Outline Cell Theory

a. living things are composed of cells;

b. cells are the basic/smallest unit of life;
c. cells come from pre-existing cells;
Do not accept cells are the “smallest organisms”.
Do not accept “cells are the building blocks” of life on its own.

Outline the endosymbiotic theory.

a. mitochondria/chloroplasts were once independent prokaryotes;

b. taken in by (larger) heterotrophic/host cell through endocytosis;
c. new living arrangement mutually beneficial / depend on each other to
exist as single organism;

Discuss the endosymbiotic theory for the origin of eukaryotes.

(both) mitochondria and chloroplasts, which are eukaryotic organelles

have evolved from independent prokaryotic cells;
endocytosis by a heterotrophic host cell originally led to symbiotic
relationship;
(mitochondria and chloroplasts) grow and divide like cells;
mitochondria and chloroplasts have naked loop of DNA, like prokaryotes;
mitochondria and chloroplasts have 70S ribosomes, like prokaryotes;
mitochondria and chloroplasts have double membranes as would expect
when taken in by endocytosis;
Describe the importance of stem cells in differentiation.
stem cells are undifferentiated cells;
embryo cells are stem cells;
stem cells can differentiate in many/all ways / are pluripotent/totipotent;
differentiation involves expressing some genes but not others;
stem cells can be used to repair/replace tissues/heal wounds/;

Explain the importance of surface area to volume ratio as a limit to

cell size.
a. surface area to volume ratio decreases with increase in size / OWTTE;
b. at low surface area to volume ratios, exchange of materials takes longer/
reduced efficiency of exchange / vice versa;
c. rate of exchange of materials/gas/energy is a function of its surface area;
d. rate of production of heat/waste/resource consumption is a function of
its volume;

Outline differentiation of cells in a multicellular organism.

differentiation is development in different/specific ways
cells carry out specialized functions/become specialized
example of a differentiated cell in a multicelluar organism
cells have all genes/could develop in any way
some genes are switched on/expressed but not others
position/hormones/cell-to-cell signals/chemicals determine how a cell
develops
a group of differentiated cells is a tissue

Discuss possible exceptions to cell theory. 4 marks

skeletal muscle fibers are larger/have many nuclei/are not typical cells
fungal hyphae are (sometimes) not divided up into individual cells
unicellular organisms can be considered acellular
because they are larger than a typical cell/carry out all functions of life
some tissues/organs contain large amounts of extracellular material
e.g. vitreous humor of eye/ mineral deposits in bone/ xylem in trees/other
example
statement of cell theory/all living things/most tissues are composed
entirely of true cells

Eukaryotic cells have intracellular and extracellular components.

State the functions of one named extracellular component.

name of component: 1 max

e.g. plant cell wall/cellulose/interstitial

matrix/basement membrane/glycoprotein/bone matrix;
functions: 3 max
EITHER

e.g. (plant cell wall) strengthens/supports the cell/plant (against gravity);

prevents the entry of pathogens;
maintains the shape of plant cells;
allows turgor pressure/high pressure to develop inside the cell;
prevents excessive entry of water to the cell;
OR
helps cells to stick together/adhere;
needed to hold cells/tissues together / example of cells/tissues holding
together;
forms interstitial matrix / forms basement membrane to support single
layers of cells;
e.g. around a blood capillary;
forms (part of the) filtration membrane in the glomerulus;
Explain how the surface are to volume ratio influences cell sizes.

small cells have larger ratio (than larger cells)/ratio decreases as size
increases
surface area/membrane must be large enough to absorb nutrients/oxygen/
substances needed
surface area/membrane must be large enough to excrete/pass out waste
products
need for materials is determined by (cell) volume
cell size is limited (by SA/Volume ratio)/cells divide when they reach a
certain size
reference to diffusion across/through membrane/surface area

Outline differentiation of cells in a multicellular organism. 4 marks

differentiation is development in different/specific ways

cells carry out specialized functions/become specialized
example of a differentiated cell in a multicelluar organism — nerve cell,
sperm cell
cells have all genes/could develop in any way
some genes are switched on/expressed but not others
position/hormones/cell-to-cell signals/chemicals determine how a cell
develops
a group of differentiated cells is a tissue
Draw a labelled diagram to show the ultrastructure of Escherichia
coli. (Prokaryote)

cell wall – with some thickness;

plasma membrane – shown as single line or very thin;
cytoplasm;
pilus/pili – shown as single lines;
flagellum/flagella – shown as thicker and longer structures than pili and
embedded in cell wall;
70S ribosomes;
nucleoid / naked DNA;
approximate width 0.5 µm / approximate length 2.0 µm;
Award 4 max if the bacterium drawn does not have the shape of a bacillum
(rounded-corner rectangle with length approximately twice its width).
Award 4 max if any eukaryotic structures included.

Draw a labelled diagram to show the organelles which are found in the
cytoplasm of plant cells — Eukaryotic

rough endoplasmic reticulum

free ribosomes
Golgi apparatus
mitochondrion
chloroplast
vacuole
nucleus
lysosome
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
State one function of each of the following organelles: lysosome, Golgi
apparatus, rough endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus, mitochondrion.

lysosome: hydrolysis/digestion/break down of materials (macromolecules)

Golgi apparatus: synthesis/sorting/transporting/secretion of cell products
rough endoplasmic reticulum: site of synthesis of proteins (to be secreted)/
intracellular transport of polypeptides to Golgi apparatus
nucleus: controls cells activities/mitosis/replication of DNA/transcription
of DNA (to RNA)/directs protein synthesis
mitochondrion: (aerobic) respiration/generates ATP

Draw a labelled diagram showing the ultra-structure of a liver cell. 4

marks (Eukaryotic)

(plasma) membrane – single line surrounding cytoplasm;

nucleus – with a double membrane and pore(s) shown;
mitochondria(ion) – with a double membrane, the inner one folded into
internal
projections, shown no larger than half the nucleus;
rough endoplasmic reticulum – multi-folded membrane with dots/small
circles on surface;
Golgi apparatus – shown as a series of enclosed sacs with evidence of
vesicle formation;
ribosomes – dots/small circles in cytoplasm/ribosomes on rER;
lysosome;
Award 0 if plant cell is drawn. Award 2 max if any plant cell structure (e.g.
cell wall) is present.
Distinguish between the structure of plant and animal cells.
have cell walls, animals do not
have plastids/ chloroplasts, animals do not
have a large central vacuole, animals do not
store starch, animal cells store glycogen
have plasmodesmata, animal cells do not
animal cells

have centrioles, plant cells do not

have cholesterol in the cell membrane, plant cells do not
plant cells are generally have a fixed shape/ more regular whereas animal
cells are more rounded

Using a table, compare the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic

cells.
P: prokaryotic cells; E: eukaryotic cells

DNA: P: naked/loop of DNA; E: associated with protein/histones/

nucleosomes/DNA in chromosomes
location of DNA: P: in cytoplasm/nuceloid/no nucleus; E: within a
nucleus/nuclear membrane
membrane bound organelles: P: none; E: present
ribosomes: P: 70S ; E: 80S
plasma membrane: P & E: same structure within both groups
cell wall: P: peptidoglycan/not cellulose/not chitin; E: cellusose/chitin/not
peptidoglycan
respiratory structures: P: no mitochondria; E: mitochondria
pili: P: pili present E: pili absent;
plasmids: P: plasmids (sometimes) present E:plasmids absent;
flagella: P: flagella solid E: flagella flexible/membrane-bound;