PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA

History of Ancient Arabia

Rise of the Himyarites Kingdom of Sana, 115 A.D

The breakdown of Ma’rib Dam → each breach made calamity-stricken tribes to

migrate northward

The last emperor (Dhu Nawas) was killed in 525 A.D. by the army of King of Abyssinia
on the request on Byzantium King

• The collapse of Ma’rib dam is important. With each breach of the dam, some
part of the population had to migrate northward.
• Here in the north, nomads already live. The migration led to small wars
between the natives and the migrated.
• Ultimately, the natives started fighting among themselves too. This is the start
of ‘Jahiliya’ Period.

The Jahiliya Period (Circa 450 A.D. – 570 A.D.)

• Also known as “Age of Ignorance” and age of crisis.
• The old tribalism broke down under the impact of powerful forces, both
external and internal, operating Arabia during 5th and 6th centuries A.D.
• The causes for the crisis may be:
1. The disintegration of ancient matriarchal system
2. The growth of money
3. The migration Yemeni to North – which intensified tribal wars
4. Imperialistic intrigues of Roman and Persian empires
• The crisis wouldn’t be resolved until the arrival of Islam.
Economic Conditions
• The center of commerce shifted to Hijaz, due to imperialistic rivalry and
depredation by Romans and Persians in Yemen. For Arabia, Hijaz was now the
center of economic activity.
• The Quraish became the leading mercantile tribe of this age.
• Often the Bedouins became the debtors of the rich merchants of the town. Thus
to them the Quraish come to mean ‘shark’, which eats the lesser fish. The
interest rates charged were exorbitantly high.
• Slavery was an economic institution of the Arabs. Male and female slaves were
sold and bought like animals, and they formed the most depressed class of the
Arabian society.
• Everyone, indirectly, was attached to the trade since each had at least some kind
of investment in it. They all waited for the caravans to return.
• Money lenders usually took 100 percent interest.
• The money-economy may have brought prosperity at the start but soon turned
people greedy. The system disrupted the tribal customs and social relations. It
also undermined the moral and ethical principles of Arabs.
• On the other hand, the migration of Yemenis and the imperialistic designs of
Romans and Persians added fuel to the fire.

Political Life
• Arabia was never united into a single state or kingdom during the ancient or
Jahiliyah period. Thus, it was without any central government or political
authority.
• Each tribe was sort of a petty state. It had a tribal chief called ‘Shaikh’. He led
the tribe with consensus of nearly every men. This was possible due to relatively
small size of the tribes.
• It is imperative to note here that this was true democracy.
• But the chief was only followed when he proved his worth in the battlefield too.
• Since tribalism was the order of the day if a man committed a crime against
other tribe, his tribe would go to any length to protect him. No matter the
severity of the crime. The proudness of the tribe led to number of wars.
➢ War of Basus was fought for 40 years between Taghlib Tribe and Banu
Bakr. Both the tribe descended from the same lineage.
 ➢ War of Dahis and al-Ghabra are another example.
➢ A single tribe, sometimes, split into two tribes when it had reached a
fairly large size such as Taghlib and Bakr.
• The causes themselves were very petty such as dispute over pasture boundaries,
a claim over spring water, or an injury to a tribe person or animal.
• Furthermore, an Arab couldn’t live alone, he/she had to seek tribal affiliations.
• In theory, the fear of revenge should have restrained the tribes from engaging
in the wars, but this had little effect.
• Since there was no central authority, the wars continued unabated.
• Historians also agree that for Arabs war was a pastime, a show of their courage,
and manliness.

Social Conditions
Women

• Arabia was male dominated society, but there were few tribes where matriarchy
prevailed. They, too, over time faded and only patriarchy persisted. It is
imperative to note here that Bedouin women were far freer than their
counterpart in Urban centers.
• Women were a mere sex object. The son inherited all his mothers except for his
biological mother after his father’s death. Man could marry as many women as
he wanted.
• Only son inherited whatever his father left behind. The lineage was also traced
with father’s blood.
• Female infanticide was also widespread. The Arabs contended it was partly
because of poverty and partly because of honor. Yet they engaged heavily in
wine-drinking and gambling.
• As Arabia saw the boom in economy, the act of prostitution became a norm.
Since women were treated as an object and were not provided with necessary
resources to run their houses, they had to resort to this practice.
• In addition, women slaves were coerced to perform this act on the dictates of
her master.

Religion
 • Their religious life and beliefs ranged from the worship of One Supreme God to
the worship of rough stones, sand heaps, or any other object.
• The place where the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) was born was largely polytheist.
Thought they believed in One God (it is not clear of they called him Allah or
not), they didn’t worship Him wholly.
• Even the gods or goddesses varied from tribe to tribe. In fact, some historians
say that every other house had its own deity.
• The most important of the gods or goddesses were al-Hubal, al-Uzza, al-Lat,
al-Manat or few other lesser deities as Yagush, Wadd, Nasr, etc. Al-Hubal was
particularly famous in Meccan region.
• All these gods or goddesses were worshipped as idols placed in sanctuary or
temple. Among the temples, Kaaba gradually assumed greater importance. It
nearly contained 360 idols.
• They had their own unique rites and ceremonies. Camels, goats, sheep, and
sometimes human were sacrificed in the name of god.
• The ancient Arabs were superstitious too. They believed in jinns as well as
angels. They believed a cultivable land was an omen whereas an arid one was a
bad sign.
• Other religions existed too such as Christianity, Judaism or Zoroastrianism. But
the native Arabs remained largely aloof to them. Judaism followers believed
they were the ‘chosen’ one and Christians were busy selling alcohol.

Art & Language

• It wouldn’t be incorrect to say that Arabs had no particular art. The architecture
and subsequent arc emanate when the populations live together such as
Mughals, Romans, or Persians. On the other hand, Arabs were nomads and
were fond of tribalism.
• One thing they were proud of though was their language. The Arabic language’s
origins are unknown, but it is assumed it was borne because Bedouins as well
as the city dwellers were frequently travelling. For this they needed a uniform
language.
• Poetry, also, held an esteemed position in pre-Islamic society. A lot of them
were poets to some extent. Fairs were held where along with exchange of goods,
a poetry competition was held. The winners were awarded.
 • Poets gained significance because they stood on the front of the battlefields.
They fought with their tongues.
• But the poetry didn’t belong to Arab nation as much as it associated itself with
Arab tribes. Every tribe had its own poets. They sang and recited plaudit for the
tribe of its customs, traditions, shaikhs, and war prowess.

Their Virtues & Vices

• As is the case with every civilization, each has good people and bad people.
Every civilization had good traditions and customs while at the same time has
evil norms.
• The Arabs were known for their courage, hospitality, freedom fondness, and
loyalty to the clan.
• But these same traits practiced in excess led to their degeneration. Courage
turned into brutality. Manliness was defined in the number of tribes plundered.
Outcasts were sometimes murdered. Their love for liberty made them hate
another tribe’s crime while ignoring theirs. Their loyalty to the tribe made them
stagnant; they couldn’t practice what the tribe didn’t sanction.

LIFE OF THE HOLY PROPHET (P.B.U.H)

Early Life
• Lineage of Hazrat Muhammad (S.A.W): Qussay → Abd ud-Dar → Hashim
(Amr) → Abdal Mutallib → Abdullah → Muhammad
• The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) was born in 570 A.D. in Makkah. Makkah was
ruled by Banu Quraish. The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H)’s father died 4 months
before his birth. He was sent with Bibi Halima of Bedouin tribe of Najd. She
belonged to Banu Sa’ad. He returned to Makkah when he was 5 years old. His
mother died about a year later.
• His grandfather Abdal Mutallib took care of him. When he was 8 years his
grandfather died too. He was now under the guardianship of his uncle Abu
Talib.
• He accompanied his uncle on caravans. He met Christian Hermit named Bahira
in Bosra, Syria.

War of Fijar (Harb al-Fijar) or the Sacrilegious War

 • It was fought between Quraish and Kinana on one side and the Hawazin on the
other. It lasted for sixteen years.
• The given causes:
1. The insult to a Hawazin maid by a Quraishite youth
2. The boasts of a poet who struck by an indignant Hawazinite
3. The insults hurled by a creditor on a Kinanite debtor
• The real cause was that imperialist intrigues of Persian and Byzantium empire
threatened Quraish’s commercial ambitions.
• This war was soon followed by the League of Just, called the Hilf al-Fudhul

Hilf al-Fudhul

• The war had shown the residents of Makkah that they lacked a central authority.
They also realized Makkah was largely unjust. After their expeditions to Yemen
and Syria they came to conclusion that the element of justice was surely
mussing in Makkah. The justice was to be provided to everyone the natives and
the travelers, and the wanderers alike.
• 4 of the 10 Quraish tribes formed the League. They were Banu Hashim, led by
al-Zubair uncle of the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H), Banu Asad, Banu Zubrah, and
Banu Taym.
• The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) who was present at the oath taking ceremony was
clearly happy with its just aims. Later in life, he upheld the oath and conceded
its validity. He said “… if I be invited to such a pact again I will surly take part.”
➢ This shows that justice is a universal principle. Islam accepts justice even
if Muslims aren’t involved.
• It is pertinent to note here that these 4 clans were poor compared to the others
who didn’t join.

His Arbitration Over Black Stone

• Because of frequent flooding, the sanctuary of Kaaba needed repair. After much
reluctance, the elders of the Makkah agreed to renovate it.
• Even before the advent of Islam, Black Stone was held in highly esteemed
position among the clans. Everyone was at loggerheads to lead and transfer the
stone.
 • Since the Makkans were not known for their patience, some elders decided that
whoever enters Kaaba the next morning would provide a solution to the
dilemma.
• The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) entered. He was asked to provide a way out of the
tense situation. He tactically asked each clan’s member to hold side of a blanket
and placed the stone in the center of the blanket. He also placed it again where
it need to be placed.
• It is also relevant to add here that all clans agreed over the Holy Prophet
(P.B.U.H) because he was already known for his integrity and uprightness. It is
also apposite to note that there was a reason he asked every clan to help him in
lifting the blanket. He didn’t want anyone to feel left out.

The Call: 610 A.D.

• By the time the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) was 40 years old, he was spending more
and more time in Mount Hira where meditated for days and nights.
• One-night Angel Gabriel came and said “Read.”
• These were the first words the Allah revealed to His Messenger. the Holy
Prophet (P.B.U.H) replied “I cannot read.” To which Angel Gabriel repeated the
word ‘read.’
• After the episode, the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) came home trembling and pale.
He told Hazrat Khadija about the incident over which she reacted calmly. This
shows how sincere she was to him.
• After that she went to her cousin named Waraqa and narrated the whole story.
Her cousin was now convinced that indeed he was the Last Prophet that was
promised.
• Afterwards started the series of revelations that we have today in the shape of
Quran.
From the Call to the Migration
Early Preaching and Conversions
• It is widely believed the first one to accept Islam after the Holy Prophet
(P.B.U.H) was his wife, Hazrat Khadija. About men, there are minor confusions
about who converted first, but Hazrat Abu Bakr’s conversion has political and
social significance.
• Only twenty people had accepted Islam in the first 3 years. Subsequently, he
received revelation to preach publicly.
• With this object in view, he assembled all the clans of Quraish on the hill of Safa
where he gave God’s message to the populace. Some stayed silent and some
uttered evil words against him. Among them was the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H)’s
uncle Abu Lahab. In the end, everyone went home paying no heed to the
message.
• Undeterred by the lukewarm response, the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) started
preaching at the Eastern gate of the Kaaba because a lot of people passed from
here. The gate was also known as al-Arqam.
• The last of the man to convert here was Omer in the 6th year of prophethood.
• Some historians maintain that most of the converts were from lower class.
Significant amount of the converts was slaves. But there were exceptions such
as Abu Bakr, Hazrat Omer, and Hazrat Osman.

Opposition by the Quraish

Religious Causes

The Makkans were basically polytheist who worshipped stones and objects. Islam, on
the other hand, talked of One God – Allah. They also contended that the Holy Prophet
(P.B.U.H) had ulterior motives for personal gains. This is why they tried buying him
through offering beautiful wife, house, and lots of money. Moreover, Muslims believed
in resurrection which would shake the Makkans status quo. They couldn’t commit
adultery, and usury. It should also be noted that for the Makkans, Kaaba was a place
that generated a lot of capital because it was a sanctuary that stored 360 idols.

Social Causes
Parties that enjoy from the present conditions resort to extreme measures to keep the
conditions same. The Quraishite were an aristocratic class in Arabia. Islam with its
message of equality and justice threatened their superiority and authority. Islam set
out to replace slavery. It also placed women on equal footings with men. In addition,
Islam strived to attain ‘Ummah’ and not petty and small tribes that were a norm in
Arabia. If observed with care, one can see Islam was diagrammatically opposite of the
Jahiliya period.

Political Causes

Makkah had no central government. And unlike other religions, Islam proclaimed
itself as a complete code of life (this is why it is called deen instead of mazhab). Few
clans enjoyed greater authority and wealth. They also had hegemony over Kaaba. Banu
Hashim was in decline for few years now. Banu Makhzum and Umayya were the real
players. They believed the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) was aiming for the political seat.
They also cried if Allah were to send his prophet why not from them as well.

Economic Causes

The Makkans loved usury. They Big Two also loved the monopoly they had over the
trade. They also loved the money generated through Kaaba. With the advent of trade,
Makkah was in true sense capitalist because rich was getting richer and poor poorer.
But money is the root evil in any problem. Islam’s message was to distance oneself
from the riches. It wanted men to contend himself. It wanted no gambling or usury.

The Persecution by the Quraish

• It would be relevant to note here that the real wrath fell on lower class such as
slaves. They were humiliated, tortured, and sometimes killed. Nevertheless,
they were socially weak but not in their character or faith.
• For the Quraish members who turned to Islam, the Makkans asked clans’
leaders to upbraid their members. Take for instance, Hazrat Usman was beaten
by his uncle Zubair ibn al-Awwam.
• When this severe persecution couldn’t dissuade the Prophet and his followers,
the leaders sent Utba bin Rabia with worldly offers such as wealth, a beautiful
woman or even leadership of Makkah. The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) rejected the
offer outright.
 • They even asked Abu Talib to convince his nephew. He tried too, but our
Prophet remained undeterred.

Migration to Abyssinia
• Although the Holy Prophet remained protected by his loyal uncle, other
Muslims were not so safe. The Holy Prophet advised them to migrate to
neighboring area of Abyssinia. It was Christian kingdom which was ruled by
Negus. Negus was famous for his kind-heartedness.
• Upon the advice, 15 Muslims (11 men & 4 women) migrated to Abyssinia. The
migrants included the Holy Prophet’s daughter Ruqqaya and her husband
Usman. It also included Ja’far, son of Abu Talib.
• But the Quraish would not let this go so easily. They had established trade ties
with Abyssinia. They persuaded the King Negus to return the migrants, over
which the King called all of the migrants to his court.
• Ja’far acting as a spokesperson replied,
“O King, we were plunged in the depth of ignorance and barbarism; we
worshipped idols, practiced immorality, ate dead bodies, and spoke
abomination; we disregarded every feeling of humanity, and the duties of
hospitality and neighborhood; our law was the law of the strong and our
government was the government of the tyrants. At last God raised among us
a man, of whose birth, truthfulness, honesty, and purity we know fully well;
and he called un to the unity of God and taught us not to associate anything
with Him; he forbade us the worship of idols; and enjoined us to speak the
truth, to be faithful to our trust, to be merciful, and to regard the rights of
neighbors. He forbade us to speak evil of women or take property of the
orphans. He ordered us to fly from vices and to abstain from evil; to offer
prayers, to render alms and to observe the fast. We have believed in him and
accepted his teachings and his injunctions to worship God and not to associate
anything with Him. For this reason our people have risen against us, have
persecuted us in order to make us forgo the worship of God and return to the
worship of idols of wood and stone and other abominations. They have
tortured and injured us, until finding no safety among them; we have come to
your country and hope you will protect us from their oppression.”
• It is also said the Ja’far recited a verse from Surah Maryam in front of him.
 • The speech isn’t just a plea to save the migrants from the oppression of the
Quraish. It also outlines the basic faith over which Muslims must act. It
repeatedly talks about One God, justice, abstaining from evil etc.
• Impressed by the speech and their courage, Negus allowed them to stay. He
rejected the Quraish’s demand of returning the fugitives.
• Encouraged by the first party’s migration, 101 more Muslims migrated to
Abyssinia during the year 616. The first migration took place in 615.
• It must also be noted that Negus was so kind because he himself was a Christian.
He believed in Jesus. He knew a prophet would come.
• Why they or the Holy Prophet chose Abyssinia? It is assumed that King Negus
was know for just attitude. Moreover places like Yemen and Syria had very close
ties with Quraish due to trade. Few of these places were also pretty far.
• After the conquest, we know the Holy Prophet sent letters to leaders of
countries. He sent one to Negus too, thanking him for providing Muslims with
shelter in 615/616. He also invited him into the fold of Islam. Without any
reluctance, Negus (Nijashi) accepted Islam and wrote back to the Holy prophet.
• The episode also teaches us that migration is necessary when one cannot
practice his/her religion freely. This was further reinforced after migration to
Madinah.
• Subsequently, it also depicts how Muslims should leave their land not just in
hard times but also to emanate and spread the message of Islam.
• Consequently, when Negus refused to return the refugees, the Quraish
intensified their persecution. They knew Banu Hashim protected the Holy
Prophet. They cut all relation with the clan at least for 3 years. They were made
to live in outskirts of Makkah.

Visit to Taif
• Due to blockade, the missionary activities subsided in Makkah. The Holy
Prophet turned to other cities. Taif was a near one.
• He went there with the invitation of Islam. But as it turned out, they wouldn’t
even listen.
• They hooted and hurled stones at the Holy Prophet. It is said that the Holy
Prophet’s sandals were soaked in blood, but he still prayed for their mercy.
 • He returned to Makkah in state of despair. The missionary activities were now
very limited and took place in limited close circle.
• But a miracle was to happen → the migration to Madinah (called Yathrib then).

Migration to Madinah (Yathrib)

Yathrib lay 300 miles north to Makkah. The city had Jews as well as Arab tribes. The
two Arab tribes – Khazraj and Aws – were always at loggerheads with each other. The
area was war-stricken. In addition, Jews and Arabs would also quarrel. The city, unlike
Makkah which at least trade relations, was self-dependent. They relied heavily on their
own cultivation, but war was the order of the day. This made for a deadly combination.

• In 620, party of few men from Khazraj tribe came to Makkah for pilgrimage.
They saw the Holy Prophet preaching and thought he was the prophet or
messiah the Jews talked about. But soon they were so impressed by the
message that they returned next year more men.
• Next year, 6 men along with 5 more (2 from Aws) met the Holy Prophet
secretly. They promised (pledged) to follow Allah’s religion. They planned to
take the message to their hometown. This was called “the first pledge of
Aqabah”.
• In 622, about 75 Yathribi Muslims came to Makkah to formally invite the Holy
Prophet to take refuge in Madinah.
• Thereupon, the Holy Prophet after reciting some verses and repeating the
earlier pledge asked them to obey him and fight for him. This was called “the
second pledge of Aqabah”.
• It is estimated that about 100 families (300 persons) left for Madinah. Only few
were left among them Ali, Abu Bakr, and the Holy Prophet himself.
• Upon hearing the news, the Quraish decided to kill the Prophet before
migrating but fortunately couldn’t.
• After travelling for a while, the Holy Prophet and Abu Bakr reached Quba on
22nd September 622. They stayed there for two weeks and then proceeded to
Madinah.
Foundation of the Republic of Madinah
Yathrib at the time of Hijrah
• As mentioned earlier, the Battle of Bu’ath had caused much destruction and
discontent among the populace.
• To rid Yathrib continuous warlike situation, the tribes decided to end their
enmity and elect a chief with central authority.
• At home, it was being decided that Abduallah bin Obay would be the leader.
Whereas, there were other Arabs that were busy pledging in Makkah.
• At the time of the Holy Prophet’s arrival, Yathrib was divided into two blocs: 1.
Ansar and Muhajireens / 2. Jews and supporters of Abdullah bin Obay.
• It is pertinent to express here that Yathribis reached out to the Holy Prophet
because they had their fear that Abdullah might not be impartial in future.
Thus, they wanted some impartial, just, and upright.

The Brotherhood
• The Muhajireens that arrived in Madinah were in state of poverty. They had to
abandon all their wealth in Makkah which was seized by the Quraish.
• The Ansars were in position to help. And they helped immensely without any
question. There are many unbelievable, yet true, stories of their generosity.
• This relationship showed how Islam connected people not on ethnicity, race,
color, wealth, or area but by faith.
• Over time, the Muhajireens became independent; they started trading.
• The event also portrayed what an Ummah would look like. Madinah prospered
because Ansars helped, if they hadn’t it is highly probable that state of Madinah
would’ve been the same as it was before.

Charter of Madinah
Preamble: “From the apostle of God, for those of Quraish and the inhabitants of
Madinah who accept Islam and adopt the Faith; and for those who are subservient to
them in war and alliances.”

Political Clauses

1. Republic and Nation of Madinah (Madinah is a one political entity ~ Ummah)

 2. Sovereignty of Allah and Presidency of the Prophet (the disputes if erupted
would be solved by the God and His Prophet, no one can declare war except for
the Holy Prophet)
3. Duties and Obligations of War and Peace (while making peace or war, the
believer will act collectively as a body, the Jews and Muslims must mutually
help each other if Madinah comes under the threat of invasion)

Civic Clauses

1. Responsibility for peace and blood-money (everyone would be responsible for

their own wars. Blood-money be paid on time so that no discord should arise)
2. Duties regarding debt and contract (rescue anyone who has fallen badly into
debt, no contract if a contract already exists with other believer)
3. No believer shall assassinate other believer. If someone does do that, retaliation
or blood-money is a way out. The victim may forgive too. Same applies to the
Jews.

Religious Clauses

1. Mutual responsibility and brotherhood of Muslims.

2. Element of tolerance.
3. Jews are recognized as a political alliance.

Impact

• United a city that was plunged into civil strife.

• Life and property of every citizen was protected under the law.
• No killing would go unpunished.
• The minorities were given their due ad equal rights.
• For the first time in history, Arabia had now a city which was politically
organized.

Its Significance

• In a sense, it was an outline of what the Holy Prophet and especially Islam
aimed to achieve: a united Ummah where rule of law, equality, justice,
tolerance, and brotherhood prevailed.
 • This Magna Carta of early Islam also shook the social order of Arabia. It was
now moving from Tribalism to a unity based on faith.

WARS WITH THE QURAISH OF MAKKAH

The Battle of Badr: 624 A.D.
Causes
1. Economic warfare and strategic alliances of the Prophet

The trade of Makkah was large and profitable. The merchant of Makkah usually
travelled to Iraq, Syria, Egypt, and Abyssinia, for that they crossed the outskirts of
Madinah. To ensure the safety of caravans, the Makkans had long established ties with
Bedouin tribes lying along the way. The Holy Prophet, after coming to know about
Quraishite intrigues in Madinah, tried aligning the Madinah with the Bedouin tribes.
By the time, Battle Badr took place, the Holy Prophet had gained alliance of most of
the tribes residing in North and South of Makkah. Due to this Makkans felt threatened
since their economy depended wholly on caravans except for the revenue generated
through yearly pilgrimage.

2. Quraishite intrigue in Madinah

The Makkans knew well that Abdullah bin Obay still had considerable following. They
persuaded him to drive out the Holy Prophet and his followers. Before Munafiqeen
could do anything, the Holy Prophet came to know of the plans. He deterred the bin
Obay from advancing further. He contended it would lead an all-out war between
Muslims and Munafiqeens. Although the immediate war was averted but the Holy
Prophet knew that the Makkans wouldn’t stop. This came in sync with the Holy
Prophet’ strategy of controlling the caravans route.

3. Events that made the war inevitable

i. Kurz bin Jabir raid (raided a cattle and a single camel from outskirts of
Madinah)
ii. Incident of Nakhla (Abdullah ibn Jahsh along with few other men went to south
of Makkah to keep an eye on caravans. The team raided the coming caravan and
in process killed Amr bin Hazrami, leader of Quraish. This displeased the Holy
Prophet who strictly against any bloodshed)
iii. Revelations of Jihad (at the same time, God allowed Muslims to fight those that
fought the Muslims and threatened Islam)
iv. Abu Sufyan caravan in 623 (some Munafiqeens told Abu Sufyan’s caravan,
which was passing near Madinah, that Muslims might attack them. To this Abu
Sufyan sent a messenger to Makkah to ask for reinforcement to save the
caravan. The leaders of Makkah decided not only to save the caravan but to also
teach Muslims a lesson. Even though caravan reached safely to Makkah, but
Abu Jahal insisted upon waging a war against Muslims and get rid of them once
and for all)

The Main Event

• As soon as the news reached Madinah, the Holy Prophet asked Muhajireens to
ready themselves. But he couldn’t ask the Ansars to protect him outside the
boundary of Madinah since it was explicitly stated in the charter.
• The Ansars, on the other hand, were ever ready to join him. Even after they
joined, the total number Muslims could generate reached 313 only against the
Makkans’ 1000.
• As soon as the Muslims reached the ground of Badr in January 624 they took
control of the water stream there. It didn’t occur to the Makkans to secure the
water line. Instead they were waiting for the Muslims to arrive, in leisure. This
proved decisive for the outcome of the battle.
• Wars in ancient Arab were fought in 3 stages: 1. Verbal attacks 2. One on one
combat 3. General attack
• The second phase proved to an encouraging one for the Muslims since Ali,
Hamza, and Obadiah bin Harish beat three of their opponents. The Quraishites
killed in this stage were Utba bin Rabia, Walid, and Walid bin Utba.
• By the time the third stage arrived, the Makkan warriors were already
discouraged. Strategically, the Prophet didn’t allow the opponents water.
• Quraish ran away leaving behind 70 dead and 70 POW. They also left handful
of bounty. The dead also included Abu Jahal.
• Only two POWs were executed back home, for they had committed
unforgivable cruelties back in Makkah. Others were treated so well that most
of them converted to Islam.
Impact and Significance
• It was a struggle between old and new Arabia. The new Arabia emerged
victorious. Had that not been the case, the peninsula of Arab would have
remained an unknown land with no culture, civilization, and customs. From
here, emanated a force that conquered vast lands and left an impression that
will last till the end.
• For any battle, morale is what matters. The importance here can be understood
in how the battle bolstered Muslims’ confidence while at the same time
generating skepticism among the Quraish. The battle turned POWs into
converts; and that too willingly.
• It also consolidated power of Islam and the Holy Prophet in Madinah. The
Prophet was now the de facto leader of Madinah. The battle was also a start of
the Prophet’s military career, in which he would go on to prove his mettle. Some
Bedouin tribes also came in the fold of Islam.
• The battle also resulted in gigantic loss to Quraish leadership. A lot of
chiefs/renowned personalities of Banu Makhzum and Umayya died in the
battle. They all were wealthy merchants too. Abu Sufyan now became the leader
in Makkah and vowed to take revenge.

The Battle of Ohud: 625 A.D.

Causes
• The key cause of the battle was the Battle of Badr itself which had generated
intense animosity among the Quraish. They lost their prestige, leaders, and at
some extent trade.
• Another chief cause was Abu Sufyan’s raid in the outskirts of Madinah, which
came to be known as Ghazwat as-Sawiq. Upon hearing of the raid, the Prophet
along with some men reached the spot. The Makkans in confusion fled leaving
behind their bags filled with meal which is called ‘sawiq’ in Arabic.
• In addition, Safwan bin Umayya sent his caravan to the North well to the East
of Madinah to avoid the blockade by Muslims on coastal route on the West. But
Muslims somehow came to know of this and on orders of the Prophet raided
the caravan with 100 men. They captured the merchandise worth 100,000
dirhams.
 • For all of these reasons, the Makkans set out to Madinah with 3000 men under
the leadership of Abu Sufyan. Women also accompanied the army. Among them
one was Hind bin Utbah, daughter of Utba bin Rabia and wife of Abu Sufyan.
She had vowed to avenge her father.

The Main Event

• The Makkan army reached oasis near a hill called Ohud, North of Madinah.
Whereas in Madinah, key leaders were discussing the strategy to be adopted.
the Holy Prophet was in favor of defence position and not leave Madinah. But
the young warriors were energetic and wanted to fight. Finally, the Muslim
army left Madinah to face the opponent at Ohud.
• The army had 1000 mean, of which 300 were Abu Sufyan’s. Half way through
the road, Sufyan deserted the Muslim army along with his 300 men, leaving
Muslims only 700 in number.
• Next morning, the Holy Prophet set out to station the army strategically. Army
was placed on the western slope of Ohud. This had few advantages, but there
was a rear passage on the hill. the Holy Prophet put 50 men there to protect the
passage so that the Quraish couldn’t cross it.
• According to the Arabic tradition, as was mentioned in the last battle, the
Muslims were winning decisively till the second stage. They were on advance
even in the third stage. The Quraish upon seeing their losses retreated a bit.
• Seeing them retreating, few Muslims started plundering the camps, more and
more Muslims joined the plundering. The turning point occurred when the
Muslims stationed at the passage joined the raiding too. Only 12 remained
there.
• Seeing this, Khalid bin Waleed hurried to passage rallying an army behind him.
From here on, Muslims were now in defence position and their defeat was
largely inevitable. In the fighting, the Holy Prophet got injured too. Someone,
probably among the Muslims, started rumor that the Holy Prophet had died
which further declined the morale of Muslim army.
• The Makkans upon hearing the news also retreated a bit and finally decided to
return to Makkah.
Results & Impact
• 70 Muslim warriors were martyred. Among them one was Hamza, uncle of the
Holy Prophet. He was killed by Hind bin Utbah. The Makkans mutilated the
martyrs of the war. In fact, Hind ate Hamza’s liver.
• The chief reason behind the defeat was desertion of archers stationed at the rear
passage.
• Due to the defeat, certain Bedouin tribes started leaving the fold of Islam. Some
of them were being bribed by the Makkans. They resorted to evil schemes. Once,
they invited 70 Muslims for preaching. The clan killed them upon their arrival.
• If Badr brought them prestige, confidence, and bounty, Ohud brought them the
realization that discipline, were obedience necessary. They knew now that it was
their greed that turned the victory into a defeat.
• Some Muslims were now even more resolute. Their faith was now strengthened.
• The Makkans were definitely victorious. But for them the war was not
ideological but personal. They had set out to avenge their near and dear ones,
which they did. They returned without further marching towards Madinah. Had
they done so, Islam might not have spread.
• There was no single objective among their ranks. It was every man for himself.
Victory or no victory, their defeat was inevitable in the coming times.

Battle of Ditch: 627 A.D.

Causes
• Abu Sufyan had challenged the Holy Prophet to meet him next year at Badr.
The Muslims reached there with an army of 1500 men. They waited there for 8
days but there was no trace of the Quraishites.
• This had two-pronged impact: Muslims were bolstered because the Makkans
didn’t appear and the Makkans themselves were now sure that the Holy Prophet
and his followers were still resolute and undeterred after Battle of Ohud.
• The Holy Prophet’s expeditions against the desert tribes helped the Makkans.
Makkans had now the support of dozens of smaller Bedouin tribes. The Jewish
tribe, Banu Nazir, which had been driven out of Madinah to Khyber also joined
hands with the Quraish.
 • From here and there, the Makkans managed to form an army of 10,000 men
for the battle. The estimates vary between 10k to 25k. It was under the
command of Abu Sufyan.
• The Muslims could only muster army of 3000 men.

The Main Event

• In view of defeat at Ohud, Muslims this time decided to adopt defensive
strategy. They knew too well that 3 sides of Madinah were covered and largely
impenetrable.
• Only Southern side remained undefended and opened. Salman, a close
companion, suggested the trench-warfare method. They were to build trenches
along the Southern border of Madinah so that the enemies wouldn’t at least get
in. hence, the work to dig a trench begun and lasted for 8 days.
• The enemy upon their arrival were shocked and appalled. The pagan Arabs
were simple men. They liked to fight in the open. They abhorred the idea of any
other and untraditional method. They started abusing the Muslims while
Muslims started hurling arrows toward them.
• The Prophet came to know Jewish tribe, Banu Qurayza. They were conspiring
with Makkans against their fellow citizens. On the other hand, Makkans had
found one weak spot in the trench. They kept coming but Muslims kept them at
bay. But Muslims were weary after keeping that one spot safe for weeks now.
• The Prophet thought about playing not only physical but mind game. He sent a
man to Jews to request them. The man asked the Jews to ask the Makkans for
hostage if they were to receive Jew aid. The man told them that the Makkans
were treacherous lot. The Jews accepted the advice.
• On the other hand, the Prophet sent a man to the Makkan army and told them
that the Jews were a treacherous lot who would ask for hostages if the time
came.
• When the time came, the Jews asked for hostages and the Makkans realized the
Muslims were correct. So any hope for alliance between them was thwarted this
way.
• The battle had been going on for 30 days now. The native Arabs were not
accustomed to such long wars and so weren’t Bedouin tribes. Their supplies
 were running short with each passing day. Their camels and horses were dying
due to notorious winter, for which Madinah is famous.
• Abu Sufyan on seeing the situation called meeting and the leaders decided to
abandon the battle and return. He fully knew that Bedouin tribes would defect
any day now. So, this way fled leaving behind only empty camps with dead
camels and few horses.

Results & Impact

• In war terms, battle of ditch was a peaceful affair. Only 9 Muslims were
martyred.
• The trench proved to be a determining factor. Makkans didn’t expect such
wittiness from the Muslims. Again, the war was a war of waiting. Muslims had
their whole city, Madinah, behind them to support them for supplies.
• Whereas the Makkans had limited supplies which were dwindling with each
day.
• Another key cause was disunity among the army. The Makkans had promised
their smaller allies bounty and return within short period. Tribes’ patience was
running short.
• The war also proved how sharpness can save many lives. The sharpness was
first digging trench and then sowing the seeds of suspicion between Banu
Qurayza and the Makkans.
• By the time the war happened, the Makkans had already lost their trade to Syria.
They had run short of wealth at home. In short, they were now ever in defensive
position. There was also tensions within the Quraish over the leadership.
• Another key impact of battle of dich was expulsion of Jews from Madinah, as
we shall see later.

Treaty of Hudaibiya
Prophet sets out on Pilgrimage
• Year after the battle of ditch, the Prophet saw a dream of performing an Umrah.
He told his companions about it and told them to ready themselves for
performing Umrah.
 • In 628, they set out for Makkah. In total, there were 1400 Muslims with 70
camels who were to be sacrificed.
• They left with peaceful intention, only carrying sheathed sword for their
protection. But the Makkans would not have it. They had genuine apprehension
though. They believed performing umrah was a cover and the Muslims were
coming to plunder and pillage Makkah.

The Quraish & the pledge of tree

• When Muslims came to know of their intentions they took the route less
traveled. Here the Prophet’s camel halted, which was a sign from Allah. The
place is called Hudaibiya.
• Within short period, a cavalry came nearby to Hudaibiya from Quraish side.
The negotiations started now. After much murmur and trade of barbs from
Quraish side, it was finally decided that Usman would be sent since he had a
strong clan there which would protect it.
• Hazrat Usman didn’t return for long time, the Quraish contrived to hold him
for negotiations so that Muslims would grow fearful. And Muslims did grow
anxious as the time passed.
• Seeing this, the Prophet called all the Muslims there and took pledge from the
ones present that they would never desert Hudaibiya nor would they disobey
him. They would also die in the cause of Islam, if a need arose. This pledge they
took in the shadow of tree. It is because of this it is called “pledge of the tree” or
Bayt-e-Rizwan.

Concluding the Treaty of Hudaibiya

• Quraish finally sent one its leaders, Suhail bin Amr. He was to negotiate for the
Makkans.
• After much deliberation, a ten-year truce was concluded between the Prophet
and Suhail.
• When Hazrat Ali started writing the treaty, Suhail objected over the word “the
God” and “Muhammad – messenger of Allah”. He had them replaced by “O
God” and “Muhammad bin Abdullah.”
 • This irked Muslims, but the Prophet yielded. He knew the sensitivity of the
situation. He also believed in Allah and maintained there was a reason a treaty
was being concluded.

Main theme of the Treaty

• It was a truce for 10 years between the Muslims of Madinah and the Quraish of
Makkah.
• The Muslims couldn’t perform the pilgrimage this year but can return next year
and stay for 3 days.
• Any Arab tribe may come in alliance with the Muslims and any Muslim tribe
with Makkans.
• Anyone who flees from Quraish to Madinah would be returned whereas if a
Muslim came to Makkah or was there wouldn’t be returned.

Muslims were disappointed

• It is conspicuous from the clauses that Muslims were at disadvantage. They
couldn’t perform Umrah that year. They had to return individuals whereas the
Quraish wouldn’t.
• The episode of Abu Jandal further disheartened the Muslims. Abu Jandal was
a Muslim residing in Makkah. He was tortured and humiliated by the Quraish
and his family. When he came to know the Prophet’s presence, he came running
to Hudaibiya and wanted to leave with the Muslims. He showed Muslims the
scars he received for being a Muslim in Makkah.
• Abu Jandal’s father insisted he be returned. Suhail obstinately argued that the
treaty be respected. The Prophet asked them to have an exception but the
Quraish wouldn’t yield.
• Abu Jandal had to be returned leaving Muslims despondent and disappointed.

Why it was a victory?

• While on his way to Makkah, the Prophet received a revelation. It read, “Verily
we have given unto thee a victory”. It was now clear that Allah did have plan
for the treat. Muslims were now joyous.

The Settlement at Iyes

A Makkan Muslim named Abu Basir succeeded in fleeing Makkah. He arrived in
Madinah for refuge. His masters came running behind him and used the clause as an
excuse to take him back. As per the treaty, he was allowed to be taken. On the way
back, he killed one of his masters and other ran back to Makkah. Now, Abu Basir knew
he couldn’t return to Quraish because he had killed one of them. They would either kill
him or intensify the torture. He started living on hilly coast called Iyes that lay between
the way to Syria. It soon became a place for every Muslim fugitive from Makkah to flee
to. About 70 Muslims from Makkah came to live there. Since the place lay on the way
to Syria, the band started looting and plundering the Makkan caravans passing from
there. It should be noted here that Muslims of Madinah had stopped scuffling with
Makkan caravans after the truce. And Makkans knew that Madinah had no hand in
Iyes events. Reluctantly, they had to come to the Prophet to abrogate the clause of
repatriation – the clause that had irked the Muslims too fiercely. Finally, the
settlement at Iyes came to Madinah and the clause was removed from the treaty.

• In addition, the Muslims would conquer Jews of Khyber in 2 months. This was
another victory due to the treaty. Since the treaty only mentioned the Arab
tribes, Muslims were now free to pursue their goals against the Jews of Khyber.
• Further, it can also be concluded that Madinah became an equal power to
Makkah. If they were willing to come to the table, it meant they considered
Madinah an equal.
• More Muslims came into the fold of Islam in the following 2 years than had ever
before. Eminent personalities like Khalid bin Walid and Amr bin Al-as, who
were hostile to Islam, came to accept it.

The Fall of Makkah

Background
• After the treat of Hudaibiya, Banu Baqr allied itself with Quraish while Banu
Khuza’a aligned itself with Muslims of Madinah. Both resided in Makkah,
though and were bitter rivals.
• On the suggestions of Quraish, Banu Baqr attacked Banu Khuza’a members and
that too in Kaaba where bloodshed was strictly prohibited. The members of
Khuza’a along with their chief hurried to Madinah to ask for help.
 • It is also necessary to express here that the Quraish leadership was itself divided
over the future course. Abu Sufyan of Umayya bloc was against inciting Banu
Baqr while members of Banu Makhzum incited Banu Baqr and wanted to
somehow throw away the treaty of Hudaibiya.
• Consequently, the Prophet presented Makkans with three options 1. To pay
blood money 2. Leave Banu Baqr unprotected 3. Renounce the treat null and
void.
• All three options were a dilemma for the Makkans. Paying blood-money would
leave their image tarnished. Leaving Baqr unprotected would grow
apprehensions among their other allies. And abrogating the treaty altogether
meant war, which most of the Quraishites were not ready to fight, except for
few leaders of Makhzum

The Prophet Marches on Makkah: 630 A.D.

• The Prophet had already decided to march to Makkah. He kept hi plan a secret
till the end. On January 1, 630 an army of 10,000 warriors left Madinah for
Makkah.
• The Prophet had asked for allied tribes to provide with men and supplements,
which they willingly did. The army after arriving there, lit thousands of goblet
fires. First, it sent a signal to Makkans that an army has arrived. Second,
everyone was to light his /her own fire. Since there were a lot of fires, it looked
like a big army had marched.
• The majority of the Quraish wanted to surrender except for few. Abu Sufyan
rushed to the army camp to submit himself to Islam, which he finally did. Next
morning, he was sent by the Prophet back to Makkah to deliver a message that
anyone who takes a shelter under Abu Sufyan or Kaaba would be forgiven and
left unhurt.
• Right after that, the Prophet marched with dividing his army into 4 columns.
They all were to cover different parts of the Makkah city.

A bloodless occupation
• All the columns were strictly prohibited from initiating the attack or even trying
to incite one. For example, Sa’ad bin Obaidiah uttered some foul words when
 he entered Makkah, but the Prophet at once went to him and had him replaced
by his son Qays bin Sa’ad.
• All columns met no resistance, except for Khalid bin Walid’s. He was to enter
from Southern side where resided die hard Makhzums. The leaders of
Makhzum fought a bit, but after seeing their inevitable loss ran on their heels.
19 Makkans were killed there and 2 Muslims too.
• The Prophet entered Makkah, a place that had mercilessly persecuted Muslims
and attacked Madinah repeatedly, with no feeling of vengeance or hostility. He
entered as a “Prophet of Peace” rather than as a “Prophet of War”.
• He directly went to Kaaba to perform a Tawaf. Then he set on to smash the idols
present inside it.

Quraish submits
• After conquering Makkah, he called all Makkans to Mount Safa. There he asked
them what kind of punishment they were expecting. Their mind went wild
thinking of all the atrocities they had committed upon the Prophet and his
followers.
• The Prophet said: No blame on you this day. Go, you are free.
• The statement had profound effect on the Makkans. They came in flocks to
submit to Islam. Even the bitter enemies were forgiven. Hind bin Utbah, wife
of Abu Sufyan and daughter of Utbah bin Rabia, came to ask for forgiveness
which was readily accepted. Note that she was the one who ate the Prophet’s
uncle’s liver after battle of Ohud.
• Wife of Ikrima, son of Abu Jahal, came to submit and asked for forgiveness of
her husband. Both were forgiven. Ikrima returned. Suhail bin Amr, too,
submitted through his son.
• In short, it was conquest not through arms but through peace and mercy.
• After the submission, then the Prophet went on to destroy the idols present
inside the Kaaba.

Significance of the conquest

Sir William Muir writes, “The magnanimity with which Muhammad treated a people
who had so long hated and rejected him is worthy of all admiration. It was indeed for
his own interest to forgive the past and cast into oblivion its slight and injuries. But
this did, nonetheless, require a large and generous heart.”

• It opened the way to all-out unification of Makkah. The enemies that had rallied
all smaller enemies to counter Islam were now faithful friends.
• All the nomadic tribes that had still not come in the fold of Islam came under it
after this event. They were now sure that he was the Prophet since his bitter
enemy has accepted it.
• Soon after the fall of Makkah, a tribe named Hawazin rose to challenge the
Prophet. It lay at the South-East of Makkah. They had great relations with
Persia and were already subtle rivals of Quraish due to Quraish’s trade and
spiritual supremacy.
• They were met at Hunayn, where they were beaten by Muslim army. The POWs
that included women and children were released which softened their hearts
and most of them accepted Islam. The first one to do so was their Chief Malik.

LAST DAYS OF THE HOLY PROPHET

The Farewell Pilgrimage
• The 10th year of Hijrah had seen Islam triumphant over the whole of Arabia.
The Prophet announced his intention to perform Hajj. 90,000 individuals
responded to his call. By the time, they had started performing hajj on the 8 th
Zu’l Hajj, the crowd had amounted to 124,00.
• All the rites and rituals were performed that day the way we perform them
today.

Farewell Sermon at Arafat

The Prophet delivered a sermon/speech at Arafat for the last time before leaving this
ephemeral world. He started as, “O people! Listen to my words, for I do not know
whether I shall ever meet you in this place again after this year.”

The following points paint a clear picture of the message of the sermon.

1. The blood and property are sacred. Lord will ask you of your works. One mustn’t
breach another’s property.
2. All usury is abolished.
 3. All bloodshed in the Days of Ignorance is to be left unavenged.
4. You have rights over your people and they have rights over you. You have taken
them only as a trust from God.
5. Every Muslim is the brother of another Muslim, and that all Muslims are
brethren.
6. Everyone is equal. No Arab has superiority over Ajmi and vice versa.
7. Feed and clothe your slaves well. If they commit a fault, of which you aren’t
inclined to forgive, then part from them.

“Let him that is present tell it unto him that is absent. May be he that shall be told may
remember better than he who has heard it.”

Then the Prophet asked, “O God! Have I conveyed Thy message? Upon this people
replied with one accord. “Yes”, The Prophet added: “O God! Thou art my Witness.”

At the very moment a revelation came, which the Prophet read instantly, “this day,
have I perfected for you your faith, and completed My blessings upon you, and have
accepted for you al-Islam as your religion.”

Achievements of the Holy Prophet

1. End of Jahiliya period
2. Unification of the Arab tribes
3. Consolidation of Islam
4. Foundation of a universal religion

Never in the history of the world a man had so little achieved much as the Prophet did.
The Holy Prophet began his life as an orphan, lived his boyhood and youth in poverty
as a shepherd and a salesman, and then as a recluse in Mount Hira, then he became a
humble preacher, for which he was persecuted and hunted out of his native city, to
become a refugee in an alien city. At last, he rose to be ‘the Ruler of Arabia.’

Government and Society under the Prophet

Islamic State under the Prophet
• Pre-Islamic Arabia had no central authority. The kind political system varied
from place to place. The best was that your tribe would protect against any
other tribe. It was ‘each tribe for itself’. They were ready to fight over petty
 issues. Seldom did form an alliance. And when they did, it was to fight against
the third tribe.
• The sovereignty of the tribe customarily lay in the chief of the tribe. The Islamic
State formed in Madinah had sovereignty in God. The Prophet was the
sovereign Head of the state.
• Islam brought the concept of Ummah, where the relationship was based on
faith and not on kinship or blood relation.
• It is also assumed that Arabia never rose to political prominence on world map
because it had no federal/central authority before Islam. The fact is also proven
after the emergence of Madinah. Madinah conquered vast lands and got them
under the umbrella of State of Madinah.
• There was no law of the land, only lawlessness prevailed. In Islamic State,
Quran and Sunnah would be the law.

The Prophet as a sovereign

He was the sovereign head of the Islamic State subjected to supreme authority of God.
He possessed both spiritual and secular authority & political and judicial powers. He
was the supreme commander of Islamic forces and chief administrator of Ummah. He
was a ruler and a lawgiver.

The Mosque of Madinah

It was a place of worship, the office, and the court for the Prophet. He performed
almost all duties there. He led the prayers there and consulted close companions there.
He planned the wars and foreign policy there: all the letters were written there, and
each foreign delegate was received there. He resolved judicial matters there and also
introduced most of the revelations there, so that they would become the law from
thereon. The Mimbar (Pulpit) was a symbol of his sovereign authority. In short, the
mosque acted as a secretariat too.

The Provincial Administration

The early Islamic State was a centralized confederacy of the semi-autonomous tribes
and a few towns and cities. Usually, the Prophet acted as a supreme chief of every tribe
through their tribe chief. Nonetheless, there were places where individuals were sent.
Some places were in remote and had little to no knowledge of Islam, so the Prophet
sent teams that would rule them and teach them about Islam.
Over the course of time, the Holy Prophet divided the areas into Provincial units. As
soon as one area exceeded the proscribed limit, a governor was sent, and it supposedly
became a provincial unit. It was done to accommodate the remote tribes from city
centers. Khyber and Taif were made provinces so that the tribes and settlement lying
in outskirts would also come under the administrative system. The governor
performed the duties in same manner as the prophet except the prophetic ones. The
laws were to be followed as dictated by the Prophet in Madinah. A Qazi was also sent
to each unit. Like governors, these men were of upright character since Islam places
high degree of significance on Justice.

The Revenue System

A public finance system cannot be run when there is no central government. Since,
pre-Islamic Arabia never had a single government, it never had public revenue system.
The system favored the rich at the expense of the poor. There was no concept of giving
to the poor, and when they did it was to show the world their riches. Islam allowed for
5 sources of revenue generation.

1. Zakat and Sadaqat

Zakat was a tax that was obligatory on every Muslim, no excuses were accepted. The
state collected it. It was set at 2.5 percent. Sadaqat or Sadqah was a voluntary tax or
giving of alms. All the funds collected this way were redistributed among the poor by
the State.

2. Jizya

It was a capitation-tax imposed on non-Muslims in lieu of Zakat and also for providing
protection. It was mandatory on every able-bodied men. Women, children, old, insane,
and disabled were exempted.

3. Kharaj

It was a land-tax imposed on the non-Muslim cultivators and landlords. It was levied
on Jews of Khyber. They had agreed to pay half of the produce of Khyber lands when
they surrendered in the battle. Every season, a man was sent to divide the produce into
half and return with half to Madinah. It was also used to support the poor and for
military of Madinah.

4. Khums
The spoils of war accrued from enemies of Islam. It was distributed among the
warriors. One-fifth was reserved for the State. From that one-fifth, one-third went to
the Prophet and his relatives, one-third wen to poor and needy and one-third for the
general good of the Muslim community.

5. Al-Fay

The lands conquered by the Muslims, which became the property of the Islamic State.
Anything that came from there was to be used in the same way as Khums.

Educational System
The search for knowledge was enjoined both by the Quran and the Prophet. “Seek
knowledge, even of you have to go to China.” “The ink of the scholar is more sacred
than the blood of the martyrs.” “He who leaves his home in search of knowledge walks
in the path of God,” are some of the Prophet’s sayings.

Education in Pre-Islamic Arabia

Certain institutions did exist. They were mostly poetical and rhetorical though. It is
pertinent to note that a large number men in Makkah knew the art of reading and
writing. There were few elementary schools here and there. Taif and Makkah had few.

Schools under the Prophet

As we noted earlier, men of Makkah knew how to read or write. The POWs of Battle of
Badr were freed on one condition: they had to teach to 10 children each. Since then the
literacy rate of Madinah multiplied. Women also used to take classes and sometimes
would teach too. The Prophet used to say even the slave-girl should be educated. Over
time, every mohalla had its own elementary school at least. At the start, Madinah
Mosque was a center for higher learning. The higher learning was mostly limited to
Quran and Hadith. The Prophet also sent teachers to remote Bedouin tribes since they
resided in remote areas.

Courses and methods of study

The main theme was to mold the character of an individual according to Quran/Islam.
They were largely taught Quran and Sunnah. Poetry didn’t have significance as it had
in Makkah. After this, they practiced calligraphy, basic math, science laws and etc.
importance was also given to physical education. The students were taught archery
and wrestling. This came in handy in battles too. Few companions learnt foreign
languages too. This helped them to gain concentration of foreign leaders regarding
preaching of Islam.

Social System of Islam

Pre-Islamic Arabia was in process of social integration mainly because of mercantilist
economics and subsequent individualism. Long before the arrival of Islam, the social
system was organized on matriarchal basis. The wealth was held by community or tribe
collectively. The rise in trade disrupted the whole system. The money economy was
now introduced. The trade, on the other hand, was a personal affair not a collective
one. One’s sharpness and tendency towards entrepreneurship made him/her
successful in the field of trade. Thus, came into existence the element of individualism.
Everyone now wanted the riches for himself for he believed it was due to his hard work.

Due to this reason, the individuals fought and for this tribes fought. Over time, the
larger tribes divided into sub tribes and then further sub tribes. Since there was a lot
of fighting, there was a lot of bloodshed. The tribes kept on fighting for years. An eye
for an eye was the order of the day. Islam didn’t disturb the system of blood for blood
or blood-money abruptly, but it gradually made it much less severe. The blood revenge
was now to be a task of a family of an individual and not of a tribe. It was also
announced that forgiving was the better act in the eyes of Allah.

Family and Marriage System of Islam

Pre-Islamic Arabia was chiefly matriarchal long before the arrival of Islam. The sex
relations were erratic and egregious. There were temporary marriages. There were
marriages between more than 2 individuals. The son didn’t know his father, his
mother’s family took care of him. Most of the women used to live in their ancestral
families, rather than with their husbands. Due to this, man started having affair
outside the marriage and started marrying temporarily. The money economy had
brought a revolutionary change of matriarchal to patriarchal families, but that didn’t
have any positive effect on the sexual and familial relations, only men started to accrue
money now.

Islam stood for patriarchal family system. The man was to marry a women
permanently. Divorce was severely prohibited unless a serious need arose. Women
now lived with their husbands and cared for their children. The man had now an
incentive to work hard to feed his family and save for his coming generations.
Polygamy was allowed to man. He could marry 4 women at a time. This was because
Arabia was a war-stricken land; men also died in their way of trading. This gave rise to
numerous widows. Men could marry them only if they could treat them right. Men
could also marry slave-girl. This was due to the fact that, so a man may not torture of
force him on a slave-girl. They were to be treated with respect too.

Economic System of Islam

As mentioned above, the economic system was a collective one. Everyone in the tribe
owned equally. This was massively changed after the emergence of money economy.
Those who started early gained an upper hand in the field of money economy such as
the Quraish. They now lent money to the ones that needed it, usually Bedouin tribes
at an exorbitant interest rate, that sometimes reached 50 percent. Islam prohibited
usury altogether. It made ownership private though. Usury ensued bitter rivalries and
Bedouins never benefited from it; they only got more debt over time.

Islamic law of inheritance also deserves few lines. There was no law of inheritance in
Arabia at least a defined one. Now each member of the family knew what they will
inherit. The tribe had no connection to the inheritance. Woman was to receive half of
the wealth because man was made a provider of the family. In this sense, it is laudable
how Islam gave women capital through inheritance where no one can question about
the use of that money.

ABU BAKR: THE FIRST CALIPH (632-34 A.D.)

Election of Abu Bakr
Background
• The Prophet died on June 8th, 632. The news sent shockwaves across Arabia.
• The Ansar had gathered at Saqifa Bani Sa’ida to elect a leader for Arabia.
• Upon hearing this Abu Bakr rushed to the spot before things became
uncontrollable.
• It is to be noted that there were factions formed now before the election. They
are as follows:

The Orthodox Muslims

They were close companions of the Prophet. Most of them were those 313 that had
migrated with him. They wanted Abu Bakr to reign Arabia since he was the closest
among all. They also claimed that whole Arabia wouldn’t accept anyone outside
Quraish tribe, since Quraish tribe had great standing.

Alides

They claimed that Ali was Ahl-e-Bayt. He deserved the role more than anyone. He was
cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet. Bu Ali was only 33 years old at the time of
election. Moreover, Arabs traditionally liked to choose someone as their chief who was
aged.

Ansar

Ansar themselves were divided, a they were in the past, between Aus and Khazraj. They
are the ones who met at Saqifa bin Sa’ida to elect someone. They had almost reached
a conclusion and were to select Sa’ad bin Ubayda, the chief of Khazraj.

Episode at Saqifa bin Sa’ida

The news of congregation first reached Umar, who then conveyed it to Abu Bakr. They
both rushed to the place. On their way, they met Abu Ubayda who accompanied them
too. Upon their arrival, they saw that Ansar were almost ready to elect their leader.
Abu Bakr softly tried to dissuade them from doing on the basis that whole Arabia
would never follow them since they believed only a Quraishite should rule. This
argument was readily accepted by Aus, maybe because the leader wasn’t one of them
anyway and they feared secondary role. The Khazraj were reluctant. They argued they
were the ones who welcomed Muhajireens and help them immensely. Abu Bakr agreed
with them but tried reasoning with them but to no success. On seeing the fiasco, Umar
went on and gave his bayt to Abu Bakr followed by Abu Ubayda. Both were
immediately followed by the Aus tribe. Khazraj joined too because they feared now
they might be relegated to secondary role. This is how a bayt took place there.

Confirmation & Inaugural speech

Next day, the news spread like a wildfire that Abu Bakr had been elected as a Caliph.
Everyone came to pay homage and gave bayt to him. Most of them came except for few
such as alides and few followers of Sa’ad bin Ubayda.

At that time, Abu Bakr rose and addressed the crowd in these words
 “O People! You have chosen me as your Chief, although I am not the best among
you. I need all your advice and all your help. If I do well, support me; If I make a
mistake, set me right. To tell the ruler truly what you think of him if faithfulness; to
conceal the truth is treachery. I shall defend the weak against the strong, for the
weaker amongst you is the stronger with me, until I have redressed his wrong, and
the stronger shall be the weaker until I have taken from him that which he has
wrested. Fight in the way of Lord: whoever leaves off fighting in the path of Allah,
Allah then abases him. As long as I obey God and His Prophet, obey wherein I
disobey, obey me not.”

The Question of Ali’s Homage

• There are three accounts regarding Ali’s homage to Abu Bakr. None them are
proved.
• One, he paid on the day of acclamation.
• Second, he wavered and never paid homage.
• Third, he hesitated at first but did pay homage after the death of his wife.
• The third account is what most Sunnis believe in, whereas the second account
is attributed to Shiites.
• It is said, at the time of bayt, Ali was busy with funeral rites of the Prophet. He
was taken aback upon hearing the acclamation, but never argued. His bayt was
also delayed due to his wife’s, Fatimah, grievances against Abu Bakr regarding
her patrimony.
• After her death, Ali finally paid homage. It was about six months later.

Significance
• The election shows that Islam wasn’t in favor of hereditary leadership. The
Prophet himself never talked about appointing a successor, at least not a
hereditary one.
• The election also satisfied the masses, although a momentous crack would be
developed later. But for now it was quite peaceful among the Muslims.

Critics
• The chief critique comes from Shiites who argue it was a pure manipulation by
the three companions present at Saqifa. They also argue that the Prophet, at
 times, had hinted about Ali being his successor. The Sunnis outrightly reject the
claims.
• European critics contend that the election was in essence undemocratic. They
believe only few handful people chose him for their benefits. But they forget
that about 1400 years ago there was no concept of democracy or universal
suffrage. It was, instead, an achievement of Islam that a chief had been selected
who received widespread acceptance.

Early Days
Usama’s expedition
• We know the Prophet had dispatched an army against tribes lying along the
border with Syria, that was ruled by Byzantine empire. The tribes had shown
tendencies of hostilities and at times had ridiculed the Prophet.
• Usama had to return then due to the Prophet’s illness. The Caliph wanted to
finish the task, the Prophet left uncompleted. He wished to conclude it on any
condition. He went against the suggestions of close companions and sent an
expedition.
• Usama won and returned with momentous bounty.

Bedouin Attack on Madinah

• There were few tribes that had accepted Islam but were reluctant to follow it
after the death of the Prophet. They believed Madinah was defenseless and
knew most of the warriors were with Umar, who had still not returned.
• Few of them were incited by the false prophet of Najd. Some other were wary
of giving Zakat and Jizya. But the caliph was adamant and maintained nothing
be altered in what the Prophet had left behind.
• Abu Bakr had already readied his men for any attack that might come.
• The Bedouins finally attached but were defeated in both the Battle of Dhu’l-
Qassa and Battle of Rabadha.
• The battles further cemented Islam’s grip over smaller tribes of Arabia.
• Abu Bakr’s determination had proved to be strategic and against all odds he
stifled the opposition with little or no loss.
The War against Apostasy (Riddah): 632-633 A.D.
Causes
1. Nomadism of Arab Bedouins

The nomads are by nature unruly and disobedient. To them only one union exists and
that is their tribe. They liked to move. They abhorred the idea of Zakat. It must also be
noted that except for larger tribes, the smaller ones had only come into fold very
recently. They had accepted Islam due to their and Quraish’s defeat.

2. Tribal Particularism

They believed their allegiance ended with the death of the Prophet. They couldn’t
adjust themselves to greater social unity and uniformity. The still held allegiance to
their tribal chiefs. In some cases, it was their chief that incited among them apostasy.

3. Paganism

In Islam, they had to pray five times, keep fasts, and give Zakat. This was an arduous
task for them. In previous decades, they could worship anytime they wanted and to
anyone who they liked. There were no defined set of rules in their ancient old religion,
so they exploited it to full extent. They engaged in usury, gambling, and adultery which
Islam strictly prohibited.

4. Prophetism

The key threat to the Islamic state came from the emergence of Prophetism. The
success of the Prophet had instigated few insane individuals to claim prophethood.
Since Arabs were tribal-loving people, they accepted these persons without any
questions. Why not have their own prophet. The chief contenders/claimants were:

a. Musaylima the Liar → came from powerful tribe of Banu Hanifa which dwelt in
Yemama in Central Arabia. He had his own Quran and talked about foolish
revelations. Few European historians believe he was rather inspired by
Christianity than Islam. The success of the Prophet may have energized him
though.
b. Aswad al-Ansi → he had already started revolting in last days of the Prophet.
He belonged to Yemen. He was killed by Dalimi and his party a day before the
Prophet’s demise. Nonetheless, his tribe did revolt and challenged the Caliph.
 c. Tulayha of Najd → he was the chief of Banu Asad. He was wealthy and a great
warrior. His abode was close to Madinah.
d. Sajah of Mesopotamia → the fourth pretender was a woman who belonged to
Banu Taghlib which was a sub-sub-clan of great Tamim tribe. She was a
Christians a subject of the Persian Empire.

Military expedition against rebels

To reclaim Islam, Abu Bakr divided the army into 11 battalions and placed them under
a distinguished commander. Arabia was simultaneously divided into 1 parts. Each
battalion was to suppress the rebellion. The first column was under the command of
Khalid bin Walid. Khalid played a decisive role in reclaiming Islam’s supremacy, as we
shall see later. The eleventh column was stationed in Madinah to guard the center with
Abu Bakr as its supreme commander.

A call and a message were sent to every mutiny tribe or cities to give up arms and
submit to Islam. Otherwise, man would be killed, and children and women would be
sold into slavery.

Distinguished part that Khalid bin Walid played

War against Tulayha (Battle of Buzakha)

He was chosen to lead the column against Tulayha since he closest to Madinah and an
immediate danger. He had gathered hi Banu Asad at Buzakha and asked other tribes
to join him too. Most of the adjoining smaller tribes joined him unreluctantly.

Khalid bin Walid got backing of Banu Tayi that provided about army of 1000 under its
chief. The army now numbered around 3000 in total. When they were on their way to
battlefield, they saw the bodies of the party that they had sent to keep watch on Banu
Asad. This exasperated Muslims and energized them to crush Banu Asad. Muslim’s
assault was strong; they didn’t even think about being in defensive position. The
Muslims got an upper hand at the start of the battle.

Upon seeing the situation, Chief of Ghaftan tribe asked Tulayha if he had received any
message from his God. To which he replied no. This went on for second time and at
last third time Tulayha said yes and narrated them a very superficial and vague
revelation. To this, the Chief was convinced they were going to lose. He gathered his
men and left hurriedly. The pretender, Tulayha, also fled after a while to Syria, he
would later submit to Umar. Banu Asad gave up mutiny and asked for forgiveness
which Abu Bakr accepted.

War against Malik bin Nuwarya

Malik bin Nuwarya was a chief of Bani Yerbu, a clan of Tamim. Sajah belonged to Banu
Tamim and had asked for their support. The Tamim tribe was itself divided into
Muslim and anti-Muslim bloc. Banu Yerbu responded to Sajah’s call. Most of the other
clans of Tamim remained aloof. Sajah left Malik to fight Khalid while she went ahead
to challenge another retender herself, Musaylima. Most of Malik’s men had submitted
to Islam by the time Khalid arrived. When they arrived they captured Malik and his 25
men. The argument ensued in Muslim camp over if they had also surrendered and
accepted Islam. Khalid told his army to hold them in tent for the night and decided
that the dilemma be taken care of tomorrow.

As the night fell, few Muslim soldiers killed Malik and his men. Subsequently, Khalid
married Malik’s beautiful wife. Next day, Abu Qutaba charged his commander of
deliberately ordering Malik’s murder and vowed to arraign him back at home. The
Caliph summoned him and asked for explanation. Khalid replied that it was all due to
a misunderstanding. He had asked his soldiers ‘to cover a man with a blanket’ which
in soldiers dialect meant killing a man. The Caliph accepted hos version and
exonerated him of all charges.

War against Musaylima of Yemama

As we mentioned earlier, Sajah had set on to challenge Musaylima in Yemama. As soon

as she reached, Musaylima gave her an offer to marry, which she accepted on the
condition she would receive half the land-revenue of Yemama. After staying for few
days, she left for her hometown, but this act had stigmatized her image back in
Mesopotamia. By the time, she returned she was no longer significant. So, now Ikram
and Shurahbil were ordered to attack Musaylima collectively, but Ikram single-
handedly started the battle and faced a setback.

The Caliph was agitated on Ikrima and diverted him somewhere else and Khalid was
to face Yemama now. The fighting ensued, Muslims were pushed backed. Khalid
divided his army according to tribal and kinship affiliation that proved to rewarding
and Muslims succeeded in driving them to a garden that later came to be called ‘garden
of death.’ Musaylima lay dead along with hundred of his men. Banu Hanifa finally
surrendered before the Caliph.

Conquests of Abu Bakr

Conquest of Chaldea and Hira
As we read before, the Persian (Sassanid) empire was crumbling due to their greedy
lords. The taxes were high, and dams and canals were in ruinous position. Chaldea was
also called Lower Iraq. The main seat of Persian empire was in Upper Iraq and the
regions that were between Arabia and Lower Iraq acted as a vasal state for the empire.
The lower Iraq was usually looted and raided by the Arabian tribes residing near the
border. A little before the rise of Islam, Bedouin raids had increased intensely, which
culminated into the full battle known as Dhu-Qar in 610-11 A.D. The tribe Banu
Shayban of Bakr tribe won against the Persians. The Sassanid empire had also been
defeated heavily by Hercules of Byzantine empire after few successes.

Banu Shayban was led by its chief, al-Muthanna bin Haritha. he was thinking of
invading the Persian province, but he didn’t have men nor resource. He decided to ask
for aid from the Caliph. He especially requested for Khalid. Khalid was still in
Musaylima, he was ordered to direct his men towards Chaldea.

Battle of Chains, 633

Khalid, by the time he reached Khaffan, had gathered 10,000 men. Al-Muthanna
joined with his 8,000. Khalid wrote a letter to Hormuz, who although undeterred by
the letter forwarded it to the King Chosroes and requested reinforcements. Hormuz,
on the other hand, set out to fight Khalid’s army. Hormuz reached al-Hafir and took
possession of the spring. But it proved insignificant since Khalid just after his arrival
launched an assault. He killed the commander, Hormuz, in one blow. The army of his
was defeated too. Since the place was so narrow and the Persians were to chains the
battle came to be associated with it. Arab army gained a large booty from opposition’s
caravan.

The few left of army of Hormuz fled and they were chased by al-Muthanna. He
confronted larger army now since the reinforcement had met them halfway. He again
requested Khalid for aid. Khalid came at once and again using his provocative strategy
beat the army.
Similarly, the King Chosroes tried again by sending a collective army at Walaja, but it
was defeated too. Again, the Christian bloc of Bakr asked for men and resources from
the King to fight the Muslims. They were provided with that; they lost too. The battle
came to be known as Battle of Walaja and Ullays.

Conquest of Hira

Soon after his victory at Ullays, he turned northward towards Hira. The King had now
fled leaving behind his Christian subjects. The subjects resisted for a while from
behind their fortresses. Their courage as they had known about consistent Khalid’s
victories. They surrendered, and a treaty was signed that came to be known as The
Treaty of Hira. Hira was to remain Christian but Khalid or a Muslim would lead it and
collect poll-tax. In turn he would provide protection.

Other Battles won

The Persians did little against the Arab invader. Al-Muthanna wanted to advance
further and challenge the chief seat of that empire. The Caliph ordered Khalid to not
do it. Instead, he would be ordered to move towards Christian Arab tribes dwelling
beyond Hira to the West of the Euphrates.

The chief clan was Banu Taghlib; the same clan that taken part in Sajah’s supposed
conquest. They had grown restless after seeing Hira fall. They continued pressing the
Persian empire. They also gathered few other Christian tribes to rally behind them.
Khalid defeated them in three consecutive battles at al-Anbar, Duma and Firaz. With
this the conquest of Chaldea was complete and no other rebellion was expected. It is
imperative to note here that Firaz was a border between Persian and Byzantine empire.
Banu Taghlib had gained their support at the borders and fought the Muslims
together. It is said the opposition’s army numbered 0.1 million but even that was
defeated by Khalid.

Invasion of Syria
Syria was a land of several race, religions, and cultures. The tribes which lived on the
Arab side of the border were more pagan than Christian. The Greek Orthodox
Christians was an official religion.

The Ghasanid of Basra

Banu Ghassan was a Yemenite tribe that had migrated after the breach of Ma’rib Dam.
The Ghassan established a kingdom in Syria. Over time, they came to assume the role
of vassal state for Byzantine empire, as Chaldea did for Persian one. The vassals often
fought too. The Ghassans were crumbling when Khusraw Pervez, emperor of Persia,
invaded it in 619. Hercules, emperor of Byzantine, retook it and placed it under the
Ghassans again.

Immediate cause and Abu Bakr’s reaction

Hercules had regained Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt from Persians. But due to this he
ran into debt and had to stop subsidies that he used to give to Bedouin tribes along the
Arabian border. The alienated the tribes who now decided to throw their lot behind
Muslims. Thus, the tribes of Judham and Quza’a played the same role that Shayban
had in Hira conquest.

The relations between the Caliph and the Byzantine were strained since the Battle of
Mutah in the days of the Prophet. It was for this reason that the Prophet had
dispatched Usama’s expedition to Syrian border which Abu Bakr resumed.

Khalid bin Sa’ad’s Expedition

While the wars of Riddah were still going on, the Caliph decided to send a small army
to keep an eye on Northern border that lay before Syria. Khalid was to keep an eye on
movements of Byzantines and Arab tribes living there. He disregarded the order and
launched an offensive which was decisively crushed. Khalid lost his son, but himself
avoided death and fled to Madinah. Consequently, the Caliph decided to wage war
against Byzantine in Syria. Since the armies were returning after winning Riddah war,
he decided to divert them to Syrian border.

Abu Bakr dispatched the army in four successive detachments. It all happened in 634.
The armies together numbered around 20,000. Unlike, other armies of Riddah, there
were largely from Madinah. The Caliph instructed them well. Few excerpts from the
instruction merit to be written here, for they present the manner of war that Islam
allowed.

“O People! I have ten orders to give you, which you must observe loyally. Deceive
none and steal from none. Betray none and disfigure no person killed on the
battlefield. Do not kill any child, women, or aged man. Do not bark or burn the date
palms; nor cut down fruit trees nor destroy crops: do no slaughter cattle, flocks, or
camels except for food. Do not kill monks and a hermit who you will come across in
Syria.”

The Muslims got initial success and two detachments got full success in their advance.
Hercules, on the other, formed an army of 100,000 soldiers to meet the Muslims. They
were to be led by his brother, Theodorus. Abu Bakr sent an order to Khalid bin Walid
to join the detachments in Syria. He left behind the administration in al-Muthanna’s
hands and only gathered his men whereas al-Muthanna’s men would guard Hira. He
joined Muslim forces near Damascus. He accepted as a supreme commander. He
ordered the army to fall back to South till they reached a place on the Dead Sea,
Ajnadayn. Here four detachments met plus Khalid bin Walid.

Thus, 40,000 men were now under the command of Khalid. The Hercules army met
them at Ajnadayn. On 30th July 634 the battle started. Arabs charged so fiercely that
Roman morale was shattered, and they fell back after a bloody opposition. Theodora
ran away to the North. Muslims lot 3000 men but the victory opened Palestine to
them. They invaded and conquered city after city till they reached Gaza. The news
reached Abu Bakr when he was on his death-bed.

UMAR (634-644 A.D.)

Election
• Abu Bakr was 63 years of age when he caught fever. He tried performing his
duties but over time he was seceding more and more responsibilities on Umar
due to his illness.
• When the fever became too sever, Abu Bakr called on his chief advisors, Shura.
All eyes were already on Umar, only few complained and too about his temper.
• Abu Bakr replied, “he is severe, for he thinks I am lenient. But when the
responsibilities fall on him, he will be softened. He is, indeed, the best amongst
you.”
• After this, Abu Bakr summoned all the people outside the Madinah mosque and
told he has chosen Umar as his successor who isn’t his relative but the best
amongst them. The people replied that they would obey him.
 • Umar was 51-years old when he was made a Caliph. He was the son of Al-
Khattab, a scion of Bani Adi. Umar was a notable figure in pre-Islamic Arabia.
He was known for his bravery and ardent Arabian nationalism. This is why he
opposed Islam so vigorously in start.
• He would go on to conquer Iraq, Persia, and Egypt.

Conquest of Iraq
Background
• The Persians were infuriated at their loss of Hira and resolved to reclaim it.
They had dispatched an army of 10,000 men to fight al-Muthanna who was left
behind after Abu Bakr had sent Khalid to Syria.
• Al-Muthanna sent women and children away from Hira and fought the battle
near Babylon against Hormuz. He won the battle but was sure they would
return. He returned to Madinah to ask for reinforcement.
• Abu Bakr was on his death-bed but asked Umar to send his troops.

Initial Battles
• Umar called everyone to volunteer to go reclaim and protect al-Chaldea. People
there were reluctant since Persian empire was still a mighty one. Al-Muthanna
convinced them Muslims had defeated them and they weren’t as mighty as they
once were.
• Abu Ubayd volunteered first and was subsequently appointed as a commander.
• The combined forces of Abu Ubayd and al-Muthanna advanced against the
Persians that were the command of Jaban at a placed called Namaraq; this why
they battle is called Battle of Namaraq. Muslims won the battle and advanced
further. (October 634)
• They won another battle against Nursa, who was at Kaskar. Royal date gardens
were captured by the Arabs. The battle came to be called Battle of Kaskar.
(October 634)

Battle of the Bridge: October 634

Persians were enraged after consecutive losses and resolved to defeat the Muslims.
They sent an army under the command of Brahman. He lured Abu Ubayd to cross the
Eastern side of Euphrates into Persia. This proved to be fatal since the Persian side
was too narrow and the elephants in Persian army acted as a strong defence for the
Persians. Abu Ubayd was killed and so were few other commanders that followed him.
Al-Muthanna finally managed to retread but only with 3000 men losing 7000 men in
the battle.

• Al-Muthanna on his way back fought another battle at Buwayd against Persians
under Mahran. Mahran was defeated here. Battle of Buwayd (November 634)

Umar resolves to conquer Iraq

• Umar understood, as long as Persians ruled Upper Iraq the Muslims couldn’t
live in peace in Hira. He concluded hence the Sassanid empire had to go and
Arab had to win that land.
• He announced his plan in Madinah and asked every tribe under the banner of
Islam to aid. He made it a national war of Arabs against Persians.
• He had decided to lead the army, but companions persuaded him to remain at
home and appoint someone else for the job. Sa’ad bin Abi Waqqas was
conferred with command of the forces.
• On the Persian side, a young prince was installed named Yazdjard 3, who would
be the last of emperor of Persian/Sassanid empire.
• And al-Muthanna had died in 635 A.D. due to his wounds from Bridge Battle.
But before dying, he wrote to Sa’ad to never cross the river at any cost. Desert
suited Arabs and retreating from bridge proved fatal last time.

Battle of Qadisiya: 635 0r 636 or 637

• Again, the tribes around Hira joined hands with Persia. By the time Sa’ad
reached the Persian border near the Great Canal of Sapor, on the verge of the
desert at a place called Qadisiya he had 20,000 men. Behind their backs was
now desert and beyond was a river.
• Rustam with has 120,000 men arrived near the river. The fighting didn’t start
right away. Instead, the Arabs and Persians engaged in negotiations and
deliberations. Persians gave them chance to return while Arabs gave them
option to submit to Islam or face the wrath.
• Persians laughed since Arabs had only 20k men. The battle was inevitable.
Persians and Rustam crossed the river and entered Qadisiya.
 • Fighting, unlike other battles, only lasted for 4 days. Initially, there was a
confusion amongst the Muslims but by the time reinforcements came from
Syria, the morale was again high, and Muslims had an upper hand.
• Rustam was ultimately killed and the remaining soldiers of Persian army tried
fleeing but most of them were caught and persecuted.

Impact of the Battle

• The loss literally broke the Persian empire’s back. Although Muslims suffered
unprecedented losses, they were nothing compared to that of Persians’.
• The Arab tribes residing along the borders submitted altogether and were now
sure this area belonged to the Islamic state.
• The road to al-Madain lay open now. Muslims were to conquer it since Umar
knew they would not hold al-Chaldea for longer if al-Madain remained
unconquered.
• Umar ordered Sa’ad to rest a bit there and then march towards al-Maidan.

Fall of al-Madain

• After resting about 2 months, Sa’ad now well advanced towards the capital. On
his way he encountered few of the remnants of Rustam’s army and crushed
them one by one. (middle of 637 A.D.)
• Sa’ad’s army numbered 50,000 when he entered the capital. The king had
transferred all his resources and treasures Eastern half of the city. He sent
messenger to Sa’ad to be content with Western half and the Persians wouldn’t
bother him. Sa’ad rejected the offer.
• There was a river between eastern and western half of the city. At that time of
the year the flow was too high to be crossed. But Sa’ad gathered few valiant
men and others rallied after seeing these men’s courage.
• Persians fled that area too with their King leaving behind immense bounty. The
bounty was too large that Muslims couldn’t believe what they were seeing.
• Sa’ad made al-Maidan seat of his government there. It should be noted that
when Arabs joined Sa’ad they came with their belongings, children, and wives.
Arabs customarily settled in the places they conquered or invaded.
• After a while the Persian king, now residing in Hulwan, tried his luck at battle
but was crushed heavily at the Battle of Jalula.
 • In the meanwhile, the remaining Persian, Roman, and Christian Arabs
dispersed here and there on the North of the capital came together to attack
Sa’ad and his men. They were defeated too in Battle of Tikrit.

Foundation of Kufa and Basra

• Umar had rejected the offers of the Muslim commanders to advance further.
He was now determined to protect what they acquired rather than risking the
life and riches Islamic State had gained.
• The climate of al-Madain and Ubulla proved to be uninhabitable for the Arabs
who were accustomed to arid and dry climate.
• Umar knowing this ordered al-Madain to find some feasible place. Kufa, a
region near Hira was the most viable option. Muslims shifted there from al-
Madain and so did their governor, Sa’ad. There they made it a city.
• Utba bun Ghazwan had conquered Ubulla, which proved to be the same case as
al-Madain. They were ordered to find a new place too.
• Both the cities proved to be an outstanding decision. Kufa became a base for the
conquest of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and other northern territories. Basra became
for Khuzestan, Fustat in Egypt.

Final subjugation of Persia

• We know that Arabs had only conquered Iraq of Persian empire. The King
resided in Khusran province of Persia.
• Umar had forbidden Sa’ad and Utba from advancing further. He believed
Zagros range would act as a barrier for any future clashes between Arabian and
Persian empire.
• Al-Ala bin Hazrami who had conquered Bahrain in Abu Bakr’s time saw other
Muslims’ victories and foundation of Basra and Kufa. It incited him to go
further and prove his mettle. He crossed the Persian Gulf in 637 without
informing Umar.
• Soon he was surrounded by Persian army and requested Umar to send troops.
Utba was ordered to save him with his 12k troops. The army was saved on time.
• The event is called “the First Istakhar” and Al-Ala was dismissed from
Governorship of Bahrain.

Campaign in Khuzestan: 638

 • The Arab raid by Al-Ala provoked Harmuzan, the Persian governor of
Khuzestan. He raided outposts near Ahwaz.
• Utba of Basra had to march there and save Ahwaz. Here again Harmuzan was
defeated. Harmuzan was present at Battle of Qadisiya and had fled.

Battle of Nihawand: 642

• Harmuzan started revolting and inciting violence. Yazdjard also started rallying
people behind him to expel Muslims out of their lands. The new Persian army
numbered 150k.
• From Muslim side Numan bin Muqran was appointed as a commander and he
was to lead 30k men.
• The fighting went on relatively calm for first 2 days but became fierce later.
Persians had been inflicted with greater losses. The Muslims leader Numan was
also heavily injured.
• He was informed of the Muslim’s victory before he breathed his last.
• About 80k Persians died in their quest. The battle completely shattered the
empire for all the times to come. What actually started with Qadisiya ended with
Nihawand.
• Umar ordered all the commanders to not leave any province unconquered after
the war.
• Sassanid empire of Persia was no more.

Systematic Expansion and Conquests

• The foundation signified a change in Umar’s policy of conquest and expansion.

Unlike Abu Bakr who had to conquer Hira due to al-Muthanna’s raids, Umar
had decided to conquer Persia. And he had every incentive to establish an
administrative setup there.
• Diwan (Register of Pensions), standing military, and justice system were
established in these cities.
Conquest of Syria and Palestine
Background
• The Muslims armies were rapidly advancing in Syria. Emperor Hercules had
fled to Antioch in Northern Syria. From there he organized an army to drive
out the Arabs.

Conquering Damascus

• Damascus was a flourishing and walled town of Syria. But the population itself
was divided. Few religions were persecuted while the ones ascribing to
Hercules were spared.
• Arabs, in reality, didn’t invade them but liberated them. Their policy was much
more lenient. Those that didn’t join Islam became Dhimmis.
• The siege in 635 lasted about 2 months, when the citizens of Damascus finally
gave up.
• A treaty was signed that again showed the tolerant and merciful nature of
Islamic State.
• Khalid advanced forward and had now conquered every town between
Damascus and Antioch. Most of the tribes submitted peacefully as we
mentioned that it was more of a liberation than subjugation.

The Battle of Yarmuk (636)

• Hercules collected a large army and placed it under his brother Theodore.
• The desert of Syria is more o rocky nature. Yarmuk is one of the valleys there.
• The battles saw small skirmishes for one month. It became full-fledged then.
• Muslims won this battle too. There are few particular reasons why they won
against such a gigantic army.
• First, the Romans were divided among themselves. There were Greeks, Pagans,
and Christians. The command of Theodore alienated few tribes’ chiefs too.
Thus, it was a divided army.
• Second, the desert favored Arabs, for they were desert dwelling people.
• After losing the battle, Hercules fled to Constantinople.
• Persians lost about 130-140k men while Muslims lost about 3k.

Khalid dismissed
 • Right after the victory, Khalid was relinquished of his supreme command
position by Umar.
• Some historians say that was because Umar had not forgiven Khalid for his
mistreatment of Malik Nuwayra and his subsequent marriage to Malik’s wife.
• Another incident was his refusal to clear how he gave a gift of 1000 dinar to a
poet. Umar was a scrupulous man regarding the public money. Even though
Khalid at last told him it was rom his own purse.
• Whatever the reason, Khalid had conquered so much by then and had made a
name for himself. Umar himself accepted this, “Khalid by winning such
victories has made himself a commander. In fact, Abu Bakr was a better judge
of other man than I.”
• Muir has remarkably noted, “The military chief had to give place to the civil
functionary; the sword to the pen; Khalid to Abu Obayda.”
• By the end of 638, the conquest of Syria was complete under the supreme
command of Abu Obayda.

Capture of Jerusalem
• Only few towns like Jerusalem resisted the Arabs. They were inhabited more by
Greeks than Syrian Arabs. Amr bin al-As made an advance and laid siege to the
city.
• The citizens soon found the resistance futile but agreed to surrender only if the
Caliph himself came to take the keys.
• The Caliph did come and set up an administration there. He returned to
Madinah after a while.
• The treaty signed in Jerusalem is called “the Treaty of Umar.” It is an epitome
of tolerance and leniency. The Greeks were allowed to reside in Jerusalem, but
they had to pay Jizya. Yet if they wanted to leave they would be allowed without
any persecution.
• After that few other towns were reduced by Amr and Muawiyah.

Plague of Amwas and Administration in Syria

• An epidemic plague inflicted insurmountable losses on Muslims. The plague

spread from Amwas. But it spread to number of other towns.
 • In total, it killed 25k people. It robbed many families. Umar went to Syria to
look after the affairs for a while post-plague.
• He before returning divided Syria into 4 military districts. As Abu Obayda and
Yezid had died, Umar appointed Muawiyah as a Governor of Syria – the post he
held till he became a Caliph himself nearly twenty years later.

Conquest of Egypt
Background
• It is said that the conquest of Egypt is a lone achievement of Amr ibn al-As.
• Egypt had been a center of civilizations for centuries. The last of them were
Romans/Byzantines. A river Nile flew which had made Egypt highly fertile. All
the civilizations were built around the river and sustained through it.
• Egypt was divided into 2 Christian Churches namely the native Coptic Church
(led by Patriarch Benjamin). While the emperor and his dominant church was
Orthodox Monothelete.
• Hercules had sent Cyrus to be the head of the state and the church. Thus, started
persecution of the Coptics.
• Amr knew the area well since he had traded here as a Quraishite. He convinced
Umar to conquer it. He agreed reluctantly.
• But it was not solely due to Amr that Umar agreed to do so. He knew very well
that Egypt’s Alexandria port may act an assault site to Arab’s gains by the
Byzantines. He also knew that Egypt had highly favorable and fertile lands.

Siege of Babylon: 639-640

• Amr could only muster 4000 men, but even then, he was confident and led
them. He easily defeated small uprisings along his way to Babylon.
• Babylon was kind of a fortress that protected Misr, one of the most important
cities of the Egypt and Arabia.
• Cyrus lived in Alexandria but hurried his and Greek army to stop Muslims from
advancing further to Alexandria.
• After a siege of 8 months, finally Babylon surrendered.
• Cyrus ran to Hercules to tell him of the defeat and ask him to further surrender
Alexandria, but the emperor wouldn’t have it and exiled Cyrus on treason
charges.
Fall of Alexandria: 641
• The city was defended by 50k soldiers. Its defence walls were high. The death
of Hercules, on the other hand, played an instrumental role.
• Cyrus was released by Hercules son and sent to Alexandria to negotiate a peace
deal. After much negotiations The Treaty of Alexandria was signed. The
dwellers would become Dhimmis. The residents did resist over the taxation,
but Cyrus told them there was no other way.
• The city was handed over in 642 without any resistance.

Foundation of Fustat

• Amr intended to make Alexandria a capital of Egypt just like it had been in
previous rules. But the Caliph was against it, for he feared the luxuries would
have effect on Bedouin tribal people.
• He asked him to relocate to a place that was also present where Umar didn’t
have to cross a river. On eastern bank of Nile, Amr founded a place which came
to be known as Fustat. It was constructed on the same plan as Kufa and Basra.
• Soon it became the capital, until later Fatimids replaced it with Cairo. ‘the old
machinery of finance and administration was preserved. Amr soon won the
hearts of the Coptics due to his tolerant policies.

Why Arabs expanded so fast

1. Decays and decline of Persian and Byzantine Empire.

By the time, conquests by Umar were completed Persian empire ceased to exist.
Byzantine on the other hand was driven to its Europe lands where it ruled for few
centuries more. But both the empires were crumbling at the time of expansion at least
in barren Arab lands. And Persia was wholly desert land and most of it was crippling.

2. The desert, date palm, and the camel

Desert favored Arabs since they had lived there for centuries. Persia although was
largely desert didn’t have warriors that had as much experience as nomadic Arabian
tribes. Date-palm was another crucial element that helped Muslims. It is a full-diet
dish. Arabs liked it particularly for it is easily portable and packs so much calories in
such small package. Byzantine and Persian people were luxury-loving people, who
brought large swathes of meals and when ran out of it grew despondent. In addition,
camel was a best friend of Arabs. Camel was naturally an animal made for desert. The
enemies came on horses and elephants which grew weary after few days of fighting.

3. Character of Arabs

The hard life of Jahiliya period had inured Arabs with courage, tenacity, perseverance,
and passive endurance, loyalty, and manliness. They possessed all the qualities of
warriors and fighters except unity, discipline and respect for order and authority of a
nation. Islam and the Caliphate filled these gaps.

4. Political Centralism and Leadership of Umar

It is a well established fact that Umar was a great strategist, commander, and an
administrator. His policy of establishing administration in every conquered land
helped strengthen Islamic State’s hold. He delineated Madinah administration where
he deemed necessary and let things run as they were before at places he felt couldn’t
be altered so early after conquest. His justice helped gained more confidence of
populace. Even non-Muslims knew Umar wouldn’t budge from his treaty and
promises.

Umar’s Institutions and Reforms

The Diwan (the Register of Pensions)
• It was first instituted in 636 or 638. The need arose since the war-spoils were
too much to be handled informally.
• It wasn’t just war spoils, but the land-tax revenue that non-Muslims generated
from their lands. Jizya came into this too.
• Each Muslims would get a share according to his relationship to Prophet and
then by his services to the State.
• Conquerors or commanders were forbidden from acquiring lands at conquered
places. They were to devote themselves to Islamic cause. The lavish revenues
would have blinded them to the expansion cause.
• The state would provide them handsomely from the Diwan.
• Diwan was distinctive from Bayt al-Mal in a sense that it included Jizya, war
spoils, al-Fay, and Kharaj. Now it was formally decided who would receive what
amount.
 • Nonetheless, the principle remained the same as that followed by the Prophet
and then by Abu Bakr.
• It was indeed Islam’s “socialism.”

The Muqatila
• Military was, for the first time, arranged formally too.
• Ranks were assigned according to experience and achievement.
• Military men would receive from the Diwan.
• Islamic State had now a standing army.

Death of Umar (644)

• We know Harmuzan was brought back to Madinah as a slave. He was satrap of
Khuzestan. There was another salve named Firoz, he belonged to a man named
Mughira.
• Firoz came to Umar to complain about his master. Umar listened and
afterwards asked Firoz (who was blacksmith and carpenter) to build him a
windmill.
• Firoz replied, but before that he tacitly said, “if allowed to live.”
• Umar heard this but chose to ignore it. Next morning when he was leading
prayers and went in Sajda was stabbed by Firoz six times with poisoned dagger.
• Firoz stabbed himself too. Upon his deathbed, he asked Abdur Rehman bin Auf
to be his successor, but Rehman declined his offer.
• He then formed six men committee and asked them to appoint his successor
within 3 days.
• He breathed his last on November 3 644.

USMAN (644-656)
His Election
• Dying Umar appointed six electors to appoint his successor. They were Ali,
Usman, Abdur Rehman bin Auf, Zubayr, Sa’ad bin Abi Waqqas, and Talha.
Umar had also elected his son Abdullah bin Umar in his list of electors, but he
could not claim succession and would only use his vote when there was a tie.
 • Each one of them pressed their claim vigorously, but to no avail. Stale-mate was
reached, but it was clear the successor would be Ali (Hashimid) or Usman
(Umayyad).
• On seeing the situation, Abdur Rehman decided to withdraw himself and asked
electors to be their umpire. He was readily accepted by Ali and Usman.
• Abdur Rehman went around Madinah asking close companions and common
people about their choice of leader. He did this for 3 to 4 days and was after all
convinced that people favored Usman.
• After asking everyone that his decision will be accepted, he announced Usman’s
name. Ali hesitated first but gave his oath of allegiance when he was reminded
by Abdur Rehman of his acceptance.
• Usman’s election caused the first great controversy of early Islam, creating
dissension and disunity, schism and sedition during subsequent ages of Islamic
history.

Why People Favored Usman?

There are several reasons provided by historians, few of the credible ones are:

1. As we discussed earlier, Arabs preferred someone of old age to be their chief.

This was the case when they were led by their tribal chief. The beliefs had been
carried over.
2. Usman was of a mild character. Umar was believed to be a stern man. Madinah
may have wanted someone very easy after Umar’s rule.
3. Usman had been married to two of the Prophet’s daughter. He was, thus, called
“Dhu’l-Nu’yan.”

Conquests of Usman
During the early year, the momentum of Muslim victories continued.

In the East
• Just after 6 months, a large rebellion broke out in Persia. It was incited by
Yazdjard 3. Usman had instituted his young cousin, Abdullah bin Amir as a
governor of Basra.
 • Although young (25), he was a great general and an administrator. He
suppressed the rebellion quickly. He himself advanced upon Khurasan where
Yazdjard lurked. He captured it, but Yazdjard fled.
• The Muslims, by the time suppression was stifled, had conquered Heart, Kabul,
Ghazna, Tabaristan, and Azerbaijan.
• The outlying territories were still not fully established and defected after the
death of Usman until they were reclaimed by Muawiyah.

In Africa and against Byzantines

• Muawiyah was a sole governor of Syria. He defeated Byzantines’ attack. His real
achievement lay in his naval endeavors. In this way, the hostilities were
renewed with Byzantines.
• The Byzantines had endeavored to regain Alexandria. They still had upper hand
in Naval offence. Umar was to wary to fight on water and detested the idea to
lead his armies in seas. Alexandria was won by Amr ibn al-As after Byzantines
had gained control of it.
• But he was soon dismissed from his position as its governor and Abdullah bin
Abi Sarah was elected as a governor. He proved to be an able stateman,
administrator, and a general.
• He marched against Byzantine possessions in North Africa in Barqa and Tripoli.
He defeated them after a bitter fighting. Abdullah bin Abi Sarah was a foster
brother of Usman and people criticized him over his appointment too.

Naval war against Byzantines

• He was the first Arabian ruler who undertook naval operations.
• Muawiyah sought Usman’s permission lead an expedition in seas in the hope of
positive response. Usman agreed but on condition that maritime service would
be voluntary.
• Muawiyah raised a fleet under the command of Abu Qays. He attacked the
island of Cyprus, off the Syrian coast in 649.
• Byzantines again raised a fleet of 500 vessels and came at the shores of
Alexandria. This time the command was under Abdullah bin Abi Sarah. After a
fierce battle, Arabs won.
 • This was crucial since this shattered Byzantine naval supremacy. The Arabs
soon wiped out every trace of Byzantines in North Africa.

Causes of Unpopularity of Usman

Constitutional Crisis
• Early Islam had no constitution. It knew only a set of rules and customs
regarding the choice of his head of his head of State and his duties and
responsibilities.
• Since there were no clauses or the constitution, there were no ways to deal with
someone the people accused. Was the sovereign head punishable for his alleged
or real failure to guarantee the well-being and contentment of his subjects?
• Arabs, primarily tribal, were fixated on their long-held traditions and beliefs;
they believed that the chief would be responsible for everyone’s happiness.
• But the empire had grown so big. It had conquered Byzantine and Persia.

Qatai Feudalism
• Umar had imposed restrictions upon the Arab settlers in the Provinces against
acquiring land and agricultural property. He had also banned migration of
Quraishi aristocrats to the newly conquered Provinces in order to ensure that
the status quo there wouldn’t be disrupted and the Bayt al-Mal were not
affected.
• Usman gradually but increasingly abolished all these salutary restrictions. He
allowed Arabs to acquire landed properties and lifted the ban on migration of
Quraishi aristocrats.
• He allotted lands and estates, called Qatai, to too many people. This led to new
aristocracy called Qatai Feudalism.
• The Qatai lands constituted direct loss to Bayt al-mal since they wouldn’t now
pay Kharaj.
• This gave concerns to the already-settled there people. They feared that
aristocrats would run the provinces like they had in pre-Islamic times. They had
gained the lands with their swords and lives.
The Bedouins versus the Quraish
• There existed antagonism between Bedouins and the Quraishites before Islam,
but now it was renewed. The people that conquered the lands resented the new
elite class that had entered their cities.
• But more so they resented the Caliph who had lifted the ban in the first place.
They believed they were no longer unruly but equally capable. They felt it was
all due to nepotistic tendencies of Usman.
• The discontent was highest in Basra, Kufa, and Fustat, which were ruled by
Usman’s clan and kin. These cities were the one that spearheaded the rebellion.

Internal Quarrels of the Quraish

• Usman failed to win the support of the Quraish because of favoritism and
nepotism towards his Umayyad clan. It aroused jealousy of the rival faction of
Banu Hashim.
• The Quraish tribe was now split into three factions: Umayyads led by Usman,
Alides by Ali, and the Orthodox consisting of the surviving companions and
their descendants.
• Umayyads though very able and brave leaders appeared in the eyes of others as
forced converts since they were the last ones to submit in Makkah conquest.
• All the significant positions were filled with Umayyad men and the Caliph gave
color to these charges by first refusing to replace them. But the he did so later
when the rebellions turned violent.
• Although Usman was ready to hear people’s grievances and was prompt at
acting. But he largely replaced last governors with new governors that were his
kinsmen.

Other
• Usman was actually revered for his soft and mild behavior, but as the adage
goes “weakness is, indeed, the firs sin of politics.” His softness proved
disastrous for him as a ruler.
• The revenue from Bayt al-Mal decreased, while the demand for pensions
increased.

Standardization of Quran: 651

Abu Bakr had Quran given to Umar who then gave it to his daughter Hafsa. This was
the Quran that the Prophet had recited. Since the new Provinces were at distance and
the population there had its own dialects. They started reciting the revelations
according to their interpretations. As soon as the news reached Usman. He ordered
that all the copies that were present in different provinces be burnt and the copy of
Hafsa was sent to every area and standardized. This infuriated governors of few
Provinces. Although through this act, he did a great favor to Islam and saved it from
degenerating into small factions.

Enlargement of Court of Kaaba: 647

Hazrat Umar had commenced enlargement of Kaaba. Usman carried it further to

complete the remaining portion. The persons that were to be displaced due to the act
raised hue and cry and complained the compensation was too small. Usman argued
they had to Umar about it, so why were they crying afoul now. But they wouldn’t have
it, and the news spread quickly around Arabia that Usman was displacing people
without their consent.

Treatment of Abu Dharr: 651

Further conquest brought immense riches to Madinah and the new provinces. Abu
Dharr, one of the oldest companions, lived an ascetic and a simple life. He took
simplicity too seriously and was convinced it was the only way. When he went to
Damascus, he was astonished to see Muslims live in such palaces, wearing highly-
priced jewellery, and spend so much on clothes. He started preaching about that in
Damascus mosques. He aroused lower-class of that areas. They were already
disappointed by Quraishite aristocracy. This gave fuel to the fire. They demanded that
money be redistributed. Usman called him back and argued with him that he didn’t
have right to redistribute the money when anyone who has paid Zakat. Abu Dharr then
refused to live in such place and asked Usman to be allowed to leave. He went on and
settled at a place 20 miles away from Madinah. There he lived life in penury and died
in 653. When few people of Madinah were returning, they saw his body and
complained that Usman was to blame.
Martyrdom of Usman
Abdullah bin Saba
• Abdullah was a born Jew of Yemen. He had submitted to Islam during Usman’s
reign and migrated Basra. He took advantage of simple-minded Bedouins and
started conspiracy against Usman.
• He started preaching non-sense. He told them that the Prophet would return.
If Isa can why not the Prophet, the greatest of all.
• He told everyone that there is a divinity that resides in every Prophet and is
then transferred to his kin. Ali was the one who had received the divinity. And
maintained that Abu Bakr, Usman, and Umar were usurpers and should be
removed from the seat.
• He went to cities of Kufa, Basra, and even to Syria, but was expelled from each
after a while. But he left behind party of his followers who kept on working on
evil designs. It is said that this party was responsible for writing letters to the
Caliph of his kinsmen’s misdoings.
• Many in Madinah, too, believed the letters.

The Crisis Deepens

• At last after the advice of many, he sent emissaries to four provinces to find out
about tyranny of the governors. Three emissaries returned and said they found
nothing concerning.
• The fourth, sent to Fustat, didn’t return and instead joined the rebels. It showed
all was not well in the empire.
• Thereupon, Usman called governors to meet him in Madinah after annual Hajj.
• He also issued the message that anyone who had complaints or grievances could
come forward, but no one did. The governors too maintained that all was quiet
and usual. Usman asked the governors for further suggestions. They replied
that a strict action be taken against conspirators.
• He deflected the suggestions and contended that he was an old man and wanted
no ‘bloodshed.’ He also denied Muawiyah to send him reinforcement for his
own safety in Madinah against the rebels.

The Rebels March: 656

 • An army of about 1000 men marched from Kufa, Basra, and Fustat on the
pretext of performing Umrah. They reached Madinah in March 656.
• People from Madinah presented a united front. The ringleaders of rebels
reached Ali, Talha, and Zubayr but were rebuked. They returned.
• But after few days, all 3 forces came back. Ali went to enquire about their return.
They had a letter with Usman’s stamp on it. It was written to the rebels’
governors and ordered them to behead all those rebels that had come to
Madinah.
• Ali went to ask Usman, but he refused any involvement. Ali then asked rebels
why was that three of the armies came back together if one of them found the
letter. The armies were adamant this time and entered the city. The people in
Madinah were disappointed to over the letter, without knowing the facts. Most
of them closed their doors and remained neutral.
• Only few defended Usman and stood in his defence when forces besieged his
house.

Usman besieged and murdered

• The armies now lay outside Usman’s house while people of Madinah locked
their doors.
• Time came of Hajj, and most left for Makkah leaving behind rebels only. Usman
was at the mercy of only few loyalists who guarded his house.
• Finally after 40 days, the rebels grew apprehensive of returnees from
pilgrimage and decided to go about killing the Caliph.
• 8 of them crossed the wall and entered Usman’s house. They killed him while
he was reciting the Quran. He died in June 656.
• Soon after this evil act, they plundered public treasury.

ALI
Election
• For six days, there was no Caliph to take care of the Islamic State. The rebels
had plundered and pillaged the public treasury. And it was about time, the Hajis
were returning.
 • The rebels knew the citizens wouldn’t let them go easily after they had
murdered their Caliph. They went to Ali and asked him to be a Caliph. he
reluctantly refused at first, but after many cries he finally agreed on one
condition that was the close companions accept him too.
• It is also to be noted that Ali largely had support of Egyptian rebels, while Kufa
and Basra had their own preferences in Zubayr and Talha. But Egyptians had
numeric majority and they had also led the rebellion.
• It is said that Talha and Zubayr were reluctant to accept Ali but had to under
pressure from rebels.
• But the election was controversial since the ones who killed the last Caliph
elected new ones. This opened Ali to new allegation that if not himself directly
involved he was an accomplice in Usman’s murder.
• Of course, Umayyad clan paid no homage at all. All of them that resided in
Madinah fled to Kufa, Basra, Makkah or elsewhere.
• It is said that Ali had been claiming the Caliphate on lineage that few Arabs also
hated the idea.

His Difficulties
Initial ones
• Now no one remained neutral. There were factions now some were pro-Ali, or
pro-Usman, or later pro-Muawiyah.
• No consensus existed. Ali’s election was more contentious than Usman’s. The
Bedouin tribes lying along the outskirts were growing provocative. They knew
the state was weakening with each day.
• A demand arose that Usman’s murderers must be punished. But Ali was
reluctant to do so. There is no clear reason as to why he didn’t want to do so.
• He argued it was tough to identify the killers and he couldn’t kill thousands that
had marched on Madinah, for that would only lead to more chaos.
• But it was a mistake, had he done only enough or started doing initially, he
would’ve had support of at least the ones that were neutral in the start.
• Several companions were disenchanted, they grew wary. The first chief ones to
defect and rebel were Talha, Zubayr, and Ayesha.
Dismissal of Usman’s Governors
• Ali believed it was Usman’s lavish-living and unjust governors who had led to
present situation. He set out to fire and then replace them all with his choice.
• His kinsmen and friend advised him against the action. They maintained it
would only lead to more rebellion against him. The Ummah was already divided
and this would further weaken it.
• Few governors had strict and frim control over their territory such as
Muawiyah. Syria didn’t join rebellion since Muawiyah was an able
administrator and a general.
• Ali finally sent his-chosen governors to main provinces. Some found easy
success, and some had to work hard and persuade the populace. But some
returned empty-handed such as Suhayl from Syria.

Showdown between Ali and Muawiyah

• As noted earlier, Muawiyah was an able administrator and belonged to

Umayyad clan. He was pro-Usman and so was majority of Syria. Muawiyah
used to arouse people to avenge Usman’s murder.
• A blood-stained shirt of Usman was hanged in the city and reminded everyone
of rebel’s atrocity and Ali’s reluctance.
• Ali wrote letter to him to ask for his allegiance, but he didn’t reply for weeks.
• In Syria, a cry was raised to march on Madinah. In 656, Muawiyah replied to
the letter. He sent the letter blank with his name on it in bold letters. Ali opened
the letter but was baffled why was it empty. The messenger told him of
conditions of Syria and how 60k Syrians were mourning Usman’s death and
resolved to avenge him.
• Ali also raised a force of 40k men. But there he heard about rebellion stemming
out Makkah and moving towards Basra. The rebellion was led by Talha, Zubayr,
and Ayesha. He turned his army towards Basra to face an immediate threat.

War against Talha, Zubayr, and Ayesha

• Besides Umayyads, Ayesha was the first one to reach Makkah. She had gone to
Makkah for pilgrimage. While she was returning to Madinah, she heard about
the situation in Madinah and resolved to return to Makkah.
• Sometimes later Talha and Zubayr also came to Makkah presumably on the
pretext of pilgrimage.
• Everyone was crying for revenge. At last, it was concluded that army would
march on Basra with 3000 men initially.
• It is said that Talha and Zubayr had their own motives to reign the State. They
had even asked Ali for governorship of Kufa and Basra but were denied by Ali.
• When the army reached there, the pro-Usman group defected to Makkan army.
The governor of Basra, Usman bun Hanif charged Talha and Zubayr of
treachery and reminded them of their homage. They contended they were
forced to do so under duress.
• A deputation was sent to Madinah to observe if what Talha and Zubayr were
saying was true. The deputation returned but with mixed results that leaned a
bit on their side. Usman bin Hanif left Basra and fled to Madinah.
• Ayesha, Talha, and Zubayr entered Bara and kept their promise and put 600
men to death, who had taken part in rebellion.
• Ali was to march to Basra with 20k men that included men from Kufa. Droves
of them belonged to faction that taken part in Usman’s killing.
• Ali was reluctant to fight Muslims and started negotiating for peace. The other
side too was ready to negotiate.
• The rebels in Ali’s party knew if the negotiations succeeded the rebels would
either be exiled or put to death. The conspirators then attacked Ayesha’s army’s
camps. Fighting ensued.
• Ali was shocked to see and claimed that he had nothing to do with it but by then
anger had taken over soldiers and fierce battle continued.
• The battle was won by Ali, but in practice this battle further weakened his
position. Ayesha remained unhurt.
• The battle that 40k participants lost 10k men. It came to be known as the Battle
of Camel (Battle of Jamal).
• Ali stayed in Basra for few days and then went to Kufa and made it his capital.
This further alienated tribes near Madinah. They believed Ali sure favored the
killers of Usman.
Civil War between Ali and Muawiyah
Relative Position
• Muawiyah was a down to earth realist, he realized he had no option but to wait
in his hometown until Ali fought war in Basra. He also knew that his resources
and men were low as compared to Ali.
• Muawiyah only had Syria under his command, whereas Ali although weak was
still a Caliph. he had numerous provinces under his command though the
provinces had their own factions within them.
• Ali’s army itself was fractioned. Muawiyah had firm grip over his
administration. His soldiers were resolute and only answered to Muawiyah.
Muawiyah also had informant in Ali’s army.
• Muawiyah thus compelled Ali to launch an offensive.
• Amr ibn al-As was in Palestine when he received news of Usman’s murder; it
saddened him a lot. He then heard about Ali’s war with Talha and Zubayr which
further alienated him. He threw his weight behind Muawiyah. These two would
go on to attain unprecedented successes in near future.

Battle of Siffin: 657

• When in Kufa, Ali sent a messenger to Muawiyah to submit for the last time.
Muawiyah maintained that the murderers of Usman be brought to justice. He
showed the grievances of Syrians. The messenger returned and narrated the
events to Ali. Ali was convinced there was no other way but sword.
• Both the armies met near Aleppo at a place called Siffin. For about three months
two confronted each other without coming to blows. Both were trying to avoid
blood-shed. It was Muslims against Muslims.
• It can be said that the battle was between Syria and Iraq. It was between two
clans of Arabia. Negotiations were again tried but both the leaders remained
adamant about there stance.
• Muawiyah was disheartened when he knew he might be defeated and was
thinking of flight when Amr came to his rescue. He suggested that arbitration
according Quran should take place. Ali’s army had many Quran readers who
were already very reluctant to fight and wanted to solve matters through word
 of God. Ali tried reasoning with them that they were being fooled and victory
was only few days ahead, but the readers wouldn’t have it.
• Thus fighting was halted, and two sides nominated an arbitrator who would
meet six months later. Muawiyah nominated Amr while Ali nominated
Abdullah bin Abbas, but the readers insisted upon Abu Musa, who Ali knew to
be neutral. The Caliph again had to give in.

Kharijis are born

• While Muawiyah returned with diplomatic win with his army still united, Ali’s
army further degenerated.
• The readers that had compelled Ali to agree to arbitration and then replace his
nominee were the ones to defect. They now complained that only God could
arbitrate not two men. They blamed Ali that was tricked by the opposition.
• On the way back, they separated themselves from Ali’s army, some 12k of them
near a place called Harura, 10 miles from Kufa. Ali didn’t take the matter
seriously and instead believed they would return after a while.
• They came to be called Kharijis.

The Court of Arbitration: 658

• The two parties were convinced by Kharijis to meet at Adhrukh. Both the
arbitrators came with 400 men each.
• Abu Musa was one of the oldest companions. He was a pious and a simple-
minded man, who spoke his mind.
• Amr, on the other hand, was a much later convert, whom some old companions
called ‘forced converts.’ But he was one of the cleverest man of Umayyad clan
and of Makkah in general.
• The arbitration began but Amr requested Abu Musa that they first discuss
something in private. Amr presented a defence for Muawiyah and asked Musa
why shouldn’t Muawiyah be a Caliph. Abu Musa rejected the idea, but it was
clear from his negotiations that he didn’t favor Ali’s caliphate.
• Amr detected that and suggested that both Ali and Muawiyah give up their
claim and leave their seats and the people can decide in consultation who would
lead them.
 • Abu Musa came and announced their decision first, but Amr turned away from
his promise. Syrians accepted Muawiyah as their Caliph, which he didn’t accept
for a year or more.
• Ali, again, came out with disappointment. This further made Kharijis confident.

Why arbitration would’ve never worked

The matter of the Caliphate was a constitutional one. Quran had no specific solution
to that. Quran only guided them to consult between themselves and nothing further.
The issue at hand was unconventional where Muslims were at loggerheads with
Muslims. To even resort to Quran plainly for the way-out was a mistake on Ali’s side
and a clever play from Muawiyah’s part.

Last Years of Ali’s Caliphate

The Khawarij
• The Kharijis (Khawarij) were mostly the ones that had left Ali’s army near
Harura on the pretext that Ali was an ungodly caliph since he had accepted the
arbitration.
• After the arbitration, they denounced both Ali and Muawiyah and called them
infidels. They chose their own leader named Abdullah bin Wahb and mustered
a force of 4k men to march on Madinah and make it their seat of theocratic
government.
• They were repelled by Madinah Governor, they then marched towards the town
of Nahrawan which they captured.

Their Belief?

• Most of them originally belonged to Bedouin tribes of Yemeni origin, especially

of great Tamim tribe.
• They were inspired by the Islamic principles of equality and fraternity and
looked to the equalitarian, feudalistic tribal system of Umar.
• They sought to preserve that against the emergent big feudalism of Umayyad
in Syria or of Ali in Iraq. They believed that Ali or Muawiyah both strived to
strengthen Quraishite aristocracy.
 • They wanted the system as it was in Abu Bakr or Umar’s time. They also
thought Usman was rightly elected and followed Umar’s path but then fell
victim to nepotism, for which he was rightly executed.
• They had also accepted Ali’s election. But defected when he accepted the
arbitration. They contended he wasn’t fit to be a caliph when he himself
questioned God’s decision to elect him in first place. Therefore, he too should
be deposed for his blasphemy.

Ali versus Kharijis

• Ali again summoned a large force against Muawiyah and well on his way to
Syria when he heard about the mistreatment that Kharijis were inflicting upon
those who questioned their beliefs in Nahrawan.
• They killed Abdullah bin Khabbad and his pregnant wife when Abdullah argued
that Usman was killed unjustly.
• Ali reached Nahrawan and defeated them there. All but seven escaped alive
from the battlefield. The battle took place in 658 March.
• After the victory the Caliph returned to Kufa to rest a bit. When he called his
soldiers again for marching towards Syria, they seemed reluctant. They
complained they were too tired of fighting and their weapons too were in bad
condition. Ali stalled the plan for a while.

Loss of Egypt
• We know how Qays had be called back by Ali due to Muawiyah’s conniving
games. He was replaced by Muhammad bin Abu Bakr. The new governor was
brave but not a good administration.
• He adopted provocative policy towards pro-Usman faction. He asked them to
either submit or leave the region. They didn’t revolt at that time but did so after
the arbitration.
• Muawiyah sent Amr there to support the revolt. He was promised governorship
of Fustat by Muawiyah.
• Thus Egypt was lost too. Amr again became the governor of Egypt. And he
remained the chief for 8 years till his death.
Truce with Muawiyah: 660
• It is to be noted that events in this heading are contested and conflicting.
• Ali was too weak to continue hostilities with Muawiyah. It is said Ali and
Muawiyah concluded a truce in 660 which didn’t last long.
• Subsequently, Muawiyah assumed the title of Khalifa in Jerusalem. Ali again
was to set out to challenge, but he was murdered and embraced martyrdom.

Assassination of Ali
• Though defeated in Nahrawan, Kharijis still hated the idea that ungodly Caliphs
were ruling the Islamic Empire: Muawiyah in Syria, Amr in Egypt and Ali in
Iraq.
• Once in 40 A.H. three Kharijis met named Abdul Rehman bin Muljam, Bakir
bin Abdullah, and Amr bin Bakr. They bitterly lamented over how Islamic
Empire was in shambles and need to be set right.
• They conspired to kill the 3 on the same day on 17th Ramzan. Ibn Muljam would
go to Iraq, Amr after Amr, and Bakir after Muawiyah.
• Ibn Muljam reached Kufa and met a beautiful woman there sympathetic to
Kharijis cause. He offered to marry her, but she had a condition that it was only
possible on the head of Ali. He without any reluctance agreed. She provided him
with two accomplices.
• On the appointed day, they hid behind the entrance of the Mosque where Ali
led prayers. The leader used to enter earlier to call everyone for prayer. As soon
as Ali entered the mosque, he was wounded with poisoned sword.
• Ibn Muljam was seized, the second one assassinated and the third one made a
good escape.
• Ali was wounded heavily and was carried home where after 2 days, he breathed
his last. He died on 27th January, 661.
• Muljam was put to sword. Muawiyah was injured too but recovered, whereas
Amr didn’t lead prayers that day and someone else was murdered in his place.
Both of their assassins were put to sword too.
 THE NATURE OF ORTHODOX CALIPH
Origins
The origin of the institution of Caliphate is early Islam is a matter of controversy
among medieval and modern historians and writers.

1. The accidental origin

It is usually said that caliphate was born by accident. The episode of Saqifa Bani Sa’ida
necessitated the formation or establishment of it. The meeting may have been planned
by Ansars there, but Abu Bakr or Umar were too busy in funeral rites of the Prophet
that they paid no heed to the matter, until the matter required urgency and they had
to rush their and find a way-out right there.

2. Tribal Customs
Dozens of European historians and number of Muslim too have maintained that it
came into being due to tribal customs. There is a great element of truth in this. It also
explains why the Prophet didn’t nominate someone from his kin or from his close
companions since he knew the tribes had their own way of choosing their chief. The
chief would one of the oldest, wisest, and most respected. The chiefs rarely from the
same forefathers, some did but that was due their character rather than their blood. In
addition, the procedure followed in the election of Khalifa was same as it was in
primitive Arabs. The first step required few elder leaders to elect the chief. The second
would be popular consent with bayt. This principle was preserved in 4 elections of
orthodox Caliphs with little changes here and there.

3. Islamic origin of the Caliphate

The Quran and Sunnah are rather silent on succeeding political leadership after the
Prophet. The word ‘Khalifa’ has been used only two times in Quran and that too in
different context. So it is safe to assume that the orthodox Caliphate had no precise
Islamic origins. Nonetheless, Islam did impact and inspire the nature of the Caliphate.
The Khalifa was an Imam, that is he would lead prayer. He would be authority in Quran
and Sunnah. Quran had also instructed Muslims to arrive at any decision in Shura
(consultation), which was largely followed by the Caliphs, although it use started to
dwindle in last days of Usman.
In short, the origin of the Caliphate lay chiefly in the tribal customs and habits of the
Arabs, guided and influenced indirectly by Islam. It was a product of accident rather
than design or conscious of thought or understanding of the constitutional issues
involved.

Nature of the Orthodox Caliphate

1. Equality of all believer:
Early tribes of Arab were democratic, not in a sense of today’s liberal democracy. They
were equal in a way that the Khalifa was to get Bayt from all of the believers. Moreover
the doors of the Khalifa were always open for anyone to complain or discuss
something.

2. Non-dynastic
Early Caliphate was not a rule of any particular family or clan. Each one of the
orthodox Caliphs were from different families. In fact, all of them rejected the idea of
having their sons succeed them. Umar strictly prohibited his son from ever thinking of
it. Ali, on demands of some of his followers, never nominated Hasan for Khilafat.

3. No party system
There were no parties in that era, only handful of wise and elder electors. The
consensus was then driven everyone through Bayt. There were however deliberations
on major policies, companions argued over the course of the government and
presented their views. This represented an element of opposition.

Their Election
All 4 Caliphs were elected in one way or another. Really speaking, it was a peculiar
system of election, for it was virtually a kind of indirect election. It consisted of two
stages that we defined earlier in “Tribal Customs” heading.

The people generally didn’t oppose the choice of a new Caliph. Any opposition or
refusal, could justify use of force against those who opposed or refused. To this extent,
Ali was justified in taking up arms against Muawiyah.
 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UMAYYAD
DYNASTY
Hasan accession and abdication
• Ali’s oldest son, Hasan, was elected as a fifth Caliph in Kufa in 661. He was an
ease-loving and a private person.
• Muawiyah was recognized by half of Western empire. He saw Hasan’s accession
as an opportunity to tighten and broaden his empire. He now marched against
Kufa.
• Hasan, too, marched with 40k troops. He sent his ablest commander, Qays, first
and then went later. His own inactivity and a rumor of Qays’s death made his
soldiers revolt against him. Upon this he decided to make peace with Muawiyah
on three conditions:
➢ He would retain to himself 5 million dirham in the Bayt al-Mal of Kufa
➢ Enjoy the revenue of Ahwaz Province
➢ Muawiyah would stop reviling Ali’s name in empire’s mosques
• According to another version, there was a fourth condition too that was that
Hussain, Hasan’s younger brother, would ascend the throne after Muawiyah,
though the version remains challenged.
• Hasan retired from politics, abdicating in favor of Muawiyah. Muawiyah
became the new Caliph of the Muslim Empire in 661.
• Hasan lived another 8 years but was later poisoned by his wife on the instigation
of Yezid, as Shias assert.

Muawiyah
Muawiyah was the second son of Abu Sufyan; he became a Muslims after the battle of
ditch. And subsequently became one of the most trusted scribes of the Prophet. He
went to Syria along with his elder brother, Yezid. Yezid was the governor of Damascus.
After Yezid’s death, Muawiyah became its governor in 639. He made Damascus his
seat of Caliphate after Hasan’s abdication.

Problems confronting him

The unruly Bedouin tribes were loosened by the civil disorder. The tribes especially in
Kufa and Basra reverted to anarchy and disloyalty against the Khilafat. The Arabs, too,
among themselves had their own quarrels. Muawiyah solved the problem by (a)
appointing strong administrators who he delegated supreme authority (b) reviving the
old policy of expansion of the empire (c) nominating his son as his successor to avoid
further civil disorder.

Lieutenants of Muawiyah
His choice in this matter proved to wise and far-sighted, although his first priority was
to select those most loyal to him.

Amr ibn al-As

Sir William Muir says, “it was mainly to Amr that Muawiyah owed his ascendency over
Ali, and the eventual establishment of the Umayyad dynasty.” He was made governor
of Egypt, which he remained till his death. He sent expeditions to North African
berbers.

Al-Mughira

One of the early converts to Islam and a citizen of Taif. He joined Muawiyah during
civil war with Ali. Later, he was made the governor of Kufa, which was full of disorder
and unruliness, mostly due to Shia and Khariji partisans. He soon controlled the
situation and brought it under the Caliphate’s thumb. He was the one who suggested
Muawiyah to nominate his son as his successor.

Zayd bin Sumayya

He was an aren’t supporter of Ali and refused to give Bayt to Muawiyah after Hasan’s
abdication. Mughira somehow convinced him to pay a visit to Damascus and then
decide for himself. He was received with welcome arms and showered with great
respect and gifts. He was impressed and unreluctantly submitted to Muawiyah. Zayd
would soon prove to be an able and a very clever administrator. He was appointed as
Basra’s governor in 665. He soon brought it under control. He further gained
governorship of Kufa after Mughira died. No one in his time matched his prowess after
Muawiyah, only Hajjaj would go on to hold such vast lands and supremacy later. He
died in 673.
His Conquests
The conquests had come to halt in last days of Usman and Ali was marred in troubles
of Civil War. Muawiyah resumed the forward policy. Muslim armies marched in the
East and the West.

Ziyad was the supreme commander in the East. He conquered Kabul, Ghaznah, and
Qandahar.

Attack on Constantinople: 670 – 680

Muawiyah was always keen on capturing Constantinople partly because of Byzantine-

Arab enmity and partly because he remembered the Prophet’s words regarding the
conquest of this great capital. It was attacked twice. Once in 669, Muslims raised a
gigantic naval fleet and fought for years. They returned without any win. It was
attacked again in 674, Muslims couldn’t capture it his time again.

Nomination of Yezid as heir-apparent: 676

There was no precedent in Islamic empire of nominating one’s own heir for the seat of
Caliph. Most of states agreed, but Makkah and Madinah provided stiff resistance on
the action. It was however Madinah that showed great reluctance in accepting the
nomination largely because it was a privilege of Madinah to elect a Caliph. But
Madinah was no longer a capital. Muawiyah had his own reasons for designating: a
civil war may have erupted after his demise, but it is more like he wanted the throne
to remain in his blood’s hands.

Madinah wouldn’t budge. He left Damascus on the pretext of performing Umrah with
1000 armed men. This was indeed a show of power. This alarmed the citizens of
Madinah who after all gave in. Only few individuals didn’t such as Imam Hussain,
Abdur Rehman ibn Abu Bakr, Abdullah bin Umar, and Abdullah bin Zubair.
Muawiyah, however, didn’t press them to pay homage to Yezid. In fact, he warned his
son Yezid to be particularly careful of them.

This act brought constitutional changes to Islamic empire. It would now remain
hereditary one from now on. Future chiefs of Umayyad and Abbasid followed the same
principle. The election was based on blood and no other qualification. Indeed, it was
Yezid’s nomination that turned orthodox caliphate into Umayyad dynasty.
His character in general
“Ali was without a doubt the braver of the two in physical courage, but Muawiyah,
beyond comparison, the abler and bolder Ruler. Muawiyah was a politicians rather
than a ruler a soldier. Muawiyah had a charming personality. He had a knack for
making friends out of those hostile to him. He himself once remarked, “I do not use
my sword where my lash is sufficient, and I do not use my lash where my tongue is
enough. And even if there be one hair binding me to my fellow-men, I do not let it
break: whey they pull I loosen, and when they loosen I pull.” Although not so lavish
himself, he did turn the kingdom into hereditary one, a fact which cannot be denied.
He may have been an able ruler but was living way lavish life than orthodox Caliphs
ever imagined.

Consequently, he brought changes to empire, for which he was unfavorite among

medieval Islamic history writers. They regarded him as the first King. He transformed
what was once a spiritual and theocratic state. The state was now secular, from that
time’s perspective. As Western writers have written, “The accession of Muawiyah to
the throne at Damascus heralded the end of Khilafat and the beginning of kingship.”
Or, “The Caliphate of Muawiyah is the opening chapter of Muslim monarchy.

His institutions
He is accused of giving up Shura altogether, a charge that is quite exaggerated. Instead,
he had a central Shura at his capital and then similar Shuras in the Provinces. It was
due to this large parliamentary kind of system through which Muawiyah brought
radical constitutional and pollical changes. Although most of the provinces were under
his control, nonetheless they approved first and then the policy went into action. But
that too he used for personal gains such as nomination of his son Yezid.

As a military organizer, he was as superb. He was the first one to have a large standing
army; and also the one to raise a first sizeable naval fleet of Muslim army in Usman’s
Khilafat and then in his own too. He followed Byzantine and Persian precedents in his
administrative set up, which irked few hardcore Arabs. They considered that un-
Arabic.

His Secularism
Although, on paper, he was a spiritual head but usually acted like a worldly one.
Secularism was a feature of his reign, that irked many Muslims. Muawiyah substituted
the Rule of Islamic Faith by the rule of Arab blood. In place of religious ties and social
aims of early Islam, he substituted the ties of tribal affinity and sentiments of Arabism.
He built an Arab Kingdom in place of Islamic Kingdom. Although himself a good
Muslim, he relied not on the sentiments of Faith but on those of the Arab race and
tribal spirit.

He also showed tolerance towards his non-Muslim subjects, especially the Christians.
They were always happy under his rule. He employed them in his service.

Role and place in Islamic history

Syed Ameer Ali writes, “On the whole Muawiyah’s rule was prosperous and peaceful
at home and successful abroad.” Whereas Hitti writes, “To his Umayyad successors he
bequeathed a precedent of clemency, energy, astuteness, and Statesmanship which
many tried to emulate, though few succeeded. He was not only the first but also one of
the best of Arab Kings.” In brief, Muawiyah was the founder of the Umayyad Caliphate
in the political and constitutional sense, while Abdal Malik in the administrative sense.
He died in April 680.

YAZID 1: 680 – 83
About him
Muawiyah had married a Bedouin lady of the Keble tribe, who became Yezid’s mother.
She didn’t like urban life and went on to live a nomad life with her son. So, Yezid was
raised in Bedouin milieu. He acquired such characteristics of Bedouin that were
present before Islam. We all know that Bedouins never followed in such strict sense.
It is said he was irreligious and loved lavish life. He was bent upon one thing – to keep
the throne to himself, no matter what lengths he has to go to. Arab historian al-Fakhri
writes, “His reign lasted three year and six months. In the first year he slew al-Hussain,
the son of Ali; and in the second year he attacked Madinah and looted it for three days;
and in the third year he attacked and burnt the Kaaba.”

The Tragedy of Karbala: 680

Indeed, it was an imprudence on Muawiyah’s part to nominate him in the first place.
Muawiyah knew too well the customs and traditions of the Arabs. He also knew that
the Prophet himself didn’t nominate anyone. Such a violation of Islamic Caliphate was
all more intolerable in view of Yezid’s character and conduct. He knew that at least
four men would challenge Yezid’s ascension; those would be the sons of Abu Bakr,
Umar, Ali, and Zubair. Muawiyah also warned him to treat Hussain gently since he
was the Prophet’s family. As soon as Yezid took reign, he wrote to Madinah governor
to ask them to take oath of fealty to the new caliph. Son of Umar complied but ibn
Zubair and Hussain left Madinah for Makkah to avoid it.

The people of Kufa hated their governor Ubaydullah, son of Ziyad bin Sumayya. They
sent requests to Hussain to come to Kufa and rid them of the evil Umayyad. They
pledged to give their Bayt to Hussain as their caliph. He sent his cousin, Muslim bin
Aqil, to Kufa to asses the situation. Muslim wrote to him that Kufa was eagerly waiting
and would provide him with 40k troops. Hussain along with his relatives including
women and children set out for Kufa. In total, there were 80 people in the caravan. On
his way, he heard about Muslim’s death by the hands of the men of Ubaydullah but
carried on his march towards Kufa. Just a few miles before Kufa in its North-West side,
he was halted due to Ubaydullah’s force. He encamped there; the place was called
Karbala.

The army of Ubaydullah cut off Hussain’s water supply. The army numbered 4k and
was under the command of Umar bin Sa’ad. For ten days, the battle went on. Hussain’s
side fought courageously but they were no match for the army of that size. Hussain
wrote to Ubaydullah to allow him either to return to Makkah, or to proceed to the court
of Yezid, or to go to Khurasan to fight the enemies of Islam on the frontier. But the
merciless King wouldn’t have anything, he wanted complete surrender and
submission, which Hussain refuted. On the tenth day, Hussain died as a martyr. His
head was cutoff and presented at Ubaydullah’s feet. Hussain died along with all his
male relatives except for Ali, his son, later designate Zain-ul-Abideen.

The governor Ubaydullah sent female and child relative of Hussain to Damascus to
Yezid, where they were received with honor. After a few days’ stay in Damascus, they
were sent to Madinah where they were received with a great outburst of grief and
lamentation.

The Rise of Shiaism

The tragedy rent Islam into two and gave rise to the Shia sect. As Hitti writes, “The
blood of Hussain even more than that of his father, proved to be the seed of the Shi’ite
Church.”
Sack of Madinah
• The citizens of Madinah were grief-stricken over the return of relatives of
Hussain. In addition, Makkah was of the same feeling.
• Harangued by Abdullah bin Zubair, the citizens showed the signs of revolt.
• Yezid on this situation sent a governor for conciliation, who then invited a
delegation from Madinah to visit Yezid’s court.
• Although the delegation returned with gifts, they told the tales of lavish and
prodigious life of Yezid and his love for music ad wine.
• This further exasperated the citizens who then drove out few families of
Umayyad blood out of Madinah.
• Yezid in retaliation sent a force of 12k. The revolt was easily controlled. Army of
Yezid entered Madinah and sacked it for 3 days. It was as if not the Arab
Muslims, but the Christian Byzantines had won a victory over the Holy City of
Islam.

Attack on Makkah
• In Makkah, Abdullah bin Zubair had already proclaimed himself a Caliph. the
Syrians laid siege to the holy city.
• They hurled stones and fire into it, which burnt down a part of Kaaba. The siege
lasted for 2 months, but before they could capture it, the news of Yezid’s death
reached and induced confusion among the Syrian army.
• Syrian commander, ibn Numair offered Abdullah to take the Caliphate, but he
refused.
• The Syrians returned, leaving Abdullah bin Zubair as a Caliph in Hijaz.

Muawiyah 2 and chaos

• Yezid’s son, Muawiyah 2, was made the Caliph. he was a sickly youth of pious
temperament. He abdicated the throne within 3 months of his accession leaving
the throne empty and heir-apparent less.
• Abdullah bin Zubair, on the other hand, was proclaimed as a Caliph in Hijaz,
Basra, Egypt, and finally Kufa. Even half of Syrians favored him.
• Had he come to Damascus, the Umayyad would have ceased to exist. But as fate
would have it, ibn Zubair remained adamant and Umayyads had a second
chance of rising to their zenith as we shall see later.
 ABDUL MALIK (685 – 705)
Accession and Character
• We know how Merwan came to power. He was driven out of Madinah when
citizens of Madinah were waging revolt against Umayyads. Merwan eventually
came to Damascus where he was made a Caliph due to necessities of time. He
reigned only for about a year when he was killed by his wife. The throne was
succeeded by his son Abdul Malik.
• When he became the chief, the empire didn’t extent beyond Egypt and Syria
and the second civil war was still going on. Most of the Empire was in hand of
Ibn Zubair, the caliph of Makkah or was ravaged by Khawarij.
• He possessed many of Umayyad traits. He was energetic, resolute, astute,
extremely capable and unscrupulous. He was well-versed in Islamic theology
and was a proficient interpreter of the Quran and Hadith.
• But like Muawiyah 1, he was of secular mind. It is said that when the news of
his succession reached him, he was reciting the Quran and closed it and said,
“This is my last time with thee; we shall never meet again.”
• Confronted with danger and enemies, Abdul Malik adopted a policy of making
peace with Byzantines and agreed to pay annual tribute to them. This freed him
from any external danger for now.
• This allowed him to concentrate internally, by his intrigues he first tried to win
their support and then at suitable time attacked and destroyed them.

Al-Mukhtar and Mawali

• The events in Iraq were grim. Abdul Malik left it to Ibn Zubair who made his
brother Mus’ab the governor of Basra. Kufa, on the other hand, was quite
unruly.
• Ibn Zubair rule was weakened there due to rise of the Shia factions.
• In 684, Kufans who had left Hussain to himself were immersed in grief,
remorse, and repentance. They resolved to avenge Hussain. They marched
towards Syria with 5000 men but were defeated by Abdul Malik’s father
Merwan. Among the few that got left out alive, came al-Mukhtar.
Emergence
• Mukhtar rose to power in Kufa with a battle-car of ‘vengeance for Hussain.’
But this guy was always ready to change sides. He was first with Hasan and
then went to Muawiyah and again sided with Hussain during Karbala.
• He was imprisoned by Ubaydullah after Karbala and treated so cruelly that he
lost one of his eyes. He was determined to seek revenge against Ubaydullah.
• By this time, Shias were virtually in control of Kufa. He became their leader
with the slogan of ‘avenger of Ahl-e-Bayt.’

His wars
• Al-Mukhtar, soon after coming to power, sent an army against Ubaydullah.
Ubaydullah was defeated in 686 and his head was brought to same place where
Ubaydullah once sat.
• These successes made al-Mukhtar the master of Mesopotamia. It is to be noted
that al-Mukhtar presented an extreme version of Shiaism such as he
worshiped the chair of Ali etc.
• He had ardent followers of Persian line, but his aristocratic Arab Shias were
particularly tired of him and requested Mus’ab to come and invade Kufa. Ibn
Zubair had tolerated Mukhtar, but after his victory against Ubaydullah he
renounced his allegiance to Ibn Zubair. Ibn Zubair allowed his brother to
march against Mukhtar.
• Mukhtar was defeated and put to death along with his men by Mus’ab. Again
the whole Iraq came under Ibn Zubair’s control.

Significance
• The meteoric rise and fall of Mukhtar showed that:
➢ The influence of tragedy of Karbala on the later history of Islam
➢ The power of Shia rallying cry of ‘vengeance for the House of Ali’
➢ The advent of Mawali, into the politics of Islam, in order to seek justice
and equality with the aristocratic Arabs.
Malik against Ibn Zubair
Background
• Ibn Zubair didn’t have easy time against Khawarij in Iraq too. They first
pledged and renounced their allegiance. They ravaged and plundered place
here and there.
• Abdul Malik was only a spectator in Mus’ab versus Mukhtar battle. Just as
soon as Mus’ab won, he set out to attack Mus’ab. But he had hardly left when
news reached him that his cousin Amr bin Said, who was promised the throne
had revolted.
• Malik returned and suppressed the revolt hurriedly. He put him to death and
put death to any further rising too.

The Campaign against Mus’ab: 691

• Malik had been waiting for a year. He in that time wrote letters and sent bribes
to leaders and common people to defect to him from Mus’ab.
• Finally in 691, he marched against Kufa. The two armies met. Malik’s bribes
worked and a lot many switched sides leaving Mus’ab and his son al-Ashtar with
only handful of people.
• All of them were killed and Mus’ab’s head was chopped off. Kufa and then Basra
surrendered except for Kharijis in South Persia and Ibn Zubair in Hijaz.

Attack on Ibn Zubair & End of the Civil War: 692

• Ibn Zubair remained inactive during the battle of Mus’ab against Malik. Malik
after his victory returned to Damascus but sent his able commander Hajjaj bin
Yusuf to march against Makkah and Ibn Zubair.
• Hajjaj first reached Taif, his birthplace, and write letter to Ibn Zubair to submit
which he refuted. Hajjaj then requested permission and reinforcement for
laying siege to Makkah by Malik. Malik allowed him.
• Hajjaj finally laid siege, which lasted several weeks. Kaaba was burnt down, but
how much isn’t precisely clear.
• Ibn Zubair’s supporters deserted him, but he fought like a hero and died a hero
and martyr’s death.
• His head too was brought back to Damascus. This inhumane practice had now
become a norm of show of power.
Against Kharijis
Only one internal enemy remained, Kharijis. They were not fighting for the sovereignty
of the empire, in fact, they themselves were disunited. It seemed like they had no
specific purpose instead of only hurling vitriol at the Caliphate. They were unruly and
fanatic and this is where there little strength ley: fanaticism.

Muhallab
• He was elected by Ibn Zubair to suppress the Kharijis. He submitted to Malik
after Ibn Zubair’s death. Malik gave him the same task.
• He would lead an expedition against the Khariji sect called Azariqa in South
Persia.
• At that time, Bashr bin Merwan, the brother of Malik, was governor of Iraq.
He refused to lend support to Muhallab on the instructions of Malik.
• As soon as Bashr died, Malik appointed Hajjaj bin Yusuf (Governor of Hijaz)
at that time to the post of Governor of Iraq in 695.

Hajjaj’s Role
• It is to be noted that Muhallab’s army had people of Kufa and Basra that
deserted him from time to time. They had deserted him this time too.
• Hajjaj first went to Kufa and then to Basra and threatened them dire
consequences.
• Now everybody flocked towards Muhallab.

Campaign starts again

• The fighting ensued again, but even after such reinforcement the revolt could
not be suppressed easily.
• It was Malik’s luck that Azariqa divided into two blocs. One bloc fled leaving
other behind in the battlefield. The half bloc didn’t have any chance now.
• Hajjaj was pleased with Muhallab and installed him as governor of Khurasan.

Khariji revolt in North Iraq

• Another band of these fanatics started to surface near Mesopotamia. They
consisted mainly of Banu Shayban tribe and were led by their chief Shebib bin
Yezid.
 • Hajjaj fought a long and an obstinate war (695 – 697) against them, but they
wouldn’t budge.
• Hajjaj had to ask for support from Damascus. At last, he defeated them. They
flew towards Ahwaz, but most of them fell in the river on their fleeing journey.

For now, the threat of Kharijis was over.

War against Zanbil: 699

• He was a king of Sistan whose rule extended from Kabul to Kandahar. He
ceased to pay tribute to Malik during the civil war.
• Hajjaj sent an army against him, but it was routed back. He sent another army
with best equipment with everything the empire could afford. It came to be
known as ‘Peacock Army.’
• It consisted of Basrans and Kufans, who didn’t like to go far from their
hometowns. The commander was still moving cautiously into the territory of
Zabulistan. This angered Hajjaj.
• The commander received a letter which said if he cannot lead an army he
would be replaced with someone better and the thing would be over in no time.
The commander read this in front of the troops.

Rebellion by Peacock Army

• This infuriated the troops and the whole army decided to revolt.
• They turned their backs to Zanbil and started their march towards Iraq, where
Hajjaj was.
• The army was so well equipped that Malik tried negotiating with them, but the
army wouldn’t agree on any terms.
• Malik, after all, sent troops from Damascus to Hajjaj. Hajjaj beat the peacock
army.
• This episode proved that Iraqis weren’t really happy under Umayyads. They
hated Hajjaj’s severity.
Conquests of Abdul Malik
North Africa
• The area was under the command of Uqba, but in 684 they (Berbers) revolted
because the Arabs treated them as an inferior race. The Berbers chief, Kusayla,
was given a minor position in the government, which he resented.
• He called on his people to rise against the Arabs. The Greeks joined them too
from Sicily. Although Uqba reiterated from Qayrowan, he was still killed in
685.
• In 688, Malik sent another commander Zuhair to recapture the lands. He
indeed did capture Qayrowan but again lost it to the berbers. At this time,
Malik had his hands full with revolts and tensions in Arabia. He stalled further
opposition against Berbers for now.
• Kusayla died leaving behind a woman successor called ‘Kahina.’ She had
magical control over the Berbers. Malik, in 693, sent Hassan to reclaim the
land, but he lost the battle.
• He again remained inactive for another 5 years. At last in 698, reinforcements
were sent from Syria and Berbers tasted the defeat. Hassan became the
governor of Qayrowan.
• The Berbers would then go onto convert to Islam in large numbers, but Arabs
always treated them unequally. This condition was exploited by few Kharijis
that had fled the Khariji wars.

War with Byzantine: 692 – 703

• Malik was paying annual tribute to them. It was a defeat before a war for him.
• The Greeks used to import papyrus which passed through Egypt, for which
Muslims got paid in golden dinars.
• The papyrus had watermarks from Christian scriptures, but Malik changed it
and now had “Say there is One God’ written on it. This angered the Greeks.
• They threatened with war which Malik was all ready for.
• But the war remained highly inconclusive. Some areas were gained while some
were lost from both sides.
• The chief losers of the renewed conflict were tribes residing in the border
regions who were displaced and sometimes caught in crossfire.
Reforms by Malik
Start of ‘Glorious Age of Umayyads.’ It began from 692 and lasted till 743 of Hisham’s
reign. Arabs may have had conquered the lands from Byzantines and Persians, but the
system and traditions that remained there were largely Unarabic. With Malik, the
empire started becoming more Arabic and became foundation for Arabization of lands.

New Arabian Coins

Hazrat Umar and Muawiyah had tried introducing their own coins and at some places
did too, but the coins were fully instituted by Malik. He first struck them in 696. He
copied from the Greeks, but they had now Arabic inscription on them. Gold coins were
called dinar, solver coin, dirham and copper coin, fills. The weights were standardized
too. Malik definitely achieved success here; the Muslim world was finally independent
from dependence on foreign currency.

Arabic as an official language

Muslims rulers had continued to rely on foreign languages for administration of
conquered provinces. Thus Greek was still in use in Egypt and Syria and Persia still in
Kufa and Basra. Malik, altogether, instituted Arabic as an official language. The
administration especially financial revenue ones would follow Arabic. The language
came into speaking too and that too in non-Arabs mouths too. But the language had
no written foundation, it was quite at least for the new learner. Arabs had no problem
in understanding or speaking, but others did. Hajjaj took on the role to reform the
language and placed needed effort in correcting for good. This helped in fine
interpretation and reading of Quran.

Architecture
Abdul Malik and his governor Hajjaj were great builders too. In 691, Malik built ‘the
Dome of the Rock’ in Jerusalem which is wrongly called Mosque of Umar. He also built
the al-Aqsa masjid in Jerusalem. One reason for focusing on Jerusalem was to divert
the attention from Makkah where his rival Ibn Zubair was leading, but as soon as he
was defeated, the construction activity in Jerusalem was dropped off.

Qatai Feudalism
He amplified the concept of Qatai lands. The feudalism was gaining strong ground in
different provinces. The classes had clearly started to emerge.
His Character in general
As with Umayyads, his character too has been blackened by Abbasid historians. He is
highlighted for his cruelty such as the one he showed against Amr bin Said or Hajjaj’s
severity. He is pinpointed for having dynastic interests, but so did any one who came
after him. Truth is, he was second to none in statesmanship. He expanded the
administrative setup of the empire, gave it an Arabic touch and turned it into a truly
Arabic one.

He was secular and believed theology and spirituality had no place in running the
government. But he reunited the Caliphate and did so at the worst of the times. He
defeated many of the enemies and reigned ably. Thus, with him began the age of
Glorious reign for Umayyads.

HAJJAJ BIN YUSUF

He was native of Taif, and a scion of the famous tribe of Thaqif. In his early youth, he
was a school-master and preserved a life-long interest in Arabic language, literature,
and theology. His speeches were long appreciated and commended by great scholars
afterward. After the death of Malik, Walid kept him in governorship of Iraq.

His Strict Administration

He was made the governor of Iraq in 695 to aid Muhallab in fighting the Kharijis.
Before that he had won Makkah again for Malik. He ruled Iraq till his death in 714. His
government is considered to be one of the cruelest, harshest, and most severe of
Umayyads time. As Ameer Ali writes, “In the course of his long Government over Iraq,
he put to death nearly 150k men; many on false charges while some of them were the
best of Arab race. At the time of his death, 50k people of both sexes were found rotting
in prisons and cursing the tyrant.”

The stories of his severity must, however, be understood with caution. We all know the
conditions of Iraq before his governorship. At the time of his death, he had brought
prosperity and peace back to it. The tribes residing in Kufa and Basra wan disloyal and
unruly. They had no specific aim, but to plunder and spread mischief. It may as well
be that their behavior may have further aggravated his temperament, but one cannot
forget his siege of Makkah where a part of Kaaba was burnt. But he didn’t stay in
Makkah, then, to plunder or pillage it. His character may have been of tyrant, but the
picture is painted too grim due Abbasid historian writers.

Other achievements
1. Development of Arab feudalism
2. Canals and other agricultural developments
3. Man of learning
4. Administrative system he taught to others
5. Empire builders
6. He expanded Islam to Subcontinent (remember to write about his and Bin
Qasim’s role in Pakistan History)

Al-Walid 1: 705 – 715

Accession
• Malik had nominated his son, Al-Walid, before his death for the throne. Walid
ascended the throne peacefully.
• During his reign the caliphate reached its zenith, which would go on to last till
the rule of Hashim.
• He, himself, wasn’t really a warrior, but he had galaxy of able administrators
and commanders.

Umar bin Abdul Aziz as governor of Hijaz

• Walid, upon his accession replaced the incompetent Hashim bin Ismael from
the governorship of Hijaz. He was replaced by Umar bin Abdul Aziz.
• It was welcomed by the people of the province for this man was pious, mild,
and kind administrator.
• He revived the consultative system of the orthodox caliphs in the region.
• He undertook the task of re-building and beautifying the Holy Cities, especially
Mosque of Madinah which was built with best of material of that time.
• He also constructed roads for the pilgrims. He planted trees, dug wells or built
water-tanks for them on their journey.
• Due to his mild and pious nature, people were fleeing from Iraq to Madinah.
They couldn’t tolerate Hajjaj’s harsh and severe rule. This irked Hajjaj who
requested Walid to replace Umar.
 • The Caliph delayed his decision but finally gave in and replaced Umar bin
Abdul Aziz with Khalid bin Abdullah al-Qasri.

Conquests under al-Walid

In the East
Conquest of Central Asia: 705 – 715

Across the river Oxus lay the region of Transoxiana. Muslims’ rule extended till the
Khurasan Province. Transoxiana was divided into several kingdoms, tribes and
independent cities like Bukhara, Samarqand, and Shash (Tashkent) etc. The people
were mostly Buddhists and Magians (fire-worshippers). The cities of the Central Asia
were renowned for their prosperity and riches, for they were situated on the great
international trade route between China and Western Asia and Europe.

Qutayba bin Muslim

After the accession of Walid, Hajjaj dismissed Yazid bin Muhallab from the post of
governorship of Khurasan and replaced him with Qutayba. On the instruction of
Hajjaj, Qutayba took an extensive expedition to conquer vast lands of Central Asia.
Qutayba shifted the capital from Nishapur to Merv, which would help him in his
conquests.

Wins of Qutayba:

➢ Captured Balkh in 705

➢ Captured Bukhara in 709 after 3 years of fighting
➢ Captured Samarkand in 711
➢ Captured Ferghana in 714
➢ Conquered Kashgar Province of China in 715

In the meanwhile, al-Walid had died. His successor Sulaiman was a mortal enemy of
Hajjaj and hated anyone who worked under Hajjaj’s command. Qutayba knew about
Sulaiman and decided to revolt against him, but half of his troops deserted him. He
died at the hands of Sulaiman just like Hajjaj did.

Review of the Conquests of Central Asia

First, the governor had started to favor people of Tamim tribe, who showed great valor
in the battles. This disappointed few other tribes. Second, the battles that lasted for
about a decade had disrupted the trade that Khurasan people were part of. They traded
with Central Asians. Lastly, Hajjaj kept Mawalis in secondary position. This is the
reason why no one came to the aid of Hajjaj or Qutayba when Sulaiman executed them.

Conquest of Sindh: 711 – 715

We all know the story of how Hajjaj sent Muhammad bin Qasim after Raja Dahir
refused to hand over the people that were captured near his seas. Muhammad bin
Qasim was sent with 6k horsemen and 6k camel-riders. He stayed there nearly for a
year or two during which he conquered the lands till Multan. The Islamic Empire
would go on to rule the region for another century.

In the West
In 708, Walid appointed Musa bin Musayr as the Governor of Qayrowan. Believing
him to be weak, the berbers revolted but were crushed swiftly. He, thus re-established
the control over the whole of North Africa.

Conquest of Spain: 711 – 714

At that time, Spain was a Gothic Kingdom ruled by Roderick, a usurper. The Gothic
Kings and feudalist had tight control over the serfs and slaves and later on the Jews
there too. They all were persecuted and tortured to work on the fields for the benefit
of the lords. Upon the capture of the region, serfs, slaves and the Jews welcomed Arabs.

Roderick had killed one of legitimate King’s daughter. That King approached Musa to
invade Spain. Musa sought Walid’s permission, which Walid was reluctant to give at
first but ultimately gave him the permission.

Musa first sent his officer Tarif to South Spain. He sent message to Musa that
conditions were favorable there since the serfs, slaves, and the Jews were all under
persecution there. Upon the message, Musa raised an army of nearly 7k men and put
it under the command of Tariq bin Ziyad. Tariq went on to conquer Southern Spain
fort which was built on a rock and came to be called as Jabal al-Tariq, today known as
Gibraltar.

Roderick came to fight Tariq in 711, but was defeated. Tariq, after that, divided his
army into four units and dispatched each in particular direction for conquest.
Musa, on hearing about the great conquests of his lieutenant, also set out for Spain.
Both started to quarrel on the division of bounty but finally came to terms and resolved
for further conquests. Except for North-Western region, they conquered the whole of
Peninsula and had plans to go further towards France. The Caliph Walid called them
back to asses the situation and then would allow them to go further in France. But as
they returned, Walid had died and had been succeeded by Sulaiman, who took all the
war bounty and threw them both in dungeons. They were soon released but died in
destitute state.

The Arab conquest brought prosperity back to the land. Many serfs and slaves accepted
Islam. Jews and Christians had complete freedom; they were now to pay Jizya and
Kharaj only. Over time, Spain would go on to become one of the chief center of Islamic
empire where art, architecture, and learning flourished.

Architecture by Walid
• Like Shah Jahan, he was a great builder. He rebuilt and enlarged the Central
Mosque of Damascus. Under his reign Umar bin Abdul Aziz beatified the Holy
Cities of Makkah and Madinah.
• He also built Mosques at places where no one ever thought of doing so.
• He also built forts in many cities, although this may have been expansion
strategy.
• Hospitals, schools, orphanages, and new markets were built under his reign.

Walid dies
• Many historians agree that Walid was indeed a despot and a tyrant. But they
also agree that he was more humane than his father Abdul Malik or his
grandfather Merwan, which is clear from his building of hospitals, schools,
orphanages, and elderly houses.
• He died in 715 leaving behind a legacy that hardly any of his successor lived up
to.
• Muir writes, “From the borders of China and the banks of Indus to the Atlantic,
his word was law.” At another place he writes, “the era of al-Walid was glorious
both as home and abroad.”
 SULAIMAN: 715 – 717
Accession
• Abdul Malik had nominated his sons for the Caliphate, one after another. But
Walid was thinking about nominating his son, for which he was supported by
the likes of Hajjaj and Qutayba.
• This was the reason why he relentlessly and mercilessly persecuted Hajjaj and
his relatives.

Character and Policy

• It is described as a mixture of contradictions: he was dissolute, cruel, and
worthless but also generous and bluff. He was fond of pleasure and good cheer
but also preferred justice and was willing to listen wise persons like Umar bin
Abdul Aziz.
• He himself indulged in impious acts but preferred to have pious individuals in
his courts.
• Immediately after Hajjaj’s murder, he opened the doors of prisons in Iraq. This
liberated thousands of people. Whether this was due to his enmity or justice
cannot be concluded.
• He had sought to reverse any policy that his predecessor had put in place with
Hajjaj.

Sulaiman and Yezid bin Muhallab

• Hajjaj had dismissed Muhallab’s sons from their posts due their Yemeni
leanings and had tortured them cruelly on the charges on embezzlement.
• The eldest son, Yezid, had succeeded in fleeing to Palestine where Sulaiman was
ruling.
• Yezid now with Sulaiman had been filling his ears with bitter hate for Hajjaj.
This and the fact that Hajjaj supported Walid’s nomination generated harsh
and severe hatred in Sulaiman’s heart.
• Hajjaj had died before Walid, but his generals and relatives were mercilessly
persecuted, and their properties were confiscated.
 • This had an unimaginable consequences which Sulaiman never probably
grappled with. This revived the Arabian tribal jealousies. Yezid was Yemeni and
Hajjaj and Modharite.
• This would go on to further deepen the crack between Modhar and Himyar
tribes.

His Campaigns
• Yezid bin Muhallab was first posted as governor of Iraq but soon requested
Sulaiman to post him as governor of Khurasan so that he could conquer lands
that Qutayba couldn’t.
• He, indeed, but not so much as he claimed.
• On the other hand, Sulaiman tortured Musa’s sons who were ruling Spain. They
had done nothing wrong. In fact, they were ruling the region very stably.
• He was pursued by one Greek commander named Leo the Saurian to invade
Constantinople but was left without any supervision when the commander
deserted to Greek side, who presented throne to him.

Sulaiman dies
• He died in 717 leaving behind a negative impression and legacy. He had also
thought about nominating his son but was pursued by few to nominate Umar
bin Abdul Aziz. And this is the only good thing he did.

UMAR BIN ABDUL AZIZ (717 – 720)

His character
• Umar was a son of Abdul Aziz, brother of Abdul Malik. From his mother’s side
he was a great-great grandson of Hazrat Umar.
• He was pious, saintly, moderate, simple, just, peaceful, and upright. Although
brought up as a prince, he renounced the life of ostentatious-ness.
• His first act as a Caliph was to sell the horses of royal stable and put the proceeds
in Bayt al-Mal. He also asked his wife to restitute the jewellery she had received
from Sulaiman, for it belonged to Bayt al-Mal.

Administrative and financial problems

• In this matter too, he was different from his predecessors as well as successors.
 • The administrative and financial system that Umayyads had built was founded
upon the supremacy of Arabs over non-Arabs. The Jizya and Kharaj were heavy
on non-Muslims.
• Umayyads, in past, had relied upon allegiance from Arab tribes who were
hostile to Ahl e Bayt and descendants of companions. Instead they relied heavily
on the Syrian tribes, who weren’t literally Arab, anyway.
• In fact, the later converts or Mawalis were still compelled to pay Jizya on the
pretext that the revenues would dwindle if everyone turned Muslim. Whereas
the feudal lords of Arabia paid minute Usher on their lands.
• His piety, simplicity, and his sense of justice and devotion to Islam would not
let him continue the unjust and un-Islamic system of his predecessors.

His governors and administration

• Umar bin Abdul Aziz adopted a policy of equality, impartiality, and public
welfare. His Governors, Qazis, or Amils were not appointed on the basis of tribal
affiliations but on the basis of uprightness and simplicity.
• Unlike Sulaiman, who favored Himayarites, he remained neutral. In fact, he
chose officials from both sides.
• His sense of justice can be gauged from the fact that he held Qazi in an as
esteemed position as a governor. His predecessors focused only on tax and
revenue collection, whereas he only cared for the prevalence of justice.

Treatment of the Alides

• Since the days of Muawiyah, I had become customary that the officials would
hurl abuses and imprecations from the pulpits on the memory of Hazrat Ali and
his descendants.
• Umar 2 ordered the garden of Fadad, appropriated by Merwan, be returned to
Ahl e Bayt.
• Similarly, the properties of Talha in Madinah, seized by Malik, were also
returned to his descendants.
The crisis of Arabian Feudalism: Jizya and Kharaj
• In the course of time, large multitudes of Dhimmis adopted Islam, but
Umayyads continued to extract Kharaj from them. In Iraq, Hajjaj compelled
Mawalis to return to their forefathers’ lands and cultivate and then pay Kharaj.
• These new converts were also refused share in Bayt al-Mal.
• Umar 2 laid down these rules:
a. Kharaj-paying lands of the non-Muslims should not be transferred to
Muslims after the year 100 A.H.
b. The lands already acquired would be in hands of those Muslims who would
continue to pay Usher
c. If non-Muslim converted, he would have to leave his land with his non-
Muslim brethren. He would be free of Kharaj and Jizya.
• In this way, Umar tackled the crisis which were only amplified with each new
successor in the past. He saved Mawalis from further downgrading and also
included them in Bayt al-Mal.
• The act was more pious than practical. Although the reforms had no radical
consequences for the state treasury, but historians believe it was a flawed
reform.

Religious policy
• His policy was to make adoption look more attractive to non-Muslims. He was
one of the few rulers of Islam who employed his political power for purposes o
peaceful conversions.
• He always issued orders in which he declared that any convert would be treated
equally. He never used the word Mawali or anything like that.
• His governors complained that the revenues were falling and that the
conversions may have risen due to avoid the jizya. But the Caliph wouldn’t hear
it. He would say, “the Prophet was sent as a messenger, not as a tax-collector.”
• Himself highly pious, but never encroached anyone’s liberty. His era was an
era of tolerance. Although he was intent upon conversions, but never forced
anyone. Nor any religion or faith’s worship places were destroyed or anything.

His death and review of his reign

• He died in 720 after 2.5 years of rule.
 • G.E. Browne writes, “Umar bin Abdul Aziz stands out as bright and noble
exception amidst the greedy and self-seeking Rulers of the House of Umayyad.”
• His aim was to consolidate the empire rather than expand it through sword. He
was content with what he had if no one breached the lands’ liberty.
• Sunnis regard him has “fifth pious Caliph”, for his rule looked more like the
rightly guided Caliphs than that days’ Umayyads who were bent on acquiring
only more power.
• He sought to convert as many non-Muslims as possible through peaceful
means.

Criticism

• A number of historians lambast him for his conservative approach towards

running a state. They believe he blindly followed the policies of Umar 1 without
keeping mind the changes that time had brought.
• First, the officials found it difficult to adjust to such radical changes in
governance.
• Second, his leniency towards Mawalis and non-Muslims had given them hope
which was dashed by his successors, thus giving rise to new apprehensions.
• Third, his policy of consolidation rather than expansion halted the army’s
morale which was lazy by now.
• Last, the revenue reforms may not have shown their colors in start, but as time
passed the revenues started to decline whereas the expenditure rose.

YAZID 2 (720 – 724)

Brief history
• After Umar 2’s death, the throne passed to Yazid 2, brother of Sulaiman and
third son of Abdul Malik.
• Yazid 2 was married to a niece of Hajjaj bin Yusuf. He loved her dearly. After
Sulaiman’s accession, Yazid bin Muhallab confiscated her property and
persecuted her. Yazid 2 argued with his brother to order bin Muhallab to stop
but to no avail. He resolved, if he ever came to power he would cut bin Muhallab
into thousand pieces.
 • Yazid bin Muhallab after hearing about Umar 2’s death bribed the prison
guards and fled from Aleppo’s prison. He started his preparation of revolt. From
here Yazid 2 sent an army of 80k under Muslimah, who was a Modharite.
• Ibn Muhallab died and his brothers and family were killed too. But the
consequences were too grave for Umayyads after this event.
• This culminated into all-out rivalry between Himayarites and Modharites. The
demographics were turning into bloc game. This gave chance to a person named
Muhammad ibn Ali to lay claim to the Caliphate from Abbasid.
• Hazrat Abbas was an uncle of the Prophet. One of his son Abdullah was an
ardent supporter of Ali and Ahl e Bayt. He died with disappointment that he
couldn’t do anything. His Ali bin Abdullah, too, didn’t participate in politics.
• Whereas Ali bin Abdullah’s son Muhammad bin Ali was an ambitious politician
with Machiavellian art.

HISHAM (724 – 743)

His accession and character
• He was the youngest son of Abdul Malik and ascended the throne upon his
brother Yazid 2’s death. He preferred to stay at Rusafa, near Raqqa.
• He was better than both his brothers, Yazid 2 and Sulaiman. He was a true
believer, and pious like his cousin Umar bin Abdul Aziz. His administration was
mild and upright.
• His long reign of 20 years gave the dynasty a pause from disintegration. He is
regarded as the third most eminent of the rulers from Umayyad, partly because
if it would have been someone else the Umayyads would have long eroded.
• But he was not without his faults: suspicion, avarice, and tribal partisanship.

Events in the East

• Hisham placed Khalid bin al-Qasri as governor of Iraq. He belonged to Bajila
tribe that remained neutral between Modharite and Himayarites rivalry. But he
and his tribe came to be somehow associated with Himayarites.
• Khalid remained the governor for 15 years. His reign was a reign of peace and
tolerance. He suppressed few revolts and continued his rule.
 • Khalid had an interest in agriculture. He was an official of Hajjaj, in his time.
He applied same tactics as Hajjaj, but a but mildly. This is also why some tribes
revolted against him.

Battle of Tour: 732

• Though Hisham was not a warrior, but he was ever ready to renew hostilities.
He fought Byzantines, but there were no decisive victories.
• On the other hand, Spain and France were in disorder. Sometimes the masses
revolted and acquired the lands and then the Caliphate would reclaim it.
• During 726-731, 5 governors were appointed and then removed. Finally in 731,
Abdur Rahman al-Ghafiki ascended the governorship. He was the one of the
ablest general and a true stateman. He suppressed any revolt remaining in the
area of Spain and South France. Thereby also gaining a bit more ground, this
brought immense bounty.
• He resolved to conquer North France. Battle of Tour was fought in 732. The
Christian army was led by Charles Martel. The Muslims lost the battle. It’s not
just the battle but the consequence of the battle on the world history that
matters.
• If Muslims would have won the battle, Europe would’ve been Islamized. This
was the last stronghold of the Christians. What lay beyond this region were
petty Kingdoms and priests, who were no match were Umayyads.
• The Muslims lost because they were tired due to continuous fighting in Spain
and South France. They also grew greedy over the bounty and wanted to return
with what they had attained. In addition, there was this rivalry between the
Berbers and the Arabs.

Last days of Hisham

• Hisham died in 743 leaving the throne to be succeeded by Yazid 2’s son. He left
behind a largely positive legacy.
• The legacy may seem a bit exaggerated, but the conditions of his time do merit
it. He preserved what is today known as ‘golden period of Islam’ and kept it
united as he inherited it.
• He was frugal and greedy though and alienated non-Arabs and Arabs as well in
his crop-yielding and money-generating techniques.
 MERWAN 2: 745 – 750, FALL OF THE
UMAYYAD
Merwan’s early life and character
• Merwan was a son of Muhammad, who was a son of Merwan 1. Muhammad was
made the governor of Mesopotamia by his brother Abdul Malik. In
Mesopotamia, Merwan was born.
• In 732, Hisham made Merwan 2 the governor of Mesopotamia and Armenia
after Muhammad’s death; this post he retained for 12 years until he would go
on throw Ibrahim out after Yazid 3’s death.
• He was a true soldier; he had remained one for his whole life. He was simple
and ascetic in habits. He loved his soldiers and preferred to stay in tents rather
than in palaces.
• Although far better than his predecessors in character, he had his shortcomings
as an administrator such as his obstinate spirit, his tribal partisanship towards
Modharites and lethargy he developed during his last critical days.

Initial Revolts
Yemenite in Syria
• Merwan had transferred his capital from Damascus to Haran in Mesopotamia.
• Hims, Kalbi, and then a revolt led by Thabit bin Noaym. All of them were
crushed speedily by Merwan.
• But a section of revolt army led by Hisham’s son fled away to parts of Iraq,
where they joined rebels.

In Iraq
• First, Ibn Muawiyah, a great grandson of Jaffar, a brother of Hazrat Ali revolted
on the support of Mawali, Alides, and Kharijis.
• He gained ground and rules large parts of Persia before he was chased out by
new governor of Iraq.
• Ibn Muawiyah fled to Khurasan to Abu Muslim, who had him murdered lest he
rise up to claim the Caliphate.
 • But his capture of Persia for 3 years had weakened the Umayyads rule there.
The rebels were now more than ever bolstered. This also proved beneficial for
Abu Muslim.
• Second, Kharijis revolted in Northern Iraq. After all conquering Kufa. But they
were soon driven out after Merwan was free from Syrian rebels.

The finale in Khurasan

Clearly, there were four kinds of struggles raged the province. They were:

1. The inter-tribal rivalry of the Tamimite and Yemenite Arab tribes

2. Rivalry between the Arab tribes and the Khurassani Mawali
3. The feudal clash between the Arab Settlers and the old Persian Dhiqans
4. The new revolutionary force of Abu Muslim’s Alides or Shia too

Tribes in Khurasan

• When Khurasan was conquered during Umar’s reign, the region was inhabited
by the tribes of Basra who conquered it for Umar. Among them the Modharite
tribes like Banu Tamim, Ribab, Khuza, and Qays were in majority.
• Muhallab when appointed by Hajjaj, brought with himself some Yemeni tribes.
This shifted the balance a bit, but the area was rivalry-free for now.
• But this turned worse when one Umayyad Caliph favored one over other and
vice versa.

Mawalis

• Many Persian inhabitants, feudal aristocrats, warriors, and commoners had

accepted Islam. They held they wouldn’t have to pay Jizya or Kharaj anymore.
• But Umayyad continued to charge, for they maintained otherwise State
Treasury would run out of money. Umar 2 abolished the practice, but his
successors reintroduced it.
• This reintroduction had irked Mawalis too much, who grew accustomed to not
paying the Jizya or Kharaj.

Arab Settlers

• Some warriors from Muqatila had relinquished themselves from the duty and
started living there. They started buying lands and became more feudal.
 • But there existed former Persian landlords too. These post-Muqatila feudals
asked the Caliph to exempt them from Kharaj, over which former Persian
landlords argued they be treated same.
• Therefore, none were exempted. This engendered inter rivalry as well as
hostility towards the Caliphate.

Abbasid Revolution begins

Setting ground in Merv
• Nasr bin Sayyar had accepted Merwan 2.
• A Yemeni tribe led by Juday al-Kirmani revolted in 744 in Merv. Juday won the
battle and drove out Nasr from Merv.
• At this time Ibrahim, the nominee from Abbasids, sent Abu Muslim to reap
benefit from the chaos in Merv. Abu Muslim decided to align himself with
Juday.
• Juday was killed by Nasr, but soon his son Ali al-Kirmani marched against Nasr
and was surprisingly joined by Abu Muslim and his followers.

Abu Muslim and his followers

• There is actually no consensus among historians over who actually supported
Abu Muslim in Khurasan province. It is understandable that these followers
came from Mawalis, Kharijis, and some Persians. But their precise numbers
and their length of support remains doubtable.
• Some historians now conclude that Arab Settlers, who had grown tired of
Umayyads policy, also supported Abu Muslim.
• It is to be noted that the Abbasid revolution was founded on the basis that the
Caliphate must remain in Ahl e Bayt, but that would not be the case as future
would delineate.
• But Mawalis, Kharijis, Alides, and feudals were already too alienated from
Umayyads that they blindly gave their support to any rebellion against Merwan
2.
• The pious groups from Makkah and Madinah, even, gave their tacit approval
for the revolution.
The D-Day: 747
• When Abu Muslim’s preparation were complete, a black standard was raised
for the revolution in June 747.
• Abu Muslim persuaded Yemeni group of Ali al-Kirmani and convinced him to
join their forces. They chased Nasr out of Merv and drove him to Nishapur.
• Masr cried for help from Merwan 2, but he was too busy in other smaller revolts
that he didn’t pay any heed.
• Merwan 2, though, did put Ibrahim, nominee of Abbasids, to death for his role
in the risings. But Ibrahim had already nominated his brother, Abu’l Abbas, as
his successor.
• Nasr was on the run but died as a fugitive. Now, Abu Muslim was the master of
Khurasan.
• Kufa was later conquered too.

Deliberation over the Abbasid Caliph

• Ibrahim had suggested his brother, Abu’l Abbas, to refuge in Kufa with his
relatives and family.
• There they hid under the roof of Abu Salama, who was appointed by Abbasids
to gather force for revolt in Kufa.
• We may remember that the whole event of rebellion was based upon the idea of
electing someone from Ahl e Bayt, but that wasn’t the intension of the Abbasids.
• At last, Abu’l Abbas was proclaimed as the new Caliph of Islamic State in
November 748 in the central mosque of Kufa.

Battle of the Zab: 750

• Merwan 2 finally decided to leave Harran and put up defence against the ever-
increasing power of Abbasids. He garnered 120k men, but the force was weak
in a sense that alienations and disunity prevailed.
• The two forces met in North Iraq on the banks of Zab. Merwan 2 lost the battle
largely due to his soldiers’ disloyalty and disunity.
• He fled from there to a nearby city but was caught and murdered along with his
few loyal followers.
• This is how the first dynastic Islamic Empire came to end in 750, under Merwan
2’s rule.
Causes of Umayyad’s downfall
• No definite accession principle. Old Arab tribal customs were retained just with
an addition of hereditary.
• Ill-treatment of Generals and Governors.
• Arab Tribes rivalry. The jump from tribalism to feudalism proved fatal. They
preserved the kinship society but introduced private property ownership.
• Himayarites versus Modharites.
• Irking Arab settlers.
• Engaging in harem practices.
• The power of Abbasids themselves.

ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM OF THE

UMAYYADS
Structure
1. The Khalifa
2. His Court
3. 5 central departments or ‘Diwan’

The Khalifa
Muawiyah nominated his son Yazid for succession. This became a precedent form the
coming Caliphs. This was the first major change against the Orthodox Caliphate. But
the succession wasn’t to be strictly father to son. There were cases when an uncle,
brother, or nephew were elected keeping in mind the character and the need of time.
Umar bin Abdul Aziz was elected although he was a cousin.

In theory, Khalifa had the same responsibilities as Orthodox Caliphs such as being a
religious, political, and military leader. In addition, he was to be a Qazi too. But hardly
any of later Caliphs ever led prayer. Their judgements as Qazi were prejudiced. They
loved to spend on slave girls.

The Court
Under the Orthodox Caliphs, the principle of consultation was followed. Under the
Umayyads, the place where consultations were supposed to take place was called ‘the
court’. Now the milieu of the court varied with the Caliph. For example, under
Muawiyah and Abdul Malik serious political consultations took place. In Umar bin
Abdul Aziz’s era theologians acquired greater space. Whereas in reigns of others the
place was a disgrace to look at. Drinking wine and slave girls’ dancing was the order of
the day.

Diwan
1. Diwan al-Kharaj (land revenue and finance)
It was originally established by Umar. For the collection of land-revenue, but under
the Umayyads, it also administered the entire finances of the State. It received all the
taxes, disbursed all expenses and maintained records of all receipts and payments. The
surplus of all Provinces was deposited here.

2. Diwan al-Jund
It was the military department, first established by Umar. It paid annual ata or
pensions to the Arab and a few non-Arab Muslim soldiers in accordance with the
Register of Diwans. But the Umayyads tempered it with putting in the names of their
favorites or changing the life-allowances of others as they liked.

3. Diwan ar-Rasail
The department of royal correspondence. It also existed since the days of the Pious
Caliphs. It performed several functions. Besides the letters and orders of the Caliph, it
also issued circulars and instructions to the provincial officials and subjects. It was
headed by a Katib or scribe.

4. Diwan al-Khatim
It was first established by Muawiyah to prevent forgery of royal correspondence. A
copy od correspondence was entered in a register, while the original was sealed and
dispatched.

5. Diwan al-Barid
It was the postal department to transmit royal mail between the capital and the
provinces. It was properly re-organized by Abdul Malik. Postal stages each at a
distance of 18 km were set up along the roads and highways leading from Damascus
to the provinces. Each province had an officer in charge.
Provincial Administration
Owing to the greatest expansion, the Umayyads administration was divided into 114
provinces, some large and others small. They were further grouped into 5 viceroyalties.
The viceroys were Chief Governors; they worked the same way as the Caliph did, but
just in their respective regions. Chief Governors usually had high form of autonomy
and self-government. They chose lesser governors for smaller provinces. The 5
viceroyalties (al-Iqleem) were: Iraq, al-Jazirah, Arabia, Egypt, and Ifriqia.

The Governor
The Chief Governor was usually called Wali to distinguish him from lesser governors.
Hajjaj bin Yusuf was Wali for he ruled entire Iraq. The lesser governors were in
practice only military leaders who protected the smaller provinces for the Chief
Governors.

All provincial officers except provincial treasury officer were selected by Chief
Governors. Sahib al Kharaj answered to the Caliph directly, so that public money
cannot be misappropriated by the Governor.

Some lower level officers/offices

1. The Katib → kind of a secretary to the Governor. He was an administrative

officer, rather than an executive one.
2. Sahib al Kharaj → he was the most important next to the governor. Tax-
collection was a key part of the Caliphate. He was answerable to the Caliph. he
collected all kinds of taxes.
3. Sahib ash Shurta → police were not a norm in those days. Anyone found guilty
of committing crime was left to the tribe chief to be dealt with. But the state did
have a force that maintained the general law and order of the society especially
developed cities.
4. Sahib al Burid → provincial post master.
5. The Qazi → the trend of appointing judges started since the days of Umar. They
had command on fiqh and were highly just and pious men. The court was
usually a mosque. Non-Muslims had their own community judges.
Cultural Life
We have read about the social life and the rise of feudalism in the Caliphate. This
feudalism became the root cause of the tribal rivalry in the future and the Abbasids
finally revolted. But we need to realize that Abbasids only took advantage of the time
and crisis. The revolts had already started to appear in Syria and Yemen.