5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 1

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 2

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 3
5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 4
5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 5
5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 6
 They are known as Cyclones in the
Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the
Atlantic, Typhoons in the Western
Pacific and South China Sea, and
Willy-willies in the Western Australia.

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 7

Air mass is defined as a large body of air having little horizontal variation in
temperature and moisture. The homogenous surfaces, over which air masses
form, are called the source regions.
When two different air masses meet, the boundary zone between them is
called a front. The process of formation of the fronts is known as
frontogenesis.
There are four types of fronts: (a) Cold; (b) Warm; (c) Stationary; (d)
Occluded. When the front remains stationary, it is called a stationary front.
When the cold air moves towards the warm air mass, its contact zone is called
the cold front,
If the warm air mass moves towards the cold air mass, the contact zone is a
warm front.
If an air mass is fully lifted above the land surface, it is called the occluded
front.
The fronts occur in middle latitudes and are characterised by steep gradient in
temperature and pressure.
They bring abrupt changes in temperature and cause the air to rise to form
clouds and cause precipitation.
 Temperature controls
 Differential heating of land and water (Land
heats/cools more quickly), SHWATER>3SHLAND
 Ocean currents (Energy is passed from moving air to water through friction and
consequently the drag exerted by winds blowing steadily across the surface layer of water to move.
This is closely related to the general circulation of the atmosphere)

 Altitude
 Geographic position
 Cloud cover and albedo

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 9

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 10
 Pacific and Atlantic Ocean Air
Pressure Systems

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 11

Constant Pressure Chart – Ridges and Troughs
When isobars curves to form elongated regions of low and high pressure,
These areas are called troughs and ridges respectively.

High Pressure
Ridge
Low Pressure
Trough

Ridges Ridges

Upper Atmosphere
air flow over high
pressure ridges and
under low pressure Northern
Hemisphere Troughs
troughs
5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 12
5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 13
 WIND is the result of horizontal differences in air
pressure.
 CONVERGENCE: When there is a net flow of air into
a region and the air piles up.
 DIVERGENCE: When there is a net outflow of air,
the surface pressure drops.
 The pressure at the surface increases when there is
a net convergence and decreases for divergence.
 COLD, DRY air masses are dense and associated
with high pressure AND warm, humid air masses
are less dense and tend to exhibit low pressure.
 5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 14


 What is Low or High Air
Pressure?
 Low Air Pressure develops when there are
fewer air molecules exerting a force.
• Pressure may be less than average sea
level air pressure
 High Air Pressure develops when there are
more air molecules exerting a force.
• Pressure may be more than average sea
level air pressure

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 15

 TYPES OF AIR PRESSURE
 There are two ways that „high‟ and
„low‟ air pressure can develop in the
atmosphere.
 Thermal Air Pressure
• Due to unequal heating of land and
water; conduction and convection
 Dynamic Air Pressure
• Upper atmospheric winds, earth‟s
rotation
5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 16
 How does Thermal Low Air Pressure
Develop?
 Thermal Low Air Pressure develops over
warm to hot surfaces through the process
of conduction and convection.
 Air over the warm to hot surface becomes
warmer, more buoyant and less dense
than surrounding air – it rises.
 The convection process reduces the
number of air molecules close to the
surface – fewer air molecules exert a
weaker force = “Low Air Pressure”

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 17

 Low Air Pressure

warm to hot surface heats air above it –

conduction and convection – warm air is
less dense, more buoyant than surrounding
air and the warm air starts to rise

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 18

 Its common practice to call all centres of low pressure
cyclones and the flow around them cyclonic (has the
same direction of rotation as Earth: counterclockwise in
NH and clockwise in SH).

5/26/2017 19
 How does Thermal High Pressure
Develop?
 Thermal High Pressure develops over cool
to cold surfaces
 Cooler air is less buoyant and more dense
than surrounding air – cool air sinks
 As more air sinks to the surface, it adds
more and more air molecules, which
creates a stronger force = High air
pressure

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 20

 High Air Pressure

Air over a cool to cold surface slowly

sinks toward the ground; cool air is
more dense, less buoyant than
surrounding air

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 21

High and Low Air Pressure Air Flow
 As warm air is lifted away from the surface in a
Thermal Low Air Pressure, „fresh air‟ is pulled into
the center of the Low to replace the lifted air
(surface air convergence).
• Warm rising air cools as it rises – cloud
formation possible
 As cooler air sinks toward the surface in a
Thermal High Air Pressure, the sinking air is
pushed out from the center of the low at the
surface to make room for new falling air (surface
air divergence).
• Cool sinking air warms slightly as it sinks – no
cloud formation possible

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 22

 Air Flow in Surface Low and
High Air Pressures
Surface
high
Cool
sinking pressure
air

Warm
rising air
Surface
low
pressure

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 23

 DYNAMIC AIR PRESSURE
 Air pressure systems created by upper
level winds and the earth‟s rotation are
called “Dynamic” Air pressure.
 Dynamic Highs have a core of warm
descending air
• Air is still sinking, but under a dynamic high,
the air warms considerably as it descends
 Dynamic Lows have a core of cool rising
air
• Air is still rising, but under a dynamic low,
even cool air is pulled up

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 24

 Wind: Horizontal Air Movement Due to a
Difference in Surface Pressures
 Air Movement based on two of
Newton‟s Laws of Motions
• (1) An object in motion or at rest will
tend to stay in motion or at rest until a
force is exerted on it (INERTIA)
• (2) The force on an object is equal to
the mass of the object times the
acceleration produced by the force
 F = ma

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 25

 What are the forces involved
with Air Movement?
 Pressure Gradient Force
• Controls both Wind Direction and Wind
Velocity
 Coriolis Force/Effect
• Controls Wind Direction, only
 Friction
• Controls Wind Velocity, only
• Acts to slow wind down close to surface
5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 26
 Pressure Gradient Force
 Pressure Gradient is the rate of
pressure change that occurs over a
given distance
 Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) is the
net force produced when differences
in horizontal air pressure exist
• PGF is always directed from High
Pressure to Low Pressure and moves at
right angles to the isobars
5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 27
 Pressure Gradient Force
Green arrows represent the same  Isobars close together
horizontal distance between two points
indicate a rapid change
in air pressure producing
a steep Pressure
Gradient Force
• Result: Strong, high speed
winds
 Isobars far apart
represent a slow change
in air pressure producing
a gentle Pressure
Gradient Force
• Result: Weak, low speed
winds
5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 28
 Coriolis Force
 Coriolis Force is an apparent force
due to the rotation of Earth on its
axis.
 This force appears to deflect any
free-moving object (plane, ships,
rockets, bullets, air, currents) from
its original straight-line path.
 The deflection is to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left
in the Southern Hemisphere
5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 29
 Coriolis Force

Blue arrows indicate the direction of

deflection:
To the Left of original path in southern
hemisphere
To the Right of the original path in northern
hemisphere

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 30

 Coriolis Force
 Coriolis Force varies with speed,
altitude and latitude of a moving
object.
 Coriolis Force is almost “zero” at
equator and greatest near the poles
 The higher the velocity of the moving
object, the stronger Coriolis affects
the object.
 Coriolis affects only wind direction
5/26/2017 31
 Friction
 The effect of friction is observed
closest to Earth‟s surface –
“Boundary Layers”
 Friction slows down wind speed
 The friction layer varies in height
across the Earth, but for the most
part lies within about a kilometer of
the surface.
5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 32
 Friction
Wind speeds slow No friction in upper air
the closer to the
surface.

High altitude
winds do not
experience
friction and are
much faster than
surface winds

5/26/2017 33
 Forces and Wind Direction
Pressure Gradient Force, Coriolis
Force, and Friction affect the
movement of air into and out of Air
Pressure systems.
Air always moves into the center of a
Low – cyclonic air flow.
Air always moves out of the center of
a High – anticyclonic air flow
5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 34
 Forces and Air Flows (Northern
Hemisphere)

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 35

 Cyclonic Air Flow (Surface
Lows)
 Northern Hemisphere:
• Counterclockwise and into the center of
a Low
 Southern Hemisphere:
• Clockwise and into the center of a Low

5/26/2017 36
(c) Vicki Drake
 Cyclonic Air Flow: Northern
Hemisphere

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 37

 Anticyclonic Air Flow (Surface
Highs)
 Northern Hemisphere Anticyclonic Air
Flow
• Clockwise and out of the center of a
High
 Southern Hemisphere Anticyclonic
Air Flow
• Counterclockwise and out of the center
of a High

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 38

Anticyclonic Air Flow – Northern
Hemisphere

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 39

 Geostrophic Winds
 A theoretical horizontal wind that blows in
a straight path at a constant speed,
parallel to the isobars.
• Jet Streams are a close approximation
to a Geostrophic Wind
 Wind exists at approximately 1000 meters
above the ground – above the boundary
layer (friction layer)
 It develops when the Pressure Gradient
Force and Coriolis Force are in a dynamic
balance.
5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 40
 Geostrophic Wind

Northern Hemisphere

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 41

 Air Flow Across Isobars
Upper Air Flow Surface Air Flow

NORTHERN HEMISPHERE AIR FLOWS

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 42
Jet Streams
5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 44
5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 45
 Jet Streams
 A jet stream is a swift river of air
found in the upper troposphere
 Two are usually found in each
hemisphere:
• Polar jet stream
• Subtropical jet stream
 Each jet stream is formed by
different processes
 Polar Front
 Air sinks at the Poles, creating the Polar
highs
 Air flows from the Poles down towards the
Equator
 Coriolis force deflects the air to the right,
resulting in the polar easterlies
 The boundary between the polar easterlies
and the westerly winds of the midlatitudes
is called the polar front
 The polar front separates cold polar air
from more temperate air to the South
Polar Front
 Polar Jet Stream
 It resembles a stream of water moving west to
east and has an altitude of about 10 kilometers.
 Its air flow is intensified by the strong
temperature and pressure gradient that develops
when cold air from the poles meets warm air
from the tropics.
• Strong winds exist above regions where the
temperature gradient is large
• The polar jet stream forms because of this
temperature gradient
• The polar jet stream is found above the polar
front at approximately 600 N and 600 S
 Subtropical Jet Stream
 The subtropical jet stream is
located approximately 13 kilometers
above the subtropical high
pressure zone.
 The reason for its formation is similar
to the polar jet stream.
 However, the subtropical jet stream
is weaker. Its slower wind speeds are
the result of a weaker latitudinal
temperature and pressure gradient.
 Constant Pressure (Upper Level)
Charts – What do they tell us?
 Show wind-flow patterns of importance to
weather forecasting
 Tracks movement of weather systems
 Predict behaviors of surface pressure area
 A constant pressure chart helps pilot
determine they are flying at correct
altitude – using an altimeter

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 51

Atlantic Ocean Semi-Permanent
Air Pressure Systems
 Bermuda-Azores High
• Located approximately 300N
• Shifts seasonally: south in winter, north
in summer
 Icelandic Low
• Located approximately 600 N, near
Iceland
 Nor‟easter

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 53

 Ocean Currents
 Ocean currents are generated by
winds blowing across the surface of
the waters
 Ocean currents in both the Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans flow in a
clockwise gyre (a semi-circular flow),
responding to air flow out of the
Pacific High and the Bermuda-Azores
High
5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 54
 Pacific Ocean Currents
 California Current
• A south-flowing cold current, flowing parallel to the west
coast of North America
 Equatorial Currents
• A series of westerly-flowing warm currents, flowing from
eastern to western tropical Pacific Ocean basin
 Kuroshio Current
• Northerly-flowing warm current, flowing along the east
coast of Asia
 North Pacific Drift
• An easterly-flowing, somewhat warm current, flowing
towards North America

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 55

 Atlantic Ocean Currents
 Gulf Stream
• A northerly-flowing warm current, flowing somewhat
parallel to east coast of North America
 Labrador Current
• A southerly-flowing cold current
 North Atlantic Drift
• An easterly-flowing somewhat warm current, flowing
from western to eastern Atlantic Ocean basin
 Canary Current
• A southerly-flowing cool current, flowing almost parallel
to west coast of Europe and Africa
 Equatorial Currents
• A series of westerly-flowing warm currents, flowing from
eastern to western tropical Atlantic Ocean basin
5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 56
Atlantic and Pacific Ocean Currents

5/26/2017 57
 GLOBAL CIRCULATION
 Energy from the Sun heats the entire Earth, but this
heat is unevenly distributed across the Earth's
surface.
 Equatorial and tropical regions receive far more solar
energy than the midlatitudes and the polar regions.
• The tropics receive more heat radiation than they emit,
while the polar regions emit more heat radiation than
they receive.
• If no heat was transferred from the tropics to the polar
regions, the tropics would get hotter and hotter while
the poles would get colder and colder.
• This latitudinal heat imbalance drives the circulation of
the atmosphere and oceans.
• Around 60% of the heat energy is redistributed around
the planet by the atmospheric circulation and around
40% is redistributed by the ocean currents.
5/26/2017 58
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
 One way to transfer heat from the
equator to the poles would be to
have a single circulation cell where
air moved from the tropics to the
poles and back. This single-cell
circulation model was first proposed
by Hadley in the 1700‟s.

5/26/2017 59
 HADLEY CELL CIRCULATION

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 60

ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
 Since the Earth rotates, its axis is tilted and there
is more land in the Northern Hemisphere than in
the Southern Hemisphere, the actual global air
circulation pattern is much more complicated.
 Instead of a single-cell circulation, the
global model consists of three circulation cells
in each hemisphere.
 These three cells are known as the tropical cell
(also called the Hadley cell), the midlatitude cell
and the polar cell.

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 61

 Three-cell Circulation: Ferrel

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 62

 GLOBAL WINDS AND AIR
PRESSURE SYSTEMS

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 63

 AIR PRESSURE AND
WINDS

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 64

5/26/2017 (c) Vicki Drake 65