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STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

And Its Origin and Fate

To understand plate tectonic theory, we need to know something about the structure of the earth.
To understand this structure we need to know something about igneous rocks. If you are unfamiliar
with igneous rocks, there is a Brief Primer that in two minutes will tell you everything you need to know
to get started.

The earth is approximately 12,740 kilometers in diameter,

and is stratified into layers as shown in the illustration to the
right. The properties of each are:

Lithosphere - the outer rigid shell of the earth's structure,

extending from the surface to about 1000 km deep (outer
blue line on drawing). It consists of the crust and the upper
mantle. Note how very thin the lithosphere is, comparatively
thinner than an egg shell. It is divided into the crust (the
outermost layer) and the very upper part of the mantle
(explored under Lithosphere Structure).

Asthenosphere - the layer or shell below the lithosphere,

about 2000 km thick. It is composed mostly of Ultramafic rocks (or see Igneous Primer) such as
peridotite and dunite that are weak and plastic, and flow slowly under stress.

Mantle - layer or shell of the earth below the lithosphere and above the core; it is about 2800 km thick,
although it is subdivided into many sub-layers, including the asthenosphere and lower mantle as well as
others. It is composed mostly of Ultramafic rocks (or see Igneous Primer) such as peridotite and dunite
and their metamorphic equivalents (e.g. ecologite).

Core - the central portion of the earth about 7000 km in diameter. It is composed of an iron-nickle alloy.
The outer core is molten, while the inner core, even though just as hot, is a solid because of the
increased pressure.

The Next Page will focus on the structure of the lithosphere, the outermost, rigid layer of the earth,
where plate tectonics occurs.
However, if you are interested in exploring the earth's origin and history, and the origin of the
concentric layers, and the heat that drives the earth, you can take a side trip (Heat History Of The Earth)
there first.

Home | Synopsis | Glossary | Ig. Prim. | Earth Stru. | History | Litho. Stru. | Tectonic Plates | Wilson Cycle
 THE HEAT HISTORY OF THE EARTH
The earth is a heat engine. It remains geologically and biologically active, and evolves, because there
are two great sources of energy. One source of energy is from the earth's molten core (that drives the
geology), and the second is from the sun (that drives life and the atmosphere.)
However, considering the fact that the solar system began as a cloud of gas and dust that was near
absolute zero we might wonder where the earth's internal heat came from to drive the plate tectonics.
The problem is more perplexing when we realize that virtually every other planetary body in the solar
system (including some moons that are larger than some planets) is geologically dead (they have no
internal heat of their own). Similarly, the earth is the only planetary body we know at present that is
biologically alive too.
Thus, we wonder, must a planet be geologically alive to also be biologically alive? The short answer
is, yes! But that is another story.

Origin of the Concentric Layering

 The earth grew from the accumulation of planetismals
(meteorites and asteroids), over a period of 1-200 million
years about 4.3 to about 4.5 billion years ago. Toward the end
of the accumulation a large mini-planet hit a glancing blow
with the earth. If the mini-planet had hit directly the earth
would have been shattered, and the debris scattered
throughout the solar system - no earth (gee, are there not
movies on just this theme? Deep Impact comes to mind). As it
was, the mini-planet hit obliquely, and then spun off into an
orbit around the earth - to become the moon.
If the earth had grown simply from the random
accumulation of planetismals it would have been
homogeneous - more or less made of the same material
throughout, and the earth cross section to the right would be a uniform blob with no structure.
But the earth is stratified into layers by density (heavy core, intermediate mantle, light lithosphere),
telling us that early in its history the earth went through a molten stage that led to the heavy materials
sinking inward to form the core, and the lighter materials floating toward the surface like a slag to form
the crust. The heat for this melting came from meteorite impacts, the moon's impact, and the decay of
radioactive elements.
Imagine flying by the earth in a space ship about 4.3 billion years ago; all you would see is a glowing
red hot ball of seething magma.

All of the geological activity on the earth today is driven from this initial source of heat at the earth's
formation, aided and abetted by continued radioactive decay of elements in the earth's interior.
However, the earth's heat engine ran faster at the beginning than now, about three times faster.
Considering how active the earth is now with earthquakes and volcanoes it must have been a wonder
four billion years ago to have it running even faster. But the earth is cooling off, and as time goes by
there will be less and less heat to escape until there is none left at all. At that point the earth will die a
heat death.
Different planets can have different histories, however, and we can get some idea of how unique the
earth is by examining these histories.

Cooling History of Planetary Bodies

By 4 billion years ago the earth had
cooled enough for the outer layers to
have solidified and for oceans to form.
Flying past the earth at this time we
would see a vast ocean from pole to pole,
with volcanoes scattered here and there
but no continents - pretty much the scene
to the right captured about about 3.8-4.0
billion years ago. The oldest rocks we have date to 3.96 billion years ago, and contain evidence of
sedimentary rocks that require water.
The earth cooled from the outside in, and the still molten iron-nickle core are the remnants of that
heat from the early stage of melting. That heat is also what keeps the earth geologically active, and
without it nothing that we know of the earth would exist today, no continents, no volcanos, no
mountains, no oceans, and almost certainly no life - a dead planet like mars or the moon.

There are several ways a planetary body can loose its internal heat. One way occurs with small
planetary bodies, such as the moon. Here we see a planetary body that became geologically dead
within a few hundred thousand years after its formation. We know this because the original craters
from its formation are still present.
With the moon the heat escaped by two mechanisms. One was volcanic activity induced by
meteorite impacts. The meteorites penetrated through the crust and
into the core, and provided a conduit for magma to reach the surface
and form the mare (smooth areas) we see from earth. This magma
brought much heat to the surface to radiate to space. The second way
heat escaped was through condution. Rock is a poor conductor of heat,
however, so in larger planetary bodies most of the heat must escape by
other means.

Mars is an example of another way internal heat can be lost.

Olympus mons, the large Martian volcano is a hot spot, and it probably
tapped directly into the core of the planet, and piped the heat in the form of magma directly to the
surface. Hot spots are typically huge volcanos, and Olympus mons is much bigger than any on earth. So
here the heat escaped relatively quickly, leading to the planet becomes geologically dead shortly after
formation. It helps that Mars is less than half the size of the earth.

The third way a planet can lose its heat is to

establish convection cells in the mantle. That is,
hot, low density material from the lower
mantle, heated by the core, flows upward
towards the surface where the heat escapes
through volcanic activity. The cooled, now
denser material then sinks back toward the core
to be heated again. This creates a cycle of
movement, but it is very slow, only centimeters
per year, taking on the order of a billion years of
so for a complete cycle.
Typically many convection cells exist
simultaneously all over the planet, and they
lead to widely scattered volcanic activity, and
plate tectonic processes.
Some measure of the time involved for a
planet the size of the earth to cool by
convection is that the earth has been geologically active for over 4 billion years, and will probably take
another 4-5 billion years to loose all its heat -and become a dead planet. Just think, no earthquakes, no
volcanos, no tidal waves - the earth will sink into a deep, cold sleep - except for the fact that by that
time the sun will expand into its red giant phase and burn the earth to a crisp before that final heat
death comes.

Home | Synopsis | Glossary | Ig. Prim. | Earth Stru. | History | Litho. Stru. | Tectonic Plates | Wilson Cycle

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH'S LITHOSPHERE

In the image to the right we see a
small portion of the earth's outer layers
enlarged to show more detail (click
picture for a larger version).
The drawing begins at the earth's
surface (sea level) and descends about
150 kilometers down. There are several
layers shown, color coded brown and
black, green, and reddish.
The outermost brown and black layer,
above the Moho (boundary between crust
and mantle) is the crust. It has two major
divisions: ocean basins (black layer)
composed of Mafic Rocks (or see Primer)
like basalt and gabbro, and continents
(brown layer) composed of Felsic rocks (or see Primer) such as granite. the crust extends to a depth of
about 70 km, and represents less than 0.1% of the earth's total volume.
The continent in the upper center is a continental Craton. A craton is a stable continent eroded down
to just above sea level. Because continental cratons are composed of light weight rock such as granite
they are like a boat resting in water, neither rising nor sinking on their own. They are said to be
in isostatic equilibrium. Conversely, mountains of any kind must be held up by something, like heat or a
root zone, or they will sink right back into the earth.
The Moho lower boundary of the crust marks the transition from the granite and basalt of the crust
to the Ultramafic Rocks (or see Igneous Primer) of the mantle below.

The outer layers of the earth are subdivided on two totally different criteria, composition and
behavior, and these overlap in non-obvious ways, often leading to confusion if we don't pay attention.
Compositionally, the Moho separates the crust, composed of relatively light
weight Felsic and Maficrocks, from the Ultramafic rocks of the mantle. The felsic and mafic rocks are
analagous to the light weight slag that floated to the surface during the earth's molten stage.

Behaviorally, the outer earth layers are divided into the lithosphere and asthenosphere (see right
side of Enlarged Drawing). The lithosphere is the cold, rigid outer layers, and is composed of the crust
and the outermost portion of the mantle.
The underlying asthenosphere is all ultramafic mantle, but it is hot and plastic. The convection cells
operate within the asthenosphere.

OK, if we have these divisions straight, we can now begin to define a tectonic plate. A
tectonic plate is composed of the cold, rigid lithosphere that is floating (very slowly!) on the underlying
asthenosphere.
This defines what a plate is vertically, but does not explore the boundaries among plates, which we
do next.

Home | Synopsis | Glossary | Ig. Prim. | Earth Stru. | History | Litho. Stru. | Tectonic Plates | Wilson Cycle

Plate Boundaries and Interplate Relationships

 The drawing above is a cross section of the earth showing the components that lie within plate
tectonic theory (click for Larger Version). The cross section should really be curved to correspond to the
earth's curvature, but it has been straightened out here.
Note the continental craton (stable continent) in the middle of the drawing. Note the line under the
craton; that is the lower boundary of the lithosphere, and is the bottom boundary of the plate.
Everything above that line is the plate. All similar lines in the cross section mark the bottom of the
plates. Technically, everything above that line is lithosphere, the rigid, brittle shell of the earth.
Everything below is asthenosphere, the hot, plastic interior of the earth with convection cells bringing
heat to the surface from the earth's hot core.
Within the asthenosphere are convection cells, slowly turning over hot, plastic rock. The convection
cells bring heat from the earth's interior out to the surface, but slowly. Movement is about 10
centimeters a year. When the convection cells reach the base of the lithosphere they release heat to the
surface at the divergent plate boundary in the form of volcanos to escape to space. The cooled plastic
rock then turns sideways and moves parallel to the earth's surface before descending back into the
earth at subduction zones to become reheated. It is this turning over of the convection cells the drives
the plate movements.

THE PLATES
Simplistically, the earth consists of plates, and plate boundaries, those zones where the plates
contact and interact. Everything between plate boundaries are part of some plate. A look at the plate
boundaries in the drawing may make plate boundaries appear confusing, but in fact there are only 3
kinds of plate boundaries.
Observe that 7 different plates are labeled in the cross section. Plates are combinations of two
units, Continents and Ocean Basins. Plates are composed either of a fragment of ocean basin, or (more
commonly) a fragment of ocean basin with an attached continent.
It might be possible for a plate to be a continent alone, but for this to occur all edges of the
continent would have to be a plate boundary (very rare, perhaps not practically possible). Note that in
the cross section several different ocean basin/continent combinations are present, but that it is
difficult to get a continent surrounded on all edges by plate boundaries.

PLATE BOUNDARIES
The three kinds of plate boundaries are also illustrated in the cross section, divergent, convergent,
and transform. Plates interact at these boundaries.
Two Divergent Margins (plate boundaries) are present in the cross section: one labeled as such to
the right of the continental craton, and the other on the left side. The left divergent margin is
labeled Back Arc (Marginal) Basin. Back arc basins are formed by minor convection cells above
subduction zones. Divergent plate boundaries always create new ocean floor (that is, new mafic oceanic
lithosphere, called the Ophiolite Suite) when magma oozes into the crack as plates separate. The
implication is, ocean basins get larger at divergent plate boundaries. But, since the earth cannot get
larger it means ocean floor must be disappearing somewhere else.

Three Convergent Boundaries are present, all of them one way or another involving a subduction
zone. The two most obvious ones are on the far right, and near the far left. Oceanic lithosphere is
descending into the earth's mantle at these places, and being destroyed.
In the continent-continent collision the subduction zone is now extinct but can be seen below the
surface.
Before the continents collided they were separated by an ocean basin, now completely subducted.
Subduction zones generate lots of igneous magma that rises to the surface to form volcanic mountains
(volcanic arcs; also island arcs, such as the islands of Japan, or Sumatra, or the Aleutian islands off
Alaska). The igneous batholiths that feed the volcanoes are the beginning of generation of new
continental crust. Continents are created above subduction zones as small proto- and microcontinents.
They enlarge by colliding and fusing together, or suturing onto a larger continent, at a convergent plate
boundary.
At convergent boundaries oceanic lithosphere is always destroyed by descending into a subduction
zone. This is because oceanic rock is mafic, and heavy compared to the continents, and sinks easily.
Because oceanic lithosphere is created and destroyed so easily ocean basins are young; the oldest we
have is only about 200 million years old. Continents, on the other hand, composed of light weight rock
never subduct. Thus, continental rock once formed is more or less permanent; the oldest continental
fragment is 3.96 billion years old, virtually as old as the earth itself.

Only one transform boundary is present, on the left side of the drawing. At transform boundaries
two plates just slide past one another horizontally, and quietly compared to convergent and divergent
plate boundaries. Most of these are found in the ocean basins, but the San Andreas fault in California
and Mexico is an example coming on land (and to California residents it probably does not seem that
quiet).

THE SIX LITHOSPHERIC TECTONIC REGIMES

We can simplify the way we think about the structure of the lithosphere by realizing that there are
only 6 tectonic regimes that make up the lithosphere. A tectonic regime is a portion of the earth that is
more or less uniform in its structure, rock composition, and processes. The six tectonic regimes are the
individual components that interact in plate tectonic theory. They can be grouped into three divisions.

1. Continents (or, cratons)

2. Ocean Basins
Divisions that compose the plates. These tend to be big and boring; geologically very little of interest
happens within plates.

Plate Boundaries- the three ways plates meet and interact. These areas tend to be long, and linear or
gently curved areas that are very unstable.
3. Divergent
4. Convergent
5. Transform

6. Hot Spots - pretty much do their own thing separate from everything else.
Each of these tectonic regimes is described in the Glossary.

PLATE COLLISIONS
The essence of plate tectonic theory is that the plates (ocean basins plus or minus continents) slide
around over the earth's surface, interacting as they do at the plate boundaries. Thus, any time there is a
divergent plate boundary where two plates are separating, there must be a convergent plate boundary
(subduction zone) where two (or more) places come together again. And convergent boundaries
always, eventually, lead to collisions between continents, or continents and terranes (island arcs plus or
minus microcontinents).
The drawings below show the major types of collisions within plate tectonic theory, although any
plausible combination of collisions is possible, and has probably happened in the past. Observe,
however, that the only way to get a collision type orogeny is to first have a subduction type first.

Observe the subduction zones in the cross section at the top of the page (or Larger Version). Next to
each one is a remnant ocean basin (ROB). An ROB is one that is disappearing down a subduction zone; it
is a remnant of its former self. But all subduction zones must eventually disappear completely and when
they do the floating blocks on either side will collide, and create a mountain range. The continent-
continent collision in the cross section is a case where the collision has already occurred.
But in the larger picture, it is common for a divergent plate boundary to come into existence and
create a new ocean basin, and then for that ocean basin to close again along a convergent plate
boundary until two continents collide. This opening and closing of ocean basins is, of course,
the Supercontinent Cycle . But it is also the Wilson Cycle, and is the simplest model we have of how the
earth operates historically.

Introduction To The Wilson Cycle

One Page Wilson Cycle Model
Multiple Page Wilson Cycle Model

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Plate Boundaries and Interplate Relationships

The drawing above is a cross section of the earth showing the components that lie within plate
tectonic theory (click for Larger Version). The cross section should really be curved to correspond to the
earth's curvature, but it has been straightened out here.
Note the continental craton (stable continent) in the middle of the drawing. Note the line under the
craton; that is the lower boundary of the lithosphere, and is the bottom boundary of the plate.
Everything above that line is the plate. All similar lines in the cross section mark the bottom of the
plates. Technically, everything above that line is lithosphere, the rigid, brittle shell of the earth.
Everything below is asthenosphere, the hot, plastic interior of the earth with convection cells bringing
heat to the surface from the earth's hot core.
Within the asthenosphere are convection cells, slowly turning over hot, plastic rock. The convection
cells bring heat from the earth's interior out to the surface, but slowly. Movement is about 10
centimeters a year. When the convection cells reach the base of the lithosphere they release heat to the
surface at the divergent plate boundary in the form of volcanos to escape to space. The cooled plastic
rock then turns sideways and moves parallel to the earth's surface before descending back into the
earth at subduction zones to become reheated. It is this turning over of the convection cells the drives
the plate movements.

THE PLATES
Simplistically, the earth consists of plates, and plate boundaries, those zones where the plates
contact and interact. Everything between plate boundaries are part of some plate. A look at the plate
boundaries in the drawing may make plate boundaries appear confusing, but in fact there are only 3
kinds of plate boundaries.
Observe that 7 different plates are labeled in the cross section. Plates are combinations of two
units, Continents and Ocean Basins. Plates are composed either of a fragment of ocean basin, or (more
commonly) a fragment of ocean basin with an attached continent.
It might be possible for a plate to be a continent alone, but for this to occur all edges of the
continent would have to be a plate boundary (very rare, perhaps not practically possible). Note that in
the cross section several different ocean basin/continent combinations are present, but that it is
difficult to get a continent surrounded on all edges by plate boundaries.

PLATE BOUNDARIES
The three kinds of plate boundaries are also illustrated in the cross section, divergent, convergent,
and transform. Plates interact at these boundaries.
Two Divergent Margins (plate boundaries) are present in the cross section: one labeled as such to
the right of the continental craton, and the other on the left side. The left divergent margin is
labeled Back Arc (Marginal) Basin. Back arc basins are formed by minor convection cells above
subduction zones. Divergent plate boundaries always create new ocean floor (that is, new mafic oceanic
lithosphere, called the Ophiolite Suite) when magma oozes into the crack as plates separate. The
implication is, ocean basins get larger at divergent plate boundaries. But, since the earth cannot get
larger it means ocean floor must be disappearing somewhere else.

Three Convergent Boundaries are present, all of them one way or another involving a subduction
zone. The two most obvious ones are on the far right, and near the far left. Oceanic lithosphere is
descending into the earth's mantle at these places, and being destroyed.
In the continent-continent collision the subduction zone is now extinct but can be seen below the
surface.
Before the continents collided they were separated by an ocean basin, now completely subducted.
Subduction zones generate lots of igneous magma that rises to the surface to form volcanic mountains
(volcanic arcs; also island arcs, such as the islands of Japan, or Sumatra, or the Aleutian islands off
Alaska). The igneous batholiths that feed the volcanoes are the beginning of generation of new
continental crust. Continents are created above subduction zones as small proto- and microcontinents.
They enlarge by colliding and fusing together, or suturing onto a larger continent, at a convergent plate
boundary.
At convergent boundaries oceanic lithosphere is always destroyed by descending into a subduction
zone. This is because oceanic rock is mafic, and heavy compared to the continents, and sinks easily.
Because oceanic lithosphere is created and destroyed so easily ocean basins are young; the oldest we
have is only about 200 million years old. Continents, on the other hand, composed of light weight rock
never subduct. Thus, continental rock once formed is more or less permanent; the oldest continental
fragment is 3.96 billion years old, virtually as old as the earth itself.

Only one transform boundary is present, on the left side of the drawing. At transform boundaries
two plates just slide past one another horizontally, and quietly compared to convergent and divergent
plate boundaries. Most of these are found in the ocean basins, but the San Andreas fault in California
and Mexico is an example coming on land (and to California residents it probably does not seem that
quiet).

THE SIX LITHOSPHERIC TECTONIC REGIMES

We can simplify the way we think about the structure of the lithosphere by realizing that there are
only 6 tectonic regimes that make up the lithosphere. A tectonic regime is a portion of the earth that is
more or less uniform in its structure, rock composition, and processes. The six tectonic regimes are the
individual components that interact in plate tectonic theory. They can be grouped into three divisions.

1. Continents (or, cratons)

2. Ocean Basins
Divisions that compose the plates. These tend to be big and boring; geologically very little of interest
happens within plates.

Plate Boundaries- the three ways plates meet and interact. These areas tend to be long, and linear or
gently curved areas that are very unstable.
3. Divergent
4. Convergent
5. Transform

6. Hot Spots - pretty much do their own thing separate from everything else.

Each of these tectonic regimes is described in the Glossary.

PLATE COLLISIONS
The essence of plate tectonic theory is that the plates (ocean basins plus or minus continents) slide
around over the earth's surface, interacting as they do at the plate boundaries. Thus, any time there is a
divergent plate boundary where two plates are separating, there must be a convergent plate boundary
(subduction zone) where two (or more) places come together again. And convergent boundaries
always, eventually, lead to collisions between continents, or continents and terranes (island arcs plus or
minus microcontinents).
The drawings below show the major types of collisions within plate tectonic theory, although any
plausible combination of collisions is possible, and has probably happened in the past. Observe,
however, that the only way to get a collision type orogeny is to first have a subduction type first.

Observe the subduction zones in the cross section at the top of the page (or Larger Version). Next to
each one is a remnant ocean basin (ROB). An ROB is one that is disappearing down a subduction zone; it
is a remnant of its former self. But all subduction zones must eventually disappear completely and when
they do the floating blocks on either side will collide, and create a mountain range. The continent-
continent collision in the cross section is a case where the collision has already occurred.
But in the larger picture, it is common for a divergent plate boundary to come into existence and
create a new ocean basin, and then for that ocean basin to close again along a convergent plate
boundary until two continents collide. This opening and closing of ocean basins is, of course,
the Supercontinent Cycle . But it is also the Wilson Cycle, and is the simplest model we have of how the
earth operates historically.

Introduction To The Wilson Cycle

One Page Wilson Cycle Model
Multiple Page Wilson Cycle Model

LSF Home | Geology Web Sites | Courses | JMU Geology

Last Update: 9/05/00 e-mail: (Fichtels@Jmu.Edu)

Go On To:
Plate Boundaries And Interplate Relationships
Introduction To The Wilson Cycle

LSF Home | Geology Web Sites | Courses | JMU Geology

Last Update: 9/05/00 e-mail: (Fichtels@Jmu.Edu)

Go On To:
Lithosphere Structure
Tectonic Plates And Processes
Introduction To The Wilson Cycle

LSF Home | Geology Web Sites | Courses | JMU Geology

Last Update: 9/05/00 e-mail: (Fichtels@Jmu.Edu)

Go On To:
The Heat History Of The Earth
Lithosphere Structure
Tectonic Plates And Processes
Introduction To The Wilson Cyucle

LSF Home | Geology Web Sites | Courses | JMU Geology

Last Update: 9/05/00 e-mail: (Fictels@Jmu.Edu)

Solar System, Galaxy, Universe: What's
the Difference?

Portion of Hubble Extreme Deep Field. Every spot and smudge in this image is a galaxy. Credit:
NASA, ESA

Many people are not clear about the difference between our Solar System,
our Milky Way Galaxy, and the Universe.

Let’s look at the basics.

Our Solar System consists of our star, the Sun, and its orbiting planets
(including Earth), along with numerous moons, asteroids, comet material,
rocks, and dust. Our Sun is just one star among the hundreds of billions of
stars in our Milky Way Galaxy. If we shrink the Sun down to smaller than a
grain of sand, we can imagine our Solar System to be small enough to fit onto
the palm of your hand. Pluto would orbit about an inch from the middle of
your palm.

On that scale with our Solar System in your hand, the Milky Way Galaxy, with
its 200 – 400 billion stars, would span North America (see the illustration on
the right). Galaxies come in many sizes. The Milky Way is big, but some
galaxies, like our Andromeda Galaxy neighbor, are much larger.

The universe is all of the galaxies – billions of them! NASA’s telescopes allow
us to study galaxies beyond our own in exquisite detail, and to explore the
most distant reaches of the observable universe. The Hubble Space
Telescope made one of the deepest images of the universe, called the Hubble
Extreme Deep Field (image at the top of this article). Soon the James Webb
Space Telescope will be exploring galaxies forming at the very beginning of
the universe.

You are one of the billions of people on our Earth. Our Earth orbits the Sun in
our Solar System. Our Sun is one star among the billions in the Milky Way
Galaxy. Our Milky Way Galaxy is one among the billions of galaxies in our
Universe. You are unique in the Universe!

You can observe objects in our solar system and even see other galaxies at a
star party near you-and rest assured that everything you are seeing is a part
of the same universe as you! Find out more by using our club and event
finder and connect with your local astronomy club.

Discovering the Ultimate Source of Energy on Earth: The Sun! (Photo Credit: Warren Rupp
Observatory)

Last Updated: June 2017

Find Astronomy Outreach Tips on Social Media

We invite you to join the NASA Night Sky Network astronomy outreach
community on Facebook and Twitter for the latest updates on astronomy
events, outreach opportunities, and astronomy activities. Pictures of your
astronomy outreach and other behind the scenes photos are featured on
our Instagramfeed.

Subscribe to the Night Sky Network channel on YouTube and

watch demonstrations of astronomy outreach activities and recordings of our
monthly webinars with astronomy professionals and NASA scientists.

The Astronomical Society of the Pacific

The NASA Night Sky Network is managed by the Astronomical

Society of the Pacific. The ASP is a 501c3 non-profit organization that
advances science literacy through astronomy.

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Nov 17, 2015

Reflections on a three-decade legacy

The International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) will come to a close at t...

 Nov 17, 2015

Use of and access to content on this website

Text and images produced by IGBP in house are free to use with appropriate credi...

 Nov 12, 2015

Bella Gaia performance and panel discussion to mark IGBP's closure

A musical performance by Bella Gaia will celebrate the achievements and legacy o...
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FEATURES


 Towards Future Earth:
evolution or revolution?

During its three decades of existence, the International Geosphere-Biosphere Pro...

 A personal note on IGBP and the social sciences

Humans are an integral component of the Earth system as conceptualised by IGBP.João

Morais recalls key milestones in IGBP’s engagement with the social sciences and offers some words of
advice for Future Earth.

 IGBP and Earth observation:

a co-evolution

The iconic images of Earth beamed back by the earliest spacecraft helped to galvanise interest in our
planet’s environment. The subsequent evolution and development of satellites for Earth observation
has been intricately linked with that of IGBP and other global-change research programmes,
write Jack Kaye and Cat Downy.
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MULTIMEDIA

 Deltas at risk

Around 500 million people worldwide live on deltas, but many of the world's deltas are sinking due ...

 Climate change: the state of the science

A new data visualization released on the first day of the plenary negotiations at the UNFCCC’s clima...

 Climate Change:
the State of the Science

Videos now online from the Stockholm public forum to mark the launch of the IPCC's climate report,
2...
More multimedia »
Earth system definitions
The term “Earth system" refers to Earth´s interacting physical, chemical, and biological processes.
The system consists of the land, oceans, atmosphere and poles. It includes the planet's natural cycles
— the carbon, water, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and other cycles — and deep Earth processes.

Life too is an integral part of the Earth system. Life affects the carbon, nitrogen, water, oxygen and
many other cycles and processes.

The Earth system now includes human society, Our social and economic systems are now embedded
within the Earth system. In many cases, the human systems are now the main drivers of change in
the Earth system.

Global change
Global change refers to planetary-scale changes in the Earth system.

More completely, the term “global change" encompasses: planetary scale changes to atmospheric
circulation, ocean circulation, climate, the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, the water cycle and other
cycles, sea-ice changes, sea-level changes, food webs, biological diversity, pollution, health, fish
stocks, and more.

Civilization is now a large driver of global change so the term includes population, the economy,
resource use, energy, development, transport, communication, land use and land cover, urbanization,
globalization.

Global change and climate

Climate refers to the long-term average of the aggregation of all components of weather —
precipitation, temperature and cloudiness, for example. The climate system includes processes
involving ocean, land and sea ice in addition to the atmosphere.
The Earth system encompasses the climate system. Many changes in Earth system functioning directly
involve changes in climate. However, the Earth system includes other components and processes,
biophysical and human, that are important for its functioning.
 Some Earth system changes, natural or driven by humans, can have significant consequences without
involving changes in climate. Global change should not be confused with climate change; it is
significantly more. indeed, climate change is part of this much larger challenge.
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PLEASE NOTE!
IGBP closed at the end of 2015. This website is no longer updated.
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PUBLICATIONS


Global Change Magazine No. 84

This final issue of the magazine takes stock of IGBP’s scientific and institutional accomplishments as
well as its contributions to policy and capacity building. It features interviews of several past...


Global Change Magazine No. 83

This issue features a special section on carbon. You can read about peak greenhouse-gas emissions in
China, the mitigation of black carbon emissions and the effect of the 2010-2011 La Niña event on gl...
More publications »

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