaluation of DJD by sex (Table 6) reveals
that during the late pre-Hispanic era, males universally
dominate the statistically significant elevated relation-
ships DJD and most of the nonsignificant trends toward
greater DJD prevalence as well. This trend persists
among the postcontact population, especially with ele-
vated male prevalence in the shoulder, elbow, wrist, and
cervical spine. During the postcontact period, males
share most significantly elevated DJD trends, with the
exception of Schmorl’s depressions and DJD of the ankle
and the foot. Women in both periods appear to exhibit a
greater tendency of Schmorl’s depressions (see Fig. 9).
Between-period male–female comparisons (Table 7)
show that in every one of the 13 comparisons of DJD,
elevated male prevalence is clear especially in statisti-
cally significant increases of DJD of the elbow, wrist,
lumbar spine, hip, and knee. When compared with their
late pre-Hispanic counterparts, women in Mórrope dem-
onstrate universally elevated DJD prevalence, with sig-
nificant elevation in the shoulder, elbow, wrist, and
knee. The only category where DJD risk was greater in
pre-Hispanic women was the hip joint. Similarly, crude
prevalence data illustrate these relationships as well
(Table A4, A5; Figs. A4 and A5).
DISCUSSION
This examination of DJD prevalence in postcontact
Mórrope, Peru, reveals distinct changes to population-
level patterning of Mochica joint pathology following
Spanish arrival. Several confounding factors can be asso-
ciated with the expression of DJD (Weiss and Jurmain,
2007). Changes in body mass are a poor explanation as
most weight-bearing joint systems of the lower body are
not significantly affected. Changing postcontact genetic
predisposition for DJD is also unlikely as population
genetic analyses of dentally inherited traits reveal gen-
eral continuity and no significant admixture from non-
Mochica populations (Klaus, 2008). There is also no rea-
son to infer altered patterns of normal joint anatomy or
physiology. Therefore, the most parsimonious explana-
tion for the elevated prevalence of DJD in Mórrope is
elevated biomechanical loading resulting in a complex
mix of wear-and-tear and injury to joint systems.

American Journal of Physical Anthropology

 DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE IN POSTCONTACT PERU 211

Fig. 3. Shoulder DJD of osteophytic lipping and porosity of the glenoid fossa and humeral head, Mórrope Burial U705-1 Individ-
ual 1. [Color figure can be viewed in the online issue which is available at www.interscience.wiley.com.]

Fig. 4. DJD involvement of the elbow joint: extensive joint modification and destruction of the distal humerus, Mórrope Burial
U7 IH 4 (center); extensive lipping of the proximal ulnae, Mórrope Burial U7 IU 16-17; degenerative alteration to the proximal ra-
dial head, Mórrope Burial U4 05-12 (right). [Color figure can be viewed in the online issue which is available at www.interscience.
wiley.com.]

Temporal variations of prevalence

Fig. 5. Lipping and associated joint surface contour changes
of the wrist (distal radius and ulna), Mórrope Burial U4 05-31B.
[Color figure can be viewed in the online issue which is avail-
able at www.interscience.wiley.com.]
In terms of a broad diachronic comparison (late pre-
Hispanic-postcontact), changes in the behavioral use of
specific joint systems are evident. Degeneration of the
shoulder joint is relatively uncommon among modern
humans (Waldron, 2007), but in postcontact Lambaye-
que, a significant increase in prevalence is observed at
this site. Similarly, DJD of the elbow tends to be rare
and may be related to occupational injuries and micro-
trauma (Bovenzi et al., 1987; Schmitt et al., 2001). Of all
the joints of the upper limb, the prevalence of DJD in
the wrist increased most sharply and probably reflects
repetitive motions such as flexion and extension.
Increased prevalence of DJD in the knee may be a sign
of repetitive flexion (bending). No changes were noted in
the ankle and feet, which are also generally uncommon
sites for DJD. These data point to a shift in habitual

American Journal of Physical Anthropology

212 H.D. KLAUS ET AL.

Fig. 6. Lateral (left) and posterior (right) views of the right femur of DJD affecting the knee of Burial U3 05-43. [Color figure
can be viewed in the online issue which is available at www.interscience.wiley.com.]

TABLE 5. Odds ratio results, late pre-Hispanic-Early/Middle Colonial and Early/Middle Colonial-Middle/Late Colonial
comparisons of DJD prevalence
ÔR, ÔR,
Joint System O1a O2 O3 O4 LPH-E/MCb O1c O2 O3 O4 E/MC-M/LCd Interpretation
e
Shoulder 0.23 0.66 0.13 0.33 0.31 0.69 2.33 1.00 0.75 1.23 Significant Early/Middle
Colonial increase, followed by
no change
Elbow 0.03 0.35 0.24 0.27 0.21e 1.20 1.81 3.55 0.42 1.39 Significant Early/Middle
Colonial increase, followed by
no change
e
Wrist 0.08 0.06 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.85 4.80 1.0 0.35 1.14 Significant Early/Middle
Colonial increase, followed by
no change
e
Hand 0.25 1.13 0.78 0.09 0.35 0.38 0.67 0.17 1.40 0.64 Significant Early/Middle
Colonial increase, followed by
no change
C-Spine 0.52 1.33 0.34 0.14 0.39f 0.33 1.50 0.40 1.78 0.89 Significant Early/Middle
Colonial increase, followed by
no change
T-Spine 1.80 1.11 0.10 0.15 0.41f 0.22 3.60 3.50 0.75 1.34 Significant Early/Middle
Colonial increase, followed by
no change
f
L-Spine 0.62 1.04 0.23 0.24 0.46 0.75 0.50 6.00 0.75 1.09 Significant Early/Middle
Colonial increase, followed by
no change
Schmorl’s 0.36 0.64 0.52 0.50 0.50f 0.20 0.60 0.67 1.33 0.65 Significant Early/Middle
Depressions Colonial increase, followed by
no change
Hip 0.89 5.13 0.83 0.93 1.34 0.33 0.50 0.28 1.71 0.65 No change over time
Knee 1.63 0.69 0.25 0.14 0.43f 0.40 0.67 0.26 3.00 0.61 Significant Early/Middle
Colonial increase, followed by
no change
Ankle 0.60 3.86 0.14 1.04 0.85 0.50 0.60 1.20 0.66 0.71 No change over time
Foot 0.33 0.62 0.25 1.84 0.72 0.50 0.50 0.66 0.08 0.42 No change over time
a
O1 thru O6 correspond to odds ratios for individual age classes 1 thru 4, Late Pre-Hispanic (LPH)-Early/Middle Colonial (E/MC)
samples.
b
ÔR, or common odds ratio for each joint system, Late Pre-Hispanic (LPH) and Early/Middle Colonial (E/MC) comparisons.
c
O1 thru O4 correspond to odds ratios for individual age classes 1 thru 4, Early/Middle Colonial (E/MC) and Middle-Late Colonial
(M/LC) samples.
d
ÔR, or common odds ratio for each joint system, Early/Middle Colonial (E/MC) and Middle-Late Colonial (M/MC) comparison.
e
Significant at the 0.01 level, v2; df 5 1.
f
Significant at the 0.05 level, v2; df 5 1.

American Journal of Physical Anthropology

 DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE IN POSTCONTACT PERU
Fig. 7. Degenerative lipping of the vertebral body and zygo-
pophysial joints, Mórrope U4 05-16A. [Color figure can be
viewed in the online issue which is available at www.interscience.
wiley.com.]
physical activity where the effects of elevated mechani-
cal demands, repetitive joint use, and injuries accumu-
lated systematically in the arms and the knee joint. Ex-
amination of prevalence by age class indicates the high-
est rates are found in the youngest individuals. As
Jurmain (1999) suggests, an earlier age of DJD onset is
likely related to early experiences of activity-induced
joint injury. As a consequence of postcontact economic
intensification, children and adolescents may have
entered into particularly strenuous activities earlier in
life than in pre-Hispanic society.
A finer-grained temporal analysis teases out additional
patterns. Along with increased DJD in the shoulder,
elbow, wrist, and arm, significantly elevated prevalence
of DJD of the hand, cervical, thoracic, lumbar vertebrae,
and Schmorl’s depressions are observed in the Early/
Middle Colonial period. These patterns signal a discon-
tinuous jump in prevalence following Spanish coloniza-
tion and a notably rapid shift to a more strenuous indig-
enous lifestyle involving almost 70% of the load-bearing
joint systems surveyed. By the Middle/Late Colonial
phase, DJD prevalence does not significantly depart
from this plateau. This may signal a relatively
unchanged biomechanical environment in latter postcon-
tact Mórrope: biological consequences of economic inten-
sification were there to stay.
Variation by sex
Inferences regarding sexual divisions of labor can be
offered. Greater DJD prevalence is associated with both
the late pre-Hispanic and postcontact males, and reflects
a global pattern of elevated male DJD prevalence
(Larsen, 1997). While males may share a certain degree
of biological predisposition, this pattern may also relate
213
Fig. 8. Osteophytosis affecting lumbar vertebral body mar-
gins, Mórrope Burial U3 03-4. [Color figure can be viewed in
the online issue which is available at www.interscience.wiley.
com.]
to sex-related divisions of labor. One exception is a tend-
ency for higher prevalence of shoulder DJD among
women (Nakagawa et al., 1999); the opposite is noted in
this postcontact population. When compared with late
pre-Hispanic males, postcontact males experienced sig-
nificant DJD elevation in the elbow, wrist, lumbar verte-
brae, hip, knee, and intervertebral disk herniation.
Given this setting, these patterns of DJD may be reflec-
tions of male participation in the colonial mita labor tax
system. Female patterns of DJD also suggest intensified
activity with a nearly universally elevated DJD preva-
lence and intervertebral disk herniation compared with
their late pre-Hispanic counterparts. These findings also
correspond to postcontact female fertility depression, a
paleodemographic parameter related to strenuous physi-
cal activities that siphon away energetic resources from
reproductive functions (Klaus and Tam, 2008).
While weaving was an important activity, it was cer-
tainly not the exclusive female economic role as often
portrayed by European sources (Graubart, 2000). A
snapshot of female lifestyles in the 18th century colonial
north coast Peru is provided by drawings of the Bishop
of Trujillo, Martı́nez Compañón (1936). He depicts native
females actively tending livestock and working in agri-
cultural fields. Even though males were considered sole
tributaries often leaving their village or town under
mita labor obligations, females also intensely contributed
to production but without the same kind of mobility.
Graubart (2000) describes Colonial-era indigenous
women as a kind of captive labor force manipulated by
the needs of encomenderos, corregedores, priests, mer-
chants, and curacas. As a cash-based economy emerged
in Peru, economic intensification further drove females
into the commercial economy as active laborers.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
214 H.D. KLAUS ET AL.
TABLE 6. Odds ratio results, within period comparison of DJD prevalence, late pre-Hispanic postcontact by sex
ÔRb, Pre-Hispanic ÔRd, Postcontact
Joint System O1a O2 O3 O4 pre-Hispanic prevalance O1c O2 O3 O4 postcontact prevalence
Shoulder 2.07 0.33 2.30 0.69 1.73 Male 1 2.91 6.67 3.0 1.00 3.36e Male 1
Elbow 3.00 0.67 2.09 6.30 2.18 Male 1 1.35 11.00 3.14 0.71 2.71e Male 1
Wrist 0.56 1.27 9.75 5.50 4.35e Male 1 1.33 6.00 9.00 4.00 3.56e Male 1
Hand 2.33 0.80 0.60 0.38 0.69 Female 1 1.25 0.57 2.50 2.00 1.39 Male 1
C-Spine 2.27 1.08 5.09 6.6 2.93e Male 1 1.00 0.00 4.50 14.00 4.78e Male 1
T-Spine 1.25 0.73 4.88 4.29 1.95 Male 1 1.00 1.33 1.33 3.50 1.53 Male 1
L-Spine 0.62 0.26 2.74 3.52 1.24 Male 1 1.20 15.00 1.00 2.33 2.55 Male 1
Schmorl’s 2.47 0.89 0.72 0.34 0.76 Female 1 0.83 0.43 1.00 1.50 0.89 Female 1
Depressions
Hip 1.00 0.59 1.33 0.45 0.60 Female 1 0.40 0.41 0.33 6.66 1.14 Male 1
Knee 0.43 1.67 4.29 4.66 2.74e Male 1 2.22 1.29 0.63 3.00 1.43 Male 1
Ankle 0.96 0.32 0.50 1.25 0.64 Female 1 0.30 0.44 0.66 4.00 0.96 Female 1
Foot 1.75 0.07 1.30 1.60 1.05 Male 1 0.75 0.60 0.20 0.75 0.48 Female 1
a
O1 thru O4 correspond to odds ratios for individual age classes 1 thru 4, late pre-Hispanic sample.
b
ÔR, or common odds ratio for each joint system, late pre-Hispanic male vs. female comparison.
c
O1 thru O4 correspond to odds ratios for individual age classes 1 thru 4, postcontact sample.
d
ÔR, or common odds ratio, for each joint system, postcontact male vs. female comparison.
e
Significant at the 0.05 level, v2; df 5 1.

Local ethnohistoric and ethnoarchaeological

considerations
It is also important to consider ethnohistoric accounts
of specific microenvironmental factors and economic
behaviors in postcontact Mórrope itself. Mórrope is situ-
ated in an environmentally marginal monte (arid scrub
vegetation) zone. Beyond the terminus of the La Leche
drainage, water is always scarce and the soils are highly
saline. Written histories indicate the late pre-Hispanic
population was litorally focused and engaged in fishing
and salt production (Peralta, 1998). Because of an abun-
dance of clay, another local specialization involved ce-
ramic manufacture dating back at least to the Middle
Sicán era (Cleland and Shimada, 1998).
In Mórrope, pre-Hispanic patterns of economy and
physical activity may have been altered beginning with
the construction of the town itself, described in a written
history by an 18th century Mórrope priest as demanding
a great and sustained outlay of labor by the entire popu- Fig. 9. Schmorl’s depression likely related to intervertebral
lation (Modesto Rubiños 1781 [1936]). As the colonial disk herniation, Mórrope Burial U303-1 IV56. [Color figure can
economy developed, Mórrope uniquely participated in be viewed in the online issue which is available at www.
interscience.wiley.com.]
three sectors of this new order: mining, agriculture, and
pastoralism. The area immediately north and west of
Mórrope was once an extensive submerged marine made some inroads, certain physical activities associated
embayment, which was uplifted and silted in over the with gypsum mining probably have changed very little
last 60 million years by a series of intermittent rivers to over the last few centuries. Strenuous and habitual uses
form extensive deposits of gypsum, salt, and phosphate of the upper limbs, repetitive bending involving flexion
(Delavaud, 1984). The church, in particular, was able to of the torso and knees, and manual lifting of heavy loads
profit from manipulating the Mórrope Mochica in mining associated with these activities would not be inconsistent
these resources. Priests exacted tribute payments and with the patterns of inferred joint use observed in the
ecclesiastical rents through mining quotas (Peralta, postcontact archaeological population. Carrying heavy
1998; Figueroa and Idrogo, 2004). Mochica protest weights (i.e., loads of gypsum) may be one plausible cor-
against excessive rents were recorded in 1689 and 1712, relate of increased prevalence of DJD and intervertebral
and in the case of the latter, the Mórrope priest disk herniation among Early/Middle Colonial adults. The
responded by increasing quotas of mining tribute (Mod- activity of shoveling (again consistent with gypsum min-
esto Rubiños, 1781 [1936]). ing) and adoption of certain related postures for pro-
Linking particular patterns of DJD to specific physical longed periods can also load the spine on par with activ-
activities is unwarranted and unfeasible, but it is possi- ities such as lifting water and threshing grain (Knüsel
ble to consider the potential associations of joint pathol- 2000: 392, 395).
ogy in Mórrope with these lines of documented ethnohis- Cotton has long been an important cultigen in the
toric context. Ethnoarchaeological observations by HDK Central Andes for at least two thousand years, but the
in 2008 of joint movements and motions, which is associ- scale of production in postcontact Peru was greatly
ated with gypsum mining just south of modern Mórrope, intensified as it was transformed into a cash crop by the
are heuristically useful. While modern machinery has Spanish. Despite perennial water shortages and poor

American Journal of Physical Anthropology

 DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE IN POSTCONTACT PERU 215
TABLE 7. Odds ratio results, between period comparison of DJD prevalence, late pre-Hispanic postcontact by sex
O3a O4 O5 O6 ÔRb Prevalance, O3c O4 O5 O6 ÔRd Prevalence,
Joint System (#) (#) (#) (#) (#) males ($) ($) ($) ($) ($) females
Shoulder 0.36 1.11 0.26 0.33 0.48 Postcontact 1 0.16 0.29 0.04 0.32 0.14e Postcontact 1
Elbow 0.55 0.17 0.17 0.84 0.20e Postcontact 1 0.33 0.84 0.34 0.07 0.20e Postcontact 1
Wrist 0.21 0.11 0.19 0.05 0.13e Postcontact 1 0.15 0.86 0.14 0.08 0.18e Postcontact 1
Hand 0.60 2.00 0.20 0.13 0.37 Postcontact 1 0.27 2.00 0.83 0.30 0.52 Postcontact 1
C-Spine 0.47 0.82 0.24 0.08 0.30f Postcontact 1 0.35 1.71 0.21 0.24 0.39 Postcontact 1
T-Spine 0.46 1.36 0.30 0.16 0.50 Postcontact 1 1.20 4.00 0.21 0.05 0.46 Postcontact 1
L-Spine 0.30 0.20 0.38 0.31 0.27f Postcontact 1 1.00 10.50 0.27 0.08 0.58 Postcontact 1
Schmorl’s 0.07 1.11 0.46 0.15 0.21e Postcontact 1 0.16 0.56 0.85 1.45 0.67f Postcontact 1
Depressions
Hip 0.70 9.77 0.96 0.07 0.31e Postcontact 1 1.56 2.25 2.33 5.42 2.71f Pre-Hispanic 1
Knee 1.60 0.22 0.46 0.22 0.34f Postcontact 1 1.17 0.08 0.05 0.09 0.21e Postcontact 1
Ankle 0.78 0.67 0.29 0.20 0.39 Postcontact 1 0.58 2.00 0.41 1.00 0.89 Postcontact 1
Foot 0.75 0.83 0.50 1.20 0.84 Postcontact 1 0.28 3.00 0.07 1.25 0.50 Postcontact 1
a
O1 thru O4 correspond to odds ratios for individual age classes 1 thru 4, late pre-Hispanic postcontact male comparison.
b
ÔR, or common odds ratio for each joint system, late pre-Hispanic postcontact male comparison.
c
O1 thru O4 correspond to odds ratios for individual age classes 1 thru 4, late ($)pre-Hispanic postcontact female comparison.
d
ÔR, or common odds ratio, for each joint system, late pre-Hispanic-postcontact female comparison.
e
Significant at the 0.01 level, v2; df 5 1.
f
Significant at the 0.05 level, v2; df 5 1.

soils, the monte zone did support cotton cultivation. This
was also paralleled by a weaving craft specialization
among women in the District of Mórrope (Vreeland,
1985). Today, thousands of tons of cotton are cultivated
annually in Lambayeque. Ethnoarchaeological study of
modern rural cotton farmers at work in fields west of
the city of Lambayeque illustrates strenuous and repeti-
tive bending and extensive use of the upper body in
manipulating large and heavy loads such as cotton bun-
dles. Colonial cotton cultivation probably involved simi-
lar movements and motions. These sources of loading
are probably biologically significant over many years but
seem to be of lower mechanical impact than mining.
The monte zone was also suited to grazing, which fos-
tered pastoral activities, that persist even today. Mór-
rope also sits at one of the natural entrances into the
Lambayeque Valley from Puira on the Royal Road span-
ning Quito to Lima. One 1630 source describes an
intense mercantile exchange across the hyper-arid
Sechura desert (Peralta, 1998). Overlapping with pasto-
ral activities, the movement of information, goods, and
caravans of mules and goats from the north garnered
the Mórrope population the moniker caminantes del
desierto, or desert walkers, as they traversed the approx-
imately 160 km stretch between Mórrope and Piura until
the early 1800s (Peralata, 1998). Such descriptions of
intense trans-Sechura mercantile exchange guided by
Morropanos might anticipate an observation of elevated
DJD in the joint systems of the lower limb. However, a
large body of data indicates the lower limb is well
adapted to bipedal locomotion. Walking is likely a poor
instigator for DJD in the lower limb (Jurmain, 1999).
Biological consequences of economic
intensification in the New World
In addition to describing DJD patterning in postcontact
north coast Peru, these findings speak to broader anthro-
pological questions surrounding human biology, economic
intensification, and culture contact. Postcontact economic
reorganization and imposition of large-scale European
mercantile systems contrasted sharply with the modes
and scope of even the most sophisticated and intense in-
digenous state-level economies; Europeans imposed a rad-
ically different way doing business, so to speak. Although
colonial-era indigenous DJD patterning remains to be sys-
tematically assessed in Americas, evidence of more stren-
uous lifestyles has been identified in every setting
described to date, spanning the plains of the American
Midwest (Reinhard et al., 1994), Spanish Florida (Larsen
et al., 2001), and Hawai’i (Pietrusewsky and Douglas,
1994). Along with postcontact Peru, these observations
lead us to consider a hemispheric-level biological model.
As contact put into operation European systems and cul-
tural constructions of labor and production, lifestyles
among the survivors of contact and their descendants
were negatively impacted. Despite the differing economic
ambitions of the various European powers, native popula-
tions seem to have labored to the point that joint biology
was pathologically altered—whether they were participat-
ing with a degree of autonomy in a more entrepreneurial
mode of exchange (an Omaha/Ponca model) or an extrac-
tive system of labor manipulation and social control (a
Spanish Florida or coastal Peru model).
However, it is important to balance this large-scale
vision of culture contact with local contexts as well. In
Mórrope, increased prevalence of DJD may be interpreted
in terms of a literal biological embodiment of the new and
unequal cultural and economic realities forged from con-
tact with the Spanish. On the north coast of Peru, indige-
nous peoples were forced into the most basal levels of a
rigid hierarchical society. Institutionalization of such in-
equality often prevented an escape from poverty. Stern
(1982) argued that the ‘‘insidious’’ secret of exploitation in
the Andes involved at its core the subtle coercion of
dependence in Andean colonial economies. Pressures of
economic necessity, invented by the Spanish, drove indige-
nous peoples to volunteer themselves for exploitation.
Resultant increased DJD lesion prevalence among natives
highlights how indigenous bodies were then used in
resource extraction and production for the benefit of a
hegemonic proto-capitalist colonial state.
The specific form that postcontact economic intensifi-
cation took in Mórrope may have in large part been asso-
ciated with facts of physiogeography. The biologically de-
structive manner in which the people of Mórrope experi-
enced the new economic system may have been directly
shaped by microenvironmental variation—namely, saline

American Journal of Physical Anthropology

216 H.D. KLAUS ET AL.

soils, limited water availability, and extensive gypsum,
salt, and phosphate deposits—and how the Iberian colo-
nists perceived they could profit from these resources
using the Mochica as their labor. This is not intended to
be a deterministic or fatalistic perspective holding that
the Mórrope Mochica happened to be unlucky or were
doomed to live in a monte zone near mineral deposits.
Instead, the proximity to some resources (minerals) and
distance to others (alluvial soils) narrowed or focused
the range of specific economic possibilities in the colonial
order that were ultimately set by local geology.
CONCLUSION
The hypothesis of elevated prevalence of DJD in the
postcontact population of Mórrope, Peru, is accepted.
The findings of elevated DJD in several joint systems—
particularly in the upper body and knee—are consistent
with several lines of ethnohistoric evidence describing
the unique niches of the colonial Spanish economy that
developed in postcontact Mórrope. Local biological expe-
riences of joint degeneration can be seen as a conse-
quence of a synergism between the goals of Spanish pol-
icy and the microenvironmental conditions that shaped
specific economic possibilities. Regarding the statistical
methods used in this study, ORs and crude prevalence
data reveal similar overall patterns. Yet, ORs yield a
more accurate, age-related proportional value, or true
prevalence. Comparison with crude prevalence differ-
ences demonstrates how straightforward computation of
naffected/ntotal can deviate from true prevalence, often rep-
resenting a deflated estimation (Table A6).
In terms of broader anthropological questions sur-
rounding human biology, economic intensification, and
culture contact, these findings add to an emerging model
of biological outcomes of an extractive economy and soci-
oeconomic inequality in complex societies. The findings
also echo those of previous studies indicating that widely
altered postcontact Native American lifestyles were
shaped by unique local conditions and adaptations. Still,
potential unresolved factors remain in the study of past
lifestyles through the study of pathological conditions of
joint systems. Synthesis of population-based, age-related
prevalence rates with secure ecological, ethnohistoric,
and ethnoarchaeological contexts is one approach that
can help overcome some of these issues to further the
understanding of physical activity through patterns of
DJD.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge the contributions of Rosa-
bella Alvarez-Calderón, Jorge Centurión, Victor Curay,
Dr. Carlos Elera, Julie Farnum, Marco Fernández,
Gabriela Jakubowska, Juan Martı́nez, Emily Middleton,
Analise Polsky, Raul Saavedra, Paul Sciulli, Izumi Shi-
mada, Marla Toyne, Carlos Wester, the people of Mór-
rope, and our team of undergraduate students from the
Universidad Nacional de Trujillo. Cesar Maguiña codi-
rected the 2005 excavations. The Museo Nacional Sicán
provided essential logistics and laboratory space. Paul
Sciulli, Daniel Temple, Sarah Martin, and two reviewers
provided thoughtful observations and editorial commen-
tary.

APPENDIX
TABLE A1. Frequency and crude prevalence data, late pre-Hispanic period
Late pre-Hispanic Late pre-Hispanic Postcontact Postcontact crude
Joint system (NDJD/Ntotal) crude prevalence (%) (NDJD/Ntotal) prevalence (%)
Shoulder 28/76 36.8 35/58 60.3
Elbow 32/81 39.5 95/139 68.3
Wrist 9/79 11.4 21/51 41.2
Hand 9/57 15.8 12/52 23.1
C-spine 24/111 21.6 20/56 33.7
T-spine 45/113 39.8 27/53 50.9
L-spine 56/112 50.0 34/45 75.6
Schmorl’s depressions 7/118 5.9 7/55 12.7
Hip 18/77 23.4 10/59 17.0
Knee 23/72 21.9 76/123 61.8
Ankle 19/72 26.4 10/50 20.0
Foot 10/47 21.3 10/47 21.3

TABLE A2. Frequency and crude prevalence data, late pre-Hispanic-Early/Middle Colonial period
Late pre-Hispanic Late pre-Hispanic Early/Middle Early/Middle Colonial
Joint system (NDJD/Ntotal) crude prevalence (%) Colonial (NDJD/Ntotal) crude prevalence (%)
Shoulder 28/76 36.8 30/54 55.6
Elbow 32/81 39.5 70/99 70.7
Wrist 9/79 11.4 17/37 46.0
Hand 9/57 15.8 10/38 26.3
C-spine 24/111 21.6 15/40 37.5
T-spine 45/113 39.8 20/37 50.1
L-spine 56/112 50.0 23/39 59.0
Schmorl’s depressions 7/118 5.9 6/40 15.0
Hip 18/77 23.4 8/44 18.2
Knee 23/72 21.9 18/38 47.4
Ankle 19/72 26.4 9/36 25.0
Foot 10/47 21.3 8/35 22.9

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 DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE IN POSTCONTACT PERU 217
TABLE A3. Frequency and crude prevalence data, Early/Middle–Middle/Late Colonial period
Early/Middle Early/Middle Middle/Late Colonial Middle/Late Colonial
Joint System Colonial (NDJD/Ntotal) Colonial crude prevalence (%) (NDJD/Ntotal) crude prevalence (%)
Shoulder 30/54 55.6 13/26 50.0
Elbow 70/99 70.7 25/40 62.5
Wrist 17/37 46.0 8/19 42.1
Hand 10/38 26.3 5/17 29.4
C-spine 15/40 37.5 7/19 36.8
T-spine 20/37 50.1 10/20 50.0
L-spine 23/39 59.0 13/20 65.0
Schmorl’s depressions 6/40 15.0 4/20 20.0
Hip 8/44 18.2 4/17 23.5
Knee 18/38 47.4 10/19 52.6
Ankle 9/36 25.0 5/19 26.3
Foot 8/35 22.9 7/21 33.3

TABLE A4. Frequency and crude prevalence data, late pre-Hispanic males and females
Late pre-Hispanic Late pre-Hispanic males Late pre-Hispanic Late pre-Hispanic females
Joint system males (NDJD/Ntotal) crude prevalence (%) females (NDJD/Ntotal) crude prevalence (%)
Shoulder 15/43 34.9 12/62 19.4
Elbow 18/45 40.0 12/64 18.8
Wrist 7/47 14.9 5/68 7.4
Hand 5/42 11.9 6/52 11.5
C-spine 15/64 23.4 8/74 10.8
T-spine 27/65 41.5 17/75 22.7
L-spine 30/65 46.2 24/74 32.4
Schmorl’s depressions 6/68 8.8 7/78 9.0
Hip 11/46 23.9 13/62 21.0
Knee 18/45 24.4 12/61 19.7
Ankle 9/47 19.1 12/59 20.3
Foot 7/41 17.1 6/34 17.6

TABLE A5. Frequency and crude prevalence data, postcontact males and females
Postcontact males Postcontact males Postcontact females Postcontact females
Joint system (NDJD/Ntotal) crude prevalence (%) (NDJD/Ntotal) crude prevalence (%)
Shoulder 21/42 50.0 20/35 57.1
Elbow 53/70 75.7 41/67 61.2
Wrist 14/28 50.0 9/25 36.0
Hand 8/28 28.6 7/28 25.0
C-spine 15/33 45.5 7/22 31.8
T-spine 18/33 54.5 11/25 44.0
L-spine 22/32 68.8 14/22 63.6
Schmorl’s depressions 6/31 19.4 4/27 14.8
Hip 10/66 15.2 8/54 14.8
Knee 36/69 52.2 32/54 59.3
Ankle 14/41 34.1 10/32 31.3
Foot 5/30 16.7 5/17 29.4

TABLE A6. An exercise using a late pre-Hispanic-postcontact comparison to demonstrate the relative differences between crude
prevalence and common odds ratio (true prevalence) estimations of DJD prevalence
Late pre-Hispanic Postcontact Common odds ratio Crude prevalence
crude prevalence crude prevalence Crude prevalence (true prevalence) inflated/deflated from
Joint system (%) (%) difference difference true prevalence (%)
Shoulder 36.8 60.3 1.64 (postcontact 1) 2.22 (postcontact 1) Deflated 135.4
Elbow 39.5 68.3 1.73 (postcontact 1) 2.71 (postcontact 1) Deflated 157.7
Wrist 11.4 41.2 3.61 (postcontact 1) 5.56 (postcontact 1) Deflated 154.0
Hand 15.8 23.1 1.46 (postcontact 1) 1.35 (postcontact 1) Inflated 108.1
C-spine 21.6 33.7 1.56 (postcontact 1) 1.75 (postcontact 1) Deflated 112.2
T-spine 39.8 50.9 1.28 (postcontact 1) 1.41 (postcontact 1) Deflated 110.25
L-spine 50.0 75.6 1.51(postcontact 1) 1.43 (postcontact 1) Inflated 105.6
Schmorl’s 5.9 12.7 2.15 (postcontact 1) 2.38 (postcontact 1) Deflated 110.7
depressions
Hip 23.4 17.0 1.37 (late pre-Hispanic 1) 1.78 (late pre-Hispanic 1) Deflated 129.0
Knee 21.9 61.8 2.82 (postcontact 1) 3.57 (postcontact 1) Deflated 126.6
Ankle 26.4 20.0 1.32 (late pre-Hispanic 1) 1.52 (late pre-Hispanic 1) Deflated 115.2
Foot 21.3 21.3 0 (no difference) 1.20 (late pre-Hispanic 1) Deflated 120.0

American Journal of Physical Anthropology

 Fig. A1. Crude prevalence comparison of DJD frequency by joint system, late pre-Hispanic and postcontact populations.

Fig. A2. Crude prevalence comparison of DJD frequency by joint system, late pre-Hispanic and Early/Middle Colonial popula-
tions.

Fig. A3. Crude prevalence comparison of DJD frequency by joint system, Early/Middle Colonial and Middle/Late Colonial populations.
 DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE IN POSTCONTACT PERU 219

Fig. A4. Crude prevalence comparison of DJD frequency by joint system, late pre-Hispanic and postcontact males.

Fig. A5. Crude prevalence comparison of DJD frequency by joint system, late pre-Hispanic and postcontact females.

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