HEMICAL NGINEERING

HERMODYNAMICS AB
(Ch. E-307L)

Lab In-charge:
Muhammad Usman

Graduate Assistant:
Shaheera Pervaiz

1
 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics-II Lab
(Ch. E-307L)

This file includes

1. List of possible hazards in lab ________________________ 3

2. Lab Rubrics ______________________________________ 4
3. List of consumables & glass wares ____________________ 7
4. Equipment / Item Status List _________________________ 8
5. Equipment Detail manuals ___________________________ 10
6. Lab Manuals ______________________________________ 31
7. Material safety data sheets for chemicals ________________ 63
8. Lab Flexes ________________________________________ 98
9. Sample marked copy ________________________________
10. Sample marked result ________________________________

Department of Chemical Engineering

University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore

2
 List of possible hazards in CET-II Lab

Following are the potential hazards and their remedies

S. No. Potential hazard Mitigation

Electrical hazard Circuit breakers are installed with

1 Individual units to avoid any
personnel or equipment damage
Chemical hazard Latex gloves, safety googles and lab
1. Argon inhalation coat is recommended to avoid any
2
2. Ingestion or skin absorption of inhibited contact with these chemicals
ethylene glycol
Biological hazard Replacement of circulating distilled
1. Retained water in units may allow the water in closed loop after a month is
3
growth of legionella Pneumophila and other recommended
water borne microbes
Injury from sharp glass objects First aid kit is recommended for lab
4

Fire CO2 type Fire extinguisher is

5 1. Electrical short circuiting (class C fire) recommended
Hot surfaces and Fluids Steam and hot/cold fluids e.g. hot
lube oil in turbines may cause severe
6
damage to body and skin. Use of
PPE’s is recommended
Rotating Machinery Loose clothing, bagging and
7 hanging Jewelry etc. should be
strictly banned

3
Note Book Rubric (9)

Excellent (3) Satisfactory (2) Unsatisfactory (0-1) Score

1. All experiments are written

All experiments are
Completion & completely and results
written completely Experiments are
Timely interpreted.
and results incomplete.
Response 2. Graphs, tables and
interpreted.
suggestions are mentioned
1. Sources of error are
correctly identified
Comments / 2. Proper tools e.g.
Atleast procedural/ Errors are not
Suggestions & regression analysis is used
equipment errors identified and
Sources of to quantify the
are identified reasons are unknown
Errors magnitudes of errors
3. Effect of errors on results
is correctly interpreted
1. A standard format is
followed for writing all
experiments
2. Index of performing all
experiments is available at Haphazard
Organization /
the start of the notebook Overall neat look is presentation lacking
presentation of
along with the date of maintained any co-ordination
contents
performing the between contents
experiment
3. Graphs, tables are
captioned properly and
attached

Total Scores

4
Experiment Performance (24)

Below Unsatisfactory
Excellent (5) Good (4) Satisfactory (3) Score
average (2) (1-0)

Always on On time in
Always on time in Always on time in Always on time in
Punctuality time in 75% less than 75%
95% labs atleast 90% labs atleast 80% labs atleast
labs atleast labs atleast

Active
participation in Active
1. Keeping participation in
workplace 1. Keeping
Active
clean workplace
participation in Active
2. Collection of clean No active
1. Keeping participation
data 2. Collection of participation
Participation workplace in
3. Proper data in lab
clean 1. Collection
handling of 3. Proper activities
2. Collection of of data
equipment / handling of
data
chemicals equipment /
4. Cooperating chemicals
with team
members
1. All possible
hazards are
evaluated
2. Proper
functioning of 1. All possible 1. All possible
safety hazards are hazards are
interlocks is evaluated evaluated
All possible No possible
evaluated 2. Proper 2. Proper
hazards are hazard
Safety 3. PPE’s are used functioning of functioning of
evaluated evaluation is
properly safety safety
done
4. MSDS are interlocks is interlocks is
consulted and evaluated evaluated
Lab safety 3. PPE’s are used
form is filled
countersigned
by lab
instructor
1. Proper data is
1. Proper data is
collected from
collected from
experiment 1. Erroneous
experiment
2. Erroneous readings/trends
2. Erroneous
Result readings/trends in data are All results are No results
readings/trends
calculation in data are identified calculated calculated
in data are
identified 2. All results are
identified
3. All results are calculated
3. All results are
calculated
calculated

5
 4. Unit
consistency is
maintained

Results are Results are

Results are No idea has
1. accurate 1. accurate
Discussion 1. accurate Results are been built
2. precise 2. precise
on results 2. precise accurate from data and
3. reproducible 3. reproducible
results
4. presentable
1. Objectives of
experiment are
fully grasped
1. Objectives of
2. Idea from
experiment are
experiment can
fully grasped
be applied to 1. Objectives of
2. Idea from
other physical experiment are
experiment can
situations fully grasped Objectives of
be applied to No idea is
Analytical 3. Any 2. Idea from experiment
other physical built from
thinking betterment to experiment can are fully
situations experiment
current be applied to grasped
3. Any
procedure is other physical
betterment to
proposed situations
current
4. One has
procedure is
developed
proposed
theoretical
understanding
of concept

Total Scores

6
 List of Consumables

Ø Argon gas
Ø CO2
Ø Distilled water
Ø Lube oil

List of Glasswares

Glassware Required
Glass thermometer 3
Funnel 3
Beakers 3*100 mL
Measuring cylinder 2*500 mL
Plastic jug 3*5 L

7
 Equipment Details
JOULE THOMSON APPARATUS

Description:
The Joule Thomson apparatus is a demonstration and practice unit for determination of Joule-
Thomson coefficient.

The apparatus is furnished with a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger returns the gas which has been
cooled a pressure –reducing valve of the gas cylinder back to ambient and thus system temperature.

10
To measure the Joule-Thomson coefficient, the gas is expanded on a frit from the over pressure on
the pressure gauge to ambient pressure. The glass part of the apparatus is sheeted in transparent
plastic as protection against splintering, the apparatus works in a range of overpressures up to 1 bar
and is basically operated at ambient temperature.
If an ideal gas expands without performing external work, no cooling takes place. An actual gas,
however, does cool in such a case since, as opposed to an ideal gas, forces act between the molecules.
Work must always be performed during expansion to overcome these forces. The gas therefore
becomes cooler during expansion if there is no exchange of heat with the environment.

The gas being examined is passed through the tube and fitting (10) to the air type heat exchanger (1)
of the Joule-Thomson apparatus. It passes from the heat exchanger through the PVC tube (3) and the
pressure gauge (4) to the pressure container (5). A frit (6) connects this with a container (7) in which
ambient pressure prevails. The screw locks (9) and (2) are used to hold two temperature measuring
probes

11
Operation:
A complete experiment set-up is shown in fig.2. The digital apparatus for temperature measurement
is particularly suitable for measuring temperatures, as in its “differential measurement “mode of
operation it accurately indicates to 0.01 K the difference in temperature between two probes. These
probes must be fastened in the screw locks (2) and (9) so that their points are at a distance of about
2 to 5 mm from the frit.
The inlet of the unit (tube and fitting 10) has to be connected to the reducing valve of the gas cylinder
intended (pressure tube and 2 tube clips are supplied). When adjusting the pressure it should be
ensured that the pressure indicating by the reducing valve, owing to the drop in pressure in the heat
exchanger, is a few bar greater than the over pressure indicated on the pressure gauge 4. The latter
must not exceed the maximum permissible pressure for the Joule-Thomson tube of 1 bar, so don’t
under any circumstances close the gas outlet opening (8) during operation.
In this experiment various pairs of pressure/ temperature differential values are measured (preferably
proceeding from higher to lower pressure) and plotted in a diagram; the slope of the line is then the
Joule-Thomson coefficient of the tested gas.

Note:
It should be ensured that the entire apparatus is first left to stand for some time in the room in which
the experiment is to be carried out, so that all components are at the same temperature. This will
avoid measuring errors. The apparatus can operate satisfactorily only when the pressure in front of
the heat exchanger is still a few bar.

Equipment list:
Joule Thomson apparatus (with pressure tube and 2 tube clips)

For temperature measurement:

Digital apparatus for temperature measurement
Temperature probe, immersion type, pt 100 (2 required)

Gas source with accessories:

Steel cylinder CO2
Reducing valve for CO2
Steel cylinder N2
Reducing valve for N2
Wrench for steel cylinders

12
Purpose and characteristic features:
Modern and very user-friendly instrument for the measurement of temperature and of temperature
differences at four different points
Two different demonstrative 4 digital LED displays (with sign and floating decimal points), with a
digital height of 20 mm for exhibiting the values measured at the chosen points.
RS 232 interface for the simultaneous presentation and evaluation of the values measured at all four
points in a computer.
Switchable recorder output to transfer the measured values from one of the digital displays to at Y
recorder.
Measurement of temperature differences between any two probes.

Functional and operating limits:

1. Connectors for the temperature measuring probes 5- pole diode sockets for the connection of
a maximum of 4 measuring probes (Pt 100, four-conductor technology)
2. Light emitting diode display for the upper and lower digital displays. The lighting up of a
single display LED indicates that the temperature that this probe is measuring is shown in the
upper digital display (red LEC) or lower digital display (green LEC). When two red or two
green LEDs light up, the corresponding temperature difference is displayed.
3. Light emitting diodes display for the units. Display of the unit oC or K, which has been
selected with push button C/K. Red light emitting diodes indicates the upper digital display
and green light emitting diodes the lower digital display on the front plate.
4. Push-buttons for choice of measuring T1…4. Pressing these buttons determines from which
measuring probes the temperatures or temperature differences are called up and displayed in
the upper and lower digital displays.
5. Push-buttons for switching between oC and K. Pressing these buttons causes a switch over in
units in the upper or lower digital display. Display of temperature differences (delta T) and
tared values by pushing set button automatically switches to K.

Starting up:
Connect the instrument to the AC supply with the connecting cord supplied and switch on with the
main switch. The instrument is ready for immediate use. All channels are automatically switched to
temperature to temperature measurement and measured values are shown in the display. If no
measuring probe has been connected, 999.9 is displayed.
The instrument can change its operating condition and lose data as a result of electrostatic discharge
or high frequency fields (e.g. radios) in its vicinity. The connection should not be longer than 3m.

13
Temperature measurement:
The selection of the measured values which are to be shown in the digital display is made by repeated
pressing of the button represented by T1…4. The lighting up of a red light emitting diode above a
measuring probe connection signals that this being shown in the upper digital display. Push button
represented by C/K allows the unit to be changed between oC and K.

Measurement of differences in temperature:

First select the minuend (the measured temperature value which is going to be subtracted from) by
approximately pressing push button represented by T1…4, then change over to the measurement of
temperature difference push button represented by delta T. use push button T1…4 again to select the
subtrahend (the measured temperature value which is to be subtracted from the minuend). In this
way, the temperature difference measurement can be set for any combinations. The combination
which have been are denoted by two red or two green lit-up light emitting diodes above the
appropriate measuring probe connections.

Specific functions:
The tare function SET 0.00 enables the measured values in the display to be saved and set to zero.
From then on, the change of temperature over time at this measuring point is shown as difference
between the reference value and the momentary temperature.in this mode of operation, the resolution
is tenfold better (0.01 K). The measuring range is 50.00 K (in relation to reference value) and 99.99
is displayed when this range is exceeded. The display is always in K and cannot be switched over to
o
C.
Temperature measuring probes can indicate different temperatures in the same medium. The probes
recommended under “Accessories” display for 100oC, for example, 99.4oC or 100.6o C as upper and
lower worst cases. Such differences in the probe can be equalized by use of push button represented
by (adjust). The condition is indicated by a yellow light-emitting diode and can be remedied by
repeated pressing of the push-button. The working range of the adjust function is 5oC.

14
 REFRIGERATION CYCLE APPARATUS

Description:
The apparatus is based on a standard commercial vapor compression refrigeration unit comprising a
direct compressor (6) enclosed in a sealed casing with its driving motor mounted on a common base
with a fan cooled condenser unit. The refrigerator is carried in a ventilated compartment in the base
of the apparatus and may be viewed through a Perspex window.
The refrigerator is employed to extract heat from approximately 26 liters of secondary refrigerant in
the form of 60% solution of inhibited ethylene glycol (Thermocal C) contained in a calorimeter. The
calorimeter comprises a cylindrical vessel of borosilicate glass surrounded by plastic foam insulation
and accommodated in a steel housing. A particular feature of the test procedure is that the
temperature of the secondary refrigerant falls continuously during the test. The primary refrigerant
employed is R-407c.
The refrigerant compressor delivers super-heated vapors to the condenser unit (9) and the condensed
liquid passes through the thermostatic expansion valve to the evaporator coil immersed in the
calorimeter. The refrigerant evaporates in its passage through the coil extracting heat from the glycol
solution and returns to the compressor inlet in a moderately superheated condition.
The thermostatic expansion valve (2) controls the flow of condensed refrigerant into the evaporator
(1). It consists essentially of a poppet valve, the opening of which is controlled by a diaphragm, one
side of which senses the pressure in the evaporator, while the other side communicates with a bulb
that senses the compressor inlet temperature.
A temperature sensitivity liquid in this bulb tends to force the valve open with increasing
temperature, while the evaporator pressure acts in the opposite direction to close the valve. The effect
of these two opposing forces is to regulate the valve position to ensure a very approximately constant
degree of superheat in the vapor entering the compressor independent of the evaporator temperature.
A spring bearing against the diaphragm may be adjusted to control the degree of superheat.
The calorimeter is carried on slides within the upper part of the cabinet and may be withdrawn to the
rear after removing the thermometer. The window on the front of the cabinet permits observation of
the secondary refrigerant level. The calorimeter is closed by an insulated cover that carries an
electrically driven stirrer, the evaporator coil and an electrical immersion heater. An alcohol-in-glass
thermometer reading to 0.1o C is immersed in the refrigerant and may be read from the front of the
cabinet. A glass specific gravity hydrometer may be inserted in place of the thermometer to check
the density of the glycol/water solution.
An instrument panel carries the necessary instruments and controls comprising on/off switches,
indicator lamps and fuses, temperature indicator, timer and wattmeter, also pressure gauges showing
the evaporator and condenser pressure.
Nickel-chrome/ Nickel-aluminium thermocouples are located as follow:

15
 Evaporator inlet = T1
Condenser inlet = T2
Throttle valve inlet = T3
Compressor valve = T4
The temperature indicator associated with the thermocouples (4) is fitted with a four-way selector,
switch. A mains isolator is carried on the right-hand side of the cabinet and the single phase electrical
supply is taken by way of a flexible lead. No other external services are required.
The apparatus, which measures 1.2m x 0.6m x 1.6m high is mounted on castors.

16
17
Technical data:

Compressor Single cylinder sealed unit

Compressor motor Capacitor start, nominal rating 0.5 hp
Condenser Air cooled with motor driven fan
Calorimeter Pyrex glass , insulation polyurethane foam
Water equivalent 1.75 kg
Refrigerant R-407c
Refrigerant charge 0.4 kg
Secondary refrigerant 60% solution Thermcol C
Secondary refrigerant charge 26 kg
Nominal power Compressor 700 W
Stirrer 50W
Immersion heater 1000W
Maximum total 2 kW

18
 Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger

WATER-BORNE INFECTIONS:

The equipment described in this instruction manual involves the use of water which under certain
conditions can create a health hazard due to infection by harmful micro-organisms.

For example, the microscopic bacterium called Legionella pneumophila will feed on any scale,
rust, algae or sludge in water and will breed rapidly if the temperature of water is between 20 and
45°C. Any water containing this bacterium which is sprayed or splashed creating air borne droplets
can produce a form of pneumonia called Legionaries Disease which is potentially fatal.

Legionella is not the only harmful micro-organism which can infect water but it serves as a useful
example of the need for cleanliness.

Under the COSHH regulations, the following precautions must be observed.

Any water contained within the product must not be allowed to stagnate, i.e. the water must be
changed regularly.

Any rust, sludge, scale or algae on which micro-organisms can feed must be removed regularly,
i.e. the equipment must be cleaned regularly.

Where practicable the water should be maintained at a temperature below 20°C or above 45°C. If
this is not practicable then the water should be disinfected if it is safe and appropriate to do so.
Note that other hazards may exist in the handling of biocides used to disinfect the water.

A scheme should be prepared for preventing or controlling the risk incorporating all of the actions
listed above.

Further details on preventing infection are contained in the publication “The Control of
Legionellosis including Legionnaries Disease”- Health and Safety Series booklet HS (G) 70.

USE OF EARTH LEAKAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS AS AN ELECTRICAL

SAFETY DEVICE:
The equipment (Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger) operates from a mains voltage electrical supply.
The equipment is designed and manufactured in accordance with appropriate regulations relating to
the use of electricity. Similarly, it is assumed that regulations applying to the operation for electrical
equipment are observed by the end user.
However, due to the presence of exposed water and an electrical supply on this equipment, an Earth
Leakage Circuit Breaker has been incorporated (ELCB, alternatively called a Residual Current
19
Circuit Breaker or RCCB) as an integral part of this equipment. If through misuse or accident the
equipment becomes electrically dangerous, an ELCB will switch off the electrical supply and reduce
the severity of any electric shock received by an operator to a level which, under normal
circumstances, will not cause injury to that person.
At least once each month, check that any ELCB is operating correctly by pressing the TEST button.
The circuit breaker MUST trip when the button is pressed. Failure to trip means that the operator is
not protected and the equipment must be checked and repaired a competent electrician before it is
used.

20
Description:
The Hilton concentric tube heat exchanger has been designed to specifically demonstrate the
working principles of industrial heat exchanger in the most convenient way possible in the
laboratory class room. The apparatus requires only a cold water supply, fused electrical supply,
and a bench top to enable a series of simple measurement to be made by students needing an
introduction to heat exchanger design and operation. Experiments can be readily conducted in a
short period of time, with virtually no setting up operation, to accurate show the practical
importance of the following:
Temperature profile
Co- and counter-current flow
Energy balances
Log mean temperature differences
Heat transfer coefficients
The equipment consist of concentric tube exchanger in the form of a ‘U’ mounted on a support
frame. The external surface of the exchanger is insulated. Three temperature measuring devices
are installed in both the inside and the outside tubes, to measure the fluid temperature accurately.
To minimize losses in the system, the hot water is fed though the inner pipe, with the cooling water
in the outer annulus.
Control valves are incorporated in each of the two streams to regulate the flow. The flow rates are
measured using independent flow meters installed in each line.
The hot water system is totally self-contained. A hot storage tank is equipped with two immense
type heaters and an adjustable temperature controller, which can maintain a temperature to within
approximately ±1oC. Circulation to the heat exchanger is provided by a pump, and water returns
to the storage tank via a baffle arrangement to ensure adequate mixing. The cold water required
for the exchanger is taken from the laboratory mains supply.
A readily identifiable valve arrangement allows simple changeover between co- and counter-
current configurations.
(Refer to Fig. 1 and Fig. 2)
A supply of hot water at a temperature up to 80oC is maintained in a storage tank (1) at the rear of
the apparatus by two integral heating elements (2). The temperature of the water is monitored by
a sensor (4) adjacent to the tank outlet (5). Power to the electrical elements is regulated by a
controller (9) connected to the sensor to maintain a constant temperature. The controller is mounted
on the front panel for convenience and incorporates a liquid crystal display to show the actual
water temperature and membrane keys to set the desired water temperature. The storage tank is

21
fitted with a loose cover (7) to prevent the ingress of dust and reduce loss of water through
evaporation. Water is continuously recirculated through the tank by a pump (6), and baffles (3)
within the tank assist in mixing to promote a consistent temperature at the tank outlet.
Hot water for the exchanger is taken from the pump discharge and passes through the inner pipe
of the concentric tube arrangements (13) before returning to the tank for reheating. Flow through
this circuit is regulated by a control valve (18) and indicated on a flow meter (19). Thermometer
(15) and (17) installed at the inlet and outlet of the exchanger hot water circuit indicate the
respective water temperatures. A thermometer (10) installed in the top branch of the exchanger
indicates the temperature of the water in the hot water circuit at the mid-point of the circuit.
Cold water for the exchanger is supplied from an external source to the outer annulus of the
concentric tube arrangement via an inlet (21) and valve arrangement (16). Flow through this circuit
is regulated by a control valve (20) and indicated on a flow meter (23). After heating in the
exchanger the cold water leaves via an outlet (22). Temperatures through the cold water circuit are
indicated on three thermometers (12 and 14) co- or counter-flow configurations may be obtained
by the appropriate setting of the selector valves (16).
Valves (11) at the top of the exchanger permit air to be bled from the system and facilitate drainage.
A drain valve (24) permits the storage tank to be drained.
The pipework is drained by three valves positioned at:
i. Outlet of pump
ii. Before hot water control valve
iii. Before cold water control valve

22
23
24
 Steam Power Plant
A conventional steam power plant consists of following 4 fundamental units.
1. Steam boiler
2. Turbine
3. Condenser
4. Pump

Steam Boiler:
High temperature and high pressure steam is generated in boiler. Liquid water (in
subcooled state) is pumped into the boiler via pump. 2 electric heaters heat the water and convert
it into saturated steam. A pressure gauge shows the pressure inside the boiler and a thermocouple
shows the boiler temperature.
A steam outlet valve is located at the outlet of the boiler and it throttles steam to a low pressure.
Throttling is an isenthalpic process so the enthalpy of the steam before and after throttling will be
same. Steam after passing through the outlet valve is superheated.
Steam generated in the boiler can leave the boiler from the steam outlet valve located on the top
of the boiler but often process dictates draining liquid water from the boiler as well. A little drum
connected with the boiler is called blow down drum and a valve located at the bottom of the
blowdown drum allows liquid water to drain from the boiler.
Different safety interlocks on boiler are following.
1. Automatic Pressure control:
Pressure inside the boiler is generated due to the excessive heating by the heaters. An
automatic pressure control switch is located on boiler which will cut off heater’s electricity
supply if pressure exceeds the set point value. The set point value of pressure can be
adjusted on the pressure switch by a screw located on the top of the pressure switch. By
controlling the heater power, the pressure switch controls the boiler pressure and in turn
boiler’s temperature (because in case of saturated vapor-liquid mixture; the two variables
are dependent on each other).
Currently a set point of 30 Psi is adjusted on the switch.
2. Automatic Level control:
Two sets of conductivity sensors are inserted into the blowdown drum which controls the
level of liquid water inside the boiler by actuating pump motor ON or OFF. Four probes of
conductivity sensors are dipped into the drum and these transmit the conductivity to a
controller.
Probes are arranged in such a manner that when a low level is achieved in the boiler, the
conductivity between two probes suddenly drops and controller generates an actuating
signal to turn pump motor ON and start filling the boiler. Also, when a high level is
achieved, the other set of conductivity probes are fully immersed in electrolyte and their
conductivity suddenly rises. Controller senses this signal and stops the pump motor.

25
 3. Sight glass:
It is used for the visual indication of liquid level in the boiler. It cannot transmit the signal
in the digital form and is just an indicator instrument with no automatic control loop.
Human intervention is needed in case of control manually. Besides the automatic level
control through conductivity sensors, it becomes a redundant safety interlock.
4. Safety valve:
A safety valve (as 3rd redundant safety interlock) is located on the top of the boiler in case
of excessive pressure buildup in the boiler. Higher pressure in the boiler will push the
spring loaded seat of the safety valve open and steam will be vent to the atmosphere. Seat
will automatically shut off when pressure is lowered.

Turbine:
This steam turbine is piston-cylinder type assembly. Two pistons move simultaneously in
two cylinders. Both pistons are mounted on a same crank shaft. The crankshaft movement is then
transmitted to a flywheel. The exhaust of the turbine is connected to an atmospheric condenser.
An oil cup located at the bottom of the turbine is filled with Lube oil to dispense the heat out of
the pistons. Heat can cause thermal expansion in the pistons leading to the failure of the movement
inside the cylinders. Piston ring on pistons retard the mixing of the lube oil and steam but because
of imperfections steam gets mixed with lube oil and hence the oily exhaust appears at the condenser
exhaust. This is why the exhaust fluid from the condenser is not circulated back in close loop to
the boiler like industrial power plants.

Condenser:
It consists of coil of copper tubes inside which the cooling water flows and exhaust steam
condenses on the outside. The casing of the condenser is open to the atmosphere and the
condensate falls below due to gravity from the bottom opening. Two thermometers on cooling
water lines indicate the temperature of incoming and outgoing cooling water.

Pump:
It is a positive displacement pump consisting of a single piston-cylinder assembly. Two
non-return valves are located on the inlet and outlet of the pump cylinder to control the direction
of water flow.

Brake system:
It consists of a leather break which can be pulled by two spring balances. The force required
to stop the flywheel rotating is just equal to the force with which the flywheel rotates.

Tachometer:
A tachometer can be used to measure the RPM of the flywheel. It can be contact type or
non-contact type.

26
 Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

Diagram:

Introduction:
The principle of the conservation of energy tells us that if a given amount of work is
transformed completely into heat, the resulting thermal energy must be equivalent to the amount
of work that was performed. Of course, since work is normally measured in units of Joules and
thermal energy is normally measured in units of Calories, the equivalence is not immediately
obvious. A quantitative relationship is needed that equates Joules and Calories. This relationship
is called the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.

27
History:

It may not seem strange to us today that there is a thing called energy that is conserved in
all physical interactions. Energy is a concept we have all grown up with. A hundred and fifty years
ago it was not so evident that there should be an intimate, quantitative relationship between such
apparently unrelated phenomena as motion and heat. The discovery that heat and motion can be
seen as different forms of the same thing—namely energy—was the first and biggest step toward
understanding the concept of energy and its conservation.

Count Rumford of Bavaria, in 1798, was the first to realize that work and heat were related
phenomena. At that time, it was commonly believed that heat resulted from the flow of a massless
fluid-like substance called caloric. It was believed that this substance resided in objects, and that
when they were cut, ground, or otherwise divided into smaller pieces, the pieces could not hold as
much caloric as the original object. The resulting release of caloric was what we experience as
heat.

While boring cannon for the Bavarian government, Rumford noticed that heat was
produced even when the boring equipment had become so dulled from use that it was no longer
boring into the iron. The heat therefore was not dependent on the breaking up of the metal into
smaller pieces. In fact, this meant that a limitless amount of heat could be produced from the iron
and boring equipment, an idea that was inconsistent with the belief that heat was the result of the
release of a substance that resided in the material. Rumford realized that a connection existed
between the motion of the bore and the heat. He even took his reasoning a step further, stating his
belief that only if heat were a form of motion would it demonstrate the properties he had observed.

28
 It was not until the experiments of Joule in 1850, however, that Rumford's ideas about the
nature of heat gained popular acceptance. Joule performed a variety of experiments in which he
converted a carefully measured quantity of work, through friction, into an equally carefully
measured quantity of heat. For example, in one experiment Joule used falling masses to propel a
paddle wheel in a thermally insulated, water-filled container. Measurements of the distance
through which the masses fell and the temperature change of the water allowed Joule to determine
the work performed and the heat produced. With many such experiments, Joule demonstrated that
the ratio between work performed and heat produced was constant. In modern units, Joule's results
are stated by the expression:

29
 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Diagram:

Introduction:

30
 Experiment No. 1

Objective:
To Calculate Joule Thomson coefficient for Argon Gas

Apparatus:

Joule Thomson Apparatus

It consists of a glass tube in which gas expands across a slit. Two Thermocouples are placed
within the tube to measure the temperature of gas before and after expansion. A pressure
gauge measures the pressure difference across a slit.

Gas is passed through a sufficiently long length of metallic coil to ensure its thermal
equilibrium with the surroundings before it enters into glass tube (“System”) for expansion.
At the end of the metallic coil gas temperature becomes equal to the ambient temperature
and no heat transfer occurs to or from the gas once it enters into glass tube (Hence, system
becomes adiabatic).

Safety:

1. Personnel safety:
· Ensure that the gas cylinder is equipped with the multi gauges for safe pressure
transmission of gas
· Use of safety Googles is recommended because of high pressure
2. Equipment safety:
· Fragile glass tube must be dealt with care
· Gas pressure must not exceed more than 1 bar (gauge) as bourdon gauge is susceptible
to breaking
· Outlet of glass tube should be open to the environment.
3. Chemical Safety:

31
 · Although Argon is noble gas at ambient conditions, its higher concentrations may
create lower partial pressure of oxygen in local environment. Ensure all gas and
electrical connections are properly connected and there is no leakage of gas. Also,
ensure proper ventilation of area.

Procedure:
1. Plug in the electric supply cable of the unit
2. Turn “ON” the Thermocouple display console (a button is located on back of the console)
3. Adjust the thermocouples display on thermocouple console by pressing T1-4 button. 4
sockets are available for thermocouples on console but only 2 displays are given so T1-4
button can be used to read the display of required thermocouple at desired location. Ensure
that two displays aren’t reading the same thermocouple probe
4. Adjust thermocouple position in glass tube properly and wait atleast 2 minutes for
thermocouples display to stabilize. With no gas in the chamber, both thermocouples should
have same reading. If not, note the difference in reading of the two thermocouples as zero
error
5. Open the cylinder valve with a key and adjust the gas pressure with gas flow control valve
such that gauge on the glass tube reads 0.1 bar. After 15-20 seconds, read the ΔT from
console display.
6. Gradually increase gas pressure to 0.2, 0.3 up to 0.8 bar and read ΔT against each value
from console.
7. Take backward readings and plot a graph between ΔP on x -axis and ΔT on y-axis for both
set of readings.

Experimental Precautions:

· Outlet thermocouple should not be inserted within the slit. Its tip should be located after
the slit to measure the temperature after expansion
· Thermocouples should be in the center of the tube and should not touch the wall of the
tube
· Zero error in the thermocouples should be recorded before supplying gas to the
apparatus

32
 · Atleast 15 seconds stabilization time should be given to thermocouple display to
stabilize itself against any adjusted gas pressure

Observations & Calculations:

Barometric Pressure: ________________ Bar

Lab Temperature: ___________________ oC

Forward Readings Backward Readings

S. No. ΔP � ΔP �
ΔP (Bar) ΔT (K) = ΔP (Bar) ΔT (K) =
ΔT ΔT
1

Plot ΔP on X-axis and ΔT on Y-axis for both backward and forward readings.

33
 Experiment No. 2

Objective:

To Calculate for a given vapor compression refrigeration machine

1. Actual specific work of compression

2. Isentropic work
3. Compressor efficiency
4. Condenser Duty
5. Work required for ideal Carnot cycle machine
6. Overall losses in machine

Apparatus:
1. Vapor compression refrigeration unit with R-407c as primary refrigerant

Safety:
1. Personnel safety:
VC refrigeration unit runs on electricity supply. Ensure all electrical safety measures while
dealing with this unit.
Backside of the unit is kept open for demonstration purposes. Ensure there isn’t any item
which can cause short circuiting.
2. Equipment safety:
Parallel units with refrigeration machine have water flow connections. Ensure the spillage
free workplace of equipment.
3. Chemical Safety:
Inhibited Ethylene glycol (60%) solution is used as a secondary refrigerant in the
calorimeter. While reading temperatures in calorimeter it will stick with the thermometer
and can come into contact with personnel’s working on it. Avoid the risk of contamination
as it may cause serious health concerns.

34
Procedure:
1. Ensure all switches on the panel of machine are in “OFF” position
2. Plug in the electric supply of the unit
3. Turn “ON” the main switch located on the side of the VC Refrigeration machine
4. Turn “ON” compressor illumination button and “Compressor & Fan” Button
5. After 3 minutes, visually observe the frost on the refrigerant pipe taking low temperature
low pressure refrigerant into the evaporator section.
6. With the interval of 3 minutes, note down following readings (for atleast 45-55 minutes)
a. 4 temperatures from temperature selector switch at position 1, 2, 3, 4
b. Compressor Suction & Discharge Pressure (these are gauge pressures. Add the
atmospheric pressure in it before locating properties against it in refrigerant
property table)

Observations & Calculations:

Barometric Pressure: ________________ Bar

Compressor Compressor
Throttle
Evaporator Condenser Compressor Suction Discharge
Time Valve
S. No. Inlet T1 Inlet T2 Inlet T4 Pressure Pressure
(min) Inlet T3
(oC) (oC) (oC) Absolute Absolute
(oC)
(Bar) (Bar)
1 3
2 6
3 9
. .
. .
. .

When readings show a steady state behavior; for any sample reading

35
1. Actual Specific Work for compression
For, Adiabatic Compressor, actual specific work of compression can be found out using
enthalpy difference at the inlet and outlet of compressor. This difference in enthalpy across
compressor is the compression work done on the refrigerant; not the actual work consumed
by compressor. Due to friction, compressor work should be greater than the work given to
the fluid by the compressor.

Adiabatic
Compressor
Hinlet (T4, Suction Pressure) Houtlet (T2, Discharge Pressure)

· Find Hinlet from refrigerant property tables of R-407c as a function of compressor

inlet temperature and pressure.

= ______________________

· Find Houtlet from refrigerant property tables of R-407c as a function of compressor

outlet temperature and pressure.

= ______________________

· Find

=∆ = = __________________

2. Isentropic Specific Work for compression:

Isentropic work of compression can be calculated as the difference in enthalpy across
compressor as if compressor is adiabatic & Reversible i.e. frictionless
· Find Hinlet & Sinlet from refrigerant property tables of R-407c as a function of
compressor inlet temperature and pressure.

= ______________________

= ______________________

36
 · Find Houtlet from refrigerant property tables of R-407c as a function of compressor
outlet pressure and Outlet Entropy.
Because compressor is Isentropic

= ______________________

′
= ______________________

· Find
′
= ∆ = = __________________

3. Mechanical Efficiency of Compressor:

Mechanical efficiency of the compressor is the index of friction within the compressor. It
is denoted by .
Δ
= = = ________________
Δ

4. Actual Condenser Duty (Qc):

Condenser duty can be found out by applying enthalpy balance around condenser. Ideally,
the condenser is an Isobaric device.

Isobaric
Condenser

Hinlet (T2, Compressor

Discharge Pressure) Houtlet (T3, Compressor
Discharge Pressure)

=Δ = ______________

5. Work required for Ideal Carnot Machine:

If this machine would be an ideal Carnot machine, the work of compression would be
characterized by Wideal. All Temperatures should be in Kelvin.
= = __________

37
 = = ____________
| |
= =

= ____________________

6. Overall Losses in Machine:

= = _____________________

38
 Experiment No. 3

Objective:
To determine Coefficient of Performance for a given vapor compression refrigeration
machine & for ideal Carnot cycle machine

Apparatus:
1. Vapor compression refrigeration unit with R-407c as primary refrigerant

Safety:
1. Personnel safety:
VC refrigeration unit runs on electricity supply. Ensure all electrical safety measures while
dealing with this unit.
Backside of the unit is kept open for demonstration purposes. Ensure there isn’t any item
which can cause short circuiting.
2. Equipment safety:
Parallel units with refrigeration machine have water flow connections. Ensure the spillage
free workplace of equipment.
3. Chemical Safety:
Ethylene glycol (60%) solution is used as a secondary refrigerant in the calorimeter. While
reading temperatures in calorimeter it will stick with the thermometer and can come into
contact with personnel’s working on it. Avoid the risk of contamination as it may cause
serious health concerns.

Procedure:
1. Ensure all switches on the panel of machine are in “OFF” position
2. Plug in the electric supply of the unit
3. Turn “ON” the main switch located on the side of the VC Refrigeration machine
4. Turn “ON” compressor illumination button and “Compressor & Fan” Button

39
 5. After 3 minutes, visually observe the frost on the refrigerant pipe taking low temperature
low pressure refrigerant into the evaporator section.
6. With the interval of 3 minutes, note down following readings (for atleast 45-55 minutes)
a. 4 temperatures from temperature selector switch at position 1, 2, 3, 4
b. Compressor Suction & Discharge Pressure (these are gauge pressures. Add the
atmospheric pressure in it before locating properties against it in refrigerant
property table)

Observations & Calculations:

Barometric Pressure: ________________ Bar

Compressor Compressor
Throttle
Evaporator Condenser Compressor Suction Discharge
Time Valve
S. No. Inlet T1 Inlet T2 Inlet T4 Pressure Pressure
(min) Inlet T3
o o o
( C) ( C) ( C) Absolute Absolute
(oC)
(Bar) (Bar)
1 3
2 6
3 9
. .
. .
. .

COP is the index of performance of any refrigeration machine. It is understood in similar terms as
thermal efficiency for power plants. Its value can be greater than one instead of thermal efficiency
which has its value limited to 0.35-0.4 as dictated by 2nd law of thermodynamics.

It is denoted by .

1. COP for actual machine:

| |
=
| |

Actual Condenser Duty (Qc):

40
 Condenser duty can be found out by applying enthalpy balance around condenser. Ideally,
the condenser is an Isobaric device.

Isobaric
Condenser

Hinlet (T2, Compressor

Discharge Pressure) Houtlet (T3, Compressor
Discharge Pressure)

=Δ = ______________

Actual Specific Work for compression

For, Adiabatic Compressor, actual specific work of compression can be found out using
enthalpy difference at the inlet and outlet of compressor. This difference in enthalpy across
compressor is the compression work done on the refrigerant; not the actual work consumed
by compressor. Due to friction, compressor work should be greater than the work given to
the fluid by the compressor.

Adiabatic
Compressor
Hinlet (T4, Suction Pressure) Houtlet (T2, Discharge Pressure)

· Find Hinlet from refrigerant property tables of R-407c as a function of compressor

inlet temperature and pressure.

= ______________________

· Find Houtlet from refrigerant property tables of R-407c as a function of compressor

outlet temperature and pressure.

41
 = ______________________

· Find

=∆ = = __________________

| |
= = ____________________
| |

2. COP for (Ideal) Carnot Machine:

If this machine would be an ideal Carnot machine, the work of compression would be
characterized by Wideal. All Temperatures should be in Kelvin.
= = __________
= = ____________
| |
= = =

= = _______________

42
 Experiment No. 4

Objective:
To Perform Enthalpy Balance on a Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger with

a) Co-current Flow
b) Counter-current flow

Apparatus Description:
Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger

It consists of a tube of larger diameter inside which lies a tube of smaller diameter. The outside of
the exchanger is insulated to avoid any heat loss.

1. 4 valves located on the front of the apparatus can direct the flow in co/counter-current direction.
The schemes of valve positions for parallel or anti parallel flow are shown on the apparatus.
2. Immersion heaters heat the water in hot water reservoir (located at the rear of the apparatus)
controlled by a thermostat. Set point temperature of hot water can be adjusted on thermostat.
3. A circulation pump circulates the hot water from the reservoir to inside tube of exchanger. Cold
water circulates in the outside annulus from supply lines.
4. Flowmeters measure the flowrates of both the cold and hot water supplies. Flowrates can be
adjusted using valves located on both lines.
5. Thermometers are installed at inlet, middle and outlet on cold and hot water lines.

Safety:
1. Personnel safety:
· Use safety gloves, lab coat and safety googles due to hot surfaces, electrical connections and
biological contamination
· Do not remove the lid of the hot water reservoir. Do not touch the water in the reservoir as it
may cause electric shock or severe burns due to high temperature.
· Ensure that circuit breakers installed at the rear of the apparatus are working properly before
performing the experiment.
2. Equipment safety:

43
 · Ensure hot water reservoir is full of water before turning Heaters ON. Equipment will instantly
be damaged if heaters run dry.
· Bleed the apparatus for any air present in the apparatus.
· Use distilled water in the hot water reservoir to avoid any scaling inside the tube.
3. Chemical Safety:
· Water when retained for a long time in the reservoir e.g. few months may allow the growth of
legionella Pneumophila. This microbe can cause chronic respiratory diseases. Do not touch the
water if it is retained for a long time.

Procedure:
1. Fill the hot water reservoir with distilled water to atleast a level that immersion heaters are fully
submerged in water.
2. Adjust valve positions to direct concurrent flow in the exchanger
3. Turn main Electric Supply ON
4. Switch ON the Thermostat and provide the set point temperature e.g. 60 oC
5. Open Cooling water valve and adjust its flowrate to 1 lit/min
6. When hot water in reservoir reaches the set point, Turn ON the circulation pump and adjust the
flowrate of hot water initially to 1 lit/min
7. Note the Temperatures from thermometers at the inlet, middle and outlet for both hot and cold
fluids.
8. Increase the flowrate of both streams to 2 (and then 3) lit/min and take readings.
9. Change valve positions for counter current flow and repeat experiment

Observations & Calculations:

Co/counter-current Flow: _______________

Flowrates Hot Fluid Clod Fluid

(lit/min) Th,in Th,middle Th,out Tc,in Tc,middle Tc,out
1
2
3

44
 1. For 1 liter/min flowrate:

For hot fluid, find the Cp value at the middle point temperature

, = ___________________________ ,

= , ( , , ) = ___________________

For cold fluid

, = ___________________________ ,

= , ( , , ) = ___________________

= ____________________________

Perform the calculation for 2 and 3 lit/min and for counter current flow as well.

45
Appendix: Properties of Water

Temperature Specific Heat Density

(oF) (Btu/lbmoF) (lbm/ft3)

32 1.009 62.42

40 1.005 62.42

50 1.002 62.38

60 1.000 62.34

70 0.998 62.27

80 0.998 62.17

90 0.997 62.11

100 0.997 61.99

110 0.997 61.84

120 0.997 61.73

130 0.998 61.54

140 0.998 61.39

150 0.999 61.20

160 1.000 61.01

170 1.001 60.79

46
180 1.002 60.57

190 1.003 60.35

200 1.004 60.13

220 1.007 59.63

240 1.010 59.10

260 1.015 58.51

280 1.020 57.94

300 1.026 57.31

350 1.044 55.59

400 1.067 53.65

450 1.095 51.55

500 1.130 49.02

550 1.200 45.92

600 1.362 42.37

47
 Experiment No. 5

Objective:
To Calculate the mechanical efficiency of the steam Turbine

Apparatus & Equipment Description:

1. Steam Boiler with 2 Electric Heaters
2. Steam turbine: It consists of two pistons mounted on a crank shaft and double cylinders for the
expansion of high pressure steam. The exhaust of the turbine is connected to the atmospheric
condenser. A pressure gauge is located at the inlet of the turbine which reads the inlet steam
pressure to the turbine.
3. Saturated steam is made in the boiler. Steam outlet valve throttles the steam to a low pressure and
hence, converts it into the superheated steam which then enters into the turbine.
4. As throttling is the isenthalpic process, the enthalpy of the steam going into the turbine for
expansion can be calculated using boiler pressure and boiler temperature (2-variables according to
the phase rule).

Safety:
1. Personnel safety:
· Use of safety googles, Lab Coat & gloves is recommended due to high temperature, hot
surfaces, high pressure & live electricity.
· High speed moving turbine necessitates the ban on loose clothing
2. Equipment safety:
· Never turn on heaters as first step before performing the checks given in ‘Procedure’.
· Parallel units with Steam Boiler have water flow connections. Electrical short circuiting may
occur in case of excessive leakage. Ensure the spillage free workplace of equipment.
· Check the proper working of Pressure Switch to ensure the proper working of high temperature
safety interlock
· Ensure the proper working of water dosing pump to boiler by opening the blowdown valve
until pump runs itself. Wait for pump to fill the boiler and stop itself automatically

48
 · Ensure that boiler feed water is distilled properly and is free from any contaminants. Vessel
should atleast be half full of distilled water
· Ensure that the valve of BFW vessel is open for to deliver water to boiler through pump at all
times
· Check to hear a ticking sound from pressure switch when pressure on the boiler pressure gauge
reaches the set point value and ensure that heaters are turned off automatically.
3. Chemical Safety:
· Hot water/steam & Hot Lube oil may cause severe burns and damage to skin and body. Use
personnel protective equipment

Procedure:
1. Ensure all switches on the panel of machine are in “OFF” position
2. Plug in the electric supply of the unit
3. Turn “OFF” front and rear heater buttons
4. Turn ON the “Mains switch” located on the front of the Steam power plant
5. Turn ON “Pump” button and wait if pump turns itself on
6. Open boiler blowdown valve and steam outlet valve
7. Drain sufficient amount of water through blowdown and keep draining water until pump start
pumping water into the boiler
8. Close steam outlet valve and water blowdown valve.
9. When pump stops, it indicates that boiler is full of water. Turn ON “Front Heater” and “Rear
Heater”
10. When pressure inside boiler reaches 200 KN/m2, turn heaters off and bleed all the steam to
atmosphere (to evacuate any air present in the boiler). Note that pressure will suddenly fall to zero
as the steam outlet valve is opened. This rapid drop in pressure indicates the presence of a
compressible fluid e.g. air
11. Repeat step 10 atleast 3 times until it is ensured that no air has been left in the boiler.
12. Turn OFF the both Heaters. Bleed all the steam until pressure falls to below 40 KN/m2. Do not
proceed with too low a pressure otherwise air may again enter into the system.
13. Close the steam flow valve and Turn One Heater ON (for slow heating to approximate thermal
equilibrium at all times)
14. Turn on condenser cooling water
15. Adjust a boiler pressure of 150 KN/m2 and a turbine inlet pressure of 100 KN/m2 with the help of
steam outlet valve. Slightly rotate the wheel of the turbine to start its movement.

49
 16. After a steady state is achieved e.g. 5 minutes, note the RPM of the wheel with tachometer
17. Measure the condensate flowrate using beaker and stopwatch from the condenser outlet
18. Suddenly apply the brakes and find the magnitude of the opposite force necessary to stop the
flywheel instantly. (Note: the force should be just enough to stop the wheel and not more than
that. Also, the values from the spring balances should be read instantly otherwise steam inlet
pressure may change)
19. Repeat this experiment to take atleast 3 readings.

Observations & Calculations:

Barometric Pressure: ________________ Bar

Lab Temperature: ___________________ oC

1. Steam Inlet Enthalpy (H1):

Enthalpy of the inlet steam can be found out from steam table as a function of boiler temperature
and absolute (gauge + Barometric) boiler pressure.
Boiler Temperature: _________________ oC
Boiler Pressure (Abs): _______________ KPa
H1 = Enthalpy from steam table: ____________________ (KJ/Kg)
S1= Entropy of the inlet steam: _____________________ (KJ/Kg. K)
2. Actual Work produced by turbine:
Actual work of the turbine can be calculated as
×2
= × = = ______________
1000
= ℎ ℎ = _________________
−
= . ℎ ℎ = ______________
′
3. Isentropic Steam Outlet Enthalpy :
Isentropic Enthalpy of the outlet steam can be found out from steam table as a function of
Barometric pressure and outlet entropy (which is equal to the inlet steam entropy).
′
Barometric Pressure: _______________ KPa = = _________________ .
′
= Enthalpy from steam table: ____________________ (KJ/Kg)
4. Condensate flowrate:
Adjust the condenser cooling water flowrate such that all the vapors condense and no vapor is left
non-condensed. Note down the condensate flowrate.

50
 Condensate Flowrate: __________________ (kg/sec)

Turbine Turbine
Boiler =
inlet Brake Efficiency
S. Gauge Revolutions ̇ ∆ =
Absolute Force
′
No. Pressure per second (KJ) ̇ )
Pressure (Newton’s)
(KN/m2) (KJ) =
(KN/m2)
1 150 100
2 150 100
3 150 100

· Repeat this experiment for a turbine inlet pressure of 120 KN/m2

51
 Experiment No. 6

Objective:
To Calculate the Thermal efficiency of the steam Turbine

Apparatus & Equipment Description:

1. Steam Boiler with 2 Electric Heaters
2. Steam turbine: It consists of two pistons mounted on a crank shaft and double cylinders for the
expansion of high pressure steam. The exhaust of the turbine is connected to the atmospheric
condenser. A pressure gauge is located at the inlet of the turbine which reads the inlet steam
pressure to the turbine.
3. Saturated steam is made in the boiler. Steam outlet valve throttles the steam to a low pressure and
hence, converts it into the superheated steam which then enters into the turbine.
4. As throttling is the isenthalpic process, the enthalpy of the steam going into the turbine for
expansion can be calculated using boiler pressure and boiler temperature (2-variables according to
the phase rule).
5. The enthalpy of the outlet steam can be calculated using condensate temperature and pressure
(which is essentially atmospheric pressure)

Safety:
1. Personnel safety:
· Use of safety googles, Lab Coat & gloves is recommended due to high temperature, hot
surfaces, high pressure & live electricity.
· High speed moving turbine necessitates the ban on loose clothing
2. Equipment safety:
· Never turn on heaters as first step before performing the checks given in ‘Procedure’.
· Parallel units with Steam Boiler have water flow connections. Electrical short circuiting may
occur in case of excessive leakage. Ensure the spillage free workplace of equipment.
· Check the proper working of Pressure Switch to ensure the proper working of high temperature
safety interlock

52
 · Ensure the proper working of water dosing pump to boiler by opening the blowdown valve
until pump runs itself. Wait for pump to fill the boiler and stop itself automatically
· Ensure that boiler feed water is distilled properly and is free from any contaminants. Vessel
should atleast be half full of distilled water
· Ensure that the valve of BFW vessel is open for to deliver water to boiler through pump at all
times
· Check to hear a ticking sound from pressure switch when pressure on the boiler pressure gauge
reaches the set point value and ensure that heaters are turned off automatically.
3. Chemical Safety:
· Hot water/steam & Hot Lube oil may cause severe burns and damage to skin and body. Use
personnel protective equipment

Procedure:
1. Ensure all switches on the panel of machine are in “OFF” position
2. Plug in the electric supply of the unit
3. Turn “OFF” front and rear heater buttons
4. Turn ON the “Mains switch” located on the front of the Steam power plant
5. Turn ON “Pump” button and wait if pump turns itself on
6. Open boiler blowdown valve and steam outlet valve
7. Drain sufficient amount of water through blowdown and keep draining water until pump start
pumping water into the boiler
8. Close steam outlet valve and water blowdown valve.
9. When pump stops, it indicates that boiler is full of water. Turn ON “Front Heater” and “Rear
Heater”
10. When pressure inside boiler reaches 200 KN/m2, turn heaters off and bleed all the steam to
atmosphere (to evacuate any air present in the boiler). Note that pressure will suddenly fall to zero
as the steam outlet valve is opened. This rapid drop in pressure indicates the presence of a
compressible fluid e.g. air
11. Repeat step 10 atleast 3 times until it is ensured that no air has been left in the boiler.
12. Turn OFF the both Heaters. Bleed all the steam until pressure falls to below 40 KN/m2. Do not
proceed with too low a pressure otherwise air may again enter into the system.
13. Close the steam flow valve and Turn One Heater ON (for slow heating to approximate thermal
equilibrium at all times)

53
 14. Turn on condenser cooling water
15. Adjust a boiler pressure of 150 KN/m2 and a turbine inlet pressure of 100 KN/m2 with the help of
steam outlet valve. Slightly rotate the wheel of the turbine to start its movement.
16. After a steady state is achieved e.g. 5 minutes, note the RPM of the wheel with tachometer
17. Measure the condensate flowrate using beaker and stopwatch from the condenser outlet
18. Suddenly apply the brakes and find the magnitude of the opposite force necessary to stop the
flywheel instantly. (Note: the force should be just enough to stop the wheel and not more than
that. Also, the values from the spring balances should be read instantly otherwise steam inlet
pressure may change)
19. Repeat this experiment to take atleast 3 readings.

Observations & Calculations:

Barometric Pressure: ________________ Bar

Lab Temperature: ___________________ oC

1. Steam Inlet Enthalpy (H1):

Enthalpy of the inlet steam can be found out from steam table as a function of boiler temperature
and absolute (gauge + Barometric) boiler pressure.
Boiler Temperature: _________________ oC
Boiler Pressure (Abs): _______________ KPa
H1 = Enthalpy from steam table: ____________________ (KJ/Kg)
S1= Entropy of the inlet steam: _____________________ (KJ/Kg. K)
2. Actual Work produced by turbine:
Actual work of the turbine can be calculated as
×2
= × = = ______________
1000
= ℎ ℎ = _________________
−
= . ℎ ℎ = ______________

3. Enthalpy of subcooled water entering into boiler:

Note down the temperature of the water in BFW vessel. Also, note down the atmospheric pressure
with barometer. Calculate the enthalpy of the subcooled water from compressed water tables or use
the following relationship.
= + 1

54
 4. Condensate flowrate:
Adjust the condenser cooling water flowrate such that all the vapors condense and no vapor is left
non-condensed. Note down the condensate flowrate.
Condensate Flowrate: __________________ (kg/sec)

Turbine Efficiency
Turbine
Boiler
inlet Brake
S. Gauge Revolutions ̇ ×
gauge Force =
No. Pressure per second (KJ) (KJ) ̇ ×
Pressure (Newton’s)
(KN/m2)
(KN/m2)

1 150 100
2 150 100
3 150 100

· Repeat this experiment for a turbine inlet pressure of 120 KN/m2

55
 Experiment No. 7

Objective:
To verify the relationship between Temperature & Pressure of Saturated Steam

Apparatus:
Steam Boiler with 2 Electric Heaters

Safety:
1. Personnel safety:
· Use of safety googles, Lab Coat & gloves is recommended due to high temperature, hot
surfaces, high pressure & live electricity.
· High speed moving turbine necessitates the ban on loose clothing
2. Equipment safety:
· Never turn on heaters as first step before performing the checks given in ‘Procedure’.
· Parallel units with Steam Boiler have water flow connections. Electrical short circuiting may
occur in case of excessive leakage. Ensure the spillage free workplace of equipment.
· Check the proper working of Pressure Switch to ensure the proper working of high temperature
safety interlock
· Ensure the proper working of water dosing pump to boiler by opening the blowdown valve
until pump runs itself. Wait for pump to fill the boiler and stop itself automatically
· Ensure that boiler feed water is distilled properly and is free from any contaminants. Vessel
should atleast be half full of distilled water
· Ensure that the valve of BFW vessel is open for to deliver water to boiler through pump at all
times
· Check to hear a ticking sound from pressure switch when pressure on the boiler pressure gauge
reaches the set point value and ensure that heaters are turned off automatically.
3. Chemical Safety:
· Hot water/steam & Hot Lube oil may cause severe burns and damage to skin and body. Use
personnel protective equipment

56
Procedure:
1. Ensure all switches on the panel of machine are in “OFF” position
2. Plug in the electric supply of the unit
3. Turn “OFF” front and rear heater buttons
4. Turn ON the “Mains switch” located on the front of the Steam power plant
5. Turn ON “Pump” button and wait if pump turns itself on
6. Open boiler blowdown valve and steam outlet valve
7. Drain sufficient amount of water through blowdown and keep draining water until pump start
pumping water into the boiler
8. Close steam outlet valve and water blowdown valve.
9. When pump stops, it indicates that boiler is full of water. Turn ON “Front Heater” and “Rear
Heater”
10. When pressure inside boiler reaches 200 KN/m2, turn heaters off and bleed all the steam to
atmosphere (to evacuate any air present in the boiler). Note that pressure will suddenly fall to zero
as the steam outlet valve is opened. This rapid drop in pressure indicates the presence of a
compressible fluid e.g. air
11. Repeat step 10 atleast 3 times until it is ensured that no air has been left in the boiler.
12. Turn OFF the both Heaters. Bleed all the steam until pressure falls to below 40 KN/m2. Do not
proceed with too low a pressure otherwise air may again enter into the system.
13. Close the steam flow valve and Turn One Heater ON (for slow heating to approximate thermal
equilibrium at all times)
14. Start taking readings e.g. At different boiler pressures, Note down the corresponding values of Tsat
from thermocouple. Do not exceed a pressure of 200 KN/m2.
15. Take readings in reverse

57
Observations & Calculations:
Barometric Pressure: ________________ Bar

Lab Temperature: ___________________ oC

Boiler Boiler
Tsat from %
S. Gauge Absolute Experimental
Steam =
No. Pressure Pressure Tsat =
table
(KN/m2) (KN/m2)

1 40
2 60
3 80
. 100
.
.

· Plot % error vs. absolute boiler pressure for both forward and reverse readings

58
 Experiment No. 8

Objective:

To calculate “J” the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

Apparatus:

Mechanical Equivalent of Heat Apparatus

Procedure:

1. Mount the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat apparatus on a leveled table. If the apparatus is
not leveled, the rope will tend to slip and bunch up on the cylinder, which makes it difficult
to maintain a steady torque.
2. Wrap the rope on the cylinder, fix one side of the rope in the hook and the other one with
weight.
3. Note down the initial cylinder temperature.
4. Run the experiment with one weight.
5. Note down the final temperature of the cylinder and number of rotations after passing 10
minutes.
6. After 10 minutes attach another weight and reset the rotation meter. Repeat the same
procedure for second run.
7. Note down the observed values of variables.

59
Observations & Calculations:

§ Calculating W, the Work Performed

Where;
M = Mass hanging with the rope
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)
R = Radius of the cylinder
N = Total number of times the crank was turned.

§ Calculating Q, the Heat produced

The heat (Q) produced by friction against the cylinder can be determined from the measured
temperature change that occurred. The calculation is:

m = Mass of the cylinder

c = Specific heat of cylinder material
Tf = Final temperature of the cylinder
Ti = Initial temperature of the cylinder

60
§ Calculating J, the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

61
 Experiment No. 9

Objective:

To calculate coefficient of thermal expansion of different rod materials.

Apparatus:

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Apparatus

Procedure:

1. Measure L, the length of the tube at room temperature.

2. Place the foam insulator over the tube.

3. Attach a rod to the upper slot having meter on a side of it.
4. Attach heater inside the tube and turn it on.
5. Let it run for 5-10 mints then note down final length and temp. of the rod.
6. ALPHA
7. Repeat the experiment for other rod materials.

Observations & Calculations:

Ti = Initial Rod Temp = _______________

Tf = Final Rod Temp = _______________
Delta T = Tf – Ti = _______________
L = Initial Length of the Rod = _______________
Delta L = Lf – Li = Change in Length = ______________
∆
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion = = × = ______,_______,______
∆

62
 Material Safety Data Sheets

MSDS for following Chemicals are attached

1. Water

2. Ethylene glycol

3. R-407c

4. Argon

5. CO2

p. 63
p. 64
p. 65
p. 66
p. 67
p. 68
p. 69
p. 70
p. 71
p. 72
p. 73
p. 74
p. 75
p. 76
p. 77
p. 78
p. 79
p. 80
p. 81
p. 82
p. 83
p. 84
p. 85
p. 86
p. 87
p. 88
p. 89
p. 90
p. 91
p. 92
p. 93
p. 94
p. 95
p. 96
p. 97