21

CHAPTER NO. 2

RESEARCH STUDIES IN INDUSTRIAL LABOUR

2.1 Industrial Labour : Concept :

An "industry is composed of a number of producing organi­

zations such as establishments or business firms, that are

grouped together for analytical or policy-making purposes
according to certain criteria".^ This technical meaning of the

term, is to be distinguished from its use either as roughly

synonymous with manufacturing.or as contrasted with transport,

trade, finance, agriculture, etc.

The term ’labour* has a variety of related usages and

applications stemming from its general meaning of "work or
effort, often in the sense of painful or heavy toil. As a

verb *to labour* has the same general sense, meaning *to work*
2
or more simply to endeavour".

From the point of view of Economics, the labour is one of

"the factors of production-human effort that contributes towards

production. Labour is, therefore, generally considered by

economists to include all forms of labour, manual or otherwise,
3
with the exception of organization and management".

Reading has given three meanings of labour as "firstly,

amount of manpower employed, secondly, reserves of manpower and
thirdly, the workers as a social class".*
4 2 3

f
 Therefore we are concerned with the labour - the workers

as a social class - with reference to industries - i, e. ,

producing organizations.

2.2 Importance of Research in Labour Field :

Each country strives hard to register economic progress

and to provide necessities of life to all its citizens. Since

independence, India is making efforts to reach these goals

through planning.

Planning as reflected in the first Five Year Plan, suggests,

"planning is essentially an attempt at working out a rational

solution of problems, an attempt to coordinate means and ends,

it is thus different from traditional hit and miss method by

which 'reforms' and 'reconstructions' are often undertaken.

With this approach at its base, planning in India proposed to

initiate a process of development which will raise living

standards and open out to people new opportunities for a richer
5
and more varied life".

Towards this end of economic development through planning,

two major factors assume great importance. They are the capital

and other material resources and also the use'of workers in an

effective manner.

The importance of the worker was stated in the First Five

Year Plan, "the worker is the principal instrument in the
fulfilment of the targets of the plan and in the achievement of
 23

economic progress generally. His co-operation will be an

essential factor in creating an economic organization in the
6
country which will best subserve the needs of social justice”.

Speaking about national development and importance of

labour, Punekar and Sundaram maintain that, "the national
development of a country basically,depends upon more production
of goods and services. From the national point of view more
production would generate a healthy cycle of more' income, more
investment, more employment and more production. If the income
is equally distributed the workers would be better off, with
more.-jcurchasing power, better nutrition, more efficiency and
more production”.v 7

Although the industrial working population forms a small

portion of the total labour force in the country, it has attra­
cted the attention of the government, the political parties and
the public. The "recent stress on rapid industrialization as
the only solution to the problems of india's poverty, misery and
economic backwardness has raised the status of industrial
workmen in the eyes of the public". 8
/

All these tfiews subscribe the most fundamental stand in

favour of industrial productivity and the role of the worker
in it. It is not sufficient to increase industrial units and
employment opportunities. But the productivity of existing
industries will have to be increased through building a proper
labour force. Tc increase productivity it is necessary that
standard of living of workers is elevated well above the present
level.
 e
24

After independence, the Govt, of India and the State

Governments had adopted several legislative and administrative

measures to improve the economic and social conditions of

labour and also to bring about harmonious relations between

labour and management.

A study in the labour field will help to understand the

progress made in rhe conditions of working masses.

2.3 Review of Research Literature on Industrial Labour in India:

Studies depicting the socio-economic conditions of Indian

industrial labour have been made by Indian and foreign sociolo­

gists. The picture of the Indian industrial labour that has

emerged out of empirical studies of labour belonging to different

regions of the country is not uniform in its details, still the

classification of these studies can be made as follows :

2.3A. General All India Studies

2.3B. Bombay Based Studies
2.3C. Factory Based Studies
i) One factory study
ii) More than one factory study.

2.3A. General All-India Studies -

Before independence, labour leader B.Shiv Rao had surveyed

the conditions of industrial workers in India. He dealt with

the background of the organization among industrial workers in
India along with post-Ist world war developments. He surveyed

industry, agriculture, population, nutrition, public health,

untouchability, and the problems regarding recruitment, housing,

wages and expenditure.

 He shows that it is economic pressure, the social disabi­

lities of the outcaste and the lack of diversified occupations

that are responsible for driving rural population in quest of

work into the cities. He makes it clear that however unsatis­

factory working conditions may be, new industries do provide

employment for a portion of superfluous population especially,

in a country, in which agriculture cannot possibly support its

o
millions on standards compatible with human dignity.

Radhakamal Mukeriee studied from economic and social

point of views the labour conditions in mines, plantations,

quarries, coal-fields, textile, engineering and metallurgical

industries on the basis of first-hand investigation. He

studied wage-patterns, housing,social welfare and security

and the standard of living of workers in these industries.

In his study he found that the Indian working class

i) "desires to become more efficient and to earn higher wages,

ii) shows greater intolerance of unsatisfactory conditions of

work and inadequate housing, medical and education facilities,

iii) wants factories and mines should become fit places for

human being to work in and hut, tenements and settlements fit

for human habitation",*^

Oscar A.Qranti had carried out study regarding the

conditions under which industrial workers are employed, about

the characteristics of the Indian work force and problems exist'

ing in the field of industrial reiations.

The study is based on a general survey on an all India

level and to some extent of the specific industries.

 He maintains that "labour productivity is low due to

recent agricultural origin of most workers, high absenteeism,

high turnover and lack of training”.^

Vinod Kumar Mehta has done "State and Labour in India

since independence : A Sociological Study". The study is based*

on factural and analytical published data in ;the form of

Government publications and reports covering four industrial

centres Bombay, Calcutta, Madras and Ahmedabad.

He shows that "to compensate material insecurity, the

workers turn to religion and superstitution for solace. They

turn to philosophy of Karma to justify everything. Thus

modernization introduced by the State is too weak to provide
12
functional alternatives or to replace the older institutions”.

2.3B. Bombay Based Studies -

Before independence, Morris D.Morris had made a detailed

study of the creation of labour force in the cotton textile

industry of Bombay city from its inception in 1850's to 1947.

On the basis of cotton textile industry of Bombay and

Tata Iron and Steel Company plant of Jamshedpur he put forward

his following generalizations. "The creation of a disciplined

industrial labour force in newly developing society is not

difficult. The difference in worker stability flowed from '"v

employer policy. The necessities imposed by industrial

technology and markets required employers to select different

systems of discipline and these determined the way labour would
work".^
 After independence in 1949 S.B.Chirde conducted his study

entitled “Industrial Labour in Bombay - A Socio-economic analysis

He studied the vital background and social conditions of 550

families/workers residing in the B.D.D.Chawls in Bombay. He

surveyed working conditions, strikes, stoppages and hartals,

trade unionism, industrial welfare while referring to the socio-

14
economic analysis of these workers”.

From the point of view of contribution of labour in industry

Mohanlal Piramal Makharia studied "Social conditions of Textile

Labour in Bombay", (with special reference to productivity.)

He showed that Bombay operative is compelled to commit all

his working years to the industry, but the quality of the

commitment is half-hearted and therefore incomplete.

His survey revealed that "Bombay textile labour force has

yet to go a long way in developing into a stable, structured,

disciplined and institutionally loyal working force and yielding
15
its potential efficiency to industry".

G.K.Thakkar studied "Labour Problems of Textile Industry"

in 1960. He covered labour problems of 15 cotton mills of

different sizes in Bombay city.

After an intensive study of labour problems he asserts that

"significant developments have taken place after independence in

almost all phases such as recruitment, management, legal frame­

work, trade unionism, methods of determining wages and machinery

for settlement of disputes and these changes have given an
entirely new shape to the labour problems of industry which
calls for reorientation of outlook both on the p$art of labour
16
as well as management1*.
9

Kuni Patel studied 500 textile workers residing in Parel

area of Bombay and 15 villages and 200 families from Ratnagiri

rural areas during 1962.

She maintains that an overall .frustration generated by

unfulfilment of goals,, the workers' general attitude towards

his job is one of indifference.

"The Ratnagirians (i. e. workers from Ratnagiri District)

have been almost an inexhaustible source of labour force for

the textile industry. Bad economic conditions in rural area

forced them to go in for employment in Bombay for sharing

prosperity of this city. The Ratnagirians have clung to

certain rural traits even in the process of social transforma­

tion".^

Heather and Vilav Joshi had done a study of Bombay regarding

surplus labour in 1976.

They suggested "major revision of economic policy in the

direction of employment creation and resource re-distribution.

Positive steps will have to be taken to encourage labour using
18
techniques, products and activities".

2.3C. Factory Based Studies -

Factory-based studies can be divided on the basis of

number of a factories studied and so there are(i) one factory

studies and (ii) more than one factory studies.

2.3C i. One Factory Studies -

N.R.Sheth made a sociological study of workers in a factory

named "Oriental" at the District place of Rajnagar in Gujarath

State during July 1956 to July 1958.

He asserts that "it is considered traditional institutions

are hindrance in the way of economic growth, but the study of

Oriental shows that it is not so in all cases. So the values

of a pre-industrial society seem to co-exist with those of

industrial society, producing intermixture of traditionalistic

19
and rationalistic norms".

B.R.Sharma had undertaken a sociological study of Indian

industrial workers in an automobile factory at'Bombay.

He concludes that "though the workers are not having high

commitment to industrial work and not high occupational aspira­

tions, still they are satisfied generally with their company”.

. - /

"The workers suffered from two aspects of alienation-social

isolation and powerlessness. Though the workers were highly

interested in unions, their level of involvement with union -
activities was low, again though they were interested in the
problems facing their communities, they were not active" in
20
actual participation in community activities”.
 30

2.3C ii. More than One Factory Studies -

Richard D, Lamhert. the industrial sociologist, studied the

workers during January-March 1957 employed in five factories in

Poona city.

In his survey he asserted “that where the industrial popula­

tion is not dominant, grows slowly and has time to adjust itself

to its surroundings, factory groups mould themselves to the

prevailing social pattern".

Further he showed that "education and not caste is more

important determinant in workers* progress. Moreover, he

strongly maintained that if the introduction of the factory is

to be the major determinant of modernization of Indian society
in terms of transformation from Gemeinschalft to Gesellschaft
/

(folk to urban/peasant to industrial) society, then moderniza-

21
tion may be a long way off”.

K.N.Vaid studied workers at Kota in Rajasthan in private and

public sectors covering small and large units, during April-

September 1964.

His study indicates that the basic security against unemploy­

ment, illness and incapacity was provided by joint family. The

emotional security was provided by caste group and village commu­

nity. Unless the factory system is able to provide alternatives

to meet these needs, the workers are more likely to continue

keeping their ties with traditional system.

He shows that factory system initiates changes in the

attitudes and values of its workforce and once the process of
 31

industrialization has started, the necessary ethos emerge

along with it.

He concludes that "industrialization is key to

economic development. Industrialization influences social

structure, value system, motivations and norms and in turn

is influenced by them. Strategies of change and growth

and of influencing human behaviour, call for simultaneous

action on a number of fronts. Material progress is

impossible to achieve without concomitant desired nature

and peace of change cannot be achieved in the absence of

22
appropriate incentives and rewards".

Mark Holmstrom studied workers in four factories of

Bangalore in 1971, using methods of Social Anthropology in

the study of new occupations in India.

He concludes that industrial workers in countries like

India are not "committed" to industrial work and/or town

life and cannot adopt easily to bureaucratic organization.

The Japanese may identify with their roles in the industrial

system and feel loyal to their company, but this is not so

in other advanced industrial countries, it was not when they

23
were industrializing and it is not in India now".

Briefly these studies regarding Indian industrial labour

show that, labour has been migrated from rural areas due to
24
‘bad economic conditions', the 'social disabilities of the
25
outcaste and lack of diversified occupations*. After
 32

migration in the industrial cities the labour shows 'greater

intolerance of unsatisfactory conditions of work and inadequate
housing, medical and educational facilities*. As far as
productivity is concerned, it is ’low due to recent agricul­
tural origin of most workers, high absenteeism, high turnover
27
and lack of training’. In this regard it can be said that
'unless the factory system is able to provide alternatives to
meet the needs provided by joint family, caste and village
community, the workers are more likely to continue keeping
their ties with traditional system’. In the cities, 'to
compensate material insecurity, the workers turn to religion
and superstituticn for solace, because the modernization intro­
duced by the State is too weak to provide functional alterna-
tives or to replace older institutions'. 29

Though it is considered that traditional institutions are

a hindrance in way of economic growth, it is not in all cases,
so the 'values of pre-Industrial society seem to co-exist with
those of industrial society, producing intermixture of tradi-
30 ‘
tional and rational norms'. As far as in the case of India
'if introduction of factory is to be the major determinant of
modernization of Indian society in terms of transformation from
Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft (folk to urban/peasant-to indust-
O 1
rial) society, then modernization may be a long way off'.

As far as the quality of workforce is concerned, 'the

quality of commitment is incomplete', 32 'not having high
33
commitment'.
 33

Though industrial workers in countries like India are

not ’’committed” to industrial work and/or town life - the
situation can be explained that ’the Japanese may identify
with their roles in the industrial system and feel loyal to
their company, but this is not so in other advanced indust­
rial countries, it was not when they were industrializing
34
and it is not in India now", and so it can be said that
•creation of a disciplined labour force in newly developing
' ^
society is not difficult'.

The review of research literature on Indian industrial

labour shows that the studies have been conducted throughout
India, and the locations are different. The present study,
to certain extent, is a continuation of these different s
studies, but its location Ichalkaranji is altogether differ­
ent from earlier studies. Ichalkaranji - as. seen in
Chapter No.l, is a fast growing industrial city, in the
region of Southern Maharashtra and. it.has been not dealt
with from the point of view of labour study. Therefore
how fair the trends of Indian industrial, labour found in
other areas are found in the labour of Ichalkaranji has
been, dealt with in.the present study.
 34

REFERENCES

1. Gould Julias and Kolb William L. (Ed.) : "A Dictionary

of the Social Sciences", p.328.

2. Ibid, p.371.

3. Hason.J.L. : "A Dictionary of Economics and Commerce",p.239.

4. Reading,Hugo F. : “A Dictionary of the Social Sciences",

p.116.

5. Govt, of India, Planning Commission : "The First Five Year

Plan," 1951, pp.7-8.

6. Ibid, p.570.

7. Punekar,S.D. and Sundaram,S.K.G. : "Role of Labour in

Economic Development", p.4.

8. Fonesca,A.J. : "Wage Determination and Organized Labour

in India", p.49.

9. B.Shiva Rao : "The Industrial Worker in India", p.256-257.

10. Mukerjee Radhakamal : "The Indian Working Class", p.X.

11. Oranti Oscar A. : "Jobs and Workers in India" p.179.

12. Mehta Vinod Kumar : "State and Labour in India since

Independence : A Sociological Study", Unpublished Ph.D.

thesis University of Bombay, 1971, p,519.

13. Morris D.Morris : "The Emergence of an Industrial Labour

Force in India" A study of the Bombay Cotton Mills.
1854-1947, p.200.
 35

14. Chirde,S.B. ; "Industrial Labour in Bombay - A socio-economic

Analysis", Unpublished Ph.D.thesis. University of Bombay,

1949, Pp.224-418.

15. Makharia,M.P. "Social Conditions of Textile Labour in

Bombay", (with special reference to productivity.)

Unpublished Ph.D.thesis, University of Bombay,1959,p.410.

16. Thakkar,(B.K. : "Labour Problems of Textile Industry" ,p. DC.

17. Patel Kunj : "Rural Labour in Industrial Bombay",pp.1-24.

18. Heather and Vijay Joshi : "Surplus Labour and the City :

A Study of Bombay", p.172.

19. Sheth,N.R. : "The Social Framework of an Indian Factory",

Pp.174-204.
i

20. Sharma,B.R. : "The Indian Industrial Workers : Issues in

Perspective® t Pp.166-170.

21. Lambert,R.D. : "Workers, Factories and Social Change in

India", p.VI and 224.

22. Vaid,K.N, : "The New Worker : A Study at Kota",p.138.

23. Holmstrom Mark : "South Indian Factory Workers - Their

Life and Their World", p.142.

24. Patel,Kunj : Op.cit, p.2.

25. B.Shiva Rao : Op.cit. p.256.

26. Mukerjee,Radhakamal : op.cit. p.X.

27. Oranti,Oscar A. : Opjzit, p. 179.
28. Vaid,K.N. : Op.cit. p.138.
29. Mehta,Vinod Kumar : Op.cit. p.519.
30. Sheth,N.R. : "Op.cit. pp. 174-202.

31. Lambert,R.D. : Op.cit. p#224.

32. Makharia,Mp„P. : Op.cit; p,375.

33. Sharma,B.R. : Op.cit, p.167.

34. Holmstrom,Mark : Op.cit. p.142.

35. Morris D.Morris : Op.cit. p*200.

SfcHVAJJ Uto, J. .
■•'rni.l8RAP