GT Manual 17CVL57 PDF

BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
DEPTARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,

V.V. PURA, BANGALORE 560 004
GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING LABORATORY
Lab manual
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
VISION
To become a center of excellence in academics, research and consultancy by imparting quality

education and developing competent civil engineering professionals, who will be sensitive,
ethical and serve for the betterment of the society.
MISSION
• To train civil engineering students to graduate with knowledge and skills required to solve civil
engineering problems, to become leaders in organizations and for a wide range of careers.
• To create civil engineering professionals through collaborative programs with professional

bodies, research organizations and industry for the betterment of the society.
• To be recognized by the industry as a centre of excellence.
• To create a learning environment and provide limitless possibilities to students and staff to
excel in their careers.
PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
Are the attributes of graduating civil engineer, are as follows:
PEO1: will be trained to excel in their professional career by acquiring factual, analytical,
procedural, application and creative knowledge in mathematical, computing and civil
engineering principles.
PEO2: will be trained to analyse and design practically sustainable civil engineering systems
which involve sound civil engineering skills, optimum and acceptable solutions to the society.
PEO3: Will be trained to exhibit professionalism, ethics and with good communication skills
background.
PEO4: Will be trained in continuing education and engage them in lifelong learning to be
competitive and enterprising.
PROGRAM OUTCOME
Engineering Graduates will be able to
Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and

design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research

methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.
Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to
the professional engineering practice.
Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering

solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms
of the engineering practice.
Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the

engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’s)
PSO1: The graduates will have the ability to plan, analyze, design, execute and maintain cost
effective civil engineering structures without over exploitation of natural resources.
PSO2: The graduates of civil engineering program will have the ability to take up employment,
entrepreneurship, research and development for sustainable civil society.
PSO3: The graduates will be able to pursue opportunities for personal and professional growth,
higher studies, demonstrate leadership skills and engage in lifelong learning by active
participation in the civil engineering profession.
PSO4: The graduates will be able to demonstrate professional integrity and an appreciation of
ethical, environmental regulatory issues related to civil engineering projects.
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY
Subject Code: 17CVL57 CIE Marks: 40
No. of Hours/Week: 03 (1 Hour Instruction + 2 Hours Laboratory) SEE Marks: 60
Total No. of Hours: 40 Exam Hours: 03
Course Objectives: This course will be enable students to;

 To carry out laboratory tests and to identify soil as per IS codal procedures
 To perform laboratory tests to determine index properties of soil
 To perform tests to determine shear strength and consolidation characteristics of soils
Revised
Bloom’s
Teaching
Modules Taxonomy
hours
(RBT)
level
Visual soil classification. Water content determination by
1. ovendrying method and infrared moisture method. Specific 6 Hours L2
gravitytest (pycnometer and density bottle method).
Grain size analysis
2. i. Sieve analysis 3 Hours L4
ii. Hydrometer analysis
In situ density test
3. i. Core cutter 3 Hours L3
ii. Sand replacement method
Consistency Limits
i. Liquid Limit (by Casagrande and Cone
4. Penetration Method) 3 Hours L4
ii. Plastic limit
iii. Shrinkage limit
Standard compaction Test (light and heavy compaction). 3 Hours
5. L3
Coefficient of permeability test
6. i. Constant head test 3 Hours L3
ii. Variable head test
Strength Tests
a. Unconfined Compression Test
9 Hours
7. b. Direct Shear Test L3
c. Tri-axial Compression Test (undrained
unconsolidated)
Consolidation Test- Determination of compression index and 3 Hours
8. L3
coefficient of consolidation.
9. Laboratory vane shear test 3 Hours L3
Demonstration of Swell Pressure Test, Standard penetration
10. 6 Hours L2
test and boring equipments
Course Outcomes: Students will be able to conduct appropriate laboratory/field
experiments and interpret the results to determine
1. Physical and index properties of the soil
2. Classify based on index properties and field identification
3. To determine OMC and MDD, plan and assess field compaction program
4. Shear strength and consolidation parameters to assess strength and deformation
characteristics
5. In-situ shear strength characteristics (SPT- Demonstration)
PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PS PS PS PS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 O1 O2 O3 O4
CO1 3 - - 2 - - - 1 1 - - 1 - - - 1
CO2 3 - - - - - - 1 1 - - 1 1 - - 1
CO3 2 1 - 2 - - - 1 1 - - 1 1 - - 1
CO4 3 1 - 2 - - - 1 1 - - 1 1 - - 1
CO5 3 - - - - - - 1 1 - - 1 1 - - 1
CONTENTS
Sl. no EXPERIMENTS Pg no
1 Visual soil classification. Water content determination by oven drying
method and infrared moisture method. Specific gravity test (pycnometer 1
and density bottle method).
2 Grain size analysis
i. Sieve analysis 15
ii. Hydrometer analysis
3 In-situ density tests
i. Core-cutter method 22
ii. Sand replacement method
4 Consistency limits
i. Liquid limit test (by Casagrande's and cone penetration method)
29
ii. Plastic limit test
iii. Shrinkage limit test
5 Standard compaction test (light and heavy compaction) 41
6 Co-efficient of permeability test
i. Constant head test 45
ii. Variable head test
7 Shear strength tests
i. Unconfined compression test
51
ii. Direct shear test
iii. Triaxial test (undrained unconsolidated)
8 Consolidation test: Determination of compression index and co-efficient of
64
consolidation
9 Laboratory vane shear test 71
10 Demonstration of Swell pressure test, Standard penetration test and boring
74
equipment
LIST OF TABLES
1.1 Indian Standard Classification system 1
1.2 Identification of Fine Sand from Silt 3
1.3 Identification of Silt from Clay 4
1.4 Sample Weight 5
1.5 Specific gravity value range for different soil 8
1.6 Unit weight of Water 11
1.7 Unit weight and Density of Water 14
2.1 Indian Standard Size Classification 15
4.1 Correlations between the plasticity index, soil type, degree 30
of plasticity and degree of cohesiveness
6.1 Values of unit weight for water & values of dynamic 50
viscosity for water
10.1 Details of soil specimen (by consolidometer method/ 79
constant volume method)
10.2 Data sheet for swell - compression test (by consolidometer 79
method)
10.3 Data sheet for swell - compression test (by consolidometer 79
method)
10.4 Swell Pressure data (by constant volume method) 80
10.5 Correlation between SPT-N value and friction angle and 82
Relative density (Meyerhoff, 1956)
LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Pycnometer 11
1.2 Specific Gravity Computation 12
2.1 Hydrometer Analysis 19
3.1 Core Cutter apparatus 22
3.2 Calibrating Cylinder 25
3.3 Sand Pouring Cylinder 26
4.1 Consistency Limits 29
4.2 Casagrande’s liquid limit apparatus with grooving tools 30
4.3 Flow Curve 32
4.4 Cone penetration apparatus 33
4.5 Volume versus water content graph 35
4.6 Apparatus of shrinkage limit determination 37
5.1 Standard Proctor Test Apparatus 41
6.1 Constant Head Test Apparatus 46
6.2 Variable Head Test Apparatus 49
7.1 UCC test setup 52
7.2 Soil specimen in UCC test 52
7.3 Mohr’s circle for saturated cohesive soil 52
7.4 Mohr’s circle for partially saturated cohesive soil 52
7.5 Direct shear test setup 56
7.6 Principle of direct shear box 56
7.7 Mohr’s envelope and principal stresses during the test 56
8.1 Consolidation Apparatus 64
9.1 Vane Shear test 71
10.1 Swell Pressure Test by Consolidometer apparatus 75
10.2 Swell Pressure Test by Constant Volume Method 75
apparatus
10.3 Standard Penetration Test Setup 82
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING MANUAL
EXPERIMENT No. 01
VISUAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS

AIM: To identify the given soil sample or field identification of soil.
PROCEDURE:
Soils can be identified using the following simple tests:
The sample is spread on a flat surface, if more than 50% of the particles are visible to the naked
eye, the soil is coarse grained otherwise it is fine grained. The fine grained particles are smaller
than 75 size that is the clay and silt fraction is referred to as fines.
i. COARSE GRAINED SOILS:

If the soil is coarse grained it is further identified by estimating the percentage of
a) Gravel size particles (4.75mm to 80 mm)

b) Sand size particles (75 to 4.75 mm)
c) Silt and clay size particles (smaller than 75)
Gravel particles are larger than 4.75mm size and can be identified visually. If the percentage of
gravel is greater than that of sand, the soil is gravel; otherwise it is sand.
Gravels and sands are further classified as clean if they contain fines less than 5%or dirty if they
contain fines more than 12%. Gravels and sands containing 5 to 12% fines are given boundary
classification. The fine fraction of given the coarse grained soils is identified using the procedure
given below for fine–grained soils to determine whether it is silt or clay.
Table 1.1 Indian Standard Classification System
Symbol Description
G Gravel Identified by visual inspection
Identified by visual inspection. Feel gritty
S Sand
when rubbed between the fingers
Passing through 0.075 µm sieve. Cannot
M Silt be readily rolled into threads when moist.
Exhibit dilatancy
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, B.I.T, BANGALORE. Page 1

Can be readily rolled into threads when

moist. Greasy to touch. Shows
C Clay
considerable shrinkage on drying. Have
high plasticity & highly compressible
O Organic Have distinctive odor
Pt Peat Can be recognized easily
L Low compressibility (LL <35%)
I Intermediate/Medium compressibility (LL =35 to 50%)
H High compressibility (LL>50%)
ii. FINE-GRAINED SOIL:

If soil is fine grained, the following tests are conducted for identification on the
fraction of soil finer than the 425 IS sieve
a) Dilatancy (reaction to shaking) test:

A small pat of moist soil of about 5 ml in volume is prepared. Water is added to make the
soil soft but not sticky. The pat is placed in the open palm of one hand and shaken horizontally,
striking against the other hand several times during shaking. If the soil gives a positive reaction,
the water appears on its surface which changes to a livery consistency and appears glossy. When
the pat is squeezed between the fingers, the water and gloss disappear from the surface. It
becomes stiff and ultimately crumbles.
The rapidity with which water appears on the surface during shaking and disappears during
squeezing is used in the identification of fine – grained soils. The larger the size of particles, the
quicker is the reaction. The reaction is called quick if water appears and disappears quickly. The
reaction is termed slow if water appears and disappears slowly. For no reaction, the water does
not appear at the surface.
b) Toughness Test:
The pat used in the dilatancy test is dried by working and remoulding until it has the consistency
of putty. The time required to dry the pat depends upon the plasticity of the soil.

The pat is rolled on a smooth surface or between the palms into a thread of about 3 mm
in diameter. The thread is folded and re-rolled to reduce the water in soil, due evaporation by
head of hand, until the 3 mm diameter thread just crumbles. The water content at that stage is
called the toughness. After the thread crumbles, the pieces of the sample are lumped together and
subjected to kneading until the lump also crumbles. The tougher the thread at the plastic limit
and the stiffer the kneaded lump just before it crumbles, the higher the toughness of the soil. The
toughness is low if the thread is weak and the soil mass cannot be lumped together when drier
than plastic limit. The toughness is high when the lump can be moulded drier than plastic limit
and high pressure is required to roll the thread. The toughness depends upon the potency of the
colloidal clay.
c) Dry Strength Test:

The pat of the soil is completely dried by air drying or sun drying or oven – drying. The
dry strength is determined by breaking and crumbling in between fingers. The dry strength is a
measure of plasticity of the soil. The dry strength depends upon the colloidal fraction of the soil.
The strength is termed high if the dried pan cannot be powdered at all, medium, if
considerable pressure is required, and low, if the dry pat can be easily powdered. The percentage
of different soil particle sizes can approximately determined as follows. Take little soil in a
beaker and add water to it. Shake the beaker to allow the soil particles to settle down. The bigger
particles settle faster at the bottom. After some time smaller particles gradually settle down layer
by layer according to their sizes. By just inspection one can have rough idea of the composition
of different diameter particles.
Table 1.2 Identification of Fine Sand from Silt
Sl. Fine sand Silt

No.
1. Particles mostly visible Particles mostly invisible
2. No real plasticity Some plasticity
3. Definitely gritty Rough texture, but not gritty.
Dry lumps have some slight cohesion but Dry lumps have appreciable cohesion but
4. can be very easily powdered between the can be powdered between the fingers
fingers

Table 1.3 Identification of Silt from Clay
Sl. Silt Clay

No.
1. Rough texture Smooth & greasy to the touch
Dries moderately quickly and can be Sticks to the fingers and dries slowly
2.
dusted off the fingers leaving only a stain
3. Definite dilatancy No dilatancy
Dry lumps have appreciable cohesion, but Dry lumps can be broken, but not
4.
can be powdered between fingers powdered in the fingers

EXPERIMENT No. 1b
DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT BY OVEN DRYING

METHOD
IS: 2720: Part II: 1973 (Reaffirmed 2002)
AIM: To determine the water content or moisture content of a given soil sample by oven drying
method.
DEFINITION: The water content also called the moisture content is the ratio of the weight of
water to the weight of the solids in a given mass of soil. This ratio is usually expressed as
percentage.
THEORY: Moisture content plays an important role in understanding the behavior of fine
grained soils. It is the moisture content which changes the soil from liquid state to plastic and
solid state. Its values control the shear strength and compressibility of soils. Compaction of soils
in the field is also controlled by the quantity of water present. Density of soils are directly
influenced by its value and are used in calculating the stability of slopes, bearing capacity of soil-
foundation system, earth pressure behind the retaining walls and pressures due to overburden. In
almost all soil tests moisture content of the soil is to be determined. The moisture content will
give an idea of the state of soil in the field.
APPARATUS: Water content containers or cups, Balance of 0.01 gm accuracy, Hot air oven,
Desiccator.
Sample weight*: The quantity of the soil sample to be taken depends on the gradation and
maximum size of particles. The quantities recommended for general laboratory use are given in
table below:
Table 1.4 Sample Weight

Sl. No. Size of particles Minimum Weight to be
taken in gm.
1. 425 µm 25
2. 2 - mm 50
3. 4.75 mm 200

4. 9.75 mm – 10 mm 300
5. 19 mm – 20 mm 500
6. 37.5mm – 40 mm 1000
*If soil is dry, take more quantity than indicated.
PROCEDURE:
1. Record the weight of empty, cleaned & dry water content cup along with lid (W1).
2. Take the required quantity of soil specimen, crumble it and place loosely in the container
and weigh it with lid (W2)
3. Keep the container with lid open in the oven for 24 hours at1050 +/-50C. (if the soil
sample has gypsum/organic materials, temperature must be in between 600 to 800C)
4. Close the lid & cool the soil specimen in desiccators.
5. Record the weight of dried soil with container lid closed (W3).
6. Weigh it again at a suitable interval. The difference in weight should not be more than
0.1% of original weight of soil specimen. If not, dry it in oven again. The difference in
weight is determined using 0.001g accuracy balance. Repeat this till constant weight is
obtained.
FORMULA:
weight of water
water content , w  100
weight of dry soil
W2  W3
water content , w  100
W3  W1
w1 =Weight of empty container
w2 =Weight of wet soil sample + weight of container
w3 =Weight of dry soil + weight of container

OBSERVATION:
Soil type:
Maximum size of soil particle:
Minimum weight of soil to be taken:
TABULAR COLUMN:
Trial No. 1 2 3 4 5
Cup No.
Weight of empty container
( W1 )
Weight ofwet soil sample +
weight of container
( W2 )
Weight of dry soil + weight of
container
( W3 )
W  W3
water content , w  2 100
W3  W1
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The soil specimen should be loosely placed in the container

2. Overheating should be avoided
3. Dry soil sample should not be left in open before weighing.
RESULT: The water content of the soil sample is ________%
Note: Water content shall be reported to two significant places.

EXPERIMENT No. 1c
DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY BY PYCNOMETER
IS 2720: Part III: Sec 2: 1980
AIM: To determine the specific gravity of medium & coarse grained soil.
DEFINITION: Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight in air of a given volume of
soil solids at a stated temperature to the weight in air of an equal volume of distilled water at that
temperature.
THEORY: Specific gravity of soil grains is an important property and is used in calculating
voids ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation if density and water content are known. Its value
helps up to some extent in identification and classification of soils. It gives an idea about the
suitability of the soil as a construction material; higher value of specific gravity gives more
strength for roads and foundations. It is also used in computing the soil particle size by means of
hydrometer analysis. It is also used in estimating the critical hydraulic gradient in soil when a
sand boiling condition is being studied.
Its value range as follows:
Table 1.5 Specific gravity value range for different soil
Type of Soil Specific Gravity
Coarse grained soil 2.6 – 2.7

Fine grained soil 2.7 - 2.8
Organic soil 2.3 – 2.5
APPARATUS: Pycnometer – 1 Liter capacity, Thermometer 0-50 0C, Wash Bottle, Balance-0.2
gm accuracy, etc.
(If the particle size is less than 2 mm, density bottle should be used to find specific gravity)
Soil sample: 200 gm for fine grained soil
: 400 gm for medium & coarse grained soil
Sample should be oven dried and cooled & stored in an airtight container

PROCEDURE:
1. Record the weight of cleaned, dry pycnometer (W1).
2. Take 200 or 400 grams of cleaned oven dried soil in the pycnometer.
3. Record the weight of pycnometer + dried soil (W2).
4. Add distilled water slowly & keep it aside for 4 hrs. in case medium and coarse grained
soils. (For fine grained soils, don’t set aside. Air is removed by suction pump)
5. The pycnometer is shaken by hand until the particles are in suspension.
6. Then placed in shaking apparatus and shaken for 20–30 minutes. (Instead, stir the soil
thoroughly using a glass rod so the air present in soil voids is completely driven out)
7. Fix the brass stopper to the pycnometer bottle and completely fill the bottle with distilled
water using a wash bottle. Record the weight of pycnometer (W3).
8. Empty the bottle completely, washes & cleans the bottle thoroughly. Fill the bottle by
distilled water to the brim using wash bottle.
9. Record the Weight of bottle + water (W4).
FORMULA:
Weight of soil in air at stated temp.

SpecificGravity, G 
Weight of equal volume of distilled water at that temp.
W2  W1
GT 
W2  W1   W3  W4 
GT  T
G27 
 27
W1=Weight of empty dry pycnometer

W2=Weight of pycnometer + dry soil
W3=Weight of pycnometer + dry soil + distilled water
W4=Weight of pycnometer + distilled water

GT =Specific gravity at room temperature

G27 = Specific gravity or unit weight of water at 270C
 T , 27 = Specific gravity or unit weight of water at T0&270C
OBSERVATIONS:
Soil type: Room temperature: t0 C
Weight of soil taken: Unit weight of water at t0 C, γT:
Unit weight of water at 270 C, γ27:
TABULAR COLUMN:
TRIAL No.
Sl.
Particulars 1 2 3
No
01. Weight of empty dry pycnometer(W1) (g)
02. Weight of pycnometer + soil(W2) (g)
03. Weight of pycnometer + soil + distilled water(W3) (g)
04. Weight of pycnometer + distilled water(W4) (g)
Specific gravity at room temperature

05. W2  W1
GT 
W2  W1   W3  W4 
GT  T
06. G27 
 27
RESULT:
The specific gravity of given soil is__________
Note:
The result should be reported nearest to 0.01.

If two results differ by more than 0.03, test shall be repeated.
Table 1.6 Unit weight of water
Unit weight of water

Unit Weight
Temp. 0C
(kN/m3)
4 9.8070
16 9.7969
18 9.7935
20 9.7896
22 9.7854
24 9.7808
26 9.7758
28 9.7704
30 9.7646
Figure 1.1 Pycnometer

EXPERIMENT No. 1d
DETERMINATIONOF SPECIFIC GRAVITY

IS 2720: Part III: Sec 1: 1980
AIM:To determine the specific gravity of fine grained soilby using a density bottle.
APPARATUS:
(i) Two density bottles – 50 ml. capacity with stoppers.

(ii) Water bath at 270C.
(iii) Vacuum desiccator.
(iv) Hot air oven.
(v) Balance – Accuracy 0.001 gm.
(vi) Vacuum pump.
(vii) Glass rod – 150 mm long with 3 mm dia.
(viii) Wash bottle with air free distilled water.
Figure 1.2 Specific Gravity Computation
PROCEDURE:
1. Clean and dry the density bottle
a. Wash the bottle with water and allow it to drain.
b. Wash it with alcohol and drain it to remove water.
c. Wash it with ether, to remove alcohol and drain ether.
2. Weigh the empty bottle with stopper (W1).

3. Take about 10 to 20 gm of oven soil sample which is cooled in a desiccator. Transfer it to the
bottle. Find the weight of the bottle and soil (W2).
4. Put 10ml of distilled water in the bottle to allow the soil to soak completely. Leave it for
about 2 hours.
5. Again fill the bottle completely with distilled water put the stopper and keep the bottle under
constant temperature.
6. Take the bottle outside and wipe it clean and dry note. Now determine the weight of the
bottle and the contents (W3).
7. Now empty the bottle and thoroughly clean it. Fill the bottle with only distilled water and
weigh it. Let it be (W4).
8. Repeat the same procedure for 2 to 3 times, take the average reading of it.
FORMULA:
Weight of soil in air at stated temp.

SpecificGravity, G 
Weight of equal volume of distilled water at that temp.
W2  W1
GT 
W2  W1   W3  W4 
GT  T
G27 
 27
GT = Specific gravity at room temperature.
G27 = Specific gravity or unit weight of water at 270C
γT, γ27 = Specific gravity or unit weight of water at T0&270C
TABULAR COLUMN:
TRIAL No.
Sl.
Particulars 1 2 3
No
01. Weight of empty dry density bottle (W1) (g)
02. Weight of density bottle + soil(W2) (g)
03. Weight of density bottle +soil+distilled water(W3) (g)

04. Weight of density bottle + distilled water(W4) (g)
Specific gravity at room temperature

05. W2  W1
GT 
W2  W1   W3  W4 
GT  T
06. G27 
 27
RESULT:
The specific gravity of fine grained soil is ___________
Note:
The result should be reported nearest to 0.01.
If two results differ by more than 0.03, test shall be repeated.
Table 1.7 Unit Weight and Density of liquid water
Unit weight of water Density of liquid water

Temp (°C) Density (kg/m3)
Temp. 0 Unit Weight
C (kN/m3) +100 958.4
+80 971.8
4 9.8070
+60 983.2
16 9.7969 +40 992.2
18 9.7935 +30 995.6502
20 9.7896 25 997.0479
+22 997.7735
22 9.7854
+20 998.2071
24 9.7808 +15 999.1026
26 9.7758 +10 999.7026
+4 999.9720
28 9.7704
0 999.8395
30 9.7646 −10 998.117
−20 993.547
−30 983.854
The values below 0 °C refer to super cooled water.

EXPERIMENT No.2 a
GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS

IS 2720: Part IV: 1985
AIM: To classify coarse grained soil
THEORY: Soils having particles larger than 0.075mm size are termed as coarse grained soils. In
these soils more than 50% of the total mass is larger than 0.075mm. Coarse grained soil may
have boulder, cobble, gravel and sand.
Coarse grained soils may have rounded to angular bulky, hard, rock particles with sizes as shown
in the fig below:
Table 2.1 IS size classification
Coarse grained
Fine grained
Sand Gravel Cobble Boulder
Clay Silt Fine Medium Coarse Fine Coarse
<0.002 >0.002 >0.075 >0.425 >2 mm >4.75 mm >20 mm >80 >300

mm mm mm mm mm mm
Name of the soil is given depending upon the maximum percentage of the above components.
Soils having less than 5% particles of size smaller than 0.075mm are designed by the symbols:
GW- Well graded gravel
GP- Poorly graded gravel
SW- Well graded sand
SP-Poorly graded sand
Soils having greater than 12% of particles of size smaller than 0.075mm are designed by the
symbols:
GM or GC- Silty gravel or clayey gravel
SM or SC- Silty sand or clayey sand
 Dual symbols are used for the soils having 0.075mm passing between 5% to 12%
 Dry sieve analysis is performed for cohesionless soils if fines are less than 5%

 Wet sieve analysis is done if fines are more than 5% and of cohesive in nature
 Gravels and sands may be either poorly graded (uniformly graded) or well graded
depending upon the values of coefficient of curvature and uniformity coefficient.
APPARATUS:
Sieves (2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 m, 425 m, 300m, 150m, 75m, & pan), lid, sieve shaker,
Balance – accuracy 0.1 gm, Brushes, Mortar with rubber covered pestle etc.
Weight of Sample: 500 gm (passing 4.75mm retained on 75-micron sieve)
FORMULA:
D60
Uniformity coefficient, Cu 
D10
D60 = Diameter of particles at 60 % finer

D10=Diameter of particles at 10 % finer
Uniformity coefficient values should be more than 4 for well graded gravels and more than 6
for well graded soils. (IS: 1498-1970)
D 230
Co- efficient of curvature, Cc 
D60  D10
D10=Diameter of particles at 10 % finer

D30= Diameter of particles at 30 % finer
D60= Diameter of particles at 60 % finer
Co- efficient of curvature should lie between 1 and 3 for well graded gravels and sands.
Allen Hazen’s equation:
Co-efficient of permeability, k  CD10 2 (D10 size in cm & C = 100)
PROCEDURE: Dry sieving
1. Take 500 grams of oven dry soil (at 1050C) sample passing through IS 4.75mm sieve.
The quantity of soil to be taken depends on maximum diameter of particles.
2. The sieves are cleaned.
3. Then they are kept one above the other in decreasing order of their size. The soil
sample taken should be placed on the top most sieve
4. The sieves mounted on to the sieve shaker and sieved for a period of 10 minutes.

5. Record the quantity of soil retained on each sieve. Also record the weight of soil
collected in the pan.
6. The percentage of soil retained on each sieve is calculated on the basis of the weight of
the soil taken initially.
7. Calculate the cumulative weight retained, percentage cumulative weight of soil retained
and percent finer.
8. Draw particle diameter (sieve size) vs percent finer curve in a semi-log graph sheet. Find
out D10, D30 and D60 from graph and hence co – efficient of curvature and
uniformity coefficient.
OBSERVATIONS:
Weight of soil sample taken:
Maximum size of soil particle:
TABULAR COLUMN:
Percentage Percentage
Weight of
Sieve Weight of Weight of weight of Cumulative
IS: soil % Finer
size empty sieve sieve + soil Soil Weight
Sieve retained ‘N’
(mm) (g) (g) Retained retained
(g)
(%) ‘C’
RESULT:


EXPERIMENT No. 2 b
HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
AIM: Grain size analysis of fine grained soils by hydrometer analysis test.
THEORY: For determining the grain size distribution of soil sample, usually mechanical
analysis (sieve analysis) is carried out in which the finer sieve used is 63 micron or the nearer
opening. If a soil contains appreciable quantities of fine fractions in (less than 63 micron) wet
analysis is done. One form of the analysis is hydrometer analysis. It is very much helpful to
classify the soil as per IS classification. The properties of the soil are very much influenced by
the amount of clay and other fractions.
APPARATUS: Hydrometer. Glass measuring cylinder-Two of 1000 ml capacity with ground

glass or rubber stoppers about 7 cm diameter and 33 cm high marked at 1000 ml volume,
Thermometer- To cover the range 0 to 50o C with an accuracy of 0.5 oC, Water bath, Stirring
apparatus, I.S sieves apparatus, Balance-accurate to 0.01 gm, Oven-105 to 110 oC. Stop watch,
Desiccators, Centimeter scale, Porcelain evaporating dish, Wide mouth conical flask or conical
beaker of 1000 ml capacity, Thick funnel-about 10 cm in diameter, Filter flask-to take the funnel,
Measuring cylinder-100 ml capacity, Wash bottle-containing distilled water, Filter papers, Glass
rod-about 15 to 20 cm long and 4 to 5 mm in diameter, Hydrogen peroxide-20 volume solution,
Hydrochloric acid N solution-89 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid. (specific gravity 1.18)
diluted with distilled water one liter of solution and Sodium hexametaphosphate solution-
dissolve 33 g of sodium hexametaphosphate and 7 gms of sodium carbonate in distilled water to
make one litre of solution.

Fig 2.1 Hydrometer Analysis
CALIBRATION OF HYDROMETER
Volume
(a) Volume of water displaced: Approximately 800 ml of water shall be poured in the 1000 ml
measuring cylinder. The reading of the water level shall be observed and recorded. The
hydrometer shall be immersed in the water and the level shall again be observed and recorded as
the volume of the hydrometer bulb in ml plus volume of that part of the stem that is submerged.
For practical purposes the error to the inclusion of this stem volume may be neglected.
(b) From the weight of the hydrometer: The hydrometer shall be weighed to the nearest 0.1 gm.
The weight in gm shall be recorded as the volume of the bulb plus the volume of the stem below
the 1000 ml graduation mark. For practical purposes the error due to the inclusion of this stem
may be neglected.
Calibration
(a) The sectional area of the 1000 ml measuring cylinder in which the hydrometer is to used shall
be determined by measuring the distance between the graduations. The sectional area is equal to
the volume include between the two graduations divided by the measured distance between

them. Place the hydrometer on the paper and sketch it. On the sketch note the lowest and highest
readings which are on the hydrometer and also mark the neck of the bulb. Mark the centre of the
bulb which is half of the distance between neck of the bulb and tip of the bulb.
b) The distance from the lowest reading to the center of the bulb is (R h) shall be recorded (Rh
=HL + L/2).
(c) The distance from the highest hydrometer reading to the center of the bulb shall be measured
and recorded.
(d) Draw graph hydrometer readings vs HH and RH. A straight line is obtained. This calibration
curve is used to calibrate the hydrometer readings which are taken within 2 minutes.
(e) From 4 minutes onwards the readings are to be taken by immersing the hydrometer each
time. This makes the soil solution to rise, there by rising distance of free fall of the particle. So
correction is applied to the hydrometer readings.
(f) Correction applied to the Rh and HH
Where, Vh= Volume of hydrometer bulb in ml.

A =Area of measuring cylinder in cm2.
From these two corrected readings draw graph (straight line)
Grain Size Distribution in Soil-Data and Calculation Chart

Total weight of dry soil taken, W =
Specific Gravity of soil, G =
Hydrometer No._____________
Wt. of soil gone into solution, Ws =
Meniscus correction, Cn =
Dispersion agent correction =
Reading in water RW =
Temperature correction =

Time
Elapsed time t in min
Hydrometer reading
Rh’
Temperature oC
Correction C
Rh=Rh’ + Cm
𝑁=
Effective depth He
(cm)
% finer for wt. of soil Ws gone into solution, N
100 𝐺
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, B.I.T, BANGALORE.

𝑊𝑠 (𝐺 − 1)
Factor F
𝑅
Particle size D (mm)
R = Rh’ + C
% finer (N’) based on

Md
% finer (N) based on

whole N = N’x M’/M
Page 22
EXPERIMENT No. 3a
IN-SITU DENSITY BY CORE CUTTER METHOD

IS 2720: Part XXIX: 1975
AIM: To determine the in-situ density of soil.
THEORY: Density is one of the important parameters required for the design of foundation,
retaining walls, tunnels and shafts and other earth retaining structures. The determination
settlements also require the density of soil to compute over burden pressure. In determining the
soil properties of remoulded soils, the soil sample is made at field density to simulate natural
condition.
The density gives a rough idea about soil properties. The denser the soil, less the void ratio. If
void ratio is less the permeability will be low and angle of internal friction will be more.
As the moisture content is more, the bulk density will be more. So the bulk density does not give
true picture of the density of the soil. Hence, always field density is expressed in terms of dry
density and moisture content.
Figure 3.1Core Cutter apparatus

APPARATUS:
Core cutter apparatus consisting of steel cutter 10 cm in diameter and 12.74 cm high, a 2.5
cm high steel dolly or collar and a hammer. Balance knife, straight edge, trowel, apparatus for
moisture content determination etc.
FORMULA:
Weight of soil in the core

Bulk Density,  b 
Volume of the core
b
Dry Density,  d 
(1  w)
Where, w = moisture content
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the internal dimensions of the core cutter calculate its volume. Weigh the cutter
without dolly.
2. Clean the top 5 cm of soil where density is to be found. Keep the cutter over the ground
straight and place dolly over it. Drive the cutter into the soil gently until about 1cm of the
dolly protrudes above the surface.
3. Dig out the cutter containing the soil from the ground. Remove the dolly and trim off any
soil protruding from the ends.
4. Weigh the cutter full of soil and take a representative sample for water content
determination.
5. Calculate dry density of the sample by knowing its weight, volume and moisture content.
OBSERVATIONS:
Dimensions:
Diameter, d = cm
Height, h = cm
d2
Volume, V  h = cc
4

TABULAR COLUMN:
Particulars Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5
Weight of empty core (without dolly)(W1) (g)
Weight of core + soil (W2)(g)
Weight of soil, Ws= (W2 - W1) (g)

Ws
Bulk density,  b  (g/cc)
V
b
Dry density,  d  (g/cc)
(1  w)
G w
Void ratio. e  1
d
e
Porosity, n 
1 e
Gw
Degree of saturation, s 
e
Air content, ac  1  s
Water content calculations

Particulars Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5
Weight, of empty can – w1 (g)
Weight of can + wet soil – w2 g
Weight of can + dry soil – w3 (g)
w2  w3
w  100
w3  w1
Average water content (%)
PRECAUTIONS:
Core should be driven straight.
Only half of the collar (dolly) of the core should be driven into soil.
Core wall should not be deformed.
RESULTS:
The in-situ density of soil is ___________ g/cc
The dry density of soil is ___________g/cc

EXPERIMENT No. 3b
IN-SITU DENSITY BY SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD

IS 2720: Part XXVIII: 1974
AIM: To determine the in-situ density of soil.
THEORY: Density is one of the important parameters required for the design of foundation,
retaining walls, tunnels, shafts and other earth retaining structures. The determination settlements
also require the density of soil to compute over - burden pressure. In determining the soil
properties of remoulded soils, the soil samples are prepared at field density to simulate natural
condition.
The density gives a rough idea about soil properties. Denser the soil, less the void ratio.
If void ratio is less, the permeability will be low and angle of internal friction will be more.
As the moisture content is more, the bulk density will be more. So the bulk density does not
give true picture of the density of the soil. Hence always field density is expressed in terms of
dry density and moisture content.
APPARATUS: Sand pouring cylinder (SPC) with accessories, tray with central opening, chisel
and scoop, balance, dry &clean sand- passing 1.00 mm & retaining on 600 µm IS sieve.
Figure 3.2 Calibrating Cylinder

Figure 3.3 Sand Pouring Cylinder
PROCEDURE:
Stage 1 –Determination of bulk density of sand:
1. Take clean & dry sand passing 1.00 mm & retaining on 600 µm IS sieve in the sand
pouring cylinder upto a height of 2 cm below the top (W1).
2. Determine the volume (V) of Calibrating Cylinder (cc).
3. Place the SPC concentrically over the Calibrating Cylinder (cc) and open the shutter.
Close the shutter when the sand reaches the surface level of calibrating container (W2).
4. Place the SPC on a paper kept on a plane glass. Release the shutter. Close the shutter
when the sand level remains constant. Weigh the sand collected on paper on glass plane
(W3).
5. Put the sand back into SPC. Repeat the above procedure three times.
6. Determine the bulk density of sand (  b ).
Stage 2 – Determination of in-situ bulk density:
1. Fill the SPC with same sand till 2 cm below the top. Record the weight of SPC (W1’’).

2. Remove top 5 cm of soil where field density is to be measured. Level off 45 cm x 45cm
area. Place the tray with a hole firmly on the ground.
3. Using scoop and chisel remove soil through the hole upto a depth of 150 mm. Carefully
collect the excavated soil in the tray. (do not spill the soil)
4. Place the SPC directly over the hole and open the shutter. Close the shutter when the sand
level remains constant (sand particles stop moving). Determine the weight of sand in the
pit (W2”).
5. Weight of the soil excavated (Wsoil).
6. Determine the moisture content of the soil excavated (w).
7. Find the volume of pit.
Weight of sand in pit
Volume of pit 
 sand
Weight of soil collected

Bulk density,  b 
Volume of pit
Wsoil
Bulk density,  b 
Volume of pit
b
Dry density,  d 
1  w
OBSERVATIONS:
Diameter of calibrating cylinder, d : cm
Height of calibrating cylinder, h : cm
TABULAR COLUMN:
a.Determination of bulk density of sand
Sl.
Particulars Trail 1 Trail 2 Trail 3
No.
i.Weight of SPC + sand upto brim (W1) (g)
ii.Weight of SPC + sand after filling sand into CC (W2) (g)
iii.Weight of SPC + sand after filling conical portion (W3) (g)
iv. Weight of sand filling the conical portion (Wc) = W2 –W3 (g)
v. Weight of sand filling CC (Wsand) = W1 – W2 –Wc(g)
d2
vi. Volume of CC, Vcc  h (cc)
4

Wsand
vii. Bulk density of sand,  sand  (g/cc)
Vcc
b. Determination of in-situ bulk density

Sl.
No.
i.Weight of SPC + sand upto brim (W1”) (g)
ii.Weight of SPC + sand after filling sand into pit (W2”) (g)
iii.Weight of soil collected from the pit (Wsoil) (g)
iv. Weight of sand filling pit (W4) = W1” – W2” – Wc(g)
W4
v. Volume of pit  (cc)
 sand
Wsoil
vi. Bulk density,  b  (g/cc)
Volume of pit
b
vii. Dry density,  d  (g/cc)
(1  w)
G w
viii. Void ratio. e  1
d
e
ix. Porosity, n 
1 e
Gw
x. Degree of saturation, s 
e
xi. Air content, ac  1  s
c. Water content calculations

Sl. Particulars Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
No
1 Weight, of empty can – w1 (g)
2 Weight of can + wet soil – w2 (g)
3 Weight of can + dry soil – w3 (g)
4 w2  w3
w  100
w3  w1
5 Average water content, w(%)
RESULTS:
The in-situ density of soil is ___________ g/cc
The dry density of soil is ___________g/cc

EXPERIMENT No. 4
i. DETERMINATION OF LIQUID LIMIT BY CASAGRANDE’S METHOD

IS 2720: Part V: 1985
AIM: To determine liquid limit of a given soil specimen.
THEORY: Liquid limit is the water content at which soil passes from zero strength to an
infinitesimal strength, hence the true value of liquid limit cannot be determined. For
determination purpose liquid limit is that water content at which a part of soil, cut by a groove of
standard dimensions, will flow together for a distance of 1.25cm under an impact of 25 blows in
a standard liquid limit apparatus. The soil at the water content has some strength which is about
0.17 N/cm2 (17.6 g/cm2). At this water content soil just passes from liquid state to plastic state.
The moisture content at which soil has the smallest plasticity is called plastic limit. Just after
plastic limit the soils displays the properties of a semi-solid. Change in states at these limits are
shown in the fig. below
Figure 4.1 Consistency Limits
For determination purpose, the plastic limit is defined as the water content at which a soil will
just begin to crumble when rolled into a thread of 3mm in diameter.
The values of liquid limit and plastic limit are directly used for classifying the fine grained
cohesive soils according to Indian standard on soil classification. Once the soil is classified, it
helps a lot in understanding the behavior of soils and selecting the suitable methods of design,
construction and maintenance of the structures made up or/and resting on soils. The values of

these limits are used in calculating the flow index, toughness index, and relative plasticity index
which are useful in giving an idea about the plasticity, cohesiveness, compressibility, shear
strength, permeability, consistency and state of cohesive soils Atterberg (1911) shows
correlations between the plasticity index, soil type, degree of plasticity and degree of
cohesiveness.
Table 4.1 Correlation between plasticity index and Degree of cohesiveness
Degree of
Plasticity index Soil type Degree of plasticity
cohesiveness
0 Sand Non plastic Non cohesive
<7 Silt Low plastic Partly cohesive
7-17 Silt clay Med. Plastic Cohesive
>17 clay High plastic Cohesive
APPARATUS: Liquid Limit device (Casagrande’s), Grooving tool, Porcelain evaporating dish,
Flat glass plate, Spatula – Flexible, Palette knives, Balance – 0.01 gm accuracy, Hot air oven,
wash bottle and Water content cups
Figure 4.2 Casagrande’s liquid limit apparatus with grooving tools

PROCEDURE:
1. About 120 gm of air-dried soil from thoroughly mixed portion of material passing 425
micron I.S sieve is to be obtained.
2. Distilled water is mixed to the soil thus obtained in a mixing disc to form uniform paste.
The paste shall have a consistency that would require 30 to 35 drops of cup to cause
closer of standard groove for sufficient length.
3. A portion of the paste is placed in the cup of liquid limit device and spread into portion
with few strokes of spatula.
4. Trim it to a depth of 1cm at the point of maximum thickness and return excess of soil to
the dish.
5. The soil in the cup shall be divided by the firm strokes of the grooving tool along the
diameter through the centre line of the follower so that clean sharp groove of proper
dimension is formed.
6. Lift and drop the cup by turning crank at the rate of two revolutions per second until the
two halves of soil cake come in contact with each other for a length of about 1 cm by
flow only.
7. The number of blows required to cause the groove close for about 1 cm shall be recorded.
8. A representative portion of soil is taken from the cup for water content determination.
9. Repeat the test with different moisture contents at least three more times for blows
between 10 and 40.
Note: Test should proceed from drier to wetter state. If soil is wet, drying is achieved by
kneading the wet soil and not by adding dry soil
TABULAR COLUMN:
Trial No. 1 2 3 4
Number of blows.
Container number
Weight, of empty can – w1
(g)
Weight of can + wet soil – w2 (g)

w2  w3
w  100
w3  w1
Liquid Limit, wL(%)
Figure 4.3 Flow Curve
Flow index: Extend the flow curve to intersect ordinate at 10 & 100 drops.
Flow index, If = Slope of the flow curve.
w1  w2
If 
N
log10 2
N1
Where, w1 = moisture content in % corresponding toN1 drops

w2 = moisture content in % corresponding toN2 drops.
RESULT: The liquid limit of given soil is________%

ii. DETERMINATION OF LIQUID LIMIT BY CONE PENETRATION METHOD

IS 11196: 1985
AIM: To determine liquid limit of a given soil specimen.
APPARATUS: Cone penetrometer, Balance accuracy- 0.01 gm, Container and Oven
Figure 4.4 Cone penetration apparatus
PROCEDURE:
1. Take 150 gm of soil. Add distilled water to make paste.

2. In case of clayey soils, keep aside for 24 hrs.
3. Transfer the wet soil into cylindrical trough and level the top surface.
4. Adjust the penetrometer such that cone point touches the surface of soil.
5. Set the reading to zero.
6. Release 80 gm weight for 5 seconds. Note the reading. Take soil sample for moisture content
determination.
7. If penetration is < 20 mm, add water to paste & repeat the test. [14 to 30 mm].
8. Repeat it for different moisture content till you get reading upto 30 mm.

TABULAR COLUMN:
Trail No. 1 2 3 4
Initial reading (R1) (mm)
Final reading (R2) (mm)
Depth of penetration (R2 - R1) (mm)
Container number
w2  w3
w  100
w3  w1
Liquid Limit, wL(%)
CALCULATION: The liquid limit of the soil which corresponds to the moisture content of a
paste which would give 20 mm penetration of the cone is obtained by plotting the graph. Draw
the ordinate at 20 mm penetration and note the moisture content, this moisture content is the
liquid limit of soil.
RESULT: The liquid limit of given soil is________%

EXPERIMENT No. 4b
ii. DETERMINATION OF PLASTIC LIMIT

IS 2720: Part V: 1985
AIM: To determine plastic limit of a given soil specimen.
APPARATUS: Porcelain evaporation dish or Flat glass plate, Spatula – Flexible or Palette
knives – two, Surface for rolling – ground glass plate, Moisture content cups, Balance - 0.01 gm
accuracy, Hot air oven, 3 mm dia and 10 cm long rods.
Figure 4.5 Plastic limit determination
PROCEDURE:
1. Take about 20gm of thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing through 425
micron I.S. Sieve
2. Mix soil with distilled water on glass plate.
3. Take little soil paste between fingers to form a ball. Roll it on glass plate with palm to
form thread of uniform dia (3 mm dia)
4. Rate of rolling 80 to 90 stokes/min.
5. After making threads, soil is kneaded together and rolled again.
6. Repeat this rolling & kneading till 3 mm thread crumbles – i.e., soil no longer be rolled
into thread.
7. Pieces of crumbled thread are taken in moisture content cups for moisture content
determination.

TABULAR COLUMN:
Trail No. 1 2 3 4
Container number
w2  w3
w  100
w3  w1
Plastic Limit, wp(%)
RESULT: The plastic limit of given soil is________%
INDICES CALCULATION:
Plasticity Index, IP = Liquid Limit (wL) – Plastic Limit (wP)

Toughness Index, I
IT  p
If
Liquidity index, w  wp
IL  o
Ip
Consistency index, w  wo
IC  L
Ip
Where,
I p = Plasticity Index wo = natural moisture content of soil
I f = Flow index wp = Plastic Limit of soil
wL= Liquid Limit of soil
SUMMARY OF RESULTS:
Flow Plastic Plasticity Toughness Liquidity Consistency

Liquid
Index Limit Index Index. Index. Index
limit
wL If wp Ip IT IL IC
Note: In case of sandy soils find wP first. If wP cannot be determined, indicate soil is non-plastic.
If IP obtained is –ve, indicate IP is zero.

EXPERIMENT No. 4c
iii. DETERMINATION OF SHRINKAGE FACTORS

IS 2720: Part VI: 1972
AIM: Determination of shrinkage factors.
THEORY: If saturated soil sample is taken and allowed to dry up gradually, its volume will go
on reducing. Its volume reaches its lowest value after which even if you dry up, the volume will
not reduce. The water content at its lowest volume is known as shrinkage limit. Shrinkage limit
considered in relation to the natural water content of soil in the field indicate whether or not
further shrinkage will occur if this soil is allowed to dry out.
APPARATUS: Porcelain Evaporating dish, Shrinkage dish – metallic, Straight edge, Glass cup
with plate, Sieves 2mm & 425 µm, Measuring jar of 25 ml with 0.2 ml accuracy& 100 cc.
marked flask, Balance 0.01 gm accuracy, Mercury and Dessicator
Figure 4.6 Apparatus of shrinkage limit determination
PROCEDURE:
Preparation of soil pat:
1. Soil is air dried.
2. Sieve it on 2 mm sieve. Take soil retained on it. Ground it with rubber pestle.
3. Again sieve on 2 mm sieve. Take the fraction passing 2 mm sieve.
4. Sieve that fraction on 425µm. Take fraction passing 425µm.
5. Weight of sample = 30 gm.
6. Take soil in porcelain dish. Mix with distilled water to get a paste without air bubble.

Filling shrinkage dish:
1. Coat shrinkage dish with vaseline or grease – to prevent adhesion of soil to dish.
2. Keep the 1/3rd of sample at center of dish. Place it on blotting paper and tap it till the
paste flow to the edges.
3. Similarly fill the 2nd layer.
4. Fill the 3rd layer till it over flows. Cut off excess paste with straight edge. Wipe off
external surface of shrinkage dish.
5. Weigh dish with wet soil. Weight of shrinkage dish + wet soil, (W1).
6. Allow it to dry in air. Then dry it in hot air oven.
7. Cool it in dessicator & weigh.
8. Weight of shrinkage dish + dry soil (W2).
9. Fill the shrinkage dish with mercury. Press with glass plate. Find the weight of mercury.
Weight of mercury
Volume of wet soil pat 
13.6
10. Find the volume of wet soil pat or shrinkage dish, V = cc.
To find vol. of dry soil pat:

1. Fill glass cup overflowing with mercury. Remove excess by pressing the glass plate with
pincers down. Wipe off any mercury on surface of cup.
2. Place it in porcelain dish.
3. Put the dry soil pat on surface of mercury. Carefully & slowly force it in with pincers
down with glass plate. Ensure there is no air bubbles under soil pat.
4. Weigh the mercury displaced.
Weight of displaced mercury
Vol. of dry soil pat, Vo 
13.6
Vol. of dry soil pat, Vo = cc.
5. Find shrinkage limit using following equation.
  V  V0  
Shrinkage limit, ws   w     100
  W 0 
Where,
w = water content of wet soil V = Vol. of wet soil pat
W0 = Weight of oven dry soil pat Vo = Vol. of dry soil pat

TABULAR COLUMN:
Sl.
No.
1. Weight of shrinkage dish (g)
2. Weight of shrinkage dish + wet soil (g)
3. Weight of shrinkage dish + dry soil (g)
4. Weight of oven dry pat (g)
5. Weight of wet soil (g)
6. Water content of soil pat (%)
7. Volume of wet soil pat, V (cc)
8. Vol. of dry soil pat, V0 (cc)
  V  V0  
9. Shrinkage limit, ws   w     100 (%)
  W0  
W
10. Shrinkage ratio, R  0
V0
11. Volumetric shrinkage, Vs  ( w  ws )  R
 100 
12. Linear shrinkage, Ls  100  1  3 
 Vs  100 
Note: 3 samples are prepared and tested. If individual values vary by ±2 %, that specimen is
discarded and the test is repeated.
RESULT: The shrinkage limit of given soil is________%

EXPERIMENT No. 5
COMPACTION TEST
IS 2720: Part VII: 1980(Light Compaction test)
IS 2720: Part VIII: 1980(Heavy Compaction test)
AIM: To find the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of the given soil sample
by Light & Heavy compaction
THEORY: A soil mass consists of solid soil particles which form a porous structure. The space
between particles is called voids. This void is partly filled by air and partly by water. The density
of soil mass depends on voids. If we reduce the void by mechanical means, the density increases.
When we compact the soil, air present in the void is driven out but the water present in the voids
remain same. If we increase the water and compact the soil, the water lubricates the soil particles
and help to move closer and thus the density increases to some extent. Since the water is
incompressible if we increase water beyond some limit (optimum moisture content) the volume
of water increases and thus giving rise to low density soil mass. So, for a given compaction
energy, a soil mass can be packed to a maximum density by increasing water to some extent.
If we determine the optimum water content at which a maximum attainable density is observed
under given compaction energy, it would be useful in controlling field compaction in
embankments, highways etc.
APPARATUS: Proctor mould ( 127.3 mm high and 100 mm ) with accessories, Drop
Hammer (2.6 kg and 310 mm drop with face diameter 50 mm and 4.89 kg and 450 mm drop with
face diameter50 mm Balance accuracy :1 gm & 0.01 gm, Hot air oven, Sample extruder,
Measuring Jar (200 cc), Mixing tools, etc.,
FORMULA USED:
Weight of soil in the mould

Bulk Density,  b 
Volume of the mould
b
Dry Density,  d 
(1  w)

G w G w
Zero air voids line,  d  
1  e 1  wG
s
Diameter of Weight of Ht. of fall No. of No. of

Compaction
mould Rammer (kg) (mm) Layers blows
Light 100 mm 2.6 310 3 25
Heavy 100 mm 4.89 450 5 25
Light 150 mm 2.6 310 3 56
Heavy 150 mm 4.89 450 5 56
Energy utilized/Unit volume:
Light or Standard = No. of layers x No. of blows x Ht. of fall x Weight of rammer/ Volume of
mould.
= 3 x 25 x 0.31m x 2.6 kg /10-3 m3
= 60.45X103 kg m/m3 = 60.45 X 9.81 X103Nm/m3 = 593.01 X103 Nm/m3
= 593 .01 kJ/m3
Heavy or Modified = 5 x 25 x 0.45m x 4.89kg/10-3 m3

= 275 X103 kg m/m3= 275 x 9.81 X103 Nm/m3 = 2698.3 X103 Nm/m3
= 2698.3 kJ/m3
Figure 5.1 Standard Proctor Test Apparatus

PROCEDURE:
1. 3000 grams of air dried pulverized soil passing through 4.75 mm is taken.
2. For light compaction water is added to the soil to bring its water content to about 4-
6% if the soil is coarse grained and about 8-10% if it is fine grained. For heavy
compaction, it is 5-8% for coarse grained and 12-14% if it is fine grained. The soil is
left for 15 minutes to mature. In case of clays, keep it for 16 Hrs. in sealed air tight
containers.
3. The mould is fixed on the base plate. The proctor mould is cleaned, dried and greased
inside lightly. The weight of the empty mould with base plate is recorded.
4. The mould is filled with soil to about one third of its height. The soil is compacted by
giving 25 blows of the hammer with a free fall of 310 mm. The blows are evenly
disturbed over the surface.
5. Scratch the surface with a spatula. Fill the mould about two third heights and soil is
compacted receiving 25 blows. Likewise the third layer is placed and compacted after
fitting the collar; the third layer should project above the top of the mould into the
collar by not more than 6mm.
6. The collar is rotated to break the bond between the soil in the mould and that in the
collar. The collar is removed; the soil is trimmed of to flush with the top mould.
Record the weight of mould with base plate and soil.
7. The soil is removed from the mould. Representative soil samples are taken from the
bottom, middle and top of the mould for determining moisture content.
[The procedure 2 to 5 is repeated by adding more water to the soil (1 to 2 % for G &S
and 2 to 4% for cohesive soils) and mixed thoroughly and allowed to mature.
8. The procedure is repeated for different moisture contents until the weight of soil in
the mould increases and decreases after reaching a maximum value.
9. Determine bulk density and moisture content.
10. A compaction curve is plotted between the water content and dry density. The peak
value of density is called Maximum Dry Density (MDD). Corresponding to this the
moisture content is known as Optimum Moisture Content (OMC).

So for given soil (constant) and given degree of saturation (S=100%, 80%, 60% etc) dry density
(saturated dry unit weight) is calculated for various moisture contents (2%, 4%, 8%, 10% etc).
This is plotted on the compaction curve. By this we can easily find the degree of compaction.
The theoretical maximum compaction for any given water content corresponds to zero air - voids
condition [𝜂𝑎 = 0]. The line showing the dry density as function of water content for soil
containing no air voids is called zero voids line or the saturation line.
The air voids line when drawn across a compaction curve, give a direct indication of the % age
air voids existing at different point on the curve.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:
Height of mould (without Base plate & Collar): 127.3 mm

Diameter of mould: 100 mm
Volume of mould: 1000 cc
TABULAR COLUMN:
Particulars 1 2 3 4 5
Weight of empty mould and base plate (W1) (g)
Weight of mould + base + compacted soil (W2) (g)
Weight of soil, Wsoil  W2  W1 (g)
Wsoil
Bulk density,  b  (g/cc)
Volume
Water content, w (%)
b
Dry density,  d  (g/cc)
(1  w)
G w
Zero air voids(ZAV),   d  ZAV  (g/cc)
wG
1
s

Water content calculations
Particulars 1 2 3 4 5
Container No.
Weight, of empty can W1 (g)
Weight of can + wet soil W2 (g)
Weight of can + dry soil W3 (g)
W2  W3
Water content, w 
W3  W1
Average water content, w (%)
RESULT: The Maximum Dry Density (MDD) of the given soil is ______ g/cc at an Optimum
Moisture Content (OMC) of______%

EXPERIMENT No. 6
PERMEABILITY TEST
IS 2720: Part XVII: 1985
AIM: To determine the co-efficient of permeability of coarse grain soils by the constant head
method and the co-efficient of permeability of fine grained by the variable head methods.
THEORY: Permeability is the property of soil which permits flow of water through it. In other
words permeability is the ease with which water can flow through it. It is meant to indicate
ideally a property of the porous medium alone independent of the fluid property and temperature.
This gives an idea of the voids present in the soil. Permeability is a very important engineering
property of soils. Knowledge of permeability is essential in a number of soil engineering
problems, such as settlement of buildings, yield of wells, seepage through and below the earth
structures (dams). It controls hydraulic stability of soil mass like embankments. The permeability
of soil is also required in the design of filters and also required to prevent piping in hydraulic
structures.
Permeability is determined based on Darcy’s law. “It states that the rate of flow of water under
laminar conditions through a porous medium is proportional to the hydraulic gradient at standard
temperature”
The permeability of sand and sandy soils is more compared to the permeability of clay and
clayey soil. Hence determination of co-efficient of permeability requires different apparatus for
the above soils. Those are:
1. Constant head permeability test (for coarse grained soil)

2. Variable head test (for fine grained soil)
APPARARTUS: Permeameter of 1000 ml capacity, Rammer, Drainage base, Drainage cap, Set
of stand pipes, Constant head tank, Vacuum pump, Sieve, Measuring jar, Meter scale, Stop
watch and Thermometer.

Figure 6.1 Constant Head Test Apparatus
Preparation of Specimen:
Take 2500g of soil sample passing through 2 mm sieve. Composite soils finer 4.75 mm can also
be tested provided the gravel fraction is not more than 1/3 of the total soil. The soil can be
compacted either by
o Static Compaction
o Dynamic Compaction
Static compaction
Assemble the permeameter for the static compaction. For this attach the 3 cm collar to the
bottom end of the 0.3 liter mould and 2.5 cm collar to its top end. Support the mould assembly
over the 2.5 cm collar resting on the split collar kept around 2.5 cm end plug. The mould should
be lightly greased from inside. The soil is taken in the mould assembly. Keep the entire assembly
into a compression machine. Remove the split collar and press the assembly until the plugs touch
the collars. Release the pressure after a test period of 30 seconds.
Dynamic compaction
Lightly grease the 0.3 liter mould on the inside, fix it upside down on the dynamic compaction
base plate and weigh. Attach the 30 mm collar to the other end. Compact the wet mature soil in

the mould in two layers each layer being given 15 blows of the 2500g DRT (Dynamic ramming
tool). The surface of the first layer should be required to a depth of about 3 mm before placing
the second layer. The second layer on compaction should not project more than about 5 mm into
collar. Remove the collar trim off excess soil, weigh and assemble the mould.
a. CONSTANT HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST:
FORMULA:
q
Co  efficient of Permeability, k  (m/s)
Ai
h
hydraulic gradient , i 
L
Q
Flow rate, q  (ml / s)
t
Where,
Q =total volume of water collected in t, s
A = cross section of soil mass perpendicular to the direction of flow
h = head loss in a distance L along the flow path
Ws
Bulk Unit Weight ,  b  (gm / cc)
V
G w
Void ratio, e  1
d
e
Porosity, n 
1 e
k
Co  efficient of Percolation, k p  (cm / s)
n
Seepage Velocity, vs  k p i (cm/s)
kT  T
k27  (cm / s )
 27
PROCEDURE:
1) Saturate the soil specimen by connecting the permeameter to a vacuum pump.
2) Place the mould in the bottom tank and fill it with water upto its outlet. Connect the outlet
of constant head tank to the inlet of permeameter.

3) Adjust the head by either adjusting the Relative height of mould and constant head tank
or by rising or by lowering the air intake tube within the head tank.
4) Run the test for some convenient time interval.
5) Note the duration of test by stop watch. Collect the water in a beaker flowing from
outlet of bottom tank and measure it.
OBSERVATIONS:-
h = head causing flow

L =Internal length of permeameter
t =time in seconds
Q = total volume of water collected in t, sec
D = Internal diameter of permeameter
A = Internal area of permeameter
V = Internal volume of permeameter
Temp. of Time, t h h Q K27 =

i kt = cm/s
water sec (cm) L (ml) cm/s
RESULT:- Co-efficient of permeability of given soil is_________ cm/s
b. VARIABLE HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST:-

According to Darcy’s law,
2.303aL h
k log 1
At h2
Where,
a = cross section area of stand pipe,
t = time of flow, = t2 – t1
H1 = initial head, H2 = final head
Sample preparation: Preparation and saturation of specimen are same as that of constant head
method.

Figure 6.2Variable Head Test Apparatus
PROCEDURE
1) Keep the permeameter mould assembly in the bottom tank and fill it up to its outlet.
2) Connect inlet of mould to the stand pipe filed with water. Permit water to flow for some
time until steady state of flow is reached.
3) Note the time required for water level in the stand pipe to fall from some initial value to
some final value.
4) Repeat the step (3) for 2 or 3 times for same initial and head values.
RESULT: - Co-efficient of permeability of given soil is_________ cm/s

Table 6.1 VALUES OF UNIT WEIGHT FOR WATER & VALUES OF DYNAMIC
VISCOSITY FOR WATER
Unit Weight Temp. 0 C η (dyne-s/cm2)

Temp. 0 C
(kN/m3)
4 0.01567
4 9.8070
16 0.01111
16 9.7969
18 0.01056
18 9.7935
20 0.01005
20 9.7896
22 0.00958
22 9.7854
24 0.00914
24 9.7808
26 0.00874
26 9.7758
28 0.00836
28 9.7704
30 0.00801
30 9.7646
Density of liquid water

Temp (°C) Density (kg/m3)
+100 958.4
+80 971.8
+60 983.2 Soil type Co-efficient of
+40 992.2 permeability - cm/sec
+30 995.6502 Clean gravel > 1.0
+25 997.0479
+22 997.7735 Clean sand 1 – 0.01
+20 998.2071 Sand – mixture 0.01 – 0.05
+15 999.1026
+10 999.7026 Fine sand 0.05 – 0.001
+4 999.9720 Silty sand 0.002 – 0.0001
0 999.8395
−10 998.117 Silt 0.0005 – 0.00001
−20 993.547
Clay < 0.000001
−30 983.854
The values below 0 °C refer to super cooled
water

EXPERIMENT No. 7a
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

IS 2720: Part 10: 1991
AIM: To determine unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil sample.
THEORY: The unconfined compression test is special case of triaxial compression test in which
σ2 = σ3 = 0. The cell pressure in the triaxial cell is also called confining pressure. Hence, due to
the absence of such a confining pressure, the uni-axial test is called the unconfined compression
test. Here the cylindrical specimen of soil is subjected to major principal stress σ 1, till the
specimen fails due to shearing along a critical plane of failure. It is the load per unit area at
which an unconfined cylindrical specimen of soil will fail in the axial compression test.
P
Compressive stress, qu  kPa
Ac
Change in length L
Axial strain, e  
Original length L0
A0
Corrected cross sectional area, Ac 
1 e
APPARATUS: Compression loading machine, Proving ring – Measurable upto 1 kPa or 5 kPa,
Deformation dial gauge of least count 0.01 mm and measurable upto 25 mm, Split mould of
internal diameter 38mm and length 76mm, Sampling tube of internal diameter 38mm and length
200mm, Vernier calipers, stop watch, oven, Balance - 0.01gm accuracy, Carving tool,
remoulding apparatus and Moisture content containers.

Figure 7.2(a) Brittle failure (b) Plastic failure

Figure 7.1UCC test setup
Soil specimen in UCC test
Figure 7.3 Mohr’s circle for saturated Figure 7.4 Mohr’s circle for partially
cohesive soil saturated cohesive soil
PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMEN:

The height to depth ratio of specimen should be 2 to 2.5. Specimen may be undisturbed/
Remoulded/ Compacted.
Undisturbed specimen: thin wall tube having diameter equal to that of specimen is pushed into
soil at site. Then it is taken out, and the sample is pushed into split tube. The split tube it opened

and the specimen is taken out. Otherwise, specimen of large diameter is taken out from field
using core cutter and its surface is trimmed using soil lathe.
Remoulded: Specimen is prepared by compacting the soil at required moisture content and dry
density by static or dynamic method. Remoulded/ compacted specimen is prepared at any
moisture content and density. Trim the ends of the specimen.
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure Initial length, diameter and weight of the specimen.

2. Place the specimen on the bottom plate of the compression testing machine.
3. Raise the bottom plate of the machine to make contact of the specimen with the upper plate.
4. Fix the deformation dial gauge. Take its readings in multiples of 100.
5. Apply force to produce axial strain at the rate of 0.58 to 2% per minute causing failure with 5
to 10.
Upto axial strain Deformation dial interval
6% 0.5 mm
6 – 12% 1.0 mm
> 12% > 1 mm
6. Apply load till failure surfaces have developed or axial strain of 20% is reached whichever is
earlier.
7. Measure angle between failure surface and horizontal.
8. Determine moisture content of specimen taking sample from failure zone.
Note:
1. The ends of the specimen are hallowed in the form of cone. The cone seatings reduce the
tendency of the specimen to become barrel shaped by reducing end-restraints.
2. In case of brittle failure, a definite max. Load is indicated. But if plastic failure occurs, no
definite max. Load is indicated. In such a case, the load corresponding to 20% of axial
strain (deformation) is arbitrarily taken as failure load.
3. The unconfined compression test is generally applicable to saturated clays (Because
angle of shearing resistance, φu is zero).
4. The compressive stress is calculated on the basis of changed cross sectional area Ac at
failure.

TABULAR COLUMN:
Initial length, L0 = mm Weight of specimen = gm

Initial cross sectional area, A0 = m2 Dia = mm = m
Proving ring No.:
Deformation Axial Corrected cross Compressive
∆L strain, sectional area, Proving Axial P
Dial L.C = ring dial force stress, qu 
L A Ac
reading e Ac  0 m2 reading ‘P’(kN)
(mm)
L0 1 e (kN/m )2
RESULT: The unconfined compressive strength of given sample is____________ kN/m2.

EXPERIMENT No. 7b
DIRECT SHEAR TEST

IS: 2720: Part 13: 1986
AIM: To determine shear parameters of the given soil sample using direct shear apparatus.
THEORY: Shear strength of a soil has its maximum resistance to shearing stress at failure on
the failure plane. Shear strength is composed of:
i. Internal friction which is the resistance due to friction between individual particles at
their contact points and interlocking of particles.
ii. Cohesion which is the resistance due to inter particles forces which tend to hold the
particles together in a soil mass. Coulomb has represented the shear strength of soil by
the equation:
 f  C   n tan 
 f = Shear strength of soil or shear stress at failure
C = Cohesion
 n = Total normal stress on the failure plane
 = Angle of internal (shearing) friction
The parameters C and  are not constant for the type of soil but depends on the degree of
saturation and the condition of laboratory testing. There are three types of laboratory test based
on drainage provided.
a) Undrained test: water is not allowed to drain out during the entire test, hence there is no
dissipation of pore pressure.
b) Consolidated undrained test: soil is allowed to consolidate under the initially applied
normal stress only, hence drainage is permitted. But no drainage is allowed during shear.
c) Drained test: drainage is allowed throughout the test during the application of both
normal stress and shear stresses.
Cohesion less soils derives its shear strength from friction only, other soils: strength is from both
friction & cohesion.
Max. Particles size: 4.75 mm

APPARATUS:
Direct shear test apparatus is of two types
i. Stress Controlled
ii. Strain controlled
Strain controlled test is simple and gives accurate results. Hence, it is frequently most.
Shear box, grid plates, porous stones, base plate & water jacket, Loading frame, loading pad, loading
yoke, Proving ring – 1 to 2kN (100 to 200 kg) capacity, Dial gauge – 0.01 mm accuracy, stop watch,
Balance – 0.1gm accuracy Other accessories(two fixing screws, two spacing screws), Sample trimmer,
spatula & straight edge.
Figure 7.5Direct shear test setup
Figure 7.6 Principle of direct shear Figure 7.7 Mohr’s envelope and principal
box stresses during the test

PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare a soil specimen of size 6cm  6cm  2cm either from undisturbed soil sample or
from compacted and remoulded sample (compaction may be done statically or
dynamically. It is experienced that static compaction is more convenient to compact the
cohesive soil at any desired density and moisture content)
2. Fix the upper part of the box to the lower part by fixing the screws. Attach the base plate
to the lower part.
3. Place the grid on the stone. Keeping the serrations of the grid at right angle to the
direction of shear.
4. Transfer the soil specimen prepared in step 1 to the box.
5. Place the upper grid, porous stone and loading pad in the order on soil specimen.
6. Place the box inside the container and mount it on the loading frame.
7. Bring the upper half of the box in contact with the proving ring assembly. Contact is
observed by a slight movement of proving ring dial gauge.
8. Mount the loading yoke on the ball placed on the loading pad.
9. Mount one dial gauge on the yoke to record the vertical movement and other dial gauge
on the container to record the shear movement.
10. Put the weights on the loading yoke to apple normal stress of intensity 2.5N/cm2. Add the
weight of the yoke also in estimating the normal stress intensity.
11. Remove the fixing screw from the box and raise slightly the upper half box with the help
of spacing screw. Remove the spacing screw also.
12. Adjust all the three dial gauges to read zero.
13. Shear load is applied at constant rate of strain.
14. Record reading of proving ring dial gauge and vertical and shear movement dial gauge at
every half minute.
15. Continue the test until the test fails.
16. At end of test, find moisture content by taking sample from box.
Note: Normal stress is chosen based on field condition & design requirements.

OBSERVATIONS:
Dimensions of specimen: Rate of shearing: mm/min.

Length, L = _______m Proving Ring No.:
Breadth, B = _______m Least Count of dial gauge:
Initial Area, A0  L  B =_______m2
TABULAR COLUMN: Normal stress,  n : kg/cm2
Corrected area,
Displacement Area Stress Shear
∂   Shear stress
Sl. correction AC  A0 1   dial force
No.    3 reading ‘P’  =
P
Divisi
Cm 1  3  divisions (kN) Ac
-ons cm2 m2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

RESULT:
Initial Final
Test Normal Shear stress Shear
water water Remarks
No. stress at failure displacement
content content

EXPERIMENT No. 7c
TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST

IS: 2720: Part XI: 1993
AIM: To determine the shear strength parameters C and Φ of a given cohesionless soil using
triaxial Compression testing device. The test is to be conducted under undrained unconsolidated
condition without measuring pore pressure
THEORY: Determination of compressive strength of saturated cohesive soil in triaxial

compression apparatus when cell pressure is maintained constant and there is no change in water
content of specimen. i.e., unconsolidated undrained triaxial compression without the
measurement of pore water pressure.
Here cylindrical solid specimen is subjected to major principal stress σ1 in vertical direction
other two principal stresses σ2& σ3 [σ2= σ3] are applied in horizontal direction by the fluid
pressure round the specimen. Here specimen is enclosed in rubber membrane.
The specimen height is 2 to 2.5 times dia. The cell pressure acts all around the specimen.
The vertical stresses acting through proving ring is (σ1- σ2). Hence, total stress on top of
specimen is (σ1 - σ2) + σ3= σ1. The stress difference (σ1- σ2) is called deviator stress which is
recorded on Proving ring dial. The test is conducted by varying σ1.
Specimen: Remoulded.
Dia = 37.5, 47.5, 70 & 100 mm. ht / dia = 2
Dia = 37.5 mm is suitable for homogeneous fine-grained soils.
APPARATUS: Split mould, knife, wire saw, straight edge, scale, Plastic end caps, rubber
membrane, rubber rings, Balance – 0.5 gm accuracy, Triaxial test cell, Pump for applying &
maintaining pressure in the cell. – accuracy 0.05 kg/cm2, Compression applying machine –
capacity 5000 kg with 0.05 to 7.5 mm compression /min. – accuracy 0.01 mm, Proving ring:
1000kg capacity – sensitivity of 1 kg.
Preparation of specimen
The sample is extruded from tube and cut off. Specimen is placed in split tube and ends are
trimmed flat and normal to its axis. Sample is prepared for desired moisture content & density. It
is enclosed in rubber membrane.

PROCEDURE:
1. Measure diameter, length &Weight of specimen.

2. Place specimen centrally on the pedestal of triaxial cell.
3. Cell is assembled with the loading ram.
4. Operating fluid is admitted to cell and pressure is raised to required level.
5. Loading arm is brought on seat of top cap with little gap.
6. Note the initial reading of load.
7. Bring the loading arm in contact with seat on top cap.
8. Note compression dial reading.
9. Select rate of axial compression such that the specimen fails in 5 to 15 minutes.
10. Note the readings of compression dial & load dial at regular intervals.
11. Apply load till maximum stress is reached or 20% of an axial strain is reached.
12. Note the final load and unload the specimen.
13. Undrain fluid and dismantle the cell. Take out specimen
14. Remove rubber membrane and note the mode of failure.
15. Weigh the specimen and take sample for moisture content.
16. Observe if there is moisture change in specimen.
CALCULATION:
1. Internal cross sectional area, A0 = cm2.
𝛥𝐿
2. ε =
𝐿0
L0 = initial length,
L = length of specimen at which Ac is required.
𝐴0
Ac =
1− 𝜀
𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
3. σ1– σ3 = at any stage of test.
𝐴𝑐
4. Correction for rubber membrane
1− 𝜉
Correction = 4 M ξ ⌊ ⌋
𝐷

M = compressive modulus of rubber membrane kg/cm of width.

ξ = axial strain at max principal stress difference (σ1– σ3)
D = initial diameter of sample - cm
The correction obtained above is deducted from (σ1– σ3) to get corrected stress difference.
TABULATIONS:
Initial dia = m Initial length, L0 = mm

Initial c/s area, Ao = m2 Initial Weight=
Bulk density = Initial moisture content =
Load gauge ( P. Ring) no.= Final moisture content =
Load gauge ( P. Ring ) constant = Rate of strain =
Cell pr., 𝜎3 =

P. Ring No. :
Compression of
sample: ΔL Deviator Vertical stress :
Load
Compression Strain, ε = Corrected stress: Axial Load
gauge Axial σ1 = + σ3
gauge rdg. area, σ1 – σ 3 = Ac σ1
L.C= ( P. Load:
or Δ L / Lo 𝐴0 Axial Load
Cell pr. :𝜎3
Rdg. Ac =
1− 𝜀
Ring
Ac
𝜎3
mm m2 dial) kN
kN/m2
0 reading
kN/m2 kN/m2 or kPa
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Note: Plot Mohr’s circle using maximum principal stress difference.

RESULT:

EXPERIMENT No. 08
CONSOLIDATION TEST
IS: 2720: Part XV: 1965
AIM: Determination of consolidation parameters of a given soil sample.
THEORY: The process of compression resulting from long term static loading and gradual
reduction in volume due to expulsion of pore water is termed as consolidation. The test is
conducted to determine the settlement due to primary consolidation. To determine,
i. Rate of consolidation under normal load.
ii. Degree of consolidation at any time.
iii. Pressure-void ratio relationship.
iv. Coefficient of consolidation at various pressures.
v. Compression index.
From the above information it will be possible for us to predict the time rate and extent of
settlement of structures founded on fine-grained soils. It is also helpful in analyzing the stress
history of soil. Since the settlement analysis of the foundation depends mainly on the values
determined by the test, this test is very important for foundation design.
APPARATUS: Fixed ring type consolidometer, suitable loading device for applying vertical
loading, dial gauge, balance thermostatically controlled oven, containers, mixing basin, glass
plate, filter paper, and stop watch.
Fig 8.1 Consolidation Apparatus

PROCEDURE:
I. Preparation of soil specimen.
1) Preparation of specimen from undisturbed soil samples. The undisturbed sample from the
field may be circular (at least 1cm diameter) or a block sample. Clean the specimen ring
and weigh it empty. Cut off about 3cm to 5cm of soil specimen from one end of the
sample by pressing with hands and carefully removing the material around the ring. The
soil specimen so obtained should project about 1cm from either side of the ring. Trim the
sample smooth and flush at top and bottom of the ring by using glass plates. Clean the ring
from outside and weigh. Keep three specimens from the soil trimmings for water content
determination.
2) Preparation of specimen from representative soil sample. If the consolidation properties

are to be determined from a disturbed soil sample, soil is compacted at the desired water
content and density, in a separate large mould and then the specimen is cut as explained in
the step (1) above.
3) For the purpose of illustration, Remoulded clay specimen is used.
II. Preparation of mould assembly and sample.
1) Saturate the porous stones either by boiling in distilled water for about 15 minutes or by
keeping them submerged in distilled water for 4 to 8 hours. Wipe away excess water.
Moisture all surfaces of the consolidometer which are to be enclosed.
2) Measure the dimensions of the consolidation ring and weigh the ring accurately.
3) Fill the ring with undisturbed soil sample or remoulded sample prepared nearly at liquid
limit. Trim the soil sample.
4) Note down the weight of the ring + wet sample.
5) Assemble the consolidometer with the soil specimen (in the ring) and porous stones at top
and bottom of the specimen providing a filter paper between soil specimen and porous
stone.
6) Mount the mould assembly on the loading frame and centre it such that the applied load is
axial.
7) Position the dial gauge to measure vertical compression of the specimen. The dial gauge
holder should be so set the dial is the beginning of its release run, allowing sufficient
margin for the swelling of soil, if any.
8) Apply an initial seating load of 0.05 kg/cm2 to the soil sample.

9) Connect the mould assembly to the water reservoir and allow the sample to be saturated.
The level of water in reservoir is at about the same level as the specimen.
10) Allow the sample for saturation for 24 hrs.(not necessary for remoulded soil sample
prepared at liquid limit)
11) Apply a load of 0.25 kg/cm2and record compression dial gauge reading for the elapsed
times of 0, 0.25, 1, 2.25, 4, 6.25, 9, 12.25, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144, 169 &
60x24minutes
12) Apply the next increment of pressure by doubling the load (0.5 kg/cm2). Repeat step 11.
Keep doubling the pressure applied such as 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 8.0, 16.0 or till the
anticipated pressure increase on the clay layer in the field is fully covered.
13) When the consolidation has been completed under the final load increment, unload the
sample to seating load and allow the sample to freely swell or expand for 24 hours and
note the dial gauge reading.
14) The specimen is then taken out and dried or keep the wet specimen along with the ring in
the oven for drying.
15) Find the final water content and weight of dry soil specimen, W d.
TABULAR COLUMN:
Empty weight of ring =

Dia. of ring=
Height of ring =
Area of ring =
Volume of ring =
Sp. gravity of soil sample =
(a) For pressure, compression and time
Pressure
0. 1 0. 2 0. 5 1 2 4
intensity(kg/cm2)
Elapsed
Dial Gauge Readings
time(min.) t
0 0
0.25 0.5
1 1

2.25 1.5
4 2
6.25 2.25
9 3
12.25 3.5
25 4
36 4.5
25 5
36 6
49 7
64 8
81 9
100 10
121 11
144 12
169 13
196 14
225 15
256 16
289 17
324 18
361 19
430 20
500 22.4
600 24.5
1440 38

(b ) For pressure void ratio
Final
Applied Specimen Drainage Ht. of Void ratio
dial
pressure height path voids e+(H-Hs) Fitting time Cv (cm2/min) Av Cc Remarks
reading
(kg/cm2) H1=H d=(H1+H))/4 H-Hs /Hs
H
t50 t90 0.197*d2/t50 0.848*d2/t90
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.0
4.0
8.0

(c) For water content

Particulars Before test After test
Weight of ring + wet soil (g)
Weight of ring + dry soil (g)
Weight of ring (g)
Weight of dry soil (g)
Weight of water (g)
W2  W3
Water content, w 
W3  W1
wG
Degree of saturation, s 
e
Wd
Height of solids, H s 
(GA)   w
CALCULATIONS
Wd
1) Height of solids (H s) can be calculated as H s 
(GA)   w
Where,
G= specific gravity of soil grains.
A = cross sectional area of specimen
2) Voids ratio ei=Hi-Hs/Hs

3) Voids ratio ef=Hf-Hs/Hs
Hi = initial thickness of specimen
Hf = final thickness of specimen after compression= Hi – (change in intial & final
dial gauge reading).
All of the above readings should be recorded under one specific pressure increment.
4) Coefficient of volume change, mv from either eq 1 or 2

mv = - (∆e/1+ ei ).( 1/∆P) = (av/1+ ei)
= (ei -ef/1+ ei ).( 1/∆P) -------------------(1)
mv =( Hi-Hf/Hi)( 1/∆P) m2 /kN------------------(2)
5) Coefficient of consolidation Cv = 0.197d2/t50 (log fitting method)

Cv = 0.848d2/t90 (square root fitting method)

In the log fitting method, a plot is made between dial reading and logarithm of time and the time
corresponding to 50% consolidation is determined. In the square root fitting method, a plot is
made between dial reading and the square root of time and the time corresponding to 90%
consolidation is determined.
6) Compression index: A plot of void ratio ‘e’ versus log σ1 is made. The initial compression
curve would be found to be a straight line and the slope of this line would give you the
compression index G.
7) Coefficient of compressibility (av) = 0.435Cc / σ1
Where,
σ1 = average pressure for the increment

Coefficient of permeability (k) = Cv. mv .γw m/sec
Where,
γw = unit wt of water
Cv = coefficient of consolidation (m2 /sec)
RESULTS:-
1) Coefficient of consolidation Cv (log fitting method) =

2) Coefficient of consolidation Cv (square root fitting method) =
3) Coefficient of compressibility, a v =
4) Coefficient of permeability, K =
5) Height of voids =H-Hs =

EXPERIMENT No. 9
VANE SHEAR TEST

IS 2720: Part XXX: 1980
AIM: To find shear strength of a given soil specimen using lab vane shear apparatus.
THEORY: The undrained shear strength of soft clays can be determined in a lab vane shear test.
It is a cheaper and quicker method. The test can also be conducted in field. Measurement of
shear strength of cohesive soils by laboratory vane shear test is useful for soils of low shear
strength (less than 0.3 kg/cm2) for which triaxial or unconfined compression tests cannot be
performed. The test gives the undrained shear strength of the soils. The undisturbed and
remoulded strength obtained are useful for evaluating the sensitivity of soil.
APPARATUS: Vane shear apparatus, Specimen container and Callipers.
Fig 9.1 Shear Vane
FORMULA:
 f  T G
Spring Constant  Difference in twist angle

T
180

1
G
H d 
d2   
 2 6
H= Height of vane in (cm)
d=Overall Diameter of vane in (cm)
PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare three soil specimens having minimum dimensions of 37.5 mm diameter and 75
mm length. (L/D ratio 2 or 3).
2. Mount the specimen container with the specimen on the base of the vane shear apparatus.
If the specimen container is closed at one end, it should be provided with a hole of about
1 mm diameter at the bottom.
3. Gently lower the shear vanes into the specimen to their full length without disturbing the
soil specimen. The top of the vanes should be atleast 10 mm below the top of the
specimen. Note the readings of the angle of twist.
4. Rotate the vanes at a uniform rate; say 0.1o/s by suitable operation of the torque
application handle until the specimen fails.
5. Note the final reading of the angle of twist.

OBSERVATIONS:
D= H= Spring constant =
Name of the project:
Soil description:
Average
Initial Reading(Deg)
Final Reading(Deg.)
Spring Constant  Difference 1

G  f  T G
Difference (Deg.)
T H d  f
180 d2    Kg/cm2
 2 6 Kg/cm2
cm-Kg
cm3
Sl. No
RESULT: The undrained shear strength of given sample is____________ kN/m2.

EXPERIMENT No. 10 a
DEMONSTRATION OF SWELL PRESSURE TEST
IS 2720: Part 41:1977 (Reaffirmed- December 2016)
AIM: To determine swelling pressure of soils.
THEORY: The expansive clays increase in their volume when they come in contact with water
owing to surface properties of these clay types. The pressure which the expansive soil exerts, if it
is not allowed to swell or the volume change of the soil is arrested, is known as Swelling
Pressure of Soil. The swelling pressure is dependent upon several factors namely (a) the type and
amount of clay in the soil and the nature of the clay mineral, (b) the initial water content and dry
density, (c) the nature of pore fluid, (d) the stress history of the soil including the confining
pressure and (e) drying and wetting cycles to which the soils have been subjected to.
A soil with high swell pressure is considered “unsuitable” for use as embankment fill material
and in case the sub-soil is having high swell pressure then suitable “ground improvement
measures” may be needed before constructing embankment on such soil. One of the methods for
constructing embankments on expansive soils is to lay a CNS (non-swelling clay) layer at the
base of the embankment, to isolate the sub-soil from the moisture (mainly rain water) coming in
vertically downwards direction. For any clay to be classified as “CNS (non-swelling clay)”, it
should not have swell pressure more than the specified value (normally 0.5 kg/m2).
In laboratory, one dimensional swelling pressure test is conducted using either fixed or the
floating rings on both undisturbed and re-moulded soils in the partially saturated condition. Two
methods are employed, namely, “consolidometer method” in which the volume change of the
soil is permitted and the corresponding pressure required to bring back the soil to its original
volume is measured and “constant volume method” in which the volume change is prevented and
the consequent pressure is measured.
APPARATUS:
i. Swell Pressure Test by Consolidometer:
A device to hold the sample in a ring either fixed or floating with porous stones on each
face of the sample. A consolidometer shall also provide means for submerging the
sample, for applying a vertical load and for measuring the change in the thickness of the

specimen. The provision for fixing of the dial gauge shall be rigid and in no case shall the
dial gauge be fixed to a cantilevered arm. The dial gauges shall be fixed in such a way to
record the vertical expansion of the specimen. (a) Specimen Diameter: 60mm. (b)
Specimen Thickness: Shall be at least 20mm in all cases. However, the thickness shall
not be less than 10 times the maximum diameter of the grain in the soil specimen. The
diameter to thickness ratio shall be a minimum of 3. (c) Ring: The ring shall be made of
non-corrosive material. (d) Porous Stones: The stones shall be of silicon carbide or
aluminium oxide and of medium grade. It shall have a high permeability compared to that
of the soil being tested. The diameter of the top stone shall be 0.2 to 0.5mm less than the
internal diameter of the ring.
Fig 10.1 Swell Pressure Test by Consolidometer apparatus

ii. Swell Pressure Test by Constant Volume Method:
The arrangement for Swell Pressure Test by Constant Volume Method consists of loading
unit (5 tonnes), Proving ring (with high sensitivity, 200 kg capacity) along with all
Apparatus as used in Consolidometer method.

Fig 10.2 Swell Pressure Test by Constant Volume Method apparatus

PROCEDURE:
By Consolidometer Method:
1. Preparation of Specimen from Undisturbed Soil Samples: Clean and weigh the empty
container. Cut-off the specimen either from undisturbed tube sample or from block
sample, the latter generally being more representative of the field conditions. Remove
about 30mm height of soil from one end of the soil sample. Gradually insert the
consolidation ring in the sample by pressing with hands and carefully removing the
material around the ring. The soil specimen so cut shall project as far as 10mm on either
side of the ring. Then trim the specimen smooth and flush with the top and bottom of the
ring. Wipe the container ring clear of any soil sticking to the outside and weigh again
with the soil. The whole process should be quick to ensure minimum loss of moisture and
if possible shall be carried out in the moisture room. The representative specimens from
the soil trimming shall be taken in moisture content cans and their moisture content
determined in accordance with IS:2720 (Part-XI).
2. Preparation of Specimen from Disturbed Soil Sample: The soil sample shall be
compacted to the desired (field) density and water content in a standard compaction
proctor mould. Samples of suitable sizes are cut from it as given in Para (i) above.

Note-1: Since swelling pressure of the soil is very much influenced by its initial
water content and dry density, it shall be ensured that in the case of undisturbed
soil samples, the specimen shall be collected from the field for test during the
driest season of the year, so that the swelling pressure recorded shall be
maximum. In case of remoulded soil samples, the initial water content shall be at
the shrinkage limit or field water content, so that the swelling pressure recorded
shall be maximum.
Note-2: The desiccated soil obtained from the field coupled with smaller
thickness of consolidation ring make the undisturbed soil specimen always in
danger of being disturbed during trimming; hence great care shall be taken to
handle the specimen delicately with the least pressure applied to the soil.
3. Saturate the porous stones by boiling in distilled water for at least 15 minutes and
moisten all surfaces of the consolidometer which are to be enclosed. Assemble the
consolidometer with the soil specimen (in the ring) and porous stones at top and bottom
of the specimen, providing a wet filter paper between the soil specimen and the porous
stone. Then position the loading block centrally on the top porous stone.
4. Mount this assembly on the loading frame such that load applied is transmitted to the soil
specimen through the loading cap.
5. In the case of the lever loading system, the apparatus shall be properly counter-balanced.
If a jack with load measurements by platform scales is used as the loading systems the
tare weight with the empty consolidation apparatus, excluding those parts which will be
on top of the soil specimen, which rest on the platform shall be determined before filling
the ring with the soil and this tare weight shall be added to the computed scale loads
required to give the desired pressures at the time of loading the soil specimen.
6. Screw the holder with the dial gauge to record the progressive vertical heave of the
specimen under no load
7. Place initial setting load of 50 gf/cm2 (this includes weight of the porous stone and the
loading pad) on the loading hanger and note initial reading of the dial gauge.

8. Connect the system to a water reservoir with the level of water in the reservoir being at
about the same level as the soil specimen and allow water to flow in the sample. Then
allow the soil to swell.
9. Record the free swell readings shown by the dial gauge under the seating load at different
time intervals. The dial gauge readings shall be taken till equilibrium is reached. This is
ensured by making a plot of swelling dial reading versus time in hours, which plot
becomes asymptotic with abscissa (time scale). The equilibrium swelling is normally
reached over a period of 6 to 7 days in general for all expansive soils.
10. Then subject the swollen sample to consolidation under different pressures. Record the
compression dial readings till the dial readings attain a steady state for each load applied
over the specimen. The consolidation loads shall be applied till the specimen attains its
original volume.
By Constant Volume Method:

1. Preparation of Specimen from Undisturbed Soil Samples as well as Preparation of
Specimen from Disturbed Soil Sample: Same as for “Consolidometer Method”.
2. Keep the consolidation specimen ring with the specimen between two porous stones
saturated in boiling water providing a filter paper between the soil specimen and the
porous stone. The loading block shall then be positioned centrally on the top of the
porous stone.
3. Then place this assembly on the platen of the loading unit. The load measuring proving
ring tip attached to the load frame shall be placed in contact with the consolidation cell
without any eccentricity. A direct strain measuring dial gauge shall be fitted to the cell.
Inundate the specimen with distilled water and allow it to swell.
4. Note down the initial reading of the proving ring. The swelling of the specimen with
increasing volume shall be obtained in the strain measuring load gauge. To keep the
specimen at constant volume, the platen shall be so adjusted that the dial gauge always
shows the original reading. This adjustment shall be done at every 1 mm of swell or
earlier. The duration of test shall conform to the requirements given in “Consolidometer

method”. Then dismantle the assembly and extract the soil specimen from the
consolidation ring to determine final moisture content in accordance with IS: 2720 (Part-
IX).
OBSERVATIONS:
Table 10.1 Details of soil specimen (by consolidometer method/ constant volume method)
Description Test-1 Test-2 Description Test-1 Test-2

Weight of
Weight of
container
container +
ring+ wet
wet soil
specimen
Weight of
Weight of
container +
container
dry soil
Diameter of Weight of
container container
Initial
Weight of
thickness of
water
soil sample
Wet density Weight of
in g/ml dry soil
Dry density Moisture
in g/ml content in %
Table 10.2 Data sheet for swell - compression test (by consolidometer method)
Elapsed time in hours Swelling dial reading Elapsed time in hours Swelling dial reading
0 24
0.5 36
1 48
2 60
4 72
8 96
12 120
Table 10.3 Data sheet for swell - compression test (by consolidometer method)
Change in thickness
Pressure increment Pressure increment
Compression of expanded
(kgf/cm2) (kN/m2)
specimen
0.0-0.05 0-5
0.05-0.10 5-10
0.10-0.25 10-25

0.25-0.5 25-50
0.5-1.00 50-100
1.00-2.00 100-200
2.00-4.00 200-400
4.00-8.00 400-800
8.00-16.00 800-1600
CALCULATIONS AND REPORT:

By Consolidometer Method
The observed swelling dial reading recorded in Table 10.2 shall be plotted with elapsed time as
abscissa and swelling dial reading as ordinates on natural scale. A smooth curve shall be drawn
joining these points. If the curve so drawn becomes asymptotic with the abscissa, the swelling
has reached its maximum and swelling phase shall be stopped, and the consolidation phase shall
be started. The compression readings shall be tabulated as in Table 10.3 and a plot of change in
thickness of expanded specimen as ordinates and consolidation pressure applied as abscissa in
semi-logarithmic scale shall be made. The swelling pressure exerted by the soil specimen under
zero swelling condition shall be obtained by interpolation and expressed in kN/m2 (kgf/cm2).
By Constant Volume Method:

The difference between the final and initial dial readings of the proving ring gives total load in
terms of division which when multiplied by the calibration factor gives the total load. This when
divided by the cross-sectional area of the soil specimen gives the swell pressure expressed in
kN/m2 (kgf/cm2).
Table 10.4 Swell Pressure data (by constant volume method)
Strain dial
gauge Proving Swell
Load in
Date Time reading ring Differences pressure Remarks
kg
before reading in kg/cm2
adjustment

EXPERIMENT NO 10 b
DEMONSTRATION OF STANDARD PENETRATION TEST

IS 2131:1981
AIM: To perform standard penetration to obtain the penetration resistance (N-value) along the
depth at a given site.
APPARATUS: Tripod (to give a clear height of about 4 m; one of the legs of the tripod should
have ladder to facilitate a person to reach tripod head), Tripod head with hook, Pulley, Guide
pipe assembly, Standard split spoon sampler, a drill rod for extending the test to deeper depths,
Heavy duty post hole auger (100 mm to 150 mm diameter), Heavy duty helical auger, Heavy
duty auger extension rods, Sand bailer, Rope (about 15 m long & strong enough to lift 63.5 kg
load repeatedly), a light duty rope to operate sand bailer, Chain pulley block, Casing pipes,
Casing couplings, Casing clamps, Measuring tapes, a straight edge (50 cm) and Tool box.
THEORY: The Standard Penetration test (SPT) is a common in situ testing method used to
determine the geotechnical engineering properties of subsurface soils. It is a simple and
inexpensive test to estimate the relative density of soils and approximate shear strength
parameters.
Standard Penetration Test, SPT, involves driving a standard thick-walled sample tube into the
ground at the bottom of a borehole by blows from a slide hammer with standard weight and
falling distance. The sample tube is driven 15 cm into the ground and then the number of blows
needed for the tube to penetrate each 15 cm (6 in) up to a depth of 45 cm (18 in) is recorded. The
sum of the number of blows required for the second and third 6 in. of penetration is reported as
SPT blow count value, commonly termed "standard penetration resistance" or “N-value”. The N-
value provides an indication of the relative density of the subsurface soil, and it is used in
empirical geotechnical correlation to estimate the approximate shear strength properties of the
soils.

Table 10.5 Correlation between SPT-N value and friction angle and Relative density (Meyerhoff,
1956)
SPT ‘N-Value’ Friction angle

Soil packing Relative Density [%]
[Blows/0.3 m - 1 ft] [°]
<4 Very loose < 20 < 30
4 -10 Loose 20 - 40 30 - 35
10 - 30 Compact 40 - 60 35 - 40
30 - 50 Dense 60 - 80 40 - 45
> 50 Very Dense > 80 > 45
Fig 10.3 Standard Penetration Test Setup
PROCEDURE:
1. Identify the location of testing in the field.

2. Erect the tripod such that the top of the tripod head is centrally located over the testing
spot. This can be reasonably ensured by passing a rope over the pulley connected to the
tripod head and making the free end of the rope to come down and adjusting the tripod
legs such that the rope end is at the testing spot. While erecting and adjusting the tripod
legs, care should be taken to see that the load is uniformly distributed over the three legs.
This can be achieved by ensuring the lines joining the tips of the tripod legs on the
ground forms an equilateral triangle. Further, it should be ensured that the three legs of
the tripod are firmly supported on the ground (i.e. the soil below the legs should not be
loose and they should not be supported on a sloping rock surface or on a small boulder
which may tilt during testing.)
3. Advance the bore hole, at the test location, using the auger. To start with advance the
bore hole for a depth of 0.5 m and clear the loose soil from the bore hole.
4. Clean the split spoon sampler and apply a thin film of oil to the inside face of the
sampler. Connect an A-drill extension rod to the split spoon sampler.
5. Slip the 63.6 kg weight on to the guide pipe assembly and connect the guide pipe
assembly to the other end of the A-drill rod.
6. The chain connected to the driving weight is tied to the rope passing over the pulley at
the tripod head. The other end of the rope is pulled down manually or with help of
mechanical winch. By pulling the rope down, the drive weight, guide pipe assembly, A-
drill rod and the split spoon sampler will get vertically erected.
7. A person should hold the guide pipe assembly split spoon sampler to be vertical with the
falling weight lowered to the bottom of the guide assembly.
8. Now place a straight edge across the bore touching the A-drill rod. Mark the straight edge
level all round the A-drill rod with the help of a chalk or any other marker. From this
mark, measure up along the A-drill rod and mark 15 cm, 30 cm and 45 cm above the
straight edge level. Lift the driving weight to reach the top of the guide pipe assembly
travel and allow it to fall freely. The fall of driving weight will transfer the impact load to
the split spoon sampler, which drive the split spoon sampler into the ground. Again lift
the drive weight to the top of travel and allow it to fall freely under its own weight from a
height of 75 cm. as the number of blows are applied, the split spoon sampler will

penetrate into the ground and the first mark (15 cm mark) on the drill rod approaches the
straight edge.
9. Count the number of blows required for the first 15 cm, second 15 cm and the third 15
cm mark to cross down the straight edge.
10. The penetration of the first 15 cm is considered as the seating drive and the number of
blows required for this penetration is noted but not accounted in computing penetration
resistance value. The total number of blows required for the penetration of the split spoon
sampler by 2nd and 3rd 15 cm is recorded as the penetration resistance or N-value.
11. After the completion of the split spoon sampler by 45 cm, pull out the whole assembly.
Detach the split sampler from A-drill rod and open it out. Collect the soil sample from the
split spoon sampler into a sampling bag. Store the sampling bag safely with an
identification tag for laboratory investigation.
12. Advance the bore hole by another 1 m or till a change of soil strata whichever is early.
13. The test is repeated with advancement of bore hole till the required depth of exploration
is reached or till a refusal condition is encountered. Refusal condition is said to exist if
the number of blows required for the last 30 cm of penetration is more than 100.
14. The test will be repeated in number of bore holes covering the site depending on the
building area, importance of the structure and the variation of the soil properties across
the site.
RESULT: The SPT values are presented either in the form of a table or in the form of bore
log data.

Sample viva-voce questions for GTE Lab

General
1. What is soil?
2. What is Soil Mechanics?
3. Name the important applications of soil mechanics.
4. How are soils formed?
5. What is weathering?
6. What is the difference between soil and rock?
7. What is residual soil and transported soil?
8. Name the difference types of transported soils.
9. What are engineering properties of soils?
10. Define, Voids ratio, Porosity, Water content, Degree of saturation, Specific gravity of soil
mass, Air content, Percentage air voids, Density, Unit weight and Specific gravity of soil
particles.
11. Differentiate between,
a. Saturated & submerged density
b. Dry density and Density of soil
c. Water content and degree of saturation
d. Field density and relative density
e. Porosity & voids ratio
12. What is the suggested sensitivity of balance for field density, water content, grain size
analysis, specific gravity, consistency test?
Soil Exploration
1. What is meant by soil investigation?
2. What is meant by undisturbed, disturbed and re-moulded samples?
3. Name the important type of samplers?
4. What are the desirable aspects of a sampler?
5. What are the consequences of sampling disturbance?
6. What are the precautions to be taken while sampling, transporting and storing soil
samples?

7. Explain the concept of laboratory and field vane shear tests

8. What are the corrections applied to SPT-N values
9. What is SPT-N value? What is the difference between SPT and SCPT?
10. Give examples for important correlations of SPT-N and other soil properties.
Field Density
1. List the different methods of finding field density.
2. List the advantages and disadvantages of core cutter method.
3. What are the precautions to be taken in core cutter method?
4. What are the specifications for the sand to be used in sand replacement method?
5. What precautions are to be taken in sand replacement method?
Water Content
1. What are the various forms of soil water?
2. List the various methods of finding water content
3. What is the suggested temperature and duration for oven drying method?
4. What should be the quantity of soil for water content determination?
5. Where do we use water content?
Soil Properties
1. Define specific gravity. List its relationship with other soil properties.
2. Why it is necessary to determine G accurately?
3. What are the precautions to be taken in specific gravity test and mention its significance?
4. For what type of soils Pycnometer is used?
5. What are the typical ranges of specific gravity values for different types of soils?
6. What are the sources of errors in determination of G in the lab?
7. What does the density index signify?
8. For what type of soils relative density test is done?
9. How the compactness of soil is judged?
10. What is the recommended static weight and duration of vibration in relative density test?
Grain Size Distribution
1. What is I.S textural classification?

2. How do you identify and differentiate gravels, sands, silts, clays and organic soils in the
field, either by visual examination or simple tests?
3. What are the salient features of the I.S soil classification system? (I.S 1498-1970)
4. What is coarse sieve analysis, what are fine sieve analysis, wet analysis, sedimentation
analysis and combined analysis?
5. What are the objectives of grain size analysis?
6. What is meant by texture and gradation of soil mass?
7. How soil is prepared for grain size analysis?
8. How much soil should be taken for grain size analysis?
9. What is taken as ‘particle size’ in sieve analysis?
10. Why semi log sheet is used for plotting grain size distribution curve?
11. What is coefficient of uniformity, coefficient of curvature and effective size? How do
they indicate the gradation of soils?
12. What is meant by poorly, well and gap graded soils?
13. State Allen Hazen‘s formula to estimate coefficient of permeability.
14. What is the suggested duration for sieve shaking?
15. State stokes law its assumption and limitations
16. What are the various corrections applied for hydrometer reading?
17. Why dispersing agent is used in grain size analysis?
18. How do you calibrate hydrometer reading to find effective depth?
Atterberg’s Limits
1. What is meant by consistency of soil?

2. Name a few clay minerals and minerals of granular soils
3. Define various consistency limits and indices and explain their significance in soil
engineering?
4. What precautions should be taken while doing consistency limit test?
5. What is shrinkage ratio, volumetric, linear and degree of shrinkage and what do they
signify?
6. Why flow curve is plotted on semi log sheet?
7. Why mercury is used in finding volume in shrinkage test?

8. What are the recommended dimensions for grooving tools as per IS?
9. What is plasticity, activity, thixotropy and sensitivity?
10. Explain the features of plasticity chart and its application
Compaction
1. What is meant by compression, compressibility, compaction and consolidation?
2. What is meant by OMC, MDD, compactive effort and zero air voids line?
3. What precautions are to be taken while doing Standard Proctor Test?
4. What is meant by field control of compaction?
5. What are the different methods of compaction employed in the field?
6. What is the use of Proctor needle? Explain.
7. What is the difference between standard and modified proctor tests?
8. Is OMC and MDD are constants for a given soil? Discuss.
9. Should the soil in the field be compacted at water content dry or wet of OMC? Discuss.
10. What is the compactive energy imparted in case of standard compaction test?
Consolidation Test
1. State the assumptions made in Terzaghi’s theory of one-dimensional consolidation

2. Define the terms ‘Compression index’, coefficient of consolidation’, and ‘coefficient of
compressibility
3. Define ‘pre-consolidation pressure’. In what ways its determination is important in soil
engineering Practice?
4. Describe a suitable procedure for determining the pre-consolidation pressure.
5. Differentiate between ‘compaction’ and ‘consolidation’.
6. Explain what is meant by normally consolidated clay stratum and over-consolidated clay
stratum.
7. Distinguish between normally consolidated and over consolidated soils.
8. How to determine the coefficient of consolidation of a soil using consolidation test data
9. Distinguish between “Primary Consolidation” and “Secondary Consolidation”?
10. Distinguish between consolidation and elastic settlement
11. Why does it take infinite time for complete consolidation to occur?
12. Differentiate between pore water pressure and excess pore water pressure?

Shear strength
1. Explain the principle of the direct shear test. What are the advantages of this test? What
are its limitations?
2. Differentiate between unconsolidated undrained test and a drained test. Under what
conditions are these test results used for design purposes?
3. Explain the basic differences between a box shear test and a triaxial shear test for soils.
4. Differentiate between shear strength parameters obtained from total and effective stress
considerations.
5. Explain the Mohr-Coulomb strength envelope.
6. Sketch the stress-strain relationship for dense and loose sand.
7. Explain general. Local and punching shear failures with respect to bearing capacity
8. What are the three standard triaxial shear tests with respect to drainage conditions?
Explain with reasons the situations for which each test is to be preferred.
9. Explain the state of stress along the failure plane in case of UCC test, triaxial test and
direct shear test.
10. What is the difference between strain controlled and stress controlled loading machines?
Permeability test
1. What is Darcy’s law?
2. Explain how the permeability of a soil is affected by various factors.
3. Define hydraulic gradient
4. Distinguish between superficial velocity and seepage velocity.
5. What are the conditions necessary for Darcy’s law to be applicable for flow of water
through soil? How they are ensured during laboratory permeability tests
6. Define ‘neutral’ and ‘effective’ pressure in soils.
7. Bring out the differences between falling head and constant head tests with respect to
procedure and applicability
8. How to estimate coefficient of permeability of layered soil deposits?
9. Is the coefficient of permeability of soils is same for horizontal and vertical flow is same?
10. How to determine coefficient of permeability in the field?
11. What are the typical ranges of coefficient of permeability for different soils?
12. What is difference between confined and unconfined flow?

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BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

DEPTARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,

To become a center of excellence in academics, research and consultancy by imparting quality

• To create civil engineering professionals through collaborative programs with professional

• To be recognized by the industry as a centre of excellence.

PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

Are the attributes of graduating civil engineer, are as follows:

Engineering Graduates will be able to

Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and

Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research

Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering

Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’s)

Course Objectives: This course will be enable students to;

VISUAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS

i. COARSE GRAINED SOILS:

a) Gravel size particles (4.75mm to 80 mm)

Table 1.1 Indian Standard Classification System

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, B.I.T, BANGALORE. Page 1

Can be readily rolled into threads when

ii. FINE-GRAINED SOIL:

a) Dilatancy (reaction to shaking) test:

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, B.I.T, BANGALORE. Page 2

c) Dry Strength Test:

Sl. Fine sand Silt

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, B.I.T, BANGALORE. Page 3

Table 1.3 Identification of Silt from Clay

Sl. Silt Clay

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, B.I.T, BANGALORE. Page 4

DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT BY OVEN DRYING

Table 1.4 Sample Weight

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, B.I.T, BANGALORE. Page 5

w1 =Weight of empty container

w2 =Weight of wet soil sample + weight of container

w3 =Weight of dry soil + weight of container

1. The soil specimen should be loosely placed in the container

RESULT: The water content of the soil sample is ________%

Note: Water content shall be reported to two significant places.

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, B.I.T, BANGALORE. Page 7

Its value range as follows:

Table 1.5 Specific gravity value range for different soil

Type of Soil Specific Gravity

Coarse grained soil 2.6 – 2.7

Soil sample: 200 gm for fine grained soil

: 400 gm for medium & coarse grained soil

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, B.I.T, BANGALORE. Page 8

1. Record the weight of cleaned, dry pycnometer (W1).

3. Record the weight of pycnometer + dried soil (W2).

5. The pycnometer is shaken by hand until the particles are in suspension.

9. Record the Weight of bottle + water (W4).

Weight of soil in air at stated temp.

W1=Weight of empty dry pycnometer

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, B.I.T, BANGALORE. Page 9

GT =Specific gravity at room temperature

02. Weight of pycnometer + soil(W2) (g)

03. Weight of pycnometer + soil + distilled water(W3) (g)

04. Weight of pycnometer + distilled water(W4) (g)

Specific gravity at room temperature

The specific gravity of given soil is__________

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, B.I.T, BANGALORE. Page 10

If two results differ by more than 0.03, test shall be repeated.