___d/ ,

ill~rn[~~~ TIrnill~~~wrnTI ~~[WTI

 o 198 1 Jeppesen Sa nd er so n. Inc.
A ll Rights Re served
Publi shed Si multaneo usly i n Germany
 INTRODUCTION

PREFACE

The Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) Course was written primarily to help the instrument rated
commercial pilot learn and understand the many advanced elements necessary to become an
airline transport pilot. It reviews the knowledge areas a commercial pilot studied in previous
courses. The review material, however, covers only those subjects that are acknowledged to be
areas of difficulty as demonstrated in previous written and oral examinations.

In most chapters in this ATP course it is assumed the student is a commercial pilot with an
instrument rating; therefore, many of the subjects are taught at an advanced level and do not
include some of the basic instructions; i.e., computer time/distance problems, aerodynamics,
airplane instruments and systems, etc. The basic subjects are explained only where they are
needed to transition to advanced knowledge areas.

This course simplifies the learning problems for the ATP applicant. Before writing at length on
various subjects, months were spent analyzing the pilot's job to determine exactly the pilot
requirements and knowledge required to perform effectively and safely as an airline transport
pilot. Then, the information was "programmed" to tailor it to the exact requirements of a person
wishing to excell on the FAA ATP written examination. All of the material relates specifically to
the pilot's job, not to the general academic areas. If information doesn't apply - it isn't included!

Brief, to-the-point, written explanations are presented; followed by programmed "frames"

designed to make learning easy for the student. This method is referred to as "Programmed
Auto-Instruction." It has been tested thoroughly to insure that you will learn quickly and
easily - and remember!

In the computer section the problems can be solved using either the CR or the eSG type of
computer. The compressibility and temperature rise is given for the person using the CSG type
computer to solve for true airspeed. Compressibility and temperature rise are automatically com-
pensated for and need not be considered when using the CR-2, -3, or -5 Computer.

Our appreciation is extended to the many individuals in the aviation industry and
government branches who gave us their expertise and technical assistance during the
preparation of the ATP course. Their valuable critical help made it possible to publish an
ATP textbook which is the most accurate and up-to-date study guide available to the person
seeking the airline transport pilot certificate.

iii
 HOW TO USE THE COURSE (
In order for you to proceed with the course most effectively and to attain the greatest efficiency in
becoming ATP qualified, it is recommended you follow the instructions and guidance specifically as
enumerated.

Start today! Start at the beginning and proceed through the material in the order presented, adhering
to the instructions given in the following steps.

1. Study the first brief portion of explanatory text.

2. Next, write the responses in the spaces provided in the programmed "frames" which follow
each part of the text material, proceeding as follows:

(a) Place the sliding mask (included in the ATP course materials) on the page so as to
expose the first frame only.

(b) Study the statement and write in your responses in the space(s). (Often terms and
words other than those shown as responses may be correct.)

(c) Slide the mask downward to the next frame and note the correct answer to the
preceding frame in the right-hand column. This will confirm the correct answer;
however, if you answered incorrectly, make a written correction to your response at
once.

(1) If you answered incorrectly and do not understand the reason for the correct (
answer as printed, return to the preceding text and restudy it.

(2) When completing the chapter on FARs, study the FAR number in bold type
before attempting to answer each programmed frame.

3. After completing the instructions in step 2, and having satisfied yourself that you under-
stand the part studied, continue to the next part, and follow this procedure through the
course. For best results, this course should be completed as soon as possible, preferably
within 60 days.
4. The course appendix includes a final examination and final examination critique pres-
ented in the current FAA testing format. For best results, do not look at this material
until you are finished with the course. After taking the Jeppesen Sanderson ATP Final
Examination, consult the critique for correct answers and explanations.

If you have any questions or need explanations about any part of the course, we are prepared to offer
assistance at any time.
Just write to:
Marketing Manager
Aviation Products
Jeppesen Sanderson, Inc.
55 Inverness Dr., East
Englewood Colorado 80112

iv

--
 INTROOUCTION

{
II Programmed For Simplicity"
The Jeppesen Sanderson Pilot Training Courses Are
"Programmed for Simplicity"

Here is a sample of a short "program":

Instructions:

A. Place the top of the sliding mask just below the first statement.

B. Study the statement and place your answer in the blank space.

C. Slide the mask down slightly and check in the right-hand column for the correct answer.

D. Continue through the balance of the statements ("frames") until the series is completed.

STATEMENT ANSWER

1. The pilot in command operating under FAR Part 121 must

possess a ~-class medical certificate.

2. ____.,....,- It is a requirement that all persons

true, false
who have passed their second birthday must wear a seat first
belt during each takeoff and landing.

3. The meteorological visibility of one-half statute mile is equi-

true
valent to an R VR of feet.

4. The majority of lift is created by the negative pressure on the

2,400
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of the wing.
top, bottom

5. By using a sweptback wing, the critical Mach number

top

increases. decreases

increases

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS AND INDEX (

Preface ......................•.•..•....... iii Aviation Weather Reports . .... 3-2

How to Use the Course iv Constant-Pressure Analysis. ... 3-29
Programmed For Simplicity .........•....•...... v Constant-Pressure Charts . ... 3-29
Table of Contents and Index vi Constant-Pressure Prognostic Charts. .3-29
Flight Instruments 1-1 Flight Planning with
Airspeed Definitions. . .. 1-8 Constant-Pressure Charts .. 3-35
Alternate Static Pressure 1-2 In-Flight Advisories (FLI........... 3-14
Attitude Direction Indicator. . . .. 1-14 Low-Level Prognostic Charts. . . 3-25
Electropneumatic Altimeter. . ... 1-3 Pictorial Weather Charts. . 3-16
Flight Director Computer. ...•..... '-14 Pilot Reports (UA) 3-16
Flight Director System. 1-14 Radar Summary Chart. . 3-29
Flight Mode Selector. . . . . . . . . . 1-23 Severe Weather Forecasts 3-9
Horizontal Situation Indicator. ... . . . . . 1-19 SIGMETs . . 3-14
Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicators ..... '·7 Significant Weather Prognostic Chart 3-42
Mach/Airspeed Indicators. 1-10 Surface Analysis Chart. . 3-21
Mach/Airspeed Warning System .. 1-10 Teletypewriter Reports and Forecasts 3-2
Pitet-Static System . 1-1 Terminal Forecasts (FT) 3·10
Pressure Altimeter.. .. .. . . 1-3 Tropopause-Vertical Wind Shear
Radio Altimeter. . .. 1-6 Chart Legend . . .. 3-43
Stall Warning System .. .. .. . .•. ..1·11 Upper Air Charts 3-29
Total Air Temperature Indicator. . .... 1·12 Weather Oepicition Chart. . . . . . . . 3-21
True Airspeed Indicator. 1-10 Weather Information Distribution. .3-2
Winds and Temperatures
Aloft Forecasts (FD) 3-12
~ Meteorolo~y. fo~ Jet Aircraft ............•..... 2-1
Classification of Thunderstorms 2-15
Clear Air Turbulence. . 2-6
Clouds Associated With Jet Streams. . . . 2-9 Publications. . . . . . . . .•. . . 4-1
Flying in Mountain Wave Conditions. . ... 2-14 Advisory Circulars.... .4-16
Flying in the Vicinity Airman's Information Manual . .••. .. ... 4-1
of Severe Thu nderstorms . · . 2-18 Airport/Facility Directory .......•....... 4-4
High Altitude Physiological Factors. · . 2-21 Airport Legend . 4-5
Hyperventilation. . . ....... 2-22 Area Navigation Routes. . 4-13
Hypoxia .. · . 2-21 Civil Flight Test Areas 4-14
Jet Stream . . .•............. 2-3 Exam-O-Grams .. 4-18
Jet Stream Summary .... 2-9 Graphic Notices and Supplemental Data .. 4-13
Mountain Wave . . .. 2·11 Notices to Airmen.. . . . . . . .. .. .. . .... 4-11
Mountain Wave Clouds. . . . . . • . • . .. .2·12 Pilot/Controller Glossary. .. . 4-4
Stratosphere. .. . .... . ... 2·2 Preferred IFR Routes .........•...... 4-7
Thunderstorm Mechanics. . .. 2-15 Special Notices. . . 4-6
Thunderstorm Stages. ....... . .. 2·16 Terminal Area Graphic Notices 4-14
Thunderstorms. . 2-14 VOR/VOT Receiver Checkpoints. 4-6
Tropopause. .......•......... 2-2
Troposphere . . ... _. . . .. . ... 2-1
Regulations 5-1
Aircraft Takeoff Performance 5-21
Weather Data 3-1 Airports, Positive Control, and
AIRMETs. . 3-15 Visual Flight Rules. ... 5-13
Area Forecasts (FA) .. 3-7 ATC Clearances and Light Signals . . . 5·12
Aviation Forecasting Services. . 3-1 ATP Eligibility Requirements . . ... 5-7

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS ANO INOEX

r Cargo in Passenger Compartment . . .. 5-31 Enroute Charts , 8-1

Certification Requirements . . .. 5-19 Area Charts 8-1
Crewmember Requirements tiigh Altitude Enroute Charts 8-11
and Qual ifications 5-42 Low Altitude Enroute Charts 8-2
Definitions 5-3
Destination and Alternate Requirements 5-27
Dispatching and Flight Release Rules 5-52 ~adio Navigation 9-1
Emergency Equipment. . 5-33 ADF Course Interception 9·13
FAR Part 1 . . . _.. _.. _ 5-3 ADF Tracking in a Crosswind 9-11
FAR Part 61 . . ... _.. _.•...... 5-4 ADF Tracking Inbound.... . . 9-8
FAR Part 91 ...........•.......•...... 5-9 ADF Tracking Outbound. . . . .. 9-12
FAR Part 121 .............•.......... 5·19 Area Navigation. . 9·24
Fire Precautions. . . 5·29 Automatic Direction Finder. . 9-1
Flight and Voice Recorders 5·40 Compass Locators 9-23
Flight Operations. . . . . . . . .._ 5-48 Glide Slope _ 9-21
Flight Time Limitations 5-45 Homing with ADF __ .. 9-7
IF R Operations _ 5·15 Instrument Landing System 9-19
Logbooks and Recency of Experience 5-4 Localizer _ 9-19
Medical Certificates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5-6 Marker Beacons 9-22
Records and Reports. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5-54 Radio Magnetic Indicator. . 9-4
Supplemental Oxygen. . . . . . . . . . 5·35 Time-Distance Check. . . . 9-15
VOR Checks and Speed Limitations 5-9 VHF Navigation. . .. ..•.... . .. 9-18
VOR _..•.•.............9-19

~Computer 6-'
Checking Crosswind for
0,'';';2 Takeoff or Landing _. _ 6·22 ~ir Traffic Control 10-1
...... Effective True Airspeed 6-18 Abbreviated IFR Departure
Finding Winds in Flight _ 6-16 Clearance Procedures . ......•...... 10-4
Adherence to the Clearance 10-6
Mach Number. . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
Off-Course Correction 6-19 Center-Stored Flight Plans 10-4
Rate of Climb (Descentsl . .. . .. 6-12 Clearances . 10-2
Specific Range. . . .. . . . 6·" Closing the Flight Plan. . . 10-20
Temperature Rise. . 6-3 Controlled Airspace. . . 10-9
True Airspeed Computations 6-5 Cruise Clearance. . 10·7
Types of Airspeed _ 6-1 Deviation from the Clearance 10-6
Fuel Jettisoning _ 1Q.l1
Holding Pattern Entries 10-15
Terminal Procedures 7-1 Holding Patterns. .. ._ 10·12
Advanced Information on I ndication of Equipment
Instrument Approach 7-1 on the Flight Plan. . . .... 10-1
Approach Categories. . . . . . 7-7
Radar Monitoring of
Approach Chart Symbols. . 7·8
Instrument Approaches. ..10-18
Approach Charts. . ...•...... 7-2
Runway Markings. . . . .. . .. 10-18
Category II and III Approaches _ 7·40
Transponder Operation 10-8
IFR Approach Communications 7-1
Transponder and DME Requirements 10-11
LDA and SDF Approaches _ 7-41
Radar Approaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7·25
RunwayVisual Range 7-26 j)(weight and Balance _ _ 11·1
Standard Instrument Departures 7-28 Added Weight Correction _ 11-24
Standard Terminal Arrival Routes 7-29 Airplane Weight and Balance 11-8
Takeoff and Alternate Regulations 7-17 Center of Gravity and Balance 11-7
Two-Way Radio Communications Failure. 7-23 Center of Gravity Limits Chart 11·20
Visual Approach Slope Indicator. .. .. . 7·32 Computer Solution for Percentages 11·15
Visual Approaches 7·39 Determining Center of Gravity. . .. 11-10

vii
 Gear and Flap Retraction Allowances 11-27 Landing Performance Charts _ 12-59
Index Units 11-23 Landing Speeds 12-28
Mean Aerodynamic Chord .....•....... 11-14 Landing Terminology . . _ 12-33
Out-of-Balance Corrections 11-24 Maximum Landing Weight
Shifting Weight Correction 11-26 Climb Limits Chart ......•....... 12-62
Typical Weight and Balance Problem 11-17 Measurement of Thrust 12-24
Weight and Balance Definitions 11-1 Normal Cruise Chart .............•.... 12-56
Weight and Balance Mini-Exam ....•..... 11-29 Relation of Temperature to ISA ....•.... 12-37

x.. Jet Perfo~mance ...........•.......•.......

AXial Flow Compressors
12-1
12-17
Runway Composition
Shock Waves
Stall and Minimum Control Speeds
12-46
12-7
12-27
Centrifugal Flow Compressors 12-16 Subsonic Flight 12-3
Descent Planning Chart 12-58 Takeoff and Landing Performance 12-27
Discussion on Landing Performance 12-36 Takeoff Data Chart..... .. ... . 12-47
Discussion on Takeoff Performance 12-35 Takeoff Performance Chart .......•..... 12-43
Enroute Climb Chart 12-54 Takeoff Speeds ................•..... 12-28
Exhaust Section 12-21 Takeoff Terminology .........•.••.•... 12-30
Factors Affecting Thrust 12-26 Thrust Reversers _. . 12-23
Flight Planning Chart ..........•.•.... 12-40 Time and Fuel From Brake
Jet Aerodynamics 12-1 Release to Climb Speed ....••..... 12-52
Jet Burner Section 12-19 Transonic Flight 12-5
Jet Engine 12-12 Turbine Section 12-20
Jet Engine Principle of Operations 12-14 Turbofan Engine .........•........... 12-22
Jet Engine Station Designators 12-23 Turbojet ...............•....•...... 12-15
Jet Performance Glossary _ 12-64 Turboprop Engine ...•...•........... 12·21
Jet Transport Design 12-9 Wing Sweepback ............•......... 12-9

4cf Chof~Y ~C
X~ y 1(\/ ic - (\ _ \I - r" '- (.:;J~

viii
 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
chapler 1

INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, as in all the other chapters in the Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) Course, it is
assumed that the ATP applicant has the knowledge of a commercial pilot with an instrument
rating. The instruments covered in this chapter will be those that are applicable to large aircraft.

PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM a common probe. Pitot tubes are mounted in an

Several different instruments operate on the
principle of differential air pressure. This group
of instruments includes the altimeter, Machi
airspeed indicator, and the instantaneous vertical
speed indicator. The differential pressure used to
operate these systems is created by the proper
combination of impact, static, and trapped air
pressures. The source of impact and static pres-
sure is the pitot-static system.
The most common type of pitot-static system
used on large aircraft utilizes the pitot tube for
both static and pitot pressures. In reality, there
are two separate systems (pitot and static) with
area of minimum airstream disturbance and
parallel to the longitudinal axis or thrust line of
the aircraft. The usual locations are the nose
section area of the fuselage or the leading edge
of the wing or vertical stabilizer.
On most modem transport aircraft, there is a
separate system for both the captain and first
officer with an auxiliary system for each. Figure
1-1 illustrates a typical arrangement of pitot-
static systems. In this case, two pitot probes are
incorporated, one each for the captain and first
officer. In many cases, auxiliary pitot-static sys-
tems are also provided.

1-1
 A.S./M.M. IVSI ALT. AL TERNATE STATIC A.S./M.M. IVSI ALT. (
SELECTOR SWITCH

•• on

~ off
• •
CAPTAIN'S PITOT PROBE F/O PITOT PROBE

0)=========--========::(10
AL TERNATE STATIC AL TERNATE STATIC
Fig. 1-1. Pitot-Static System

ALTERNATE STATIC PRESSURE recognized by an improper response of the al-

An alternate static pressure system is provided
on most aircraft for use in case the main static
system is obstructed by ice or otherwise fails.
Static pressure system failure can easily be
timeter, instantaneous vertical speed indica·
tor, or Mach/airspeed indicator to pitch and
power changes. If the main static system
becomes inoperative, the alternate system can
(
be selected by a switch in the cockpit.

1. The pitot-static instruments operate on the principle of dif·

ferential air _

2. The source of impact and static pressure used to operate the

altimeter, Mach/airspeed indicator, and the instantaneous
pressure
vertical speed indicator is the
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ system.

3. Most modem transport aircraft have the provision for

_ _ _-,--_....,..,-,--~pitot·staticsystem(s) for both the cap· pita t·static
separate, combined
tain and the first officer.

4. If the main static source located in the pitot tube becomes

inoperative, an alternate static source may be selected by separate
movement of a in the cockpit.

switch

1-2

( PRESSURE ALTIMETER
The altimeter is designed to measure
altitude above any pressure level from 28.00
in. Hg. to 31.00 in. Hg. The altimeter must
be tested and inspected for IFR flight every
24 months. A common pressure altimeter,
shown in figure 1-2, is the three-pointer
altimeter.
1. White Stripe (Follows lO,OOO-Foot Pointer Around
Inner Perimeter of the Altitude Scale)
2. l,OOO-Foot Pointer
3. Low-Altitude Warning Symbol
4. lOa-Foot Pointer
5. Barometric Pressure Set Knob
6. 10,OOO-Foot Pointer
7. Barometric Scale
Fig. 1·2. Pressure Altimeter
The three-pointer altimeter has three
concentrically mounted pointers coded in
length and shape. The cross-tipped pointer
indicates tens of thousands of feet, the
small pointer indicates thousands of feet,
and the long pointer indicates hundreds
andlor parts of hundreds of feet.
A low-altitude warning symbol is visible at al.ti-
tudes below 16,000 feet. An additional
10,000-foot reference mark is included on this
altimeter. This reference mark is a narrow white
stripe around the inner perimeter of the instru-
ment scale. The stripe becomes visible as the
10,000·foot pointer moves clockwise. When this
feature is included, the low-altitude warning
symbol is located at the nine o'clock position.
FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
ELECTROPNEUMATIC ALTIMETER
The aneroid pressure altimeter is common to
most aircraft today; however, most modern
jet transports are being equipped with
central air data computers (CADC) which
provide signals for an advanced technology
item called the electropneumatic altimeter.
Essentially, it operates as an aneroid
altimeter, but with one big difference - the
CADC provides information that corrects
the altimeter for non-standard conditions
and inherent errors.
The electropneumatic altimeter has a
built-in safety feature. In the remote chance
of a power loss, loss of signal from the
CADC, or a significant signal difference
between the pneumatic and electropneumatic
operation, the altimeter will function as an
aneroid altimeter.
ALTIMETER ERRORS
Although the altimeter is designed to close toler-
ances, inherent errors exist that affect its indica-
tions. These are:
1. mechanical error,
2. scale error,
3. installation/position error,
4. reversal error, and
5. hysteresis error.
Mechanical error is caused by misalignment in
gears and levers which transmit indications
of aneroid expansion and contraction to
the pointers of the altimeter. This error is
not constant and must be checked prior to
each flight by the altimeter setting pro-
cedure.
Scale error is caused by irregular expansion of
the aneroids and i,s recorded on a scale
correction card maintained for each altim·
eter in the instrument maintenance shop.
CADC provides for this error in its signal.
Installation or position error is caused by the
airflow around the static ports. This error
varies with the type of aircraft, airspeed,
and altitude. The magnitude and direction
of this error can be determined by referring
1-3
 to the performance data section of the air-
craft operations manual.
Reversal error is caused by inducing false static
pressures into the static system. This nor-
mally occurs during abrupt or large pitch
changes. This error appears on the altimeter
as a momentary indication in the opposite
direction.
Hysteresis error is a lag in altitude indications
caused by the elastic properties of the
materials within the altimeter. This occurs
after an aircraft has maintained a constant
altitude for an extended period of time and
then makes a large, rapid altitude change.
After a rapid descent, altimeter indications
are higher than actual. This error is neg-
ligible during climbs and descents at slow
rates or after maintaining a new altitude for
a short period of time. Vibrators are used
to prevent hysteresis error. Hysteresis error
can be corrected by gently tapping the face
of the altimeter.

1. Standby Flag 7a. "ON" - allows the air data computer to pro-
2. 100- Foot Poi nter vide scalar error corrections to the instrument
3. Altimeter Setting Knob (inherent in the mechanism of the altimeter,
4. Altimeter Setting Window (Millibars) and differing with each installation)
5. l,OOQ-Foot Drum 7b. "OFF" - no correction inputs to the
6. Altimeter Setting Window (Inches of Mercury)
instrument, altimeter information received
7. Altimeter Switch (Spring· Loaded to the
direct from pi tot-static system, STBY flag
Center Position)
will appear

Fig. 1-3. Electropneumat;c Altimeter

1. The low.-altitude warning symbol, shown in figure 1-2, is

visible at altitudes below feet.

2. Also shown in figure 1-2 is an additional reference that

becomes visible as the 10,OOO-foot pointer moves clockwise. 16,000
This reference, located around the inner perimeter of the
instrument scale, is a narrow _
(

1-4
 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

For the next four frames, use figure 1-3 to determine the white stripe
correct response.

3. The altimeter setting shown in the electropneumatic altim-

eter is millibars, or _ no response
inches of mercury.

4. The altitude shown on the altimeter is _ 1013

feet. 29.92

5 The standby flag appearing in its

is, is not 24,680
window.

6. The electropneumatic altimeter is so designed that in case of

power failure the altimeter reverts to is
operation.
I
7. When rather abrupt pitch changes induce a false sta1<!c pres-
sure indication into the altimeter, the result may be aneroid
error.

8. The altimeter error caused by changing airflow around the

reversal
static ports is called error.

9. Irregular expansion of the

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ error in the altimeter.
altimeter aneroids causes installation
(position)
I
10. A lag in altitude indications caused by the elastic properties
of the materials within the altimeter results in scale
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ error.

11. Slight misalignment of the gears and levers which transmit

indications of aneroid expansion and contraction to the hysteresis
pointers of the altimeter produce error.

1·5
 12. Vibrators are sometimes used to prevent
error in the altimeter.
RADIO ALTIMETER
Another type of altimeter found on most large air-
craft today is the radio altimeter. (See Fig. 1-4.)
The radio altimeter measures the height above the
terrain directly below the aircraft. This altimeter
is particularly useful during approach and landing
phases of flight operation. It will track the abso-
lute altitude within a range of 0 to 5,000 feet,
depending on the make and manufacturer of the
equipment. A range of 0 to 2,500 feet, however,
is most common among air carriers.
• • •
• •••••• •••• ••••••• • ••••••••••••••
RADIO ALTIMETER ANTENNAS
Fig. 1-4_ Radio Altimeter
1-6
_
mechanical
hysteresis
The operation of the radar altimeter is very
simple. One antenna of a pair sends a signal
to the ground. it bounces off the ground
and is received by the other antenna, and
the time difference is converted to feet on
the dial face. A control knob is provided
to set the minimum descent altitude (MDA).
As the aircraft passes through the MDA, ap-
propriate lights are illuminated and will re-
main illuminated while the aircraft is below
the preset altitude.
81---- f
RADIO ALTIMETER
TRANSMITTER RECEIVER
 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS
Instantaneous vertical speed (IVSI), or rate-of-
climb, indicators are provided for the captain
and first officer on jet transports. (See Fig. 1-5.)
The IVSI indicates the rate of climb or descent
by measuring the rate of change in static pres-
sure. This information is valuable in maintaining
specific rates of descent during approaches or
for maintaining and correcting to a desired alti-
tude.
The indicators are operated by static pressure
applied to both the inside of the instrument case
through an orifice and the inside of a flexible
diaphragm within the case. As the airplane
changes altitude, the pressure inside the dia-
phragm changes more rapidly than the pressure
inside the instrument case_ The resulting dif-
ferential pressure causes the diaphragm to
expand or contract. The amount of expansion or
contraction is proportional to the rate of change
of altitude and is indicated by a radial pointer in
thousands of feet per minute. Accelerometers
are incorporated in th e instrument to provide
readings of instantaneous vertical speed changes.
These accelerometers eliminate the "lag" in con-
ventional vertical speed indicators.

DIAPHRAGM

FROM STATIC SYSTEM

POINTER ORIFICE

Fig. 1-5. Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSJ)

L The type of altimeter that has a capability of measuring the

height of the terrain directly below the aircraft is the
_________ altimeter.

1-7
 (
2. The radio altimeter is particularly useful during the
and phases of radio
flight operation.

3. The theory of radio altimeter operation is the reflection of a

radio signal reflected from the ground and converted into a approach
_________ differential in order to display altitude landing
on the dial face of the instrument.

4. The instantaneous vertical speed indicator displays the rate of

climb by measuring the rate of in static time
pressure.

5. The device incorporated into the IVSI to eliminate the "lag"

of conventional vertical speed indicators is the change

accelerometer

AIRSPEED DEFINITIONS tional interest to the pilot since it causes indi-

Prior to the discussion of airspeed indicators, it
is important that the reader understand the vari-
ous airspeed terms. In addition to the common
airspeed terms such as indicated airspeed (lAS),
calibrated airspeed (CAS), and true airspeed
(TAS), the transport pilot should also under-
stand the following definitions.
EQUIVALENT AIRSPEED lEAS)
cated stall speeds to increase significantly with
altitude - primarily above 10,000 feet.
MACH NUMBER (MN)
Mach number is the ratio of the speed of the
aircraft to the speed of sound in the air existing
at flight altitude. This ratio is called a Mach
number in honor of Ernst Mach who first dis-
cerned its usefulness.

Equivalent airspeed is calibrated airspeed correc-
ted for compressibility. Compressibility error
has come into prom.inence with the advent of
high speed aircraft. It becomes noticeable when
the airspeed is great enough to create an impact
pressure which will cause the air molecules to be
compressed within the inlet chamber of the
pitot tube. With an increase in altitude, the air
becomes less easily compressed, so the airplane
must fly slightly faster at higher altitudes to
obtain the "equivalent" pressure on the pitot
tube as at sea level. Compressibility is of opera-
The Mach number is a key factor in the safe
operation of high speed aircraft since it is
directly related to factors that determine the
speed at which the aircraft is subject to struc-
tural failure. For an aircraft flying at the speed
of sound under existing temperature conditions
at any given altitude, Mach equals 1.0. The Mach
number is less than 1.0 for slow (subsonic)
speeds and greater than 1.0 for faster (super-
sonic) speeds. The term, "transonic" is applied
to a range of speeds extending from Mach. 75 to
-(
Mach 1.2.

'-8
 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

Mach number differs from true airspeed in one
major way. When computing true airspeed, it is
necessary to correct the indicated airspeed for
the actual air density at flight altitude. This
involves corrections for temperature and alti·
tude. With the Mach number, these corrections
are unnecessary since the existing temperature at
the flight altitude determines the speed of
.sound. For any given aircraft, the Mach number
will change from day to day, but since it is
determined by the local speed of sound which,
in turn, is determined by the temperature of the
surrounding air, it is always a valid index to the
speed and performance of the aircraft.
TRUE M CH NUMBEJj
Indicated Mach (read directly from the Mach
indicator), corrected for installation or position )(
~, is called true Mach number. T e inst .
lation or position error is so small that, with
most instruments, indicated Mach may be con-
sidered as a true Mach indication.

1. Equivalent airspeed (EAS) is calibrated airspeed (CAS) cor-

rected for error.
I
2. The pilot should be aware that generally above 10,000 feet
compressibility error will cause his indicated stall speed to compressibility
significantly with altitude.
increase, decrease

3. Mach number is the ratio of the speed of an aircraft to the

increase
speed of in the air.

4. Subsonic speeds would be represented by Mach numbers

sound
than 1.0.
less. greater

5. The use of a Mach number rather than true airspeed as an

index of the speed and performance of an aircraft is con-
sidered superior because it is not necessary to correct less
the Mach number for air at the
flight altitude.

6. Air density corrections for the temperature and flight alti·

tude are not necessary when using Mach number since the
density
existing temperature at the flight altitude determines the
speed of
I
, ,
sound

1·9

1. VMo/M MO Indicator
2. Mach Dial
3. Airspeed Bug
Fig. 1-6. Mach Airspeed Indicators
MACH/AIRSPEED INDICATORS
Since the speed of sound varies according to
temperature and altitude, the normal airspeed
indicator will not provide an accurate indication
of airplane speed relative to the speed of sound.
Since the jet transport operates in a wide spec-
trum of airspeeds and altitudes, technology has
developed a combined Mach and airspeed indi-
cator. Figure 1-6 shows two versions of this type
of instrument. These instruments display three
kinds of information:
1. indicated airspeed,
2. indicated Mach number, and
3. maximum operating limit speed. The
maximum operating limit speed is a
speed which shall not deliberately be
exceeded in any regime of flight
(climb, cruise, or descent).
Airspeed indication is accomplished in the nor-
mal manner; however, the Mach indication is
actuated in one of two ways. In the instrument
shown on the left in figure 1-6, the Mach
mechanism is actuated by an evacuated capsule
on its linkage and the dial scale factors are
selected so that airspeed and Mach number can
be read at the same time. The Mach indication
for the instrument, shown on the right side of
figure 1-6, is received directly from the central
1-10
(
4. Airspeed Pointer
5. Airspeed Bug Selector Knob
air data computer (CADC). These are but two
examples of airspeed/Mach indicators.
f
MACH/AIRSPEED WARNING SYSTEM
Mach and airspeed warning systems are installed
on most jet transports today. They are designed
to alert the pilot when the aircraft approaches
its maximum operating limit speed. The warning
is accomplished by a pitot-static-operated
switch which when closed operates a warning
horn (sometimes called a "clacker" due to its
sound). The switch is operated by an altitude
and airspeed bellows linked together. When alti-
tude and airspeed conditions are such that this
link is separated, the horn is actuated at a vibra-
tion rate of approximately eight cycles per
second. The advisable way to turn the "clacker"
off is to retard the thrust levers, since there is no
cutout switch.
TRUE AIRSPEED INDICATOR
The true airspeed indicator displays the true
airspeed of the airplane in digital form, as seen
in figure 1-7. The information fed to the indi-
cator is derived from the Machmeter and is
corrected for nonstandard air temperature. The (
TAS indication is simply a computed value
which is calibrated to read in knots.
 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

( Stall speed is defined as the minImum speed

Reproduced by the courtesy of the KoUsman Instrument Corp.
Fig. 1·7. True Airspeed Indicator
STALL WARNING SYSTEM
Initial buffet and stall speeds are affected by
many variables. Among these variables are angle
of attack, flap angle, weight, altitude, and center
of gravity.
obtained when the airplane speed is slowly re-
duced (approximately one knot/second) until
the angle of attack for maximum wing lift is
reached. Natural staII warning, or buffet, occurs
at a speed prior to stall and is caused by the
beginning of airflow separation on the wing.
Since the margin between buffet and stall is not
always sufficient to give adequate stall warning,
particularly at slower approaches to the stall
with high flap deflections, an artificial stall
warning device, called a stick shaker, is utilized.
The stick shaker actuates prior to aerodynamic
buffet to provide adequate warning of an
impending stall. A stall warning beginning at a
speed of seven percent above the stalling speed is
normally considered sufficient margin.
The warning is accomplished by vibrating the
captain's control column with a shaker motor
mounted on the control column. (See Fig. 1-8.)
A typical system consists of an angle-of-airflow
sensor, a flap position transmitter, a stall warn-
ing computer, and the control column shaker.
The airflow sensor sends a signal representing

FLAPPO~ITION
TRANSMITTER

'>---,

STALL WARNING
COMPUTER

".d.:2>-_---:;:;"7~ ANGLE OF AIRFLOW

" SENSOR

CONTROL COLUMN STICK SHAKER

Fig. 1-8. Stall Warning System

1-11

the airflow pattern over it. This signal represents
the airplane attitude and is modified to com-
pensate for flap position by the flap position
transmitter. This signal is then sent to the com-
puter, compared to a preset value, and if it
exceeds this value, the stick shaker motor is
activated.
TOTAL AIR TEMPERATURE (TAT) INDICATOR
Air temperature is one of the basic parameters
used to establish aircraft performance data. In a
static condition, air temperature is relatively
easy to measure using a common mercury ther-
mometer. However, air temperature in flight is
affected by the adiabatic compression of the
boundary layer air slowing down or stopping in
relationship to the aircraft. This compression
results in a temperature increase which is
commo nly referred to as ram rise.
The ram rise, due to full adiabatic compression,
may be calculated mathematically as a function
of Mach number. Therefore, a useful tempera-
ture reading may be obtained in flight if the
temperature measuring device registers no ram
rise, complete ram rise, or a constant factor of
the ram rise.
TOTAL AIR
TEMPERATURE INDICATOR
TOTAL AIR TEMPERATURE PROBE
Fig. 1-9. Total Air Temperature Indicator
1·12
r
TAT is total air temperature. This temperature is
equal to ambient air temperature plus all the
ram rise.
A "Rosemount Probe" is used to sense total air
temperature. A heating element around the inlet
prevents icing of the probe without adversely
affecting the temperature reading. This probe
also transmits electrical signals directly to an
indicator and to the central air data computer, if
installed. (See Fig. 1-9.) Although most carriers
use the Rosemount Probe for TAT indications,
some carriers use other probes. The pilot should
understand the type of system utilized in his
aircraft.
Although the temperature indication from a
Rosemount Probe is defined as total air tempera-
ture (TAT), some operators prefer to label this
indication as ram air temperature (RAT). The
true static air temperature may be obtained
from indicated RAT (or TAT) by using a con-
version chart, or from indicated standard air
temperature (SAT) by using a correction chart.
The total air temperature is needed when using
jet performance charts. The neces~ary charts are
provided in the performance data of aircraft
manuals to accomplish the conversion or cor-
rection.
 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

The next three frames should be answered by referring to figure 1-6.

l. The maximum operating limit speed (V ) shown on the

MO
left-hand Mach/airspeed indicator is
knots. The V MO displayed on the right·hand instrument is
knots.

2. The Mach number indications shown on the left· and right·

hand instruments, respectively, are and
~ 372
343
~
3. The airspeed pointers on the left· and right-hand instruments,
.85
respectively, show indicated airspeeds of
.82
and knots.

4. The Mach/airspeed warning system is designed to actuate a

horn at approximately eight cycles per second when the 328
aircraft approaches its maximum 320

airspeed.

5. Because the airspeed margin between the onset of aero·

dynamic buffet and the actual stall is not always enough to
give adequate stall warning to the pilot, an artificial stall operating limit
warning device called a
is utilized in most transport aircraft.

6. Compression of air at high speeds results in a temperature

stick
increase within the air which is commonly referred to as
shaker
" "
I

7. Total air temperature (TAT) is obtained by adding ram rise

to the air temperature.
I ram rise

8. The instrument used to sense total air temperature (TAT) is

ambient
called a " "

1-13

9. The total air temperature (TAT) is needed when using jet
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ charts.
FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEM
The flight director has been designed to incor-
porate as many aircraft control and position
indications as possible into one pair of instru-
ments. The flight control system has two panel-
mounted instruments for airplane control, a
flight director computer, and a flight mode
selector which is used to program the computer
for various control "and position indications. (See
Fig. 1-10.) The flight mode selector panel is
usually mounted near the radio navigation
instruments, between the pilots, below the
power controls.
The Collins Radio Company Flight Control Sys-
tem, illustrated on the following pages, consists
of a flight computer, autopilot system, cockpit
displays, and the yaw damper system. The flight
computer generates lateral and vertical steering
commands from data received from the attitude
reference, compass system, navigation receiver,
and air data system. The autopilot system posi-
tions the aircraft elevator and aileron control
surfaces in response to flight computer steering
commands, or pilots' manual commands. The
flight director cockpit display units serve two
functions:
1. The pilot can monitor autopilot per-
formance, or
2. the pilot can manually fly the aircraft
in response to displayed steering com-
mands.
The yaw damper system senses yaw accelera-
tions and generates a corrective rudder com-
mand.
Immediately following are two definitions that
will aid in understanding the operation of a
flight control system:
1·14
(
Rosemount Probe
performance
Engaged - When the autopilot is engaged, the
autopilot servos are connected to the aile-
rons and elevator, and the yaw damper
system is connected to the rudder servo.
The yaw damper system can be inde-
pendently engaged. The yaw damper auto-
matically engages when the autopilot is
engaged.
Coupled - When coupled, the autopilot accepts
lateral and vertical steering commands from
the flight computer. When the autopilot is
engaged and coupled to the flight com-
puter, the autopilot system maneuvers the
aircraft in response to the computed steer-
ing commands.
(
FLIGHT DIRECTOR COMPUTER
The flight director computer is usually installed
outside of the cockpit area and receives naviga-
tion information from the navigation systems,
attitude information from the attitude gyro, and
direction information from the other electrical
gyros. Depending on the modes available and
selected, the computer supplies pitch and/or
bank commands to the pitch/bank steering bars
of the attitude director indicator. The functions
of the computer vary with individual systems
and a number of inputs (navaids, inertial naviga-
tion systems) may be electronically processed by
the flight director system. Each airline specifies
the requirements for their operations and the
individual capabilities of the systems installed in
each aircraft are contained in the air carrier
operation manuals.
ATTITUDE DIRECTION INDICATOR (ADI)
The attitude direction indicator (ADI) is the (
principal scan instrument of the flight director
system and provides the following basic indica-
 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

ATTITUDE DIRECTION
INDICATOR
,.,p-......, ......- -
ATTITUDE
VERTICAL GYRO

I LS DISPLACEMENT

HORIZONTAL SITUATION
INDICATOR

HEADING
COMPASS SYSTEM

( NAVIGATION!ILS ILStvOR DISPLACEMENT

RECEIVER

ATTITUDE FLIGHT DIRECTOR

PRESELECT
COURSE
J
COMPUTER PRESELECT HEADING

FLIGHT MODE SELECTOR

Fig. 1-10. Flight Director System

1-15
tions which are duplicated in some cases in other
instruments:
® The DH (decision height) annunciator lamp
lights when the aircraft has descended to a
(
preselected decision height or minimum
(1) attitude gyro (pitch and bank indica- descent altitude (MDA). The lamp can be
tions) tested by pressing the lens momentarily.

(2) turn-and-slip indicator
(3) glide slope indicator
(4) localizer indicator
(5) radar altimeter (200 feet AGL to the
surface)
(6) altitude warning light
(7) speed deviation indicator
The flight director system, illustrated in figure
1-10, is manufactured by the Collins Radio
Company and is standard equipment on the
McDonald-Douglas DC10. The following discus-
sion explains the various controls and indica-
tions on the attitude direction indicator shown
in figure 1-11.
CD The FD (flight director) annunciator lamp
illuminates to indicate unusual flight direc-
tor modes, such as cross-cockpit flight
director switching. Pressing the lens
momentarily lights the lamp to test the
bulb.
CD The aircraft roll attitude is indicated by a
pointer read against a fixed roll attitude
scale, and by the rotation of the attitude
tape with respect to the fixed aircraft
symbol.
® The glide slope pointer is read against the
glide slope scale to indicate the location of
the glide slope with respect to the airplane.
The pointer will be centered, as indicated
in figure 1-11, when the airplane is on the
glide slope.
(1) If the glide slope pointer is on the dot
shown by arrow 7, the aircraft is above the
glide slope and should fly down for an
intercept.
o The command bars form an inverted V and
display pitch and roll fly-to commands.
The bars roll left or right to indicate to the
pilot to roll left or right, and move up or
down to tell the pilot to pitch up or to
pitch down. Each axis is independently
driven to provide either a pitch or roll
command, or a combined pitch and roll
command. The command bars can be (
programmed to provide command infor-
mation for navigation, course interception,
heading control, glide slope information,
and preset pitch information.
CD The aircraft symbol is located in the center
of the instrument face and supplies a refer-
ence for the aircraft attitude with respect
to the movable portions of the AD!. The
small aircraft symbol is fixed and is similar
to the miniature airplane symbol in a con-
ventional attitude gyro.
® The attitude tape moves up and down to

o The yaw command pointer displays yaw

fly-to commands. If the pointer moves to
the right, as in the illustration, it indicates
that the pilot should apply more right
rudder.
CD poi~ter is next to the
If the roll attitude
tick mark on the fixed roll attitude scale
(indicated by arrow 4), the aircraft is in a
30 0 bank to the left.
display the aircraft pitch attitude by the
physical relation of the tape to the fixed
aircraft symbol. If the aircraft was in a 100
pitch-down attitude, the line indicated by
arrow 10 would be directly behind the
fixed aircraft symbol. The attitude tape in
the ADI extends from a 90 0 pitch-up atti-
tude to a 90 0 pitch-down attitude.
® The runway symbol is located at the
bottom of the instrument display and indi- (
cates aircraft deviation from the center of

1-16
 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

1. FO (Flight Director) Annunciator Lamp 14. Rate-of-Turn Scale

2. Roll Attitude Pointer 15. Inclinometer
3. Yaw Command Pointer 16. Test Button
4. Roll Attitude Scale 17. Speed Deviation Scale
5. DH (Decision Height) Annunciator 18. Speed Deviation Pointer
6. Glide Slope Pointer 19. Attitude Reference Bar
7. Glide Slope Scale 20. Speed Flag
8. Command Bars 21. Gyro Flag
9. Aircraft Symbol 22. RfT (Rate of Turn) Flag
10. Attitude Tape 23. Glide Slope Flag
11. Runway Symbol 24. Computer Flag
12. Runway Scale 25. Runway Flag
13. Rate-of- Turn Pointer
Fig. 1-11. Attitude Direction Indicator

1·17
 the ILS localizer course and the radio alti-
tude from 200 feet AGL to the touch-
down. When the runway symbol is aligned
with the center of the instrument, the air-
craft is on the localizer course and is
aligned with the runway.
@If the runway symbol has deviated to the
right to the location indicated by the dot
next to arrow 12, the runway is to the
right of the aircraft track and the pilot
must correct to the right to return to the
localizer centerline.
@The rate-of-turn pointer and scale are loca-
ted at the bottom of the instrument display
and provide turn rate information. The
rate-of-turn pointer acts similar to the turn
needle in a turn-and-slip indicator.
® If the rate-of-turn pointer is deflected to
the left to the mark indicated by arrow
14, the aircraft is making a standard rate
of turn to the left.
@The ball in the inclinometer displays air-
craft slip and skid information similar to
the commonly known ball in the turn-and-
slip indicator.
@The test button on the ADI activates the
self-test function which causes the attitude
display, command bars, yaw command
pointer, runway symbol, and glide slope
pointer to change position by predeter-
mined amounts. The warning flags labeled
GS, GYRO, RUNWAY, and CMPTR will
also appear.
In order to answer the following frames, refer to the illustration of the attitude direction indicator
in figure 1-11.
1. The roll attitude pointer of the attitude direction indicator
(ADI) indicates a bank of
2. According to the yaw command pointer, the pilot of the
aircraft should apply
left, right
1·18
® The speed deviation pointer indicates
whether the aircraft speed is slower or
(
faster than the desired speed.
@ The speed deviation pointer, in figure 1-11,
indicates that the airplane's speed is faster
than the desired speed.
® The small lines, pointed to by arrow 19, are
fixed with the fixed aircraft symbol and are
used to give more complete visualization of
the aircraft with respect to the movable
portions of the AD!.
® The SPEED flag comes into view partially
covering the speed deviation scale when
the speed input information is not valid.
® The GYRO flag comes into view when the
attitude input information is not valid.
@ The RJT flag comes into view covering the
rate-of-turn scale when the rate-of-turn
input signal is not valid.
@) The glide slope (GS) warning flag comes
(
into view partially covering the glide slope
pointer and scale when the glide slope devi-
ation input signal is not valid.
® The CMPTR flag comes into view when a
failure occurs in any of the three flight
director command signal sources.
® The RUNWAY flag comes into view par-
tially covering the run way symbol when
the localizer or radio altitude input signal is
not valid.
degrees.
zero
rudder. (
 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

3. The lamp in the upper right-hand corner of the instrument

lights when the aircraft reaches a preselected _ right
or _

4. If the glide slope pointer was at the first dot above the
position shown in the illustration, the aircraft would be DB
_ _--;-_-:---, the glide slope and the pilot should fly MDA
above, below
_ _ _---, to intercept the glide slope.
UP. down

5. The position of the aircraft symbol and the command bars in

relationship to the attitude tape indicates that the aircraft is below
in a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ degree .,.-__ up
nose-up. nose-down
attitude.

6. If the runway symbol was to the far left of the runway scale, one
the pilot should correct his flight path to the _ _---,-;:-:-;-:-- nose-down
left, right
to intercept the localizer course.

( 7. The speed deviation pointer indicates that the aircraft is

left
_ _--,--_--,- than the desired speed.
slower, faster

8. If one or more of the flight director functions displayed in

the attitude direction finder is not receiving valid information
input, the pilot receives a warning in the form of a faster
________~ which drops into view in a prominent
position related to that function.

flag

HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (HSI) Q) The numerical display pointed to by arrow

1 presents information from either a
The horizontal situation indicator (HSI) is, in VORTAC station or the inertial navigation
most respects, a combination of a directional system (INS) waypoint in nautical miles.
gyro, VOR indicator, and a DME. An explana-
tion of the controls and indications on the HSI
follows this paragraph and refers to figure 1-12.
The illustration in figure 1-13 is a graphic pre-
sentation of the position of the aircraft repre-
CD A fixed lubberline is placed on the HSI to
indicate the front-to-rear axis of the air-
sented by the indications on the horizontal plane. The lubberline is fixed and does not
situation indicator in figure 1-12. rotate with a heading change.

1·19
 (

1. DME Readout No.1 14. Azimuth Card

2. Lubber Line 15. Dim Control
3. Heading Bug 16. Course Tail
4. Track Mode 17. Course Knob
5. DM E Readout No.2 18. Course Display
6. Course Arrow 19. Glide Slope Scale Shutter
7. Destination Alert Annunciator Light 20. Data Source Annunciator
8. Course Deviation Bar 21. Navigation Source Annunciator
9. TO-FROM Pointer 22. Distance Readout Mask
10. Glide Slope Deviation Pointer 23. Heading Flag
11. Aircraft Symbol 24. Navigation Warning Flag
12. Heading Display 25. GS (Glide Slope) Warning Flag
13. Heading Knob 26. Glide Slope Deviation Scale
Fig. 1-12. Horizontal Situation Indicator

1·20

J-852R LAS VEGAS, NEV./SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF.
lUCKY_CERES (264.4)
NOT TO SCALE
CERES
N 37 37.7 W 120 57.4
( Fig. 1·13. Position of Aircraft Displayed on HSI
CD The heading bug presents a pictorial display
of the heading indicated by the HEADING
display. The heading bug rotates around
the azimuth when the heading knob indica-
ted by arrow 13 is rotated.
o When the word TRACK is displayed, the
heading information and the course infor-
mation are displayed with respect to true
north. The heading then becomes a true
heading and the course becomes a true
course. A flag which is labeled TRACK/
MAG drops into view over the word
TRACK when the heading and course infor·
mation are in relation to magnetic north.
When the flight director senses signals from
the VOR station, the HSI automatically
goes into a mode giving indications with re-
spect to magnetic north. The HSI displays
true heading and course information when
inertial navigation system information is
fed to the flight computer.
CD The distance in nautical miles from two
INS units or two DME units can be pre-
sented simultaneously on the HSI.
FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
CD The course arrow presents a pictorial dis-
play of the course indicated by the
COURSE display. The course arrow will
point to the same number of degrees on the
azimuth card as indicated in the COURSE
window shown by arrow 18.
(]) The destination ALERT annunciator lamp
lights when the inertial navigation system
supplies an input signifying the aircraft is
within two minutes of the selected destina-
tion.
CD The course deviation bar indicates the devi-
ation from a selected course. When the
aircraft is on the selected course with no
deviation, the course deviation bar will line
up with the course arrow and tail. On the
illustrated HSI, the aircraft is shown to be
centered on the 040 0 true course to the
waypoint.
o The TO-FROM pointer indicates the direc-
tion of the tuned VOR or selected INS
waypoint. When the small triangle comes
into view, as illustrated by arrow 9, it indi-
cates that the selected course of 040 0 true
will take the aircraft to the selected way-
point illustrated in figure 1-13. After the
aircraft has passed the waypoint or VOR
station, the triangle representing a TO indi-
cation will move toward the course tail
verifying that the selected course will take
the aircraft from the INS waypoint or VOR
station. The TO-FROM pointer will be
masked from view if the VOR input signal
is lost or if the aircraft is directly over the
VOR station or INS waypoint.
® The glide slope deviation pointer indicates
the vertical deviations of the aircraft from
the glide slope when approaches are being
made. The glide slope indications on the
HSI provide duplicate information with the
glide slope indicator on the ADI.
® The fixed aircraft symbol shows the air-
craft relationship to the horizontal display.
On the illustrated HSI, the aircraft can be
visualized to be heading 360 0 , which is a
40 0 intercept angle to the 040 0 true
course.
1-21
@ The HEADING display indicates the head-
ing selected by the heading knob on this
horizontal situation indicator. On other
HSI units, the HEADING display may be
controlled by a remote heading selector.
@ The HDG knob controls the HEADING
display and positions the heading bug so
that the bug points toward the selected
heading on the azimuth card. The same
function as performed by the HDG knob
can be performed by a remote course con-
trol on some units.
® The azimuth card presents a pictorial dis-
play of the heading of the aircraft with
respect to true or magnetic north.
@ The DIM control is used to control the
brilliance of the visual distance readout
lights for the DME or INS distance.
® The course tail presents a pictorial display
of the reciprocal of the course indicated by
the COURSE display.
@ The COURSE knob controls the COURSE
display and positions the course arrow and
tail so that the course arrow is pointed
toward the selected course on the azimuth
card and the tail is pointed toward the
reciprocal of the selected course. The same
function as performed by the COURSE
knob can be performed through a remote
course control on a unit which is mounted
on the airplane control pedestal near the
aircraft radios.
® The COURSE display indicates the course
selected by the COURSE knob. The indi-
cated course is a true course when using
INS input signals and a magnetic course
when using VOR input signals.
® The glide slope scale shutter is a metal
sheet which is biased to mask the glide
The following frames should be answered by reference to the illustration of the horizontal situation in-
dicator in figure 1-12.
1·22
slope deviation scale when the glide slope (
mode is not being used. When the glide
slope function is being utilized, the glide
slope scale shutter retracts into the HSI and
exposes the glide slope deviation scale.
@The data source annunciator indicates the
data source that is in use. The numbers 1,
2, or 3 are displayed to indicate to the pilot
which information is being fed into the
flight computer to program the HSI.
® When the inertial navigation system is being
used to provide the source of navigation
data, the letters INS appear at the left of
the HSI. When the VOR radio system is
being used as the source of navigation data,
the INS/RAD annunciator displays the
RAD flag. The letters INS are displayed at
all times when the VOR is not the naviga-
tional system in use.
@ When the distance information input data
is not reliable or when the distance func-
tion is not used, the miles display lights are (
not illuminated.
@ The HEADING flag drops into view and
obscures the heading index (TRACK/MAG
or TRACK) when a valid heading input
signal is lost, when the heading servo power
is lost, or when a continuous heading servo-
error signal is in excess of three degrees.
® The striped navigation warning flag comes
into view when navigational data is missing
or unreliable.
@ The GS flag comes into view when the glide
slope data is missing or unreliable.
® The dots for the glide slope deviation scale
are displayed when the glide slope is tuned
in the flight director system. If the glide
slope pointer was pointing to the dot indi-
cated by arrow 26, the aircraft would have
to descend to intercept the glide slope.
 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

1. The source of navigational data in the horizontal situation

indicator (HSI) is
INS, VQRTAC

2. The distance to the way point selected on DME unit No.1 is

INS
nautical miles.

3. The heading of the aircraft is o and is in

relationship to north. 366.6
true, magnetic

4. The selected course is o and the aircraft

360
is presently showing degree(s) deviation
true
from the selected course.

5. The aircraft is depicted as flying the 040

to, from
selected waypoint. zero

6. The aircraft is presently intercepting the desired course at a

to
o intercept angle.
(
7. The pilot is alerted to missing or unreliable information on
40
the HSI by the display of a flag.
I
I I
warning

FLIGHT MODE SELECTOR to or maintain the selected heading as set

The flight mode selector (FMS) is a pushbutton
unit that selects the flight control system mode
of operation. After the autopilot master switch
is in the "ON" position, the FMS is used to
program the autopilot and also select the com-
CD
mand bar indications on the attitude direction
indicator. The numbers in the following explana-
tion refer to the callouts in figure 1-14.
G) This particular flight mode selector incor-
porates three lateral modes of operation.
The lateral modes are used to program the
computer for yaw commands.
by the course indicator heading marker on
the horizontal situation indicator.
In the NAV LOC mode, the flight com-
puter initially switches to the NAV ARM
sub mode. In the N AV ARM sub mode, the
flight control system commands the air-
craft to follow the heading set on the HSI.
The heading marker is set to produce the
desired intercept heading which must be
less than 90 0 from the selected course.
While flying on the selected heading, the
flight computer computes a capture point

o In the heading (HDG) mode, the flight con-

trol system commands the aircraft to turn
based on deviation from the selected radio
course, the course intercept angle, and the
rate the aircraft is approaching the VOR or

1-23

localizer course. When the selected course
is captured, the flight control system turns
the aircraft to track the selected radio or
INS course with automatic crosswind cor-
rection. In the NAV LaC mode, radio com-
mands are suppressed over the VOR station
for smooth station passage.
CD
o In the approach (APPR) mode, the flight
control system commands the aircraft to
fly to and maintain the localizer and glide
slope. The localizer and glide slope capture
are independent and the glide slope can be
captured before or after intercepting the
localizer. Any vertical mode may be selec-
ted before the glide slope is captured. The
selected vertical mode automatically
switches off at glide slope capture, and all
vertical steering commands are based on
CD
the glide slope signal and pitch data.
There are four independent vertical modes
CD
which can be selected on this flight mode
selector.
CD When the ALT button is depressed on the
flight mode selector, the flight computer
uses pitch attitude and an altitude error
signal to generate vertical steering com-
mands. With the ALT button depressed,
the aircraft will maintain the barometric
altitude at which the altitude-hold mode
was selected. The altitude-hold mode is
automatically released when the glide slope
is captured.
(J) In the vertical speed-hold (VS) mode, the
flight computer uses pitch attitude and
vertical speed error signals to maintain the
1·24
/
vertical speed at which the VS mode was
selected. The VS mode is automatically
released when the glide slope is captured or
if another vertical mode is selected.
In the indicated airspeed-hold (lAS) mode,
the flight computer uses pitch attitude and
an indicated airspeed error signal to com-
mand the aircraft to maintain the indicated
airspeed at which the lAS mode was selec-
ted. If an aircraft is maintaining a 280-knot
indicated airspeed during the climb and the (
lAS button is depressed, the autopilot will
provide steering commands to maintain a
constant 280-knot airspeed until another
vertical mode is selected. The lAS mode is
automatically released when the glide slope
is captured or another vertical mode is
selected.
In the MACH mode, the flight computer
uses pitch attitude and the Mach error sig-
nal to provide steering commands which
maintain the Mach number at which the
Mach mode was selected. If a climb chart
for a jet indicated a climb speed of
2801.78, the pilot would use the lAS mode
to maintain an indicated airspeed of 280
knots until the airspeed equalled a Mach
number of .78 (approximately 23,000
feet). As soon as .78 Mach was reached, the
pilot would depress the Mach button on
the flight mode selector and the autopilot
would provide pitch steering commands to
maintain the Mach number until reaching
the assigned altitude. The MACH mode is
automatically released when the glide slope
(
is captured or when another vertical mode
is selected.
 fliGHT INSTRUMENTS

The following frames should be answered by referring to the illustration and discussion of the flight
mode selector.

autopilot
ates _ _--;-_.,..,--;-_ _ lateral modes and _ _-;---;---;-_
(number! (numbed attitude direction
vertical modes.

3. When the NAV LOC mode is engaged, the flight director will
use VOR or localizer course signals to _ three
and the desired radial or localizer four
course.

4. When the approach mode is selected, the flight control sys-

tem will cause the aircraft to fly to and maintain the proper intercept
attitude on the and _ track

5. The vertical speed mode is automatically released when the localizer

__________________ is captured. glide slope

6. If a jet performance climb chart indicated a climb speed of

320/.80, the pilot would use the lAS mode to maintain an glide slope
indicated airspeed of knots.

7. After the airspeed equalled a Mach number of .80, this speed

would be maintained by depressing the _ 320
button on the flight mode selector.

Mach

1-25
(

(
 INTRODUCTION
Flight safety requires an understanding of atmospheric phenomena. Present day jet flight crews are not
only confronted with weather associated" with the lower atmosphere, but with weather conditions
found within the high troposphere and lower stratosphere as well. In this chapter, high altitude
weather phenomena, thunderstorms, and mountain waves will be discussed. Also, high altitude
physiology is included at the end of this section.

It has been assumed that the reader has a basic knowledge of meteorology. Therefore, most of the
weather theory associated with the lower atmosphere has been omitted.

In meteorology, the earth's atmosphere can generally be divided into two major regions - the lower
atmosphere and the upper atmosphere. The lower atmosphere consists of the troposphere, and the
upper atmosphere begins with the stratosphere. Between the troposphere and the stratosphere is a
boundary zone known as a tropopause.

ATMOSPHERE Its thickness is constantly changing due to tem-

TROPOSPHERE
The troposphere, which lies next to the surface
of the earth, has a thickness which varies with
time, season, and latitude. On the average, its
height extends to about 55,000 feet above the
Equator to 28,000 feet above the polar regions.
perature changes of the earth and of the lower
atmosphere itself. At 45 0 latitude, the average
height of the troposphere is approximately
35,000 feet.
The troposphere is the most unsettled layer of
the earth's atmosphere. It is the area where
nearly all visible weather is found. Most weather

2-1
phenomena is confined to the troposphere for
the following reasons:
1. temperature changes due to radiation
are at a maximum at the earth's sur-
face;
2. the availability of water vapor is
found in the lower atmosphere; and
3. the greatest concentration of conden-
sation nuclei is in the troposphere.
In the troposphere, the average temperature vari-
ation is a decrease of approximately 2 0 Celsius
(3.5 0 Fahrenheit) for each l,OOO-foot rise from
the surface (standard lapse rate).
STRATOSPHERE (
The region of the atmosphere just above the
tropopause is called the stratosphere. This layer
of the atmosphere is normally stable and has a
temperature range from about _45 0 Celsius (_49 0
Fahrenheit) to -750 Celsius (-103 0 Fahrenheit).
Its lapse rate is stable and, therefore, few clouds
are found at this height. However, cirrus clouds
and the tops of cumulonimbus will at times be
located within this region. Figure 2-1 depicts the
general structure of the atmosphere.

TROPOPAUSE
The tropopause is a relatively thick layer, or
boundary zone, which separates the lower
atmosphere from the upper atmosphere. By
definition, the tropopause is that area where the
temperature change does not exceed two-thirds
of one degree Celsius per thousand foot increase
in altitude over a range of 6,000 feet. It is at a
height where the atmosphere ceases to be af-
fected by surface heating. At 45 0 latitude, the
temperature of the tropopause is approximately
_46 0 Celsius (_69 0 Fahrenheit). It should be
remembered that the tropopause is just a divid-
ing boundary zone and that its height changes
~1l0POP"USE
-..87RATOSPHEl'E --
with changing thickness of the troposphere. Fig. 2-1. General Structure of the Atmosphere

1. That portion of the atmosphere which lies next to the surface

of the earth is called the _

2. At a height where the atmosphere ceases to be affected by

surface heating is a boundary zone known as the troposphere

3. The region of the atmosphere which is normally stable and

tropopause
has few clouds is known as the _

stratosphere

2·2
 METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

( THE JET STREAM or so in depth. A vertical wind shear is of

the order of five knots or more per 1,000
As previously discussed, the tropopause is
feet and a horizontal shear is of the order of
the boundary zone between the troposphere
10 knots or more in 60 nautical miles. An
and the stratosphere. It is relatively high
arbitrary lower limit of 50 knots is assigned
over the tropics (tropical tropopause) and
to the speed of the wind along the core of
relatively low over the poles (polar
the jet stream." (See Fig. 2-3.)
tropopause). The height of the tropopause
over the poles is approximately 20,000 feet 28.000 FT.
and slopes gradually upward to
approximately 65,000 feet at the Equator.
However, the tropopause is interrupted at
various points; one of these breaks occurs at
mid-latitude (30 0 to 50 0 north latitude). At
such a break, the polar tropopause ends and
the higher tropical tropopause begins.

The jet stream is usually found in the

regions where the break in the tropopause
occurs, as illustrated in figure 2-2. It can be
described as a narrow band of high velocity
winds which are embedded within a region
of slower moving winds. The World
Meteorological Organization recommends the
following description: "Normally, a jet
stream is several thousand miles in length,
several hundred miles in width, and a mile Fig. 2-2. Jet Stream Location

Jet Stream Minin urns

Wind velOl:ity . 50 knots
Vertical w'nd shear· 5 knots 11000'
Horizonta wind shear· 10 knots I 60 nm.

Fig. 2-3. Jet Stream Dimensions

2-3
By using this definition of the jet stream, it can
be seen that excessive winds are not necessary.
Jet streams are more predominant during winter
months with speeds of 100 to 150 knots, occur-
ring rather frequently. Occasionally, winds of
over 200 knots have been observed and it is
probable that wind speeds in excess of 250
knots have occurred. Their location is depicted
on the 200 mb. and 300 mb. prognostic (fore-
cast) constant pressure charts as a series of bold
arrows. (Constant pressure charts are discussed
in chapter 3.)
There are two rather distinct jet streams which
occur over the Northern Hemisphere. They are
the polar jet and the subtropical jet. The polar
jet is the name applied to the jet stream fre-
quently encountered in the middle and subpolar
latitudes. The subtropical jet stream is normally
observed over the northern limits of the tropics.
In the Southern Hemisphere there are similar jet
stream systems.
The jet stream most frequently encountered
over the continental United States is the polar
jet. However, the subtropical jet is sometimes
found over the southern portion of the United
States. Figure 2-4 depicts the cross-section of a
typical polar jet stream. The reader should view
this figure as looking east at the same level as the
jet stream. The jet core is portrayed as blowing
into the page with the reader looking down-
stream. The polar jet stream has winds which
flow predominantly from the west toward the
east. However, it does meander north and south
remaining approximately parallel to the surface
cold front, but behind it roughly 200 to 300
miles, as shown in figure 2-5. The core of the
polar jet usually lies between 30,000 and 40,000
feet. The shaded lines in figure 2-4 are isotachs
(lines of equal wind speed) which are drawn to
indicate wind velocities. Note that the core of the
polar jet is found just below the tropical tropo-
pause level.
The thin black lines are isotherms (lines of equal
temperature). There is little change in tempera-
ture from one side of the core to the other, but
below and above the core there is a marked
-61J"C -l&<F
-65'C _85°F
-70"& -94"r

i ~iiii~~~~~~~~~~~T~R~O;P~'~C;A~L~T~R:O:P~OP~A~U~S~E~
AREA OF
-1(rc
DISCONTINUITY---- 31.700' 200.'
-65"e

-we 34.000' 2SO Mb

34,000' 250 Mil

'ft-- POl,hR ==t---\---\--\--\----1l'---lt----54't

_--:JET

~I
30.000' 300 Mb -=---\-- ~~lD'OOO'300'.' -5O"C
-4S'C

POLAR TR -40"C
-SI'F -we -35·C
-U'F -4S"C
-4O"F -4O"C
-ll"F -35'C
.23.600' 400 ...11

23,600' 400 Mil

ISOTHERMS

18,300' SOO lib

11.300' 50D Mit

'4,800' 8501Mb
4,800' 850'..11--------------------------------'
Fig. 2-4. Jet Stream Viewed Looking Downstream Into Jet

2-4
 METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

- - ..
JET STREAM
. -" ---/
.... .-

Fig. 2-5. Jet Stream Paralleling Surface Front

change in the temperature patterns. Below the
core, relatively cold air is found on the left side.
However, above the core the opposite is true
since relatively cold air is located on the right
side. Relatively warm air is found below the core
and to the right and also above the jet's core and
to the left.
Early research on the jet stream seemed to indi-
( cate a direct relationship between the polar jet
and the polar front. However, this is not always
true since, in some cases, there is little evidence
to connect the two. The polar jet stream may
pass over areas of little or no clouds. Also,
paradoxically, the jet stream may occur above
low pressure and well-developed storm centers.
Therefore, the presencE! of a jet does not neces-
sarily mean the presence of "weather." Yet,
especially during wintery months, well-devel-
oped storms and extensive bad weather areas
tend to be connected with jet streams.

1. Narrow bands of high velocity winds

true, false
called jet streams are found where breaks occur in the tropo-
pause.

2. Jet stream location is depicted on milli-

bar and millibar constant pressure prog- true
nostic charts.

3. The two most common jet streams found over the Northern
Hemisphere are the jet and the 200
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ jet. 300

4. The jet stream usually found over the continental United polar
States is the jet. subtropical

2·5
 5. The core of a polar jet is found just below the
polar
tropopause.

6. Viewing the jet core in figure 2-4 as looking downstream,

relatively cold air is found below the jet core and to the tropical
_ _-,-.,.-..,...,. side.
left, right

7. Relatively cold air is also found above the jet core and to the
left
_ _-;:::;:-::= side.
left, right

8. Relatively warm air is found below the core and to the

_ _---;=-::::;::- side and also above the jet core to the right
left, right

left, right

right
left

CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE Locating the tropopause level can be of

AT HIGH ALTITUDES
Clear air turbulence, abbreviated CAT,
normally is caused by wind shear between
two different layers of air which are
adjacent to one another. The two different
layers of air may be moving in opposite
directions, at different velocities, or in
combinations of these factors. This
turbulence often can develop into small
waves.
The tropopause boundary zone is a place
where vertical air movement within the
troposphere is transformed into lateral flow
beneath the stable air of the stratosphere.
This boundary zone can either be very sharp
or somewhat diffuse. When the boundary
zone is relatively sharp, turbulence can be
expected at the tropopause level. The degree
of turbulence will be greater when the
boundary zone is very sharp and a great
amount of vertical movement is present. If
the boundary zone is diffused and vertical
movement is minimal, the turbulence will be
considerably less.
great assistance in determining where
smooth flight conditions are most likely to
exist. The stratosphere above the
tropopause is normally very stable air and
any pollution which has penetrated this
height will form into a haze layer.
Turbulence associated with the jet stream
can be considerable. Horizontal wind shear
is more predominant on the polar side of the
jet core where the isotachs are closely
spaced. CAT should be expected if the
20-knot isotachs are less than 60 nautical
miles apart on the constant pressure charts.
CAT also is probable in areas where the
vertical wind shear is greater than five
knots per thousand feet, as computed from
the winds aloft forecast; or if the five degree
isotherms are closer than 120 nautical miles
apart on upper air charts.
The occurrence of CAT can be associated with
other windflow patterns which produce the
necessary shears. An example is a sharp trough
aloft. When a sharp trough aloft is moving at a

2·6

speed of 20 knots or more, clear air turbulence
in or near the trough is common even though
the wind speeds may be rather low as compared
with the speeds near the jet stream. As illus-
trated in figure 2-6, the winds on opposite sides
of the trough can have a difference of more than
90 0 change in direction. The shaded area is the
region where CAT is most likely to take place.
( Area of CAT
Fig. 2-6. CA T Associated With Sharp Trough Aloft
Figure 2-7 shows where CAT can occur in a
circulation pattern around a closed low aloft.
Another example, as shown in figure 2-8, is the
area of CAT formation to the northeast of a cut
off low aloft.
MERGING FLOW
Fig. 2-7. CA T Associated With Closed Low Aloft
METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT
Area of CAT
Fig. 2·8. CA T Associated With Cut Off Low Aloft
Normally, high level clear air turbulence is isola-
ted or in patchy locations. These patches of
CAT have variable dimensions with thicknesses
as great as 10,000 feet in depth, 500 miles in
width, and over 1,000 miles in length. However,
they usually average about 2,000 feet in depth,
20 miles in width, and 50 miles in length and are
elongated with the direction of the upper winds.
When CAT conditions are anticipated or en-
countered, the following procedures should be
used:
1. Use the turbulent air penetration
speed. Severe clear air turbulence will
cause large and often rapid variations
in indicated airspeed. Once the air-
craft has been stabilized at the turbu-
lent air penetration speed, it is nor-
mally recommended that the aircraft
should not b" retrimmed and that the
thrust setting remain fairly constant.
2. The attitude indicator should be used
as a primary flight instrument. Main-
tain level wings and control pitch atti-
tude smoothly. In extreme turbu-
lence, large attitude changes may
occur. It is important not to use
sudden or large control inputs as
excessive G forces may occur.
3. The altitude of the aircraft should be
allowed to vary. Large altitude varia-
tions can occur in severe turbulence.
2-7
 It is preferred to sacrifice altitude in
order to maintain the desired attitude
and airspeed.
4. If the aircraft is equipped with an
autopilot, its use can be advantageous
and usually is recommended. However, (
if the autopilot is equipped with an
altitude hold, it should be turned off
and the aircraft altitude allowed to
fluctuate.

1. High altitude turbulence is normally caused by wind

2. When the tropopause boundary zone is shear

true, false
very sharp, little or no turbulence should be expected.

3 Th e tropopause eve I·IS 0 ft en . d'Icate db y t h e presence

In 0 f a
false
layer.
I
4. Turbulence associated with the jet stream core is more pre- (
haze
dominant on the side.
north, south
I
5. Clear air turbulence should be antici-
true, false
pated when a sharp trough area aloft is present, even though
north
the wind speeds may be considerably less than that of jet
stream winds.
I

6. Whenever encountering severe turbulence, a primary flight

true
instrument is the indicator.
I

7. If an autopilot is being used while en-

true, false
countering severe turbulence, the "altitude hold" feature attitude
should be kept ON.
I
I
I false

2-8

(
CLOUDS ASSOCIATED
WITH JET STREAMS
As previously mentioned, turbulence at high
altitudes is produced by the effect of shear
between two layers of air. As a result, the turbu-
lence at the point of shear is often in the form
of small waves in a very highly organized
fashion. When there is sufficient moisture avail-
able, condensation and evaporation may take
place as particles of moisture move along with
the wave action. When they move up, expansion
cooling results in the cloud formation. As the
moisture particles move down, compression
heating takes place and the cloud evaporates. As
a result, the cloud formation will appear on the
crest of the waves. Between the rows there may
be clear spaces, but often the clouds will appear
in a roll pattern as part of a complete overcast,
as viewed in figure 2-9. This type of cloud has
frequently been seen in the vicinity of jet stream
locations. They mark the shear zone, or the edge
of the jet stream.
( normally on the pole (low pressure)
Fig. 2·9. Jet Stream Clouds
JET STREAM SUMMARY
1. A jet stream can be thought of as
a narrow, high-speed, meandering
river of wind moving around the
earth in a wave-like pattern. It
may be continuous around the
earth but, most often, is broken
into several discontinuous
segments. The jet stream location
varies from day to day, with larger
scale variations occurring with the
changes in season.
2. In the summer, the polar jet is
usually found somewhere between
40 0 and 50 0 north latitude. In the
METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT
winter, it is more likely to be
found between 20 0 and 45 0 north
latitude.
3. Jet streams stronger than no
knots (at the corel are apt to have
areas of significant turbulence near
them in the sloping tropopause
above the core, in the jet stream
front below the core, and on the
low-pressure side of the core. In
these areas there are frequently
strong wind shears.
4. Wind speeds decrease very rapidly
to the north (polar side) and more
slowly to the south (tropical side)
of the jet core.
5. On charts for standard isobaric
surfaces, such as 300 millibars,
there is sufficient horizontal shear
for CAT if the 20-knot isotachs
are spaced doser together than 60
nautical miles. This area is
side of the jet stream axis but, in
unusual cases, it may occur on the
equatorial side.
6. Turbulence also is related to
vertical shear. From the winds
aloft charts or reports, the vertical
shear in knots per thousand feet
can be computed. If it is greater
than five knots per thousand feet,
turbulence is likely. Since vertical
shear is related to horizontal
temperature gradient, the spacing
of isotherms on an upper air chart
is significant. If the five degree
Celsius isotherms are closer
together than two degrees of
latitude (120 nautical miles), there
is usually sufficient vertical shear
for turbulence.
7. The frequency of occurrence of jet
streams does not seem to have any
marked seasonal variation.
Generally as many occur in
summer as in winter. However, jet
streams hav!! a seasonal north to
south shift and are more
2-9
 frequently encountered over the tropopause or frontal surface and
temperate regions in the winter staying in the turbulent area. If
than in summer. the temperature remains constant,
the flight is probably close to th~
8. Jet streams appear to be better level of the core; in which case,
defined and stronger in the winter either climb or descend as
than in the summer. convenient.
9. If jet stream turbulence is 11. Where a jet stream appears, there
encountered with direct tailwinds is usually a discontinuity in the
or headwinds, a change of flight tropopause, with the jet core
level or course should be initiated location to the right of the
since these turbulent areas are tropopause break as viewed
elongated with the wind, and are looking downwind.
shallow and narrow.
12. At times, there appears to be a
10. If jet stream turbulence is definite relationship between the
encountered in a crosswind, either polar front and the jet stream
climb or descend after watching activity.
the temperature gauge for minute
or two. If temperature is rising - 13. A potential region of turbulence
climb; if temperature is falling - may be encountered at or just
descend. Application of these rules below the tropopause.
will prevent following the sloping

1 The polar jet stream usually is found r

true, false
somewhere within the mid-latitudes during the summer
months.

2. Wind speeds decrease very rapidly on the

true, false true
polar side of the jet core.

3. Turbulence should be expected if vertical wind shears

true
exceed knots per thousand feet.

4. In general, the further south the jet

true, false five
stream, the higher the core is likely to be.

5. If a rise in temperature is noted while crossing a jet

stream, turbulence generally can be minimized by true

climbing, descending

6. Jet streams are more clearly defined in winter when (

climbing
they are located further
north, south I

2-10
 METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

7. Turbulence is most likely where there

true, false south
are regions of strong temperature gradients.

I
8. _ _ _ _--;-: The potential regions of turbulence are true
true, false
most likely to be encountered at or just below the tropo-
pause level.
r
true

THE MOUNTAIN WAVE
MOUNTAIN WAVE TURBULENCE
( Moutain waves, sometimes referred to as stand-
ing waves, are a product of displaced stable air.
The turbulence produced by mountain wave
action can be destructively severe. When condi-
tions are suitable for mountain wave formation,
turbulence will develop on the lee side of the
mountains and extend as high as the lower
stratosphere for a distance frequently in excess
of 150 miles downwind of the mountaintops.
MOUNTAIN WAVE MECHANICS
The meteorological conditions required to form
mountain waves are:
When these conditions exist, the stable layer of
air just above the mountaintops forms a barrier
to the rising currents because the stable air will
not permit these vertical currents to penetrate.
This causes the air, which is forced to rise
because of the barrier, to be squeezed between
the mountaintop and the layer of stable air
immediately above it. Once this squeezed air
moves to the lee side of the mountain, it then
begins to descend toward its original level where
it was prior to being forced aloft. However, in its
attempt to seek its previous altitude, it begins to
move too fast and penetrates below its desired
level. It then begins to rise again, thus creating a
wave-like pattern, as illustrated in figure 2-10.
As the air moves further downstream from the
mountain barrier, these oscillations eventually
dampen out.

1. a stable layer of air located just above 50,000 STRATOSPHERE

the mountaintops; .:-- - - - - - -TROPOPAUSE- - - ~
40,000
TROPOSPHERE
2. a wind blowing approximately perpen-
dicular to the mountain range with a
speed of 25 knots or more at moun-
taintop level; and
3. a wind profile whereby the wind
velocity increases with increasing alti-
tude and a strong, steady wind flow at MilES 0 2 4 6 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
higher levels often extending to the
tropopause. Fig. 2-10. Mountain Wave Mechanics

2·11
 /

1. Mountain waves are the product of displaced _-.,.,-- _

stable, unstable
air.

2. Sometimes referred to as standing waves, mountain waves

stable
develop on the side of mountain ranges.

3. Wind speeds as low as 25 knots at the mountaintop level can

produce mountain wave conditions. The wind profile should
lee
be such that its velocity with increasing
increases, decreases
altitude.

increases

MOUNTAIN WAVE CLOUDS of cloud appear rough or ragged, it means that

the entire wave pattern is becoming unstable and
that moderate to extreme turbulence should be
The best means for identifying mountain waves expected. Lenticular clouds are usually reported
is by visual identification of their characteristic as standing lenticular altocumulus, which is
cloud forms. If there is insufficient moisture in abbreviated in weather reports as ACSL.
the air, there will be no clouds. However, the
wave action can still be present and just as
severe. When the moisture is sufficient to cause
clouds to form, they can easily be recognized
both from the air and on the ground. The three
main cloud formations are lenticular, rotor, and
cap clouds.

LENTICULAR CLOUDS

The lenticular clouds can be easily recognized

since they resemble the cross-section of a camera
lens. Also, this type of cloud is seen often in the
vicinity of jet streams. Figure 2-11 illustrates a
typical lenticular-type cloud. Notice that they
are sometimes piled one on top of another, as
indicated in figure 2-10. This type of cloud
indicates the air is stable, but is moving rapidly. Fig. 2·11. Lenticular Cloud
When the edges are smooth in appearance, air-
craft in or near this type of cloud will ex- ROTOR CLOUDS
perience little or no turbulence, but there will
be updrafts and downdrafts associated with the The rotor clouds look like a line of cumulus or
motion of the wave. When the edges of this type fractocumulus clouds lying parallel to the ridge

2-12
 METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

line. They form on the lee side of the CAP CLOUDS

mountains and sometimes have bases
located below the heights of the mountain
peaks. Their tops extend considerably above
the mountain peaks and, occasionally, may
be as high as twice the height of the highest
peak. Rotor clouds normally will be found
directly below the lenticular clouds and, at
times, they may actually merge with the
lenticular clouds above. Their appearance
makes them look harmless. However, with
the use of time-lapse photography, the rotor
cloud can be seen as a dangerously
turbulent area with updrafts and downdrafts
exceeding 5,000 feet per minute. Rotor
clouds appear stationary, but they are
constantly forming on the windward side
and dissipating on the leeward side. Flight
conditions through this type of cloud will be
extremely dangerous and, therefore, pilots
should absolutely avoid rotor clouds.
The cap clouds usually obscure the entire moun-
tain peak. They hug the windward side of the
mountain and flow partially down the leeward
side, similar to a waterfall. They also appear
to be harmless, but downdrafts as great as
5,000 feet per minute can be expected on the
leeward side. The extent to which this cloud
hangs over the leeward side is an indication that
the downdrafts are very great. As it passes over
the ridge and begins to move downhill, it heats
adiabatically and, therefore, evaporates. U the
movement of air is slow, the evaporation process
will be quite rapid, indicating that movement of
air is not too great. If the movement of air over
the mountain ridge is fast, the cap cloud will
hang down further on the lee side of the moun-
tain.

1. If no clouds are present, mountain wave

true, false
action will not be severe.

2. The three types of cloud formations associated with standing

waves are _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , and
false

3. Flight conditions near lenticular clouds lenticular

true, false
which have smooth edges will most likely have little or no rotor
turbulence, but will have updrafts and downdrafts. cap

4. The cloud formations located parallel to the mountain range

which produce the most violent turbulence are called true
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ clouds.

5. The cloud which obscures the entire mountain peak and

flows downward on the leeward side like that of a waterfall is rotor
the cloud.

cap

2-13
TIPS ON FLYING DURING pilot should be on the alert for turbu- (
MOUNTAIN WAVE CONDITIONS lence.

1. If possible, the area where the moun-

5.
tain wave conditions exist should be
laterally detoured. If this is not pos-
sible, an altitude should be used which
is at least 50 percent higher than the
height of the mountain range.
6.
2. When mountain wave turbulence is
suspected, the aircraft should be
flown at the turbulent air penetration
speed.
3. The area around and directly beneath
the rotor cloud should be avoided.
4. When high lenticular clouds have
edges which are ragged or irregular, a
Abnormal altimeter readings with
errors as great as 2,000 feet may be
prevalent with mountain wave con-
ditions.
Flight conditions at the tropopause
level may be extremely turbulent;
therefore, the aircraft should be flown
well above the tropopause in the
area of the stratosphere, or at an
altitude well below the tropopause
level. Remember, at turbojet flight
levels, mountain wave turbulence may
be encountered with the highest ex-
posure more likely in the vicinity
of the tropopause.

1. If mountain wave conditions are suspected over a mountain

range having an average height of 12,000 feet MSL, the (
minimum altitude used to fly over this area should be
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ feet MSL.

2. The type of cloud most likely indicating the greatest turbu-

lent area during mountain wave conditions is the 18,000
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ cloud.

3. _________ When a mountain wave is present, flight

true, false
conditions at the tropopause level may be extremely turbu- rotor
lent and should be avoided.

true

THUN DERSTORMS of thunderstorm occurrence increases with the

It has been estimated that at any given instant,
there are approximately 1,800 thunderstorms in
progress over the earth's surface. The frequency
seasonal rise in. temperature during the spring
and summer months. All thunderstorms contain
a concentrated mass of very unstable air in vio-
lent motion capable of producing severe to ex-
treme turbulence.

2-14
 METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

CLASSIFICATION OF nomena creates the development of a vertical

THUNDERSTORMS
Thunderstorms are normally classified as airmass
or front. Airmass thunderstorms include the
following types:
1. Convective
2. Orographic
3. Nocturnal
Frontal thunderstorms include:
1. Warm front
2. Cold front
3. Prefrontal (squall line)
4. Occluded front
In general, airmass thunderstorms are isolated
and can be circumnavigated without too much
difficulty. Thunderstorms associated with
frontal systems pose a more difficult problem.
Warm front thunderstorms may be embedded in
stratiform clouds. Airborne radar is needed to
detect the location of warm front thunder-
storms. Cold front thunderstorms are commonly
found in a continuous line parallel to and along
the frontal surface. The prefrontal squall lines
generally are located 50 to 300 miles in advance
of a cold front, approximately parallel and
normally faster moving. Heavy hail and torna-
does are common features of squall lines.
THUNDERSTORM MECHANICS
Thunderstorms are the result of thermal insta-
bility in the atmosphere. This atmospheric phe-
circulation pattern when the airmass is made
unstable due to the addition or subtraction of
heat.
The atmospheric instability necessary for
thunderstorm development can occur in many
different ways:
(1) Radiational cooling of cloud tops
(2) Heating the cloud base from the
ground
(3) Frontallifting
(4) Mechanicallifting
(5) Convergence of horizontal winds into
the center of a low pressure area,
forcing warm air near the center to
flow upward
Cumulus clouds are the result of parcels of air
that have been lifted vertically high enough to
condense any water vapor. Initially, these drop-
lets will be very small and too light to fall out as
rain. As the lifting continues, however, these
droplets begin to grow in size by colliding and
merging with each other. Eventually, they are
large enough to fall against the updrafts respon-
sible for their formation. Therefore, a cumulus
cloud is the result of atmospheric instability as
warm, light air rises rapidly into surrounding
cooler air.
Within the cumulus cloud itself there is another
source of energy which further enhances its
development. The formation of water droplets
from water vapor results in a release of heat
energy referred to as the latent heat of conden-
sation. This latent heat increases the momentum
of the vertical movemen t. The rate at which this
energy is released is directly related to the
amount of water vapor available as it is con-
verted into a liquid state.

1. Three types of airmass thunderstorms are _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, and .
(

2-15
 2. The type of fronts which are capable of producing thunder- convective
storms are orographic
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, and _ nocturnal

warm
3. Airmass thunderstorms are generally cold
true, false prefrontal (squall
isolated or scattered over a large area. line)
occluded

4. The most severe type of thunderstorm is generally associated

true
with lines.

5. Thunderstorms are the result of insta-

squall
bility.

6. The type of cloud formed when warm, light air rises rapidly
thermal
into cooler air is a ·-type cloud.
f

7. ----,.--,....,-c-:-:---- When water vapor condenses into water

true, false
droplets, there is a release of heat energy which makes the cumulus
surrounding air warmer.

true

THUNDERSTORM STAGES

In the first stage of thunderstorm development,

the cumulus stage, there is a predominant up-
draft causing warm air to rise beyond the con-
densation level, producing the familiar cumulus-
type cloud, as shown in figure 2-12. The region
below this updraft has convergent surface winds
and an atmospheric pressure which is slightly
less than the surrounding area. Also, as the
development continues, air flows into the cumu-
lus cloud from all sides. This is called entrain- (
ment, which helps feed the updraft. Fig. 2·12. Cumulus Stage

2·16
 METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

MATURE STAGE all present. The most destructive form of the

severe thunderstorm is the tornado. Evidence
Once the water droplets are large enough indicates that the tornado funnel cloud will
and in sufficient quantity to fall against the normally be located in the south or southwest
updraft, the second stage of the thunderstorm quadrant, outside the area of heavy precipi-
begins. This is referred to as the mature tation, as depicted in figure 2-14.
stage. (See Fig. 2-13.) The mature stage is evi-
denced by a marked change in the wind direc-
tion within the storm cell. The prevailing up-
drafts in the cumulus stage, which initiated the
cloud's growth, now are accompanied by down-
drafts which are generated by the falling precipi-
tation. The mature stage of a storm cell domi-
nates the electrical field and atmospheric circu-
lation over a considerable area. Lightning is the
result of a discharge of electricity between large
opposing charges and occurs soon after the pre-
cipitation begins.

Fig. 2·14. Tornado Funnels

DISSIPATING STAGE

( Once the thunderstorm cell has reached a

mature stage, it begins to die. This is due to the
violent downdraft which begins to dissipate the
updraft which supported the storm. The down-
draft prevents the convergence of low-level
winds and the storm loses its main source of
moisture and, therefore, energy. This last stage,
in which the storm dies, is considered to be the
dissipating stage. (See Fig. 2-15.)

Fig. 2·13. Mature Stage

Once the thunderstorm has reached its maturity,

it is several miles across at the base and may
exceed an altitude of over 40,000 feet. Upper 35
winds at the troposphere cause the development 30 ~
of the familiar anvil top. At the surface, beneath /:...: c

the mature stage, the initial precipitation is in 25

,~
,:•
the form of light rain which is soon joined by
20 -=
the strong downdraft. This downdraft spreads
outward from the cloud in divergent directions
with gusty winds and a large drop in air tem-
.5
OM
0
perature. If no precipitation is present, then a ;:)
thunderstorm's mature stage is recognized by
the cold air flowing outward over the surface. c
The thunderstorm's mature stage is the most
violent phase in the storm's life. Lightning,
heavy rain, high winds, and sometimes hail are Fig. 2·15. Dissipating Stage

2·17
 (
1. In the cumulus stage of ·thunderstorm development, there is
a predominant
updraft, downdraft
I
2. Divergent surface winds are common
true, false updraft
beneath a growing cumulus cloud.
I
3. In the mature stage of a thunderstorm,
true, false
the updrafts are accompanied by downdrafts caused by the false

falling precipitation.
I
4. Tornadoes are nearly always located in
true, false true
the area of heaviest precipitation.
I
5. In the dissipating stage, the predomi-
true, false
nant downdraft prevents the convergence of low-level winds, false
thereby denying the storm its main source of energy.
I
I true
I

FLYING IN THE VICINITY OF altitude about one-fifth as often as in

SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS
Thunderstorm research to date has provided the
following information:
1. In most well-developed thunderstorms
(those extending up to or beyond
60,000 feet) there is little variation
of turbulence intensity with altitude.
2. The severity and frequency of turbu-
lence decreases slowly with distance
from the storm center. Data indicates
that 20 miles from the center of
the center of severe storms. Also,
severe turbulence may be encountered
within the anvil cloud as much as 15
to 20 miles downwind from well-
developed storms. It should be
remembered that the storm cloud is
only the visible portion of the turbu-
lence area and that updrafts and
downdrafts extend outside of the
visible storm edge.
3. The radar reflectivity increases with
the severity and frequency of turbu-
lence. The reflectivity is a function of f

severe storms, moderate to severe the number and size of water droplets
turbulence can be encountered at any in a given unit volume.

2-18

4. The clear air next to a thunderstorm is
a place where severe turbulence can
occur. Further, this turbulence is
more likely on the downwind side of
the storm. At the edge of the visible
portion of the storm, there is a mixing
of clear air with the cloud, which pro·
duces strong temperature gradients.
These temperature gradien ts produce
rapid variations of vertical airflow
velocities.
5. Above the storm tops, the turbulence
appears to be related to the speed of
the upper troposphere winds. When
these upper troposphere winds are
high (100 knots), significant turbu·
lence can be expected as much as
10,000 feet above the top of the
storm.
6. Turbulence below the cloud base can
be as severe as in the storm itself.
Strong downdrafts have been encoun-
tered to the earth's surface.
( the storm should be avoided as the
7. In severe storms, the possibility of
large hail and strong vertical currents
should be expected to within a few
thousand feet of the tops. It is vitally
important to avoid any large buildups
at all altitudes. The tops of the severe
storms can sometimes be obtained
from radar and by a reference to the
radar summary charts.
8. The probability of hail is more clearly
identified with the intensity of the
radar echoes than is the turbulence.
Whenever the storms reflectivity 1S
strong, the occurrence of hail is likely.
Pilots should be on the alert for hail
when radar echoes are well-defined.
9. The greatest temperature variations
take place along the edges of the
cloud where the air is relatively dry.
Temperature variations can be expec-
ted to be as great as 100 Celsius per
mile near severe thunderstorms.
10. There appears to be no correlation
between the external appearance of a
METEOR LOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT
severe thunderstorm and the turbu-
lence and hail that are contained with-
in them.
11. With severe thunderstorms, the radar
echoes may grow in intensity by a
factor of 10 each minute. The rate of
growth of the cloud tops can exceed
over 7,000 feet per minute. Two
severe storms separated by a distance
of 20 miles or less may contain
moderate to severe turbulence in the
clear air between them.
12. Tornadoes usually occur on the up-
wind side of severe storms, but it
should be noted that their funnels are
not visible to radar. It has been
hypothesized by some scientists that
the tornado funnels are connected to,
and evacuated by, the updraft of the
parent thunderstorm through vortex
tubes. These vortex tubes are located
within the sloping clouds that grow on
the upwind side of major thunder-
storms. Flight within this region of
tornado funnel extends up into the
cloud and cannot readily be discern-
ible by radar.
13. Avoidance of the heavy thunderstorm
echoes to the south and southwest is
extremely important. It is estimated
that the minimum separation distance
from the center of a severe storm
should be at least 20 nautical miles up
to altitudes of 5,000 feet from the
surface, 15 miles at 15,000 feet, and
approximately 7 miles at 20,000 feet.
14. Although tornado vortices are not
visible on radar, a hooked or scalloped
echo is frequently seen on the edge of
the main echo in tornado situations.
15. Tornado vortices beneath a cloud
deck mayor may not be visible.
16. Avoidance, rather than penetration, of
thunderstorms is always the best pro-
cedure, and the most effective tool for
severe storm avoidance is airborne
radar.
2·19
 1. _ _ _ _--,-- In severe thunderstorms, there is little
true, false
variation of turbulence intensity with altitude.

2. Radar reflectivity is a function of the

true, false
number and size of water droplets in a given unit volume, and
true
this reflectivity increases with the severity and frequency of
turbulence.

3. -----:-c---- In general, the turbulence 10 miles from

true, false
the center of severe storms will be only light or occasionally true
moderate.

4. When upper troposphere winds are high,

true, false
significant turbulence should be expected as much as 10,000 false
feet above the tops of severe storms.

5. _ _----,_--;-;- Turbulence below the cloud base can be

true, false true
as severe as within the storm itself.

6. Well-defined radar echoes may indicate

true, false true
the presence of hail.

7. _ _----,----,--;-;- Moderate to severe turbulence should be

true, false
anticipated between two severe storms separated by a true
distance of 20 miles or less.

8. The location of tornadoes usually can

true, false true
be identified with the use of radar.

9. Hooked or scalloped radar echoes may

true. false false
indicate the presence of tornadoes.

10. Tornado vortices are always visible and true

true, false
can be easily avoided during daylight hours.

false

2-20
 METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

HIGH ALTITUDE The time of useful consciousness is the amount

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS
HYPOXIA
Hypoxia is one of the more important problems
confronting the jet flight crew. It can be
extremely dangerous because its onset may not
be apparent and unconsciousness may eventually
occur. Therefore, it is important that the flight
crew have a complete understanding of hypoxia.
Hypoxia can be defined as a lack of sufficient
oxygen available to the body cells. The degree of
hypoxia depends upon the reduction of the
partial pressure of oxygen in the air sacs located
within the lungs. This reduction of oxygen pres-
sure becomes apparent in what is referred to as
the physiological deficient zone. This zone ex-
tends from about 12,000 feet to about 50,000
feet. When the supply of oxygen to the cells of
the body becomes insufficient, abnormal physio-
logical functions become evident. An inadequate
oxygen supply to the cells can be caused by
( various conditions.
The most important characteristic of hypoxia is
that a crewrnember may not be aware of the
effects that hypoxia is having on his body. Each
individual reacts to hypoxia differently. How-
ever, there are certain symptoms which might
indicate to the individual that he is suffering
from an oxygen deficiency. Some common
symptoms are:
of time from the onset of hypoxia until deterior-
ation of the individual's effective performance.
Time of useful consciousness varies considerably
with altitude. At relatively low altitudes, time of
useful consciousness may be considerable, but
when above 35,000 feet, it is measured in
seconds. There are various factors which deter-
mine the time of useful consciousness. Some of
these factors are:
1. Altitude - With increasing altitude,
time of useful consciousness de-
creases.
2. Rate of ascent - Generally speaking,
the faster the rate of ascent, the short-
er the time of useful consciousness.
3. Physical activity - As physical activ-
ity increases, time of useful conscious-
ness is reduced considerably.
4. Day-to-day factors - The individual's
physical fitness or his ability to toler-
ate hypoxia changes daily. Therefore,
time of useful consciousness will vary
from day to day.
Figure 2-16 is a time of useful consciousness
chart for various altitudes. These times will vary
depending upon the various factors previously
discussed and, therefore, represent average times
which may be expected without supplemental
oxygen.

f'
1. an increased breathing rate,

2. lightheaded or dizzy sensations, ALTITUDE TIME OF USEFUL

3. tingling or warm sensations,

-- :\ CONSCIOUSNESS

22.000 FT. S TO 10 MINUTES

4. sweating,

5. reduced vision or loss of Vision, 25.000 FT. 3 TO S MINUTES

.
6. fatigue or sleepiness, 28000 FT 2Jr, TO 3 MINUTES .
:,
.

7. a light blue coloring of the skin, 30000 FT 1 TO 2 MINUTES

fingernails, and lips, and .

8. behavioral changes. Fig. 2-16. Time of Useful Consciousness

2-21
The immediate application of emergency oxy-
gen is necessary for the treatment of hypoxia.
If the individual is unconscious, emergency
oxygen must be administered immediately. If
the individual has been unconscious for only
a couple of minutes, recovery will usually be
rapid and complete. However, sometimes a (
hypoxic reaction takes place. The individual
enters a state of shock which is evidenced
by a weak pulse and sweating. In this situa-
tion, treatment for shock will be required.

1. When there is an inadequate oxygen supply to the cells of the

body, the resulting condition is called

2. When the oxygen supply available to the body cells is insuf-

ficient, the amount of time available until deterioration of
hypoxia
the individual's effective performance takes place is called the
time of useful _

3. The treatment for hypoxia is accomplished by the immediate

application of emergency _ consciousness

oxygen
(

HYPERVENTILATION excess is removed, the respiratory center returns

the breathing rate to normal.
Hyperventilation, or overbreathing, is a distur-
bance of the respiration system. It may occur in When hyperventilation occurs, the most com-
individuals as a result of physical exertion, emo- mon symptoms are:
tional tension, or anxiety. When this happens,
the individual's respiratory rate and depth are 1. dizziness,
abnormally increased. This overbreathing results
in an excessive loss of carbon dioxide from the 2. hot and cold sensations,
lungs.
3. tingling of the hands, legs, and feet,
The respiratory center of the brain reacts to the
amount of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream. 4. muscle spasms,
When an individual is in a physically relaxed
state, the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood 5. nausea,
stimulates the respiratory center of the brain
and the breathing rate is lowered to about 12 to 6. sleepiness, and
16 breaths a minute. When physical activity is
increased, the body cells use more oxygen and, 7. unconsciousness.
hence, more carbon dioxide is produced. This
excessive carbon dioxide enters the bloodstream When unconsciousness occurs, the breathing rate
and indicates to the brain that more oxygen is
required. Breathing increases in depth and rate
will be exceedingly low until enough carbon
dioxide is produced to stimulate the respiratory
(
to remove this excess carbon dioxide. As the center. As mentioned previously, hyper-

2-22
 METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

ventilation usually is caused by exertion or 2. Take three or four deep breaths of

anxiety. These factors must be eliminated
and the carbon dioxide level returned to
normal before recovery is complete.
Unfortunately, some of the symptoms associated
with hyperventilation also are found with
hypoxia. The following steps should be taken if
either is suspected.
1. Immediately check oxygen
equipment and put the oxygen
regulator on 100 percent.
oxygen. If the condition experienced
was hypoxia, the symptoms should
improve rapidly. Remember that re-
covery from hypoxia is extremely
rapid.
3. If the symptoms persist, consciously
reduce the rate of breathing to an
abnormally slow rate for 30 to 45
seconds. After this period of time, the
symptoms of hyperventilation should
begin to sUbside. Then, resume breath-
ing at a normal rate.

1. Hyperventilation, or overbreathing, results in excessive loss of

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ from the lungs.

2. Some of the symptoms associated with hypoxia are also

carbon dioxide
associated with _

3. Whenever an individual has a slight dizziness or tingling

sensation of the hands, legs, and feet, it is important to hyperventilation
immediately administer _

4. After taking three or four deep breaths, the symptoms should

improve rapidly if the condition experienced was oxygen

5. If the symptoms persist, the condition experienced is most

hypoxia
likely _

I
hyperventilation

2·23
(
 WEATHER DATA
chapter 3

INTRODUCTION
The National Weather Service is charged with the behemoth-like task of keeping a highly indus-
trialized nation abreast of the ever-changing weather situation. To accomplish this task, the
Weather Service collects, processes, and transmits thousands of reports and forecasts daily. So
highly organized is this effort that a pilot can consult his local National Weather Service forecast
office and determine the present and forecast weather anywhere in the United States and, in some
cases, anywhere in the world. The weather information available to the pilot varies from surface
reports of current weather to the earth's cloud coverage as seen by the telescopic eye of a far-
ranging satellite.

NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE'S hemispheric windflow patterns at levels

AVIATION FORECASTING
SERVICES
The United States National Weather Service has
hundreds of weather stations that collect and
disseminate weather information. The hub of
the nation's weather data processing function is
the National Weather Service's National Meteo-
rological Center (NMC), located near Washing-
ton, D. C. This center provides guidance material
such as analyses and forecasts (prognoses) of
from the surface to about 57.000 feet.
These charts are essential in coping with
current weather-prediction problems.
The National Meteorological Center receives
about 45,000 weather observations of all types
each day from allover the Northern Hemi-
sphere. Many of the weather charts distributed
by the center are prepared by automation.
Electronic data processing equipment is now
actually capable of plotting limited weather

3-1
data, analyzing windflow patterns, predicting The aviation operational information on (
the future patterns, and drawing the analyzed these circuits consist of:
chart and the prediction chart.
1. surface and special observations,
The National Meteorological Center (NMC) 2. pilot reports and summaries of pilot
provides a generalized service, mostly for reports,
National Weather Service field offices, civil 3. winds and temperature aloft fore-
government agencies, and the military services of casts,
the United States. Most commercial broadcast 4. radar reports and summaries,
station weathermen and many foreign countries 5. terminal forecasts,
use its products. 6. area forecasts,
7. severe weather forecasts,
NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE 8. in-flight weather advisories (AIRMETs
OFFICE (WSOj and SIGMETs),
9. abbreviated hurricane advisories,
fhe National Weather Service Office 10. satellite bulletins,
(WSO) weatherman is the person with
11. simplified surface analyses and
whom pilots talk face-to-face when they
prognoses, and
go to the weather office for a briefing
12. Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs).
and who's voice the pilots hear when
telephoning the weather office for weather TELETYPEWRITER
information. The WSO is the National REPORTS AND FORECASTS
Weather Service's main link between the
aviation community and the processing SURFACE AVIATION
centers. The weatherman in a WSO is WEATHER REPORTS
not only a briefer, but also an The surface aviation weather reports are
interpreter and analyst, and acts as a
forecaster on a limited scale.
gathered and transmitted hourly. To more (
completely explain these reports, the
hourly weather report from Dallas-Ft.
WEATHER INFORMATION Worth Regional Airport, shown in figure
DISTRIBUTION 3-1, will be analyzed.
Pilots should be aware of the shift to
Weather reports and information are extremely the metric system, metric measurements,
perishable because of the constantly changing heights, pressures, and distances in U.S.
weather picture. If the information is not
weather reports.
distributed almost immediately, it becomes his-
tory. To meet the speed required for distribution, To use a common denominator, the time
weather information is sent by teletype or com- used in weather reports is Greenwich

,
puter circuits for coded material and by facsimile Mean Time (GMT). This time is also
networks for graphic material. referred to as Zulu time.

SA29 1913.1l0
------_..:..._---
DFW SP S SCT
, ""- -
BKN 3.1ll1 ave
Ml~

LN TSTM$ 5W-SE MVG NWD

~ ,
-----------'-----------
1/2R-K 146/6S/S9/21118/996/R13VR48/UA OV DAL 124~ $K TOPS 55/RB46/BKN V ave/

~FW
o
11/7 DFW ILS GS 3SL ors

(. Fig. 3-1. Surface Aviation Weather Report

(
 WEATHER DATA

HEADING weather' report was printed on

the teletype circuit.
Segment number 1 in figure 3-1 is the heading
and broken down as follows: LOCATION AND CLOUD
COVERAGE
SA29 191300
Segment number 2 in figure 3-1 specifies the
SA The "traffic designator" which station location (station identifier) and amount
distinguishes surface aviation of cloud coverage.
weather reports from other
weather information. DF W The three-letter identifier designates
the station from which the report was
29 Circuit identification which sent. In this case, the reporting station
designates the circuit over was Dallas-Ft. Worth Regional Airport.
which this particular report
was sent. Two-letter state S P The "SP" designates a special report
designators ITXI are also used because of an important change in the
for stations outside the local previously reported weather situation.
circuit. This may be followed by the Zulu
time of the observation.
19 The report was sent on the
5 SCT M10 BKN 300 avc
19th day of the month.
These abbreviations represent the sky
1300 The time of the observation cover and ceiling, designate a scattered
was 1300 Zulu (l300Z = cloud layer at 500 feet, and a measured
0700C). The time on some ceiling of 1,000 feet broken and an
hourly report headings will overcast ceiling of 30,000 feet. Note
( indicate the specific time the that the ceiling should not be inter-

·~·~~·-.:71·~··-·>-'_. ~. ~ ~OUR~Y_SU~FA~E :a~OR~~C~A~~~ERYA1ION LOCATIONS r-"

~ ',./.
••'>- .... _ _ \)' .: 7 ", \. . . .- ...., -. -..... i
. .-:--1' I' '... I' i' . / . "'" -\ .

. . .'
.. --.-_____ .:)/. '\.' ..... . L:.._~_~·\
'-<t'"""---:....J· . .-? 'J _·'D···.· . ~ "'.....r- A /~·Ch.
,'"
·
· ..1
"f
,--"-.
./ . .
..' /
--.,......... .
' , . ! --..J
.r . .I
L'
I
I· .
.~-:--.---:.-:"~.
".
'1 " " . ".
.l~~
., .',
"' .. ,.
\

. . . . \~_.:....
. 1 •

.
. •

.
'.., if#:
\
\

. .'
~.. \-.J,-;' .
.-- '_-,"-,'..
.:. :', ,," - ........-. ':.!
t>-. ~ .

·
· :/.
I.
I
I: l :-r---. '..LI' • '"\
'. \ . ' I' ' . ' ~"T-' ... \ '. . ' , ...

• • \ 1 .' - -1' '., . . ,( / " " \ \.

1 •
) '.'
"--
'. •
'\ , ' . '. . . . . . . . \----~ '. J'.' \. . /\~i?'1<~ \
\ . I I. .' .:. ~-----:--~"). . \. . " \. \.: ',(' .• ~/
\ I I . : "'"
I: :. \. \ . ,....~\- _.-or!. j :
\ ',,:' .·1 ".1 3·/ft··.· .
\
\ ~-...
t--.-;-..:..·
J.:
j---...:...
/··.'1
~. j
\....... f-',.r
"'(".c: -..,-,-- ',,,-:---;.._-

\t
.~ I'
J'. :'. ~~F;-·~-':----::. ~-'~-~i}~-=-:-:--~/:.:~.:-~'·
1 I · . . \. .f, ~ ... J_(
':
.'-. .
, I ' J.. , r - .-.-. \ -'
-~._.:"":). ,I ~I .'.. . I )"1 '.\' "
I' ~ .....
. . . .
........ I
"'" . f. .. .
j
-'\.. '-

. 'r--'
I
·~'--::-'-ll·. ~
I ,
\......
"-"_"~" ,_.. _..,.--_.J I" . /' 1 I .
- ",' . ~ •\ 'J,.'. •
'..... \ . L~..., II \.-=- '-.- - -) :
, I'
\. .._..... .J • : ,
......... / "-..,
\\
,..,.
'-:.-:.
Fig. 3·2. Service A Circuit Map

3-3
 preted as being at 500 feet, because The weather symbols used in the visibility re-
scattered clouds do not constitute ports are as follows:
a ceiling.
A hail
The sky cover symbols which are used in these AP small hail
reports are as follows: IC ice crystals
IP ice pellets
CLR clear: less than 0.1 sky cover 5P snow pellets
5CT scattered: 0.1 to 0.5 sky cover 5W snowshowers
BKN broken: 0.6 to 0.9 sky cover (con- T thunderstorms
stitutes a ceiling except when ZL freezing drizzle
preceded by a "-") ZR freezing rain
avc overcast: more than 0.9 sky cover L drizzle
thin (when prefixed to above R rain
symbols) RW rain showers
- X partial obscuration: sky hidden by 5 snow
some obstruction to visibility 5G snow grains
X = obscuration: sky hidden by ob-
struction to visibility with the bases
at the surface (constitutes a ceiling) Intensities are noted behind the appropriate
symbol as follows: (intensity symbol used as a
When a partial obstruction is reported, suffix)
the remarks section will contain a letter
and a number designating both the - light + heavy (no sign) moderate
obstruction to vision and the amount of
sky (in tenths) obscured from view.
Obstruction to visibility symbols are as follows:
NONCEILING CEILING D = dust
F = fog
CLR BKN
5CT avc GF = ground fog
-BKN X BD = blowing dust
-avc BN = blowing sand
-x B5 = blowing snow
H = haze
The lowest cloud cover that constitutes a ceiling
IF = ice fog
will always be preceded by one of the following
K = smoke
symbols reporting how the ceiling was estab-
lished: PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND DEWPDINT
E estimated (balloon, PIREP, observer)
M measured (ceilometer, ceiling light, Atmospheric pressure, temperature, and dew-
RADAR) point are given in segment number 4. (See Fig.
W indefinite (vertical visibility) 3-1.) 146/65/59/
V varying ceiling
146 Pressure expressed in millibars,
VISIBILITY which in this case is 1014.6 milli-
bars. (The prefix initial "9" or
Segment number 3 in figure 3-1 reports the "10" is omitted in the actual re-
visibility. port.)

11/2 R- K The visibility is reported by figures The barometric pressure readings

representing miles and fraction of are converted to the equivalent sea
miles. The symbols at the left desig- level pressure and are stated in
nate a visibility of one and one-half inches of mercury or millibars. The
miles with light rain and smoke. normal pressure readings in milli-

3-4

bars range from 950.0 to 1040.0. In
the report, the prefix UgH or "10"
and the decimal point are omitted
for brevity. To decode, prefix a 9 or
10, whichever brings it closest to
1000.0 millibars. The standard pres-
sure expressed in millibars (cor-
rected to sea level) is 1013.2.
65 Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit,
which in this case is 65 0 Fahrenheit.
59 Dewpoint in degrees Fahrenheit,
which in this case is 59 0 Fahrenheit.
WINO
Segment number 5 provides information con-
cerning wind direction and velocity. (See Fig.
3-1.) 210'8
21 Direction from which the wind is
blowing, which in this case is 2100
true direction. Notice that the wind
( is reported to the nearest 10 degrees
with the last zero being omitted.
Speed of the wind, which in this
case is eight knots. This value ex-
presses the average wind speed over
a one minute period of time. A calm
wind is reported as "0000."
A "G" signifies that a gust (10
knot variation wind speed) or squall
"Q" (sudden increase of at least 15
knots to a maximum velocity of 20
knots or more for at least one
minute) has occurred. The maximum
wind speed follows the letter.
ALTIMETER SETTING
The altimeter setting is shown as segment num-
ber 6 in figure 3-1.
996 Altimeter setting expressed in
inches of mercury, which in this
case is 29.96 inches (the prefix
initial "2" or "3" is omitted in the
actual report).
WEATHER DATA
REMARKS
Segment number 7 is the remarks section which
includes unusual weather, cloud heights, runway
visual range, frontal activity, etc.
R13VR48 These symbols represent the run-
way visual range (RVR) located on
runway 13 which, in this case, is
4,800 feet. Note that the last two
zeros are omitted in the actual
report. RVR is reported when vis-
ibility is less than 1 mile or RVR
60.
UA OV DAL This is a pilot's weather
1240' S K report (PIREP) which indicates
TOPS 55 that at 1240Z over Love Field,
the cloud tops were at 5,500
feet MSL.
RB46 This portion of the remarks
section indicates that the rain
began at 46 minutes past the
previous hour 11246Z).
BKN V This remark notes that the cloud
ave layer is broken variable to overcast.
LN TSTMS This remark is the National Weather
S W- S E Service shorthand meaning "line of
MVG NWD thunderstorms in the Southwest to
the Southeast quadrants, moving
northward. "
NOTAMs
Segment number 8 follows the main body of the
weather and contains NOTAM information.
-f()FW 11/7 Dallas-Ft. Worth Regional. The hor-
DFW J L5 izontal arrow notes the beginning
G5 35L of the NOTAM. The NOTAM was
OT5 published during the eleventh
month (November) and is the sev-
enth NOTAM to be published at
DFW during November. This
NOTAM indicates the glide slope
for runway 35L is out of service.
3-5
 (
1. The aviation weather reports are the most detailed
of the weather reports and forecasts. In all reports.
the same abbreviations are used for cloud cover.
weather. and restrictions to visibility. Ceiling
designators of "M"·measured. "E"·estimated.
"W"·indefinite. and "V"·variable. indicate how the
ceiling was determined. The most commonly used
methods of "estimating" ceiling are:

2. This report. 15 seT M25 BKN means _

aircraft (PIREP)
balloon
ground observer

3. This report, M2¢ BKN 5.0 ave, means _

1,500 scattered
measured,
2,500 broken
(
4. The order of the surface aviation report is the same as the
I

terminal forecast. This report, E25 ave 3 R 132 means:

measured 2,000
broken, 5,000
overcast
132 is millibar pressure. Prefix a nine or ten, whichever brings
the result closer to 1000.0 millibars. The last digit is always
the "tenths" position.

5. Translate this report: E2 5 BKN 6 K 1 3.0 /7 8/7 .0

estimated
2,500 overcast,
three miles visibility
with rain
78 is temperature in Fahrenheit. 70 is dewpoint.

6. Translate this report: E3¢ BKN 6.0 ave 5H 131/6.0/

estimated 2,500
56/2714G2¢ broken, six miles
visibility with
smoke, millibar
2714G20is surface wind from 270 0 true at 14 knots with pressure 1013.0
gusts to 20 knots. (

3·6
 WEATHER DATA

(
7. Translate this report: M45 ave 3R- 579/72/71/
3205/893 _
Estimated 3, 000
broken, 6, 000 over-
cast, five miles visi-
bility with haze,
millibar pressure
1013.1, temperature
The last three digits, 893, are the altimeter setting of 28.93 60° F., dewpoint
inches of mercury. To decode, prefix with either a two or a 56° F.
three, whichever brings the final result closer to 30. 00 inches,
and add the decimal.

8. Translate this report: W3 X 1/ 2 GF 148/69/69/0000/

994 _ measured 4,500
overcast, three miles
visibility, light rain
pressure 957.9
temperature 72° F.,
dewpoint 71° F.,
wind 320°, five
knots

(
9. In the sequence, - X 5 5 e T gaVe 1/2 F 318/68/63/ indefinite ceiling
2014/884 F 2 the ceiling is at _ 300 feet obscured,
feet and fog is obscuring tenths of the sky from view. one-half mile visibility,
ground fog, pressure
1014.8, temperature
69° F., wind calm,
altimeter setting
29.94

900
2

AREA FORECASTS general importance for flight planning purposes.

Area forecasts (FAs) are issued by the Weather
Service Forecast Offices (WSFO). The area fore-
casts are issued for a specific area and are used
primarily to determine enroute weather condi-
tions. These forecasts are issued twice daily.
They provide a specific forecast for 18 hours and
an outlook for an additional 12 hours. Area fore-
casts give information on pressure systems,
fronts, precipitation, cloud bases and tops, icing,
and other weather phenomena which is of
The extent of the weather area covered and the
type of weather forecast is shown in figure 3-3.
Numerous word contractions are used within
area forecasts but, with some practice, it becomes
easy to read and understand them. Cloud heights
(except those identifiE'd as ceilings) are above
sea level values (ASL) unless noted otherwise.
The following discussion refers to figure 3-3. The
area forecast is divided into five categories:
heading, forecast area, synopsis, significant
clouds and weather, and icing. The outlook is

3-7
 (

MKC FA ¢1124¢.
13Z WED-¢7Z THU.
OTLK ¢7Z-19Z THU.
WY CO KS NE SD ND ...
HGTS ASL UNLESS NOTED ...
SYNS ... ARCTIC FNT VCNTY ERN SLPS MTNS WY CO. WK
UPSLP E ARCTIC FNT IN CO WY AND WRN NE. STG NWLY
FLO ALF.
SIGCLD AND WX ...
WY AND CO E FNT.
HIR TRRN FQTLY OBSCD. 15-25 BKN V OVC 4¢-6¢ BKN
V OVC AGL. OCNL R SE CO. TOPS 1¢¢-12¢. TOPS CU TO
2¢¢. OTLK ... MVFR CIG.
RMNG PTNS WY AND CO ...
HIR MTNS OBSCD CO AND LCLY OBSCD WY. 1¢¢-12¢ SCT
V BKN 15¢-18¢ SCT V BKN. TOPS 2¢¢. SCTD SNW MTNS.
OTLK ... VFR.
KS NE SD ND ...
W PTNS 2¢-4¢ SCT V BKN AGL WITH A FEW SHWRS DURG
AFTN BCMG CLR BY MIDN. E PTNS 5¢-7¢ BKN BCMG
2¢-4¢ OVC BY MIDN. TOPS 1¢¢-12¢. OTLK ... MVFR CIG.
ICG ... MDT ICGIC BLO 14¢. FRZLVL AT OR NR SFC OVR
AND NR MTNS 4¢-6¢ ELSW.

Fig. 3-3. Area Forecast

included in each paragraph of the significant
clouds and weather portion of the forecast.
Heading- The area forecast originated in Kansas
City on the first day of the month at 1240Z.
The valid time for this forecast is from 1300Z
Wednesday until 0700Z Thursday. The outlook
extends from 0700Z to 1900Z Thursday.
Forecast area- The area in this forecast includes
Wyoming, Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, South
Dakota, and North Dakota.
Synopsis- The synopsis is a brief discussion of
the overall weather picture. The synopsis of the
illustrated forecast reads as follows: There is an
arctic front in the vicinity of the eastern slopes
of the mountains of Wyoming and Colorado.
There is also a weak upslope airflow east of the
arctic front in Colorado, Wyoming, and western
Nebraska. A strong northwesterly windflow
exists aloft.
Significant clouds and weather- This section of
the forecast reads as follows: "Wyoming, and
Colorado east of the front . . . high terraln
frequently obscured . . . 1,500 to 2,500 feet
broken variable overcast ... 4,000 to 6,000 feet
broken variable to overcast AGL ... occasional
rain in southeast Colorado . . . tops of clouds
10,000 to 12,000 feet . . . tops of cumulus to
20,000 feet . . . outlook, marginal VFR con-
ditions due to ceilings.
The next section reads: Remaining portions of
Wyoming and Colorado . . . higher mountains
obscured in Colorado, and locally obscured in
Wyoming . . . cloud conditions of 10,000 to
12,000 feet scattered variable to broken . . .
15,000 to 18,000 feet scattered variable to
broken with tops at 20,000 ... there are scat-
tered snow showers in the mountains ... outlook,
VFR conditions.
The Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, and North
Dakota section reads as follows: West portions
of these states ... 2,000 to 4,000 feet scattered
variable to broken above ground level with a few
showers during the afternoon becoming clear by
midnight. East portions ... 5,000 to 7,000 feet
broken becoming 2,000 to 4,000 feet overcast
(
above ground level by midnight ... tops 10,000

3·8
 WEATHER DATA

o MKC AC 290830

~ VALID 291200Z-301200Z

NMRS SVR TSTMS PSBL THRU 06Z IN AN AREA TO THE RGT OF A LN FM CNU •.•
DSM ••• RFD ••• CM!. .. P02 ... M06 ... FSM. THIS INCLS EXTRM NE OK ... EXTRM
SERN KS ••• MOST OF MO ••. WERN IA ••• MOST OF IL ••• NERN THIRD OF AR.

• SHRTWV BEING RAPDLY EJECTED FM DP TROF WRN US.

RPDLY FM GULF OF MEXICO.
LOW LVL MSTR RTRNG
LIFTED INDEX PROG INOCTS TNCRG INSTBY THIS
AREA BY 00z. ACTIVITY TO BGN BY ERY AFTN CNTRL AND SRN PLAINS AND
SPRD RPDLY ENE.

OTR TSTMS PSBL DURG ENTR PD TO THE RGT OF A LN FM 3~jS VHN ••. ROW ••.
SAF ••. LAR ••• VTN ••. FSD ••. GRB .•• PHN .•• MNN •.• 127 ••• ANB .•• SS I.

( • OTSBY

Fig. 3-4. Convective Weather Outlook Narrative

to 12.000 ... outlook. marginal VFR conditions
due to decreasing ceilings.
Icing - The icing section of the area forecast
reads as follows: Moderate icing in clouds below
14,000 feet ... freezing level at or near the sur-
face over and near the mountains, 4,000 to
6,000 feet elsewhere.
CONVECTIVE WEATHER OUTLOOK
NARRATIVE
Convective weather outlook narrative reports
(ACs) are issued by the National Severe Storms
Forecast Center (NSSFC). These reports de-
scribe the prospects of both severe and general
thunderstorms during a 24-hour period. The
ACs are routinely transmitted twice daily and
each covers the period through 12002 the next
day. These AC reports are primarily useful for
planning flights later in the day. Regional
Weather Service Forecast Offices (WSFOs) use
these ACs to issue a s,evere weather outlook.
In figure 3-4, item 1 shows that this report was
issued by the National Weather Service in
Kansas City on the 29th day of the month at
0830 Greenwich Mean Time. The valid time for
the forecast is shown by item 2. This valid time
is from 12002 on the 29th to 12002 on the 30th
day of the month. The text of the report, as
shown by item 3, uses authorized contractions
including two-letter Federal Standard stateiden-
tifiers. All times are G:reenwich Mean Time. As
an example, the first line starts, "Numerous
severe thunderstorms are possible through
06002 in an area...."Item 4 shows the name of
the forecaster who issued the report.

3·9
TERMINAL fORECASTS
Terminal forecasts (FTs) are issued three times
daily for the area within a five mile radius of
the larger terminals. They provide a specific
forecast for 18 hours and a categorical outlook
for an additional six hours. The categorical
outlook is expressed simply as VFR, MVFR
(marginal VFR), IFR, or LIFR (low IFR), fol-
lowed by a contraction stating the general
weather limitations expected. Figure 3-5 lists
the meanings of the terms used in the categori-
cal outlook.
Ceiling Visibility Category
more than 3000' more than 5 miles VFR
1000' to 3000' 3 to 5 miles MVFR
500' to 1000' 1 to 3 miles IFR
less than 500' less than 1 mile L1FR
Fig. 3-5. Categorical Outlook
The symbols used for the first 18 hours of a
terminal forecast are the same, both in appear-
ance and sequence, as those used in surface
aviation weather reports. The ceiling is indio
cated in a terminal forecast by the letter HC"
preceding the altitude of the sky condition
symbol. At this point, it should be noted that
the forecast ceilings are not cumulative, as is
the case in the surface aviation weather report.
A forecast of the visibility is included only if
the visibility is expected to be six statute miles
or less. Additionally, the wind forecast is
included only if the wind is expected to be 10
knots or greater. As in the surface aviation
weather report, the wind direction is given in
reference to true north. If winds or gusts of 25
knots or greater are forecast for the outlook
period the word "WIND" is included. The
weather conditions are in chronological order
with changes to the forecast denoted in the
body of the report along with the time at which
the change is expected to occur. Figure 3-6
shows a series of terminal forecasts for the
state of Colorado which predict marginal VFR
and IFR conditions.
3-10
The following narrative describes Alamosa,
Colorado Springs, and Grand Junction,
Colorado.
The report for Alamosa (ALS) is delayed until
1120Z.
The Colorado Springs (COS) terminal forecast
was sent on the eleventh day of the month at
1010Z and is valid from 1000Z that day until
1000Z the next day. The forecast shows the
forecast ceiling to be 300 feet, sky obscured,
one-half mile visibility with light freezing driz-
zle,light snow, and fog. Occasionally, the ceil-
ing is forecast to be 1,000 feet, sky obscured,
one and one-half miles visibility with light
snow and fog. By 0400Z, the categorical out-
look is IFR, with the restriction due to low ceil-
ings, visibility, and snow showers.
The forecast for Grand Junction (GJT) is valid
for the same time period and indicates 1,200
scattered, 2,000 scattered, ceiling 4,000 broken
(scattered variable to broken) with occasional
f
light snow. Omission of visibility in this por-
tion of the forecast indicates visibility is fore-
cast to be greater than six miles. However, as
indicated by the 2200Z forecast, conditions are
expected to deteriorate to a chance of 1,000 foot
broken ceiling with one and one-half miles vis-
ibility. By 0400Z marginal VFR due to ceilings
is predicted.
OUT-Of-SEQUENCE TERMINAL
fORECASTS
When the National Weather Service Forecast
Office receives updated information from
Weather Services indicating that the weather
included in terminal forecasts will be consider-
ably different than indicated in the original
forecast, amended terminal forecasts are issued.
These amendments are numbered sequentially
from each scheduled broadcast so the latest
can be identified and distributed as they occur.
Amended, delayed, or corrected FTs are identi-
fied respectively by AMD, DLAD, and COR fol-
lowed by a date time group at the beginning of (
the message.
 WEATHER DATA

FT
CO 11¢945
ALS OLAD TIL l12¢Z
COS lll¢l¢ C3 X 1/2ZL-S-F OCNL Cl¢ X 11/2S-F. l5Z C5 X 1/2S-F OCNL
Cl¢ X 11/2S-F. ¢4Z lFR CIG VSBY SNW ..
DEN lll¢l¢ l¢ SCT C2¢ OVC SF OCNL C5 X IS-F. 2¢Z -X Cl¢ OVC 2l/2S--F
OCNL C5X 3/45- ¢4l2. ¢4Z IFR CIG VSBY SNW ..
GJT lll¢l¢ 12 SCT 2¢ SCT C4¢ BKN SCT V BKN OCNL S-15Z 2¢ SCT C4¢ BKN
CHC C2¢ OVC RW-. 22Z C2~ BKN OCNL 5- CHC Cl¢ BKN 11/2SW-. ¢4Z MVFR
CIG.
PUB lll¢l¢ C3 X lS-F OCNL Cl¢ X 3S--F. ¢4Z IFR CIG VSBY SNW ..

Fig. 3-6. Terminal Forecast

l. The ceiling In a terminal forecast is indicated by

( the letter

2. On a terminal forecast, height of the ceiling is given in

hundreds of feet with the last two zeros omitted. When the
cloud cover is thin and does not constitute a ceiling, a C
"-" follows the height value and precedes the cloud cover
symbol. C15 means

3. Types of sky cover are given by symbols. OVC is for ceiling

1,500 feet

4. The symbol for clear skies is for

clouds that do not constitute a ceiling, but are
overcast
reported as broken, the height is given followed by

3-11
 (

5. Visibility is given in statute miles after cloud cover. C25

BKN 6 would be _ CLR
-BKN

Visibility is omitted if over six miles.

6. The restrictions to visibility are given with letters. The first

letter of the word denoting the restriction is used, except for ceiling
smoke which uses "K". The letter for: 2,500 broken
haze is _ dust is six miles
fog is ice fog is visibility
ground fog is smoke is _

7. Blowing restrictions are indicated by "B" and the first letter

of the word denoting the restriction except sand, which is an H D
"N". The letter for: F IF r
blowing dust is blowing sand is _ GF K
blowing snow is _

BD BN
BS

WINDS AND TEMPERATURES as specified on the report. When necessary, an

ALOFT FORECASTS (FD)
A winds and temperatures aloft forecast (FD)
is prepared by computer and is issued by the
National Meteorological Center at Suitland,
Maryland. It shows the forecast wind direction
and speed at various heights, and the forecast
temperature in degrees Celsius. The FD fore-
casts are based on data observed at OOOOZ and
1200Z.
They are valid for periods of 12, 18, and 24
hours after those times. Periods for which the
forecasts should be used are six and nine hours,
unscheduled, amended FD may be prepared by
a Flight Advisory Weather Service Office.
Depending on station elevation, wind forecasts
are issued for the following levels: 3,000,6,000,
9,000, 12,000, 18,000, 24,000, 30,000, 34,000,
and 39,000 feet. (See Fig. 3-7.) The first level
for which an FD is issued for a particular station
is 1,500 feet or more above the station eleva-
tion. The temperature is forecast in Celsius for
all wind levels that are 2,500 feet or more above
the station, with the exception of the 3,000-foot
level. The minus signs are deleted preceding the
temperatures at the 30,000-, 34,000-, and
(
39,OOO-foot levels.

3-12
 WEATHER DATA

An explanation of the winds and temperatures
aloft information, shown in figure 3-7, is as
follows:
1. Note that the first line after the head-
ing begins with "FT" (feet), denoting
the levels for which the forecast is
made.
2. Denver (DEN) has no forecast for
3,000 feet because that MSL height is
below the surface around Denver. No
6,000-foot value is given for DEN
because, although the 6,000 level is
above the surface, it is not quite 1,500
feet above the surface. Surface fric-
tion would make winds aloft forecasts
meaningless at the lower levels.
5.
3. The temperature is forecast for all
levels except 3,000 but is never fore-
cast for any altitude less than 2,500
feet above the surface. 6.
4. Note that the group of numbers adja-
( cent to Richmond, Virginia (RIC) for
the 3,000-foot level are 2508. The
first two numbers, 25, represent a true
wind direction of 250 0 . The last two
numbers, 08, stand for a wind speed
of eight knots. Thus, at 3,000 feet
MSL above Richmond, the winds are
forecast to be from 250 0 'at eight 7.
knots. The winds over Richmond at
30,000 feet are forecast to be from
260 0 at 79 knots, and the tempera-
ture will be _44 0 Celsius. Note that
the minus sign is deleted for the tem-
peratures above 24,000 feet, and that
no temperature is forecast for the
3,000-foot level. The winds over Rich-
mond, Virginia at 39,000 feet are
forecast to be from 250 0 at 108 knots
with a temperature of _58 0 Celsius.
When the winds are forecast to be
greater than 100 knots, the number 5
will be added to the first digit of the
wind direction so that the same num-
ber of digits may be used in the tele-
type report. A wind from 330 0 at 125
knots would be entered on the teletype
report as 8325. For winds greater than
199 knots, 5 is added to the first digit
of wind direetion and speed is written
as 99.
Wind aloft forecasts and reports
always use true directions rather than
magnetic.
It may be necessary to interpolate the
winds aloft forecast for a flight alti-
tude not stated on the winds aloft
forecast. Note that an interpolation of
the winds aloft for 21,000 feet over
Dallas, Texas would give a wind fore-
cast from 325 0 at 14 knots. The
temperature, through interpolation, is
forecast to be minus 22 0 Celsius.
When the winds are forecast to be
light and variable, the numbers
"9900" are used in place of the usual
four numbers that denote the wind
direction and velocity.

FDUS2 KWBC 241745

DATA BASED ON 2412~~Z

VALID 25~6~~Z FOR USE ~3~~-~9~~Z. TEMPS NEG ABV 24~~~

FT 3~~~ 6~~~ 9~~~ 12~~~ 18~~~ 24~~~ 3~~~~ 34~~~ 39~~~

ABI 1617+~8 1922+63 2231-~2 2453-15 2568-26 25864~ 269748 76~757

DAL 2~1l 2213+~4 2311+~5 251~-~5 311~-16 3417-28 352842 35335~ 343458
DEN 2746-11 2754-14 2768-24 2779-34 279~147 279354 277756
HOU 99~~ 99~~+~5 99~~+~~ ~9~5-~5 ~5~6-17 ~31~-28 ~llE)43 362251 362558
RIC 25~8 2519+~1 2525-~3 253~-~7 2544-19 2559- 3~ 267944 259551 75~858

Fig.3.J Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecast

3-13
 (
1. Translate the following winds aloft forecasts:
a) 3050-13
b) 3515+05
c) 3224
d) 3465-26
a)
b)
c)
d)

a) 300° at 50 knots
-13°C.
b) 350° at 15 Imots
2. In figure 3-7, the wind direction at 6,000 feet over HOD is
+50 C.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ and the velocity is _
c) 320° at 24 knots
d) 340° at 65 knots
-26°C.

3. All wind directions in winds aloft forecasts are given in variable

(
direction. calm

4. The forecast temperature for a given level is stated in degrees

true

5. A forecast for 3,000 feet at ABI (figure 3-7) is not given

because that altitude is less than feet above Celsius
ground level.
•
1,500

IN-FLIGHT ADVISORIES (FL) SIGMETs AND CONVECTIVE SIGMETs

In-flight weather advisories are provided by
the National Weather Service to give pilots
advance knowledge of potentially hazardous
weather conditions. An advisory may be one of
three types, depending upon the severity of the
weather - for severe weather there are
SIGMETs and Convective SIGMETs, while
AIRMETs are issued for moderate weather.
SIGMETs and AIRMETs are distributed by
teletype circuits and are broadcast on the voice
facility of VOR stations by flight service
stations.
SIGMET (WS) and convective SIGMET (WST)
advisories pertain to weather of concern to
pilots of both large and small airplanes.
A SIGMET (WS) is issued by Weather Service
Forecast Offices when one or more of the fol-
lowing weather conditions is known to exist or
is expected. (See Fig. 3-8.)
1. Severe or extreme turbulence
2. Severe icing
3. Widespread duststorms/sandstorms that
reduce visibility to less than three miles.

3-14
 WEATHER DATA

Convective SIGMETs (WSTs) are issued hourly
at 55 minutes past the hour or unscheduled as
necessary. (See Fig 3-8.) They are issued for
three areas, Eastern, Central and Western and
are automatically cancelled at 40 minutes past
the hour.
Convective SIGMETs (WSTs) are issued for
thunderstorm related activities as follows:
1. Tornadoes
2. Lines of thunderstorms
3. Embedded thunderstorms
4. Thunderstorm areas greater than or equal
to thunderstorm intensity level 4 with an
area coverage of 40% or more
5. Hail 'A-inch in diameter or larger
Here are the thunderstorm intensity levels
established by the National Weather Service
to indicate the probable levels of turbulence.
Levell (Weak) and Light to moderate turbu-
Level 2 (Moderate) lence is possible with
lightning
Level 3 (Strong) Severe turbulence possible,
with lightning
( Level 4 (Very Strong) Severe turbulence likely,
with lightning
Level 5 (Intense) Severe turbulence, light-
ning, organized wind gusts,
hail likely
Level 6 (Extreme) Severe turbulence, light-
ning, large hail, extensive
wind gusts
All SIGMETs are broadcast by FAA flight
service stations upon receipt and at 15 minute
intervals during the valid period. After the
first hour, if still valid, a summarized alert
notice is broadcast at 15 and 45 minutes past
the hour. As an example, a summarized alert
notice would read as follows:
"A SIGMET is current for a sqallline ex-
tending north and south through central
Nebraska."
Each FSS within 150 miles of the reported phe-
nomena will broadcast the SIGMET_
AIRMETs
AIRMET (WA/WAC) advisories pertain pri-
marily to weather of concern to pilots of light
aircraft. These advisories are issued when one
or more of the following weather phenomena
are known to exist or are expected. (See Fig_
3-9.)
1. Moderate icing
2. Moderate turbulence
3. Winds of 30 knots or more within 2,000
feet of the ground
4. Extensive areas of ceilings of less than
1,000 feet or visibility of less than 3 miles
including mountain ridges and passes
AIRMET advisories are broadcast by flight
service stations in the area with which the
AIRMET is concerned at 15 and 45 minutes
past the first hour after issuance. Thereafter, a
summarized alert notice is broadcast at these
same intervals.

SIGMET
DEN WS 172230
172 300-180300
SIGMET BRAVO 1. FLT PRCTNS. MOST ERN FOURTH COLO AND SRN NEB PNHDL
FEW SVR TSTMS WITH TOPS TO 500. CONDS CONTG BYD 03Z.
CONVECTIVE SIGMET
MKCC WST 201835
CONVECTIVE SIGMET 17
KS OK
FROM 50E GCK TO 20E GAG
LN BKN TSTMS 25 WIDE fVOVG FROM 2B25 WITH AN INTS LVL5ffCELL.
TOPS TO 450 ... HAIL TO 1 IN ... WIND GUSTS TO 55.
CONDS EXPCD TO INTSFY.
Fig. 3-8. SIGMET and Convective SIGMET

3·15

SLC WA 22111411
221121111-221161111
AIRMET ALFA 23. FLT PRCTNS. LCL AREA CIGS LESS THAN 1 THSD ABV GND AND/DR
VSBYS LESS THAN 3 MIS IN FDG AND/OR SMK VLYS NERN NEV NWRN UTAH
AND EXTRM SRN BDR AREAS SRN IDA. CONT BYD 1I6Z.
Fig. 3-9. In-Flight Advisory (AIRMET)
The sample Salt Lake City (SLC) AIRMET,
shown in figure 3-9, reads like this:
"Local area ceilings less than one thou-
sand feet above ground and/or visibilites
less than three miles in fog and/or smoke
in the valleys of northeastern Nevada,
northwestern Utah, and the extreme
southern border areas of southern Idaho.
Continuing beyond 0600 Zulu."
ENROUTE FLIGHT ADVISORY SERVICE
The FAA has developed an enroute flight
advisory service (Flight Watch) to provide spe-
cific enroute weather information. This service
is available to all pilots at selected flight ser-
vice stations throughout the United States.
Each of the selected flight service stations pro-
vide the enroute flight advisory service in its
own geographical area and the area served by its
remote communications outlets. To request this
"weather only" service, the appropriate call sign
and the words "Flight Watch" should be trans-
mitted. For example, "Seattle Flight Watch"
should be used when calling for Seattle weather.
The communications frequency used for this
service is 122.00 MHz.
Flight Watch enables pilots to obtain routing
weather information plus current reports on
the location of thunderstorms and other haz-
ardous weather, as observed and reported by
pilots or noted on radar. Many flight service
stations east of the Rocky Mountains now
have weather radar repeaterscopes and per-
sonnel trained to brief directly from them.
PILOT REPORTS,OR PIREPS (UA)
Since weather observers on the ground cannot
always determine weather conditions at altitude,
the weather service and air traffic control facili-
ties always encourage airborne pilots to provide
reports on weather phenomena aloft.
3-16
(
These reports greatly aid in the control of air
traffic and in advising other pilots of prevailing
conditions. A PIREP is especially useful when
unforecast weather develops between -reporting
stations or over remote regions.
Although pilots are not trained weather observ-
ers, they usually have the advantage of being in
the right place at the right time to see the
weather as it occurs and changes. If a pilot ob-
serves weather that looks as though it could be
of concern, or even hazardous, to other pilots in
the vicinity, it should be reported to the nearest
flight service station or ATe facility.
A PIREP contains just the weather information
that the pilot who made the report considered (
to be pertinent. When the PIREP is redistributed
by teletype, the aircraft type is affixed to the
end of the report so other pilots can take that
into consideration when interpreting the PIREP.
The sample computerized-format summary of
PIREPs, shown in figure 3-10, was issued by
the National Weather Service at Washington.
THE PICTORIAL WEATHER
CHARTS
Most National Weather Service offices and some
flight service stations are now equipped with
facsimile machines. These machines reproduce
charts that are transmitted by wire from central
locations, where they are drawn periodically by
specialists or plotted by computers. The pic-
torial weather charts enable pilots and briefers
to see graphic illustrations or "pictures" of
weather conditions.
Weather charts of any kind are most effective
when used only to learn large-scale weather
trends and general patterns - a briefer who is
familiar with local aviation weather should be
consulted for details and local variations.
 WEATHER DATA

(
l. Special reports of hazardous conditions in a general area are
called and
I
2. AIRMETs are broadcast at and A IRME Ts
minutes after the first hour. SIGMETs

3. AIRMETs pertain to weather which is of concern to pilots 15

of aircraft. 45

4. Since SIGMETs pertain to very severe weather, they are also

light
of concern to pilots of aircraft.

5. The frequency reserved for enroute flight advisory service is

illrge
MHz.
6. To receive enroute flight advisory service in the Oakland
122.0 I

area, a pilot should call "Oakland

7. Some of the most valuable weather information
issued by flight watch stations consists of Flight Watch
reported by other pilots.
( ,

PIREPs

CODED PIREP
UA/OV DCA 275'45 1745 F33'/TP B727/SK 185 BKN 22'/28' THN-OVC
29'/TA -53/WV 29'12'/TB LGT-MDT-CAT ABV-31'
DECODED PIREP
Washington 275 radial 45 NM at 1745Z/altitude-flight level 33,OOO/type aircraft-Boeing 727/two layers of clouds:
1st layer base 18,500 broken top 22,000, 2nd layer base 28,000 thin overcast top 29,OOO/outside air temperature
minus 53 degrees celsius/spot wind-290 degrees true at 120 kts./light to moderate clear turbulence above 31,000.

CODE EXPLANATIONS
UUA - Urgent pilot report
UA Message type (Pilot report)
OV Locations (navaid identification, bearing from navaid, distance from navaid. routE! segment. time altitude in
hundreds of feet)
F Flight level or altitude
TP Type aircraft
SK Cloud base and top (multiple layers separated by II
TA Temperature (oC)
WV Airborne computer-derived wind data {three-digit direction; three-digit speed, kts.l
TB Turbulence
JC Icing
WX Conditions not reported in previous sections

Fig. 3·10. Computer-Coded PIREPs

3-17
 /
\

NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICfl.,

, 12002 FRI. JULY 2 19 . ~
70. NMC SFC ANALYSIS
ASUS ,0, 70

Fig. 3-11. Surface Analvsis Chart

3·18
 WEATHER DATA

3-19
To complete many of the following exercises, refer to the surface analysis chart in figure 3-11_

1. The surface analysis chart in figure 3-11 is based on weather

data that existed at Zulu_

2. The surface analysis chart is issued every _

1200
hours.

3. A circle that is half black and half white indicates that the
three
cloud coverage IS -tenths of the sky.

4. The speed of the wind is indicated by lines and flags. The

five
velocity of the wind is given in
knots. m.p.h.
I
I
5. The surface temperature is given in degrees knots
Fahrenheit, Celsius

6. The type of front extending through southern Idaho is a

Fahrenheit
front.
I

7. The barometric pressure in the low pressure area over eastern

cold
Montana is millibars.
I

8. The front extending through South Dakota is a

1007
front.

9. The isobar through Utah represents a barometric pressure of

stationary
millibars.

10. It can be assumed that the closer the isobars, the higher the
1012
wind

~ I I
velocity

3-20

THE SURFACE ANALYSIS CHART
The surface chart in figure 3-11 is of funda-
mental importance to the pilot. Issued every
three hours, it shows wind velocity and direc-
tion, temperature, dewpoint, and other specific
data. In addition, it provides a general picture of
atmospheric pressure patterns at the surface by
showing the positions of highs, lows, and fronts.
The location of each reporting station is printed
on the map as a small circle. The weather infor-
mation is arranged around the station circle in a
standard pattern called a station model. Figure
3-12 shows a station model with an explanation
of the symbols and their arrangement.
Atmospheric pressure is shown at each station
and the map has isobars - lines which connect
points of equal pressure. Isobars also serve
another purpose: they can be used to indicate
the relative velocity of surface winds. Where the
isobars are close together, the pressure change is
rapid and the winds will be strong; where the
isobars are far apart, the wind will be light.
( such as rain showers (
The wind direction and speed is shown in each
station model by an arrow. The station circle is
the "arrowhead" and points in the direction the
wind is blowing. Each feather on the arrow
represents a wind speed of 10 knots and each
half feather represents five knots. A flag on the
arrow means a 50 knot wind. An arrow with two
and one-half feathers indicates a wind of 25
knots.
WEATHER DEPICTION CHART
The weather depiction chart shows a simplified
picture of aviation weather over the contermi-
1. Any briefing facility receives the pictorial weather charts if
the facility is equipped with
2. A weather depiction chart shows a picture of _----,_---,,-;-
weather conditions.
WEATHER DATA
nous 48 states. (See Fig. 3-13.) Much informa-
tion is presented by use of only a few symbols.
All areas with ceilings of less than 1,000 feet
and/or visibilities of less than three miles are
enclosed by a smooth, solid line. Normally, only
instrument flights can be conducted within
those areas. Areas with marginal VFR weather
are enclosed by a scalloped line and, within those
areas, ceilings are from 1,000 feet to 3,000 feet;
visibilities are three to five miles. The lines may
enclose only one station or several states. No
lines are drawn around areas with ceilings above
3,000 feet and visibilities over five miles.
At each station on the chart, the sky coverage,
cloud height above ground, visibility, and precip-
itation are given, along with any important
observed weather. The circle around each station
is marked to symbolize the sky coverage of the
ceiling height or, if no ceiling exists, the lowest
clouds such as: clear conditions (0), scattered
( ~), broken (a), ove:rcast (.), overcast with
breaks (0 ), or obscured (IX> ). Cloud base height
is given just below each station circle in hundreds
of feet. Immediately to the left of each circle,
symbols show restrictions to visibility, if any,
v).
Farther to the left is
the visibility in miles. No visibility value is given
if the visibility is greater than six miles. The
weather depiction chart legend in figure 3-14
should be studied so the chart can be read and
interpreted easily.
The weather depiction chart is released every
three hours, one and one-half hours after the
surface aviation weather reports. The two
charts should be used together and the latest
aviation weather reports should be consulted
to get an up· to-date weather picture since the
latest chart may be as much as four and one-
half hours old.
machines.
_
observed, forecast facsimile
3-21
 (
3. These charts are issued every hours and
observed
they are only large-scale, simplified weather depictions.

4. The ceilings and visibility within an area enclosed

by a smooth. solid Ii ne are less tha n
three
feet and miles
(either or both conditions may exist).

5. Scalloped lines enclose areas of VFR

1,000
weather, with ceilings between 1,000 and
three
feet, and visibilities of three to five miles.

6. The information given at each station consists of sky

I
, cloud height above , marginal
visibility, and , along with important ob- 3,000
served weather.
I
7. The cloud height is that of the lowest significant cloud layer coverage (
and is always given in of feet above the ground
station. precipitation

I
8. If "5 ~ " appears just to the left of a station, the visibility is
,and the restrictions hundreds
to visibility includes
I

9. If no numbers appear to the left of the station. five miles

then the visibility is greater than rain showers

10. Since a weather depiction chart may become several hours

old before it is replaced, an up-to-date briefing should be six
obtained by reading aviation weather
reports and other data.
I
I I
surface (

3·22
 /"

....., d Ill. ol.", ... t. In the .9'l'ATlON MODEl. art ent,.te1 In ........... hl~~ cllJl bt "'lo'Pnted dlr-':U,.
EXPLANATION OF WEATHER STATION MODEL AND SYMBOLS So",o, _ ........ ",,~I" .of....... to ~_ \.till .. and lilt.. STATION ..0011. om.I...... do"".1bod In
tbO ~I . . I>olow:

At Weather Burcau oHlcell, maps showing conditions at the earth's surface are drawn
0: tlmell .:Iail)' or oftener, The locatlon of the reporting slation Is printed on the map as a oe"".l.pUoo OuulptlOO Do""rlptl'"
small circle. A d..>flnll.: arrangement of the data aroun~ the station circle, called tho CL (Ab.ktJ~ F"'m W.... o. Cod.) CM fA!>.ldltel F.- w. M. O. Cod.) CH (Abrlde'" F...", W. M. o. Cod.)
station model, Is used. The station model Is based on international agreements. Thru
such standudl:r.ed lise of numerals and :l)'mbols, II. meteorologist of one country can lise
the woather maps of another country even though he does not un:lerstaod the language.
An abridged desc.rlpllon of the llymbols is presented below.
0 ._.
Cu '" f.1r .....tIl.., lttll. nrtkal
dntlapmelll and _"''''1,o.t-
Th'" ,u ( _ t d.
L.. .."'1."......._'.
<1_ layer 'IIUOlOftU d. CI. or .....ar..
t&lI.", ...011101"0<1 and_
- ' 110I:...........

l I--- I--

J/J
Cu'" could.robl. d"'lop",••l,
I-- 0.:.... Clln pUch. . or l.... tt'"
-'IJlJ, Thle:k A.......t•• pul ....
Wind speed In STATION MODEL J
Cloud type. (Alia-
Q c_rall,
_ _ .co -..till o.
or SC b.... 011 -..till·
01 £. 11~lOnll, d _ 10 hldt ....
1-"
.......... uuall, _ Ine.........
tom""",,," lih ...... Lnt of Cb;
Knots. (21 to 25 Cloud type. ~/1 cumulus.) _ _ In.1. (or "'00IIl, .... N•.
o. tow....... tIIft&
miles pCI' hoW'.) (Cirrus) I--- Cb -..till top. laeklnc el.... ·~1Il
I-- I--
Thin A~. mooll, '''''1- DorIo" CI, ofl... OJIYlI_.hap"',
~ sure
B~om"," ol4llnflt, l>ut dlotlnell, IIOt

~
p,,,. 1.....100....t; ~l_ .l.....nlt -,
~ j
•I of sea level]nl cl•• lSo.... or IlJIYlI.lhapfld; with ~ d•• l.... 1'0"' or ....oclal'"
ftOt ~hanJll1l1 ",IlCh r.nd It I with Cb.
o' wltholll C~. SC, o. 91. .1...1.1...1.
(Blow'., 'com U"
northwest.)
"H u," , " 10 .mltt"'.
(1024.7 millibars.)
I-- Thin IIc '" pile"'.: clO\ld .1.·
I-- CI. dl.... hool<_aIIIpod, cnd.

Temperature Ln ~ Amount of baro-

I--
-0- SC fo.med b, sp.ud .... _
C~ <tI".
p.".ot 0110.
'" C.
6'
I--
",...t. cOOltlnllall, elllllJlrc
and/or oce""lIIlI 01 "'0" \hIn
_ 1... 1.
/ u..>.ll, ......dlne ..... r tbO tty
and ,,".,..n,lhlckenlllll'"
.,I'lolc.

~N 31~
." degrees Fahrenheit. metric challle In
T~1n Ae '" band..... In. II,••
I-- CI and C., dtn '" ~"".. rclof;

~
-!JJ past 3 hours. On 1tuId•• or C. 01_; l".. raIl,
~. SC _ fo.mtelby .nadlnc

u:2.
Jl'1ll1ltt1, ....ad... Oft • ...,.
Total amount or tenths of millibars.)
I---
-.r _oIC...
......
on:! otnall1 thick""", . . . L.... Oft.spr..... 1of; r.nd Jl'0W\nJ
11_; the coMlo_. I.,••
_ .....hlnc 45" oIUtud••

'~"
clouds. (Sky com- I--
pletely covered.) ~ 247 ~ Barometric tend-
I-- CI and C" oItn In ~""...cto.

- /
'*
bandt, or C. 01""'; pM'a11,
YJ 91 o.1'. or botb, ..... t""F.ot ("<,
Visibility. (3/4 I--- 3/4 + 28 ?
ency In past 3 hours.
(Rlslng steadily or
I--
11.........1ht••
I--
Ac lo.motlllr' tM ","adlac_
"0.
I--
....rsp.".... 1nc and ~
lit....; tI>e coot"'_o I.,..

]' """-Inc U" oIm......

0 I
miles.) unsteadily.)

g- Present state of
weather. (Contln-
~O - - - 6 •
~ showing
Plus or minus sign
whether
--- ( .....,.
F. and/or F~ d. bad ....Ill••
~
Dolbl'·I.,.,.tcI AC, 0. olhlck
1',., of Ac, 001 1.......1",; o.
Ae -..ttll A. and/O, N•.
Ll. V.u
.~.
d. C.....".!nJ th" enU"

I--- I-- I--

O> " " ,U,hI ",ow"
~2
~ p",,~, I. hl,h" "
~~~' lh~ lh",,,
"'-'
C. and Sc (_ lo.",ed b, .pro""·
.I.e In til, 10'''' d. Cu-"',ptd C. _ Incr.,.."" and not 0""_
.45 0
111II out 01 CuI wllhll.... ,.<lU_
M -" "'10& ,.11.. •q.
[ n,k".) f.....II..... ls. I"'t. o. lie with t".....

~
1

l
Dewpolntln de-
P ""YInJ' d".rt, flbr"". (d..1 lie 01 0 c_1e: ol<J. u\loIl,.1
o
grees Fahrenheit.
C
TLme preclpltallon
began or ended. (Be- B ormll.... 011." aJI'tII.tIIapotI• .,11
.wI~Cu,Sc.91, ......."".
dlft_llt t...l.; paI~M. of d ....
Clor...... lIy pr".,,"
.100.
Co 01...... or C~ wltIl SOme Cl
.... C,. _ 1lMI Cc ..... Inc the maUl
drrUor", cl_.
Nh
" Cloud type.(Fracy L gan 3 to 4 hours ago.)

~
toslratus am/or
rractocumulus.) 1
Amount of cloud
Weather In past 6
hours. (italn.)
,,-
Abb• ..nallon Rt
TI",. of
Proclpltallon h
H,,,ht 10 " ...
lR_teI01l) N Nh SllyC""'nce
iil' IIclght of c10uci ~ h whose height Is re-
i;l base (300 to 599 ported by "h". (Seven Amount or preelpt-
l> feeL) or eight tenUlsJ taUon In last 6 hours.
91 or f.·91ralu
o. 1'.aetOOltllUS 0 1'10 F.ec1pltalion. 0 (I _ I~Q

0 0 NOd""" •.

~
WEATIIER SYMBOLS
- f--
AREA SYMBOLS

'0. .. Snow '7 Showers

Storm
9 Tropical Revolving
Shower Area V
CI·Clr ....

-
I t, . . . 11wl1
-~.
I
I--
I~O _ UQ
CD I I.e... tIlan "".·t••1h
O.On.·I... tII

r<:
Thunderstorm
~ Thunderstorm Area ~
• <laln
9 --lee Needles ==Fog
-*"",Severe Line Squall
... Hail
C• .cl.....I••tut 2 1102_.11I0 2 )00·5" 2 Two and tbr... • ...lltllt

'"
~
~
, Drl'z.z.le " Lightning J-.... ...A.Moderate, Severe - I--
~
Turbulence Precipitation Area:
.&:l. Sleet "'1 Squalls 'it' WModerate, Severe Solid Green - - - _ Continuous C~-Clrrocum\ll... 3 2 t o ' - ' 1 1£0 3 eoo·_ 3 F....... I... tIIt
'5-
Dust or sand , Dust DeVil Aircraft Icirlll: Green H:l.tchlng: ~ ~ Intermittent - I--
Storm ... Marked Mountain
OQHaze
)( Funnel Clouci
Waves
Solid Yellow - - - -Fog:
SOlid Brown _ - _ _ Dust
1I~·AItOC\lm""•• 4 , 10 4 hOw"l 11I0 4 1,000 _ l.~"
() 4 f'1•• _t ...tlIl

Ii'J Freezing Rain - I--

Monochromatlc method:
FRONTAL SYMBOLS
Polychromatic method:
A.·Altostr.tu.

f--
5 4105hOw".1II0 5
I--
2.000 _ J,4"
Et 5 S!l<_ttntll.

A
Cold ... ...
Warm. •
.....
•
...
•
....
•
..
•
Solid BLue Line
Solid Red Line
_
_
SC·91 ••t..,""'....u.

f--
6 5Ioe_..... 6 ',~OO. 4,"8
~ 6 Sown and .ICM·tonth. ::0
m
I-- >
Occluded • ... • ... • ... . . . . Solid Purple Llne _ N.·I'II_lral'U 7 .1012-...... 7 1,000. ',4"
0 7 NIo.· .....U'O .... "".r_
~ut 011110 "'II"l.InI••
~

•
::t:
Upper Cold .A..A..A, .A,.A,.A, A DashedBlueLlne _ f-- I-- m
Upper Warm a a a a a C Dashed Red Line _
Cu or FO-Cu"'w....
or , •..,toe"""\11,,, 8 Mor.1hu II
_·110 8 '.$00 _?tH 8 Complel<l,onrcul
:%l
C
w
'-- I--
~
stationary • • • • . Alternating BLue" AI 0. tboYo
N
w
T T T T Red Solid Line
Cb-C,,"'....""''''b... 9 .~ 9 t,OOO. 0. ""
cloud. 0 9 51<,_0.,,,,,
>
...
...
N

~l .

."
~.

'~"
~
"S-
~

"".
~

g'
9
~

MVFR CEILING 1000·3000 FT INCLUSIVE

ANDIOR VISIBILITY 3-5 MILES INCLUSIVE

-0-~\
VFR CEILING MORE THAN 3000 FEET
AND VISIBILITY MORE THAN 5 MILES

, ~

-"
 WEATHER DATA

MODEL SKY COVER SIGNIFICANT WEATHER

WEATHER AND
RESTRICTION TO VISIBILITY 18) OBSCURED SYMBOLS ARE COM-
t 0 CLEAR MON TO SURFACE
I 3='I...--TOTAL
-15 SKY COVER ~or~SCATTERED
'I BROKEN
CHARTS WITH THE
FOLLOWING EX-
VISIBILITY
(6 OR LESS)
' " CLOUD HEIGHT
(UP THRU 20,000 FT) • OVERCAST
CEPTION WHICH IS
FOUND ONLY ON
WEATHER DEPIG-
DEPICTION AREA LIMITS EXAMPLES TION CHARTS.
) IFR CEILING UNDER 1000 FT ~=15Scr 1<?0"15£lScr
C AND/OR VISIBILITY UNDER 3
MVFR CEILING 1000 FT TO ~ = 10SCT C90BKN
c::::J 3000 FT AND/OR VISIBILITY
3 TO 5 MILES.
'I = 10BKN ITo"180BKN
10
• = 1800VC 18)= 5X
VFR CEILING ABOVE 3000 FT 180
VISIBILITY 5 MILES OR MORE
5 =*= CLOUDS TOPPING
RIDGE
(THE LOWER VALUE OF CEILING OR • =OVC ABV 20,000 IT
VISIBILITY DETERMINES THE CLASS)
NOTES: I. IF CEILING IS BELOW 20.000. THE NUMBER IS THE CEILING HEIGHT.
2. IF CLOUD-BASE IS ABOVE 20.000. NO NUMBER APPEARS.
3. IF ONLY SCATTERED CLOUDS. THE NUMBER IS THE HEIGHT ABOVE GROUND.
4. CEILING TAKES PRECEDENCE OVER A LOWER SCATTERED HEIGHT;
I.E. 40Scr C1000VC IS PLOTTED I!O
5. VISIBILITY IS PLOTTED IF 6 MILES OR LESS.
(
Fig. 3-14. Weather Depiction Chart Symbols

LOW-LEVEL PROGNOSTIC Low-level prognosis charts are issued four times

CHARTS
Low-level prognostic charts show pictorial fore-
casts for the 48 conterminous states. Each chart
contains four panels. A prognosis, or forecast,
for a time 12 hours after the data collection
time is pictured in the left-hand panels. The
right-hand panels depict the weather outlook for
a time 24 hours after the data collection time.
(See Fig. 3-15.)
The two panels on the right (valid for 24 hours)
will contain the same information as the panels
on the left (valid for 12 hours), but will indicate
the movement expected between the two time
frames. The two upper panels portray low and
middle cloud coverage, forecast locations of the
freezing level (altitude above MSL where the
temperature is exactly zero degrees Celsius), and
clear air turbulence (CAT) areas. The two lower
panels picture the predicted positions of major
weather systems such as fronts, highs, and lows,
as well as precipitation areas.
a day, or every six hours. The "valid time" of
each panel appears in the lower left-hand corner
of that panel. For example, the weather picture
in a left-hand panel containing "VT1800Z WED
APR 26" represents a prediction of the weather
situation that is expected to exist at 6:00 p.m.
Zulu time on the twenty sixth day of April.
On the lower chart panels, an area that is
expected to have showers will be enclosed by a
line of dots and dashes. If precipitation is
expected to be more persistent (continuous or
intermittent), a solid line is used and the
enclosed area will be shaded. Arrows may be
used to show the predicted direction of move-
ment of a front. The speed of the front (in
knots) is often shown near the arrows. Symbols
are used to show where fog, turbulence, and
thunderstorms are expected. Cloud bases and
tops are sometimes shown by a horizontal line
with the forecast heights of the cloud tops
written above the line and the cloud base heights
below the line. Heights are given in hundreds of

3-25
""en
N

-40
• ..... \ : /
3l°F
,"{. / 80 - - ----
32'·F'.
_-.. 40
I

\ ..... ,.'\,0',/
, " ./
"
....
"
.:
",
....
\
\' .
" l ,.'
;
\ \
\ 1:\
."
<is.
t.J
\.A*, "-I.
\-: """'--
I
"0 $Hf"SfO~Sl'(Clf'C
flICIH'lNjNINGONl'f
I
~.......
J...... Jlrl \
i--
"- "--40
, --,. ~ "4.L
~ "" 'lAMIHA' fORECASTS \ \

r- ........ CIILING lUI TH"'H '000 fT ANOIOll

~ _1_
'I (/
"YIS'6IL'IYLUITHANlMllES ........

r- ............ [llING1000JOOOfTINCLUSIV[ilNOIO
Cl)
Oi_
~
VT1800Z WEe APR 26 19
12HRSIGWEATHERPROG
N53. lOW LEVEL SFC 400MB
"PV ..........
1<0
............... D,.
.....
YISINILITVJ5M'LUINCLU$IV[

(MODU' ... lllOAOHE ... T€ATUABULENCE \

-... / ~'
.........
VT0600Z THU APR 27 19
~,ZO
J

'§ TSTMS IMPLY MDT OR GTR TURBC ~-------j ,. 24HR SIG WEATHER PROG
~ SEE PANELS B E L O W " ....•. fAfUlNGLEVELAUUAfACE N53 LOW LEVEL SFC 400 MB

~~ ./~./. _ IV /420)
~.//v
,r
~~
\ /.---""'"-:21;7
_ r ,{
. ,",,0"1 !~,4j"iJ
. ",ij If"", I
~
:;, /JI....."".
-Q 10
- Yll, (~"'-;; ,y
J ) ~
l 1I1T
"-. l r0 1
~ .,) " :!IJl~ . ~
~. ~__\~ ~ ~ /5 I 'le-"""/S
"~
~ J ~' C',,); •

r,
\ /.. . ' , ' J • \ r

.. \\-~ ~!2ZbJ"'- , ~ i~d .

;
i
......

VT1BOOZ WED APR 26 19

°12:~
•
~1
5
•/
J <'....... ~'\~~ .•. ..,
'\
r /--

VT0600Z THU APR 27 19

,

S1\
/ ...... ,

/5
I~~~
.
'f~
I
2 ~.~\.
.
I
~,
1{z,1)

N53 12HR SURFACE PAOG ~ N53 24HR SURFACE PROG

r'
 WEATHER DATA

FORECAST CLOUD AREAS CONTINUOUS OR INTERMITTENT PRECIPITATION TURBULENCE

CEILING BELOW 1,000
lESS THAN 0.5 AREA
C) FEET AND/OR ( )
VISIBILITY BELOW COVERAGE r----..
3 MILES. '-----}
MODERATE

<: :::: ::)

CEILING 1,000 TO

;::~~e:,~~B~~~~VE
C:::.·O 0.5 OR MORE AREA
COVERAGE OR GREATER

3TQ 5 MILES
INCLUSIVE.
• INTERMITTENT RAIN

--- FREEZING LEVEL MSL

(4000-FOOT INTERVALS) • • CONTI NUOUS RAI N /\
LIGHT
INTERSECTION OF
•• 32°•• TURBULANCE
FREEZING LEVEL WITH
SURFACE * INTERMITTENT SNOW

~
EXTENSIVE FOG!
STRATUS ** CONTINUOUS SNOW

A
FRONTS SHOWERS MODERATE
r- e - . , LESS THAN 0.5 AREA TUABULANCE
FIRST DIGIT TYPE •'-- .-e--'• COVERAGE

SECOND DIGIT INTENSITY

C-·:J
.'.-. 0.5 OR MORE AREA
COVERAGE
THIRD DIGIT CHARACTER
•
\l RAI N SHQWE AS A
A28] *
\l
Ii
SNOW SHOWERS

THUNDERSTORMS
SEVERE
TURBULANCE

Fig. 3-16. Low-Level Prognostic Chart Symbols

feet, as in most other reports and forecasts. For
example, 130-140 stands for forecast tops of
13,000 feet to 14,000 feet above MSL. In this
case the cloud bases are not forecast.
The ceiling and visibility legend is the same as
that used with the weather depiction chart. The
smooth lines in figure 3-15, enclose areas where
the ceiling is expected to be below 1,000 feet
AGL and/or visibility less than three miles.
Those areas with expected ceilings from 1,000 to
3,000 feet AGL and/or visibilities of three to
five miles are enclosed in scalloped lines.
A dotted line broken only by the figure "32 0 "
indicates the predicted location of the freezing
isotherm at the surface. An isotherm is a line of
equal temperature (just as an isobar is a line of
equal pressure). This freezing isotherm is a line
north of which all temperatures are below freez-
ing at the earth's surface. The broken lines
represent heights, in hundreds of feet, of the
forecast freezing level. That is, a line broken by
a "40" shows where the freezing level will be at
4,000 feet MSL. All air temperatures will be
below freezing at altitudes above 4,000 feet at
all locations along the broken line. A pilot
planning to fly in the vicinity of 4,000 feet
north of that line should expect to encounter
icing if flying in a visible moisture.
Symbols are used to portray forecast fog or low
stratus clouds and to depict areas of turbulence.
A spike (--A.-) with "160" printed below
the spike means that moderate turbulence is
predicted below 16,000 feet MSL in the area of
the spike symbol. Figure 3-16 shows the weather
symbols used on the low-level prognosis chart.

1. The valid time on each panel is the time when the predicted
weather conditions are expected to _

3·27
 (
2. Showers are expected to occur with an area enclosed by a I
exist
line of and
I
3. If continuous or intermittent precipitation such as drizzle is
dots
forecast, the area will be enclosed by a
dashes
line.

4. The symbols $/ff///I/, A , and ~ on a prog chart represent

forecast , and solid

5. If "120" appears on a prog chart as a cloud height, freezing fog

level, or turbulence height, that altitude should be read as turbulence
feet. thunderstorms

6. ScaUoped lines on the upper panels enclose areas

12,000
forecast to have due to ceilings
and/or visibilities. (
7. A line of scallops would surround an area where the ceiling
MVFR
is expected to be to thousand feet.

8. Altitudes above which air will be colder than 32° Fahrenheit

are shown by lines of dashes and are called freezing one
three
, or freezing levels.

9. A "40" printed on a broken line shows that temperatures

freezing are predicted above an altitude of isotherms
feet.

10. A dotted line marked "32°" shows where the freezing

4,000
level is expected to be at the

11. The symbol .A 'f0 denotes severe turbulence

surface
above, below
4,000 feet.

above
,
(

3·28

THE RADAR SUMMARY CHART
The radar summary chart is another excellent
aid for preflight briefing. This chart provides a
graphic illustration of certain severe weather
phenomena which is especially relevant to
flight operations. Weather with a heavy mois-
ture content, such as heavy rain, hail, severe
icing, and severe turbulence, produces a dis-
tinctive radar return or "echo." These echoes
are analyzed on special weather service radars
and plotted to show the configuration, height,
location, and movement. Generally, the
weather conditions which produce concentra-
ted echo patterns are thunderstorms, torna-
does, and hurricanes. Radar summary facsimile
charts are prepared from a network of weather
radars. They are transmitted on Service A tele-
typewriters and to subscribers on the facsimile
circuit.
Areas of echoes are surrounded by irregular
solid lines. Speed and direction of movement
of the echo area or individual cells are given.
One of the most important features of the
( radar summary is that it shows the height of
echo tops. However, some weather phenomena
such as thunderstorms can change so rapidly
that the radar summary cannot be depended
upon for details like cloud tops. Echo tops of
40,000 feet would be shown as 400. The actual
cloud tops may be much higher than the values
shown.
A typical National Weather Service radar
summary chart is shown in figure 3-17. Some
of the most significant features of this chart
are indicated by the callouts. Item 1, the area
enclosed by irregular lines, shows the lowest
plotted intensity level. Item 2, 3RW-, indicates
that three-tenths of the area is covered by rain
showers with decreasing intensity. Item 3
shows one of the highest echo tops at 40,000
feet. Item 4 is a standard wind speed and
direction symbol showing the movement ofthe
line or area of echoes. Other symbols used on
this chart are shown in figure 3-18.
Keep in mind that the speed, direction, and
intensity of thunderstorms and squall lines
can change very rapidly. If the radar sum-
mary chart reveals echoes near the path of
WEATHER DATA
flight, the pilot should monitor their move-
ment in-flight using Flight Watch services.
UPPER AIR CHARTS
CONSTANT-PRESSURE CHARTS
Horizontal analyses of the upper atmosphere are
made for selected constant pressure surfaces
(irregular, nearly hoJrizontal surfaces in the
atmosphere where the atmospheric pressure is
anywhere equal). Data from rawinsonde (radio
wind and sounding) observations are plotted on
a chart for each of the selected constant-pressure
levels. (See Figs. 3-19 and 3-20.) Plotted data on
each chart is in the format of a standard station
model. Station models for the various constant
pressure charts are similar in that height, tem-
perature, and wind are always plotted; however,
there are variations in the plotting of dewpoint
and height change values.
CONSTANT-PRESSURE ANALYSIS
Upper air analysis chans are transmitted twice
daily for the following constant pressure sur-
faces: 850, 700, 500, 300, and 200 millibar
levels. (See Fig. 3-21.)
Measurements of temperature, humidity, pres-
sure, and wind in the upper atmosphere are
furnished primarily from rawinsonde observa-
tions. These are obtained by sending a balloon
aloft with miniature weather observing gear. In
the United States, rawinsonde observations are
taken almost exclusively by the National
Weather Service and are scheduled twice daily.
Supplementary upper wind observations are also
taken in a few locations. Upper air observations
provide the "raw data" for analysis of the upper
atmosphere_ These analyses, in turn, serve as the
basis for prognostic charts and forecasts.
CONSTANT -PRESSURE
PROGNOSTIC CHARTS
Forecasts of the upper air conditions are called
prognostic charts and! are distributed on fac-
simile charts through the National Weather
Service circuits.
Twenty-four-hour prognostic charts for the 850,
700, 500, 300, and 200 millibar levels are pre-
pared twice daily based on analyzed data. (See
3-29
 \

--
\

-- , .
WI
2
et/, :'. ~
o--~J ~t
.-- ... :a .

o-ffi~
en I
a: > 1
w
::I:
a:
<l: ...entoo
too :E u
I-J------- :E
~
0
...
...
z:
,..+
l ...J
0
...
::l
en
a:
N

II:
; I
i ~1
,- 1
<l:
0
<l:
a:
N
LIl
M
...
M

i~
I

I f
I
(
Fig. 3·17. Radar Summary Chart

3-30
 WEATHER DATA

Echo Coyerage Intensity and Intensity Trend 01 Reder Echo Preclpltetlon

symbol meaning called symbol

- - meaning

jSLDI oyer 9/10 solid

~ intensity level 1

ISKNI 6/10 to 9/10 broken ~

(light and moderate)

1110 to 5/10 scattered

~
ISCTI intensity level 3
(heaYy and yery heaYy)
symbol meaning

~
intensity level 5
h Ino
equIpment op....tlng but
(intense and extreme)
NE no ac 0 echoes obsliNed

NA observation not available Intensity Trend

OM equipment out for maintenance + new or increasing intensity

• strong cell identified

one station
by - decreasing intensity

Echo Pattern Movement of Echoes Height of Basa and Top of Echoas

( • line of echoes
---+20 echoes are moving 240 lop of echo is 24,000' MSL
at 20 knots 80
E3 area of echoes base of echo is 8,000' MSL

./ line or area is
Absence of a li.gure beiow the
··"'-- .
~--1

-~
dashed lines define area
of severe weather
10 knots
per bem
moving at 20 knots
line indicates the echo base
was not reported.

Fig. 3-18. Radar Summary Chart Symbols

Fig. 3-21.) A constant-pressure prognostic chart
(commonly called a prog chart or prog) shows
the expected height pattern at a specified future
time. Forecast values. of other elements such as
isotachs (lines of equal wind velocity) and iso-
therms (lines of equal temperatures) may be
superimposed. Prog charts resemble analyzed
charts. Contours are drawn and labeled in the
same manner as the analysis.
The progs show forecast positions of high and
low centers. They show wind speed for the same
intervals as the analysis. The 300 mb prog has
isotherms; there are dotted lines with tem-
perature label circles. The 500 and 200 mb
progs do not have isotherms. Axes of maximum
wind do not appear on constant-pressure prog-
nostic charts.
HIGHS AND LOWS
The centers of highs and lows are depicted in the
usual manner. On a constant-pressure chart, they
represent centers of high and low height values.
However, these centers coincide with centers of
high or low pressure. Height centers have the
same relationship to c:ontours on a constant-
pressure chart as pressure centers have to isobars
on a surface chart,

3-31
.,. '/"
~
,,
'"
N

."
~.

'~"
~ ~
C:) ,.~

~
~ d~::
~""'"" -,
'§
~
g.
~ r--.

r"' ........
"
 WEATHER DATA

STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
Pressure Altitude Temperature
Millibars Inches Hg. Feet Meters of °C
1013.2 29.92 Sea Level 59.0 15.0
t 850 25.10 4781 1457 44.0 06.6
POO 20.67 9882 3012 23.8 -04.6
t 500 14.76 18.289 5574 -06.2 -21.2
400 11.81 23,574 7185 -25.0 -31. 7
350 10.34 26,631 8117 -35.5 -37.5
t 300 8.86 30,065 9164 -48.3 -44.6
250 7.38 33,999 10,363 -62.0 -52.2
* 225 6.65 36,200 11,037 -69.7 -56.5
t 200 5.91 38,662 11,784 -69.7 -56.5
150 4.43 44,647 13,608 -69.7 -56.5
t Constant pressure charts are distributed on facsimile circuits for these MB levels.
* The 225 MB level is considered the tropopause altitude in the standard atmosphere. This alfitude varies with
changes in latitude, season, temperature and pressure.

Fig. 3·20. Standard Atmosphere

UPPER AIR ANALYSES AND 24-HOUR PROGS

Examples
of Temperaturel
( Millibar Level
and Chari
Standard
Tempera-
lure (oq
Approximate Height Heights
l'lottedf
Labeled t
Contour
Interval*
Isotachs Isotherms Dewpoint
Spread Shown
Feet MeIers

850 Analysis .7 5.000 1.500 1500 60 None Dashed Yes

850 Prog ·7 5.000 1.500 1500 60 Dashed None

700 Analysis -5 10.000 3.000 3000 60 None Dashed Yes

700 Prog -5 10.000 3.000 3000 60 Dashed None

500 Analysis -21 18.000 5.600 5600 60 None Dashed Yes

500 Prog -21 18.000 5,600 5600 60 Dashed None

300 Analysis -45 30.000 9.200 9200 120 Dotted Dashed Yes

300 Prog -45 30.000 9.200 9200 120 Dashed Dotted

200 Analysis -57 39,000 11,800 11800 120 Dotted Dashed Yes

200 Prog ·57 39.000 11,800 11800 120 Dashed None

t Digits in italics not shown on charts.

::: Intermediate contours may be drawn as long dashed lines.
Height of MB level change plotted on 500 MB analysis.

Temp-dewpoint spread omitted when too dry to measure.

Fig. 3-21. Upper Air Analyses and 24-Hour Progs

3-33
The constant-pressure chart station model is
basically the same as the station model used for
the surface analysis charts. (See Fig. 3-22.) The
wind arrow is the most conspicuous item and
indicates the direction of the wind source. A
pennant on the arrow represents 50 knots, the
full-tick line represents 10 knots, and the half-
tick line represents five knots.
WIND - 300 0 at 65 knots (1st number on wind
direction is eliminated and is also rounded to
nearest 100)
TEMPERATURE - (·37 0 C)
DEWPOINT - Spread is 6°C. and is colder than
temperature
PRESSURE - 500 MB level is 5280 meters ASL
HEIGHT CHANGE - 500 MB level has risen 20
meters in last 12 hrs. (500 MB only)
WIND VELOCITY - plotted in knots in lower
right corner of station model on computer
prepared analyses.
Fig. 3-22. Constant Pressure Chart
Symbols Station Model
On computer-prepared analysis charts, the wind
arrow indicates direction only. The wind veloc-
ity is sta~ed in knots in the lower right quadrant,
in that case. The station model varies slightly
from one constant-pressure chart to the next.
VALID TIME
The time of the upper air observations is indi-
cated on the lower left portion of the chart in
Zulu time on charts that are prepared by hand.
This information is at the top and bottom
margins on the computer-prepared constant-
pressure charts. (See Figs. 3-19 and 3-23.) All
analysis charts will be either OOOOZ or 1200Z.
The valid time on the upper air progs is the time
at which the forecast conditions are expected to
exist. The prog charts are forecast for 12, 24,
36, 48, and 72 hours after the observation time,
and the number of hours is indicated on each
prog chart.
CONTOURS
Contours are lines of constant height on a
constant-pressure chart and connect areas of (
equal pressure. (See Fig. 3-24.) The method used
to determine pressure difference on a constant-
pressure chart is to indicate the altitude of the
pressure level rather than the change in the
amount of pressure from one location to'

385. G8B... 3001'8 r.1200Z _3..JU.1... 19 ..um

(,AP
, 1 PIlQIj Y
I<'- •. ------...J/\
ON IZIl..2. NIIS-l!!St UASBlIlGIOI.
y J\ T )

fJ • .. 0
o This chart is the 385th chart to be printed during the day after 00 Zulu.

f) The weather forecast at the 300 millibar level (approximately 30,000 feet) is included on this chart.

•• The valid time of the forecast is at 1200 Zulu on July 3,19__

The data that this weather forecast is based on was observed at 1200Z on July 2, 19_. This indicates
that this chart is a 24-hour forecast.

• The chart was prepared for the National Weather Service (NWS) by the National Meteorological
Center (NMC) in Washington, D. C.

Fig. 3-23. Constant Pressure Chart Title Heading

(

3·34
 WEATHER DATA

r---
another. Contours are drawn at intervals of 60
or 120 meters and are depicted by solid lines.
Intermediate contours (long-dashed lines) may ~9~/8~~
be included in areas of a weak gradient.

Contour heights are plotted in thousands, hun-

r __ 930-/
dreds, and tens of meters on the constant- Contours with height aU MB level
pressure charts. For example, on the 500 mb
chart, "564" represents the height of 5,640
meters. Similarly, on the 300 mb chart, "930"
represents the height of 9,300 meters. (See Fig.
3-19.) The last digit (always a zero) is eliminated
for ease of reading, and on the 200 mb chart,
...,.....
.., ••• ,......
..,...
• cg;~
.r;;,;t ,.
r"

Isolachs on analysis
the first digit is also eliminated.

ISOTHERMS
---- -- - $'olC
- -_ .... ,
Isotherms, lines of equal temperature, are drawn " Isatschs on prognostic

at five degree Celsius intervals and are depicted

by short-dashed lines on all constant-pressure
analyses. The 300 mb prognostic chart is the
only prog which has isotherms and they are ~""""-""
plotted as dotted lines with the temperature ..~ .
label circled. (See Fig. 3-24.) • , to • • • • • • • ,~' to··

ISOTACHS
( Isotachs, lines of equal wind speeds, are on 300
and 200 mb analyses of constant-pressure level
charts. They are drawn for 25-knot intervals up
to 150 knots, and at 50-knot intervals above 150
knots. Isotachs are dotted lines and are labeled
with encircled wind speeds and values on each
analysis chart. Isotachs are labeled on the prog
charts as dashed lines of equal wind speed. The
value of an isotach on a prog chart is not circled,
as on the analysis, but is followed by the letter
"K" for knots. (See Fig. 3-24.) Note that isotachs
are depicted on the 500 mb prog, but they do
not appear on the 500 mb analysis.
The shaded areas denote wind speeds between
70 and 110 knots and again between 150 and
190 knots. The wind generally flows parallel
to the isotachs.
DEWPOINT
The spread between the temperature and the
dewpoint is plotted, but not the dewpoint itself.
For example, if the temperature is 150 Celsius
and the dewpoint is nine degrees Celsius, the
difference of six degrees would be plotted rather
than the nine degrees dewpoint temperature.
The dewpoint in all cases will be colder than the
temperature. (See Fig. 3-22.)
..............
Isotherms on- prognostic
-lfJ ",-
,,---......... (//I'
~ ............... _""".*'
Isotharms on analysis
Fig. 3-24. Constant-Pressure Chart Svmbols
Figure 3-19 is a 300 millibar chart which shows
conditions near the 30,000-foot level and repre-
sents average troposphere conditions_ These
charts, when used with wind arrows, show the
anticipated movement of weather systems and
most favorable winds_ Weather at this level is
most important for aircraft capable of cruising
at these altitudes.
FLIGHT PLANNING WITH
CONSTANT-PRESSURE CHARTS
DETERMINING WIND DIRECTION
Up to this point in the discussion of high alti-
tude facsimile charts, only the interpretation of
the symbols on the charts have been discussed_
The following section will contain an explana-
tion of using these charts to determine the type
of answers required on the written examination.

3-35
Before proceeding into the discussion of wind
directions and velocities, it should be under-
(
stood that the left and right margins of the
facsimile charts do not represent north-south
lines. To determine the true north line, it is
necessary to use the nearest line of longitude to
determine the exact north-south alignment. On
the polar stereographic projections which the
National Weather Service uses for the facsimile
charts, the lines of longitude are not parallel to
each other, but all intersect at true north. On
many facsimile charts, the longitude lines do not
run through the contiguous United States; there-
fore, true north can be determined by projecting
meridians, or by using the north-south state Fig. 3-25. Non Parallel Lines of Longitude
boundaries.
DETERMINING WIND SPEED FROM ISOTACHS
In figure 3-25, the wind directions represented
by arrows 1, 2, and 3 are parallel to the lower
In figure 3-27, it can be seen that the wind
margin of the chart, but the wind at arrow 1 is
velocity at the location indicated by arrow 1 is
from 2500 , the wind at arrow 2 is from 270 0 ,
100 knots. The dashed line pointed to by arrow
and the wind at arrow 3 is from 290 0 . All winds
on the facsimile charts are in reference to true 1 is the 100-knot isotach. The wind velocity at
arrow 2 points to the 75-knot isotach. To deter-
north and the speeds are shown in knots.
mine the winds at 500 N, 900 W, it is necessary to
On many facsimile charts, the wind direction is interpolate between the wind velocities indica-
included at the locations of many National ted at arrow 1 and arrow 2. Since the 50 0 N,
90 0 W location is approximately midway
(
Weather Service offices, but for the wind direc-
tion at other locations, it is necessary to use the between the two arrows, it can be determined
contour lines to determine the wind direction. that the wind velocity is approximately 88
To determine the direction for any point along a knots.
contour line, a compass rose, or protractor as
illustrated in figure 3-26, can be used similar to All of the high-level analysis and prognosis
determining the true course on a sectional chart. charts have isotachs with the exception of the
The location of the desired wind direction and 500 millibar analysis chart. When determining
velocity in figure 3-26 is at 50 0 N, 90 0 W. the wind velocity on the 500 millibar chart, it is
necessary to interpolate between station loca-
After finding the latitude-longitude location, a tions.
straight line should be mentally or physically
drawn tangent to the contour line. The naviga- DETERMINING TRUE ALTITUDE
tion plotter is then used in a conventional
manner. After finding that the 90 0 longitude When flying at an altitude above 18,000 feet,
line lies under the navigation plotter indicating a the altimeter is set to a barometric pressure of
wind from either 1260 or 306 0 , it is necessary 29.92 in. Hg. and the altitudes are then referred
to locate a low- or high-pressure area to deter- to as flight levels. If the pressure is lower than
mine the direction of the wind. standard, the aircraft's actual altitude will be less
than 24,000 feet if the pilot is flying at FL 240
In figure 3-26, the low-pressure area is near the with the altimeter set to 29.92. If the pressure is
North Pole which would indicate that the wind higher than standard, the airplane will be at a
in the above example is from the west at 306 0 . higher true altitude than indicated on his altim·
This direction is in relation to true north. With a eter.
little practice, it is possible to determine the
wind direction without the aid of the navigation A pilot flying at 50 0 N, 90 0 W at the time the
(
plotter. 300 millibar chart in figure 3-27 is valid is cros-

3·36
 WEATHER DATA

Fig. 3-26. Finding Winds on a Constant Pressure Chart

3-31
 (

(
Fig. 3-27. Finding Wind Velocity

3-38

sing the contour line marked 918 and would
encounter the 300 mb level at a true altitude of
9,180 meters. (Remember that on a constant-
pressure chart, an altitude of 9,180 meters is
represented by the figure "918. ") By referring
to the chart in figure 3-21, it can be seen that if
the pressure is standard, the altitude of the 300
millibar level will be 9,200 meters. An altitude
of 9,200 meters is equivalent to 30,000 feet.
The chart in figures 3-21 and 3-27 shows that a
pilot flying at FL 300 at 50° N, 90° W would be
at a lower true altitude than the indicated
altitude (assuming a standard temperature).
If the pilot in the previous example were to fly a
true course of 3600 , his true altitude would
constantly decrease until he passed the 870
contour line north of the 70 0 north latitude.
The pilot's true altitude when flying past the
870 contour level would be approximately
28,500 feet (assuming standard temperature).
The true altitude conversion from meters to feet
can be computed on the Jeppesen computer by
setting the foot arrow (near 143) on the outside
scale over the meters arrow (near 43.6) on the
inside scale, as shown in figure 3-28.
( from a fax chart which contains a total of
A pilot flying at FL 300 over the Wisconsin/
Illinois border would be flying near the 930
contour line. By using the computer, it can be
determined that his true altitude (assuming stan-
dard temperature) would be 30,500 feet.
Set" FT" arrow
over
WEATHER DATA
UPPER WIND AND
TEMPERATURE FAX CHART
The following discussion on the upper wind and
temperature forecast facsimile chart explains the
callouts found in figure 3-29.
o Every facsimile (fax) chart is assigned a
chart number which represents the chrono-
logical order of the particular chart with
respect to all the other facsimile charts
produced by the National Weather Service
and the National Meteorological Center in
Suitland, Maryland. Chart Number 1 is the
first chart released on the facsimile net-
work after 00 Zulu.
The title of this fax chart "12HR UPPER
WIND PROG" indicates that the upper
wind forecast information is forecast for a
valid time 12 hours after the winds aloft
observation was made. The abbreviation
"PROG" stands for prognostic and means
the same thing as forecast.
This winds aloft forecast panel is one panel
eight panels. This panel includes winds
aloft and temperatures for 24,000 feet.
•
This forecast is to be used for a 12-hour
period beginning at 00 Zulu on May 3,
Read 30,500'
over
930 meters
3-39
 (

(
Fig. 3-29. Upper Wind Prag Fax Chart

3-40
 WEATHER DATA

19_. Even though the wind aloft and tem-

perature forecast is to be used for a
o Arrows with pennants and barbs
12-hour period, it is valid for only one
moment - that moment is OOZ. There are
only two winds aloft and temperature fore-
cast fax charts issued each day so usually
the teletype forecasts should be used to
obtain forecasts for flight occurring at
times other than 00 Zulu and 12 Zulu.
The station location referred to in figure 3-29
for this discussion is SGF (Springfield, Missouri).
The inset in the lower right corner is for MLT
(Millinocket, Maine).
o The wind velocity is five knots.
• The temperature forecast over
Springfield at 24,000 feet is ·26°
Celsius.
similar to those used on the surface
chart show wind direction and
velocity. Wind direction is plotted to
the nearest 10 degrees. and the
second digi t of the coded direction is
entered at the outer end of the
arrow. First. determine the general
direction of southwest and then use
the digit "4" to determine that the
wind direction is from 240°.
shown by one short tick. A calm
as
or
light and variable wind is shown by
"99" entered to the lower left of the
station circle.

To complete the following frames, refer to figure 3-:29

1. The wind at 24,000 feet over Great Falls, Montana (GTF) is

forecast to be from 0

(
2. The wind over St. Petersburg, Florida (PIE) is forecast to be
_________ or 210°

calm
3. The wind over El Paso, Texas (ELP) at 24,000 feet is forecast
light
to be from 0
variable

4. The temperature over Denver, Colorado (DEN) is forecast to

260
be 0 Celsius.

5. The wind velocity over Great Falls, Montana is forecast to be

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ knots. -27

25

3-41
SIGNIFICANT WEATHER encompass the airspace above 24,000 feet. (
PROGNOSTIC CHART The chart heading indicates the millibar
(SIG WX PROG) level covered: for example. SIG WX
(400-70 mb).

The legend "SIG WX (400-70

MB)"identifies the high level significant Significant weather progs for international
weather prog chart shown in figure 3-30. aviation cover large geographical areas
This chart is a forecast of the significanL and may appear on both mercator and
weather. The prog outlines areas of polar stereographic projections. All
forecast turbulence, continuous dense international significant weather prog
cirroform clouds, and cumulonimbus charts are high level progs except for
clouds. The high level significanL weather the North Atlantic area, where a low
prog chart legend of figure 3-31 shows level (surface to 400 mb) chart is
how these areas are indicated. available.

The low level prog chart discussed earlier Scalloped lines depicL areas of only
in this chapter covers the airspace from broken or overcast layered clouds, but
the surface to the 400-millibar level, or any amounL of cumulonimbus. Cloud
24,000 feet. The high level prog charts cover is in actas. or eights.

Refer to figures 3-30 and 3-31 to complete the following exercises.

1. The cumulonimbus clouds located near 38°N, 600 W have

(
their bases below 24,000 feet and their tops at
feet.
~
2. The front over 43 0 N, 30 0 W is a front. 34,000

3_ The pressure at the surface near 58 0 N, 25 0 W is

warm
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ millibars.
I

4. The intensity of the turbulence near 46 0 N, 65 0 W is

_________ turbulence and is forecast to be below 1004
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ feet.

5. The clouds near 48 0 N, 30 0 W are forecast to cover

-eights of the sky with bases at moderate
feet and tops to 34,000
feet. (

3-42
 WEATHER DATA

(
u ..... ,.. _.... _ ...
""_OUaMC_,_O",_••••_
..., - . , >'0<1

Fig. 3·30. Significant Weather Prognostic Chart

TROPOPAUSE-VERTICAL WIND • Arrow. points to the contour line repre·

senting the location where the tropopause
SHEAR CHART LEGEND is at flight level 390.
(TROP-VWS)
( The following explanation of the callouts • The numbers in the square boxes represent
on the TROP·VWS chart refers to the the temperature at the tropopause in
chart in figure 3·32. degrees Celsius.

o The altitude of the tropopause is

expressed as flight levels in hundreds
• The temperature at the 150 mb level -
45,000 feet (FL 450) in a standard atmos'
phere - is expressed in degrees Celsius and
offeet. preceded by the letter "F." is enclosed in a circle.

6. The temperature at the 150·mb level near the six

26,000
Alabama coast is _
32,0011

7. The large scalloped lines near 60 o N. OOW indicate

the forecast to be an area of dense, continuous _
clouds.

8. The front near 40 o N. 55°W is a cirriform

front.

9. The small scalloped lines near 45°N. 25°E indicate cold

the forecast to be clouds.

cumulonimbus

3-43
 HIGH-LEVEL SIGNI FICANT WEATHER PROGNOSTIC CHART (400-70 mb)

DEPICTION MEANING

~
Few (less than one-eighth coverage) cumulonimbus,
tops 42,000 feet. Bases are below 24,000 ft.-the
1. lower limit of the prog. Small scallops indicate
cumulonimbus clouds.

2.
-
3CS 1i''I'!5'O Three-eighths cumulonimbus tops above 45,000 feet.
Ooud cover is in aetas or eighths.
~

"V Y .....
Six-eighths coverage (broken), layered cirriform
.3~..
3. GLYI{ ~eO
clouds, base 28,000 and tops 33,000 feet. Base and
top shown by figures below and above a short line

-
respectively. Large scallops indicate cirri form clouds.
......
.-------- Moderate to severe turbulence from below lower
~ :'--.
~£ 3'50 \
limit of the prog 124,000 feet) to 33,000 feet.
4. ( (Consult low-level prog for turbulence forecasts
,..:...IlL / below 24,000 feet.) Figure below line omitted when

"'-- - -------
...------......
base is below 400 millibars.

5.
(/4 " Severe turbulence from 39,000 feet to above upper

',,- - -_.-/ 390) limit of the prag (45,000 feet).

SYMBOL MEANING SYMBOL MEANING

---.JL- Moderate turbulence R Thunderstorm

~
---A- Severe turbulence
{5
Freezing rain
Tropical storm

•
*9
Rain

Snow •
••
Hurricane (typhoon)
Continuous rain
Intermittent snow
Drizzle
*
•<;/ Rain shower
NOTE'
" Continuous drizzle
Character of precipitation is the manner in which
*<;/ Snow shower it occurs. It may be intermittent or continuous. A single
symbol denotes intermittent. a pair of svmbols indicates
(
continuous.

FIg. 3-31. SJgm'f1cant Weather Prognostic Chart Legend

3-44
 WEATHER DATA

• The dashed lines on the TROP-VWS chart

are called isoshears and represent the
change of wind velocity per 1,000 vertical
feet.
o On charts which include an area much
larger than the United States, the four-
letter identifier for station locations are
included. The four-letter identifiers for
The 6 indicates that the wind U.S. stations include the commonly known
velocity on the isoshear changes two three-letter identifier plus a prefix of the
knots every thousand feet. letter "K."

Fig. 3-32. Tropopause - Vertical Wind Shear Prog

3·45
 To complete the following exercises, refer to figure 3-32. (
1. The temperature at the 150 millibar level, or Flight
Level 450, over Great Falls, Montana (KGTF) is
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _0 Celsius, as shown in a circle.

2. The temperature at the tropopause north of Denver

(KDEN) and over Wyoming is _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _0
·64
Celsius, as shown in a square box.

3. The wind shear near Salt Lake City, Utah (KSLCI

-69
is knots per 1,000 feet.
,
4. The altitude of the tropopause at Edmonton, Canada
two
ICYEG) is Flight Level _

5. The altitude of the tropopause just north of San

Antonio, Texas (KSATI is Flight Level 340
(

6. The wind shear at Gander, Newfoundland (CYQX) is

390
knots per 1,000 feet.

7. The altitude of the tropopause at 50 0 N, 100 oW is

four
approximately feet.

8. The temperature at the tropopause at 54°N, 80 0 W

39,000
is approximately ° Celsius.

·59

3-46
 PUBLICA~IONS

chalpter4

INTRODUCTION
The flight information publications have been developed by the Federal Aviation Administration
and are designed to aid the pilot in planning and conducting flights in the National Airspace
System. For the most part, they contain non-regulatory information to aid the pilot in operating
safely within the National Airspace System. It should be noted, however, that as a general rule,
compliance with the Flight Data Center (FDCJ NOTAMs is mandatory.

The flight information publications are divided into specific categories of information. The var-
ious sections are:

1. Airman's Information Manual

2. Airport/Facility Directory
3. Notices to Airmen
4. Graphic Notices and Supplemental Data
5. Advisory Circulars
THE AIM
The Airman's Information Manual (Basic The first portion of the AIM is the foreword
Flight Information and ATC Procedures) is which includes information on complimentary
shown in figure 4-1. The manual is generally publications and major changes to the current
referred to as the AIM. It contains fundamen- issue. Changes are explained briefly in the
tal information required for flight in the first few pages and a table of contents and an
national airspace system. alphabetical index also are provided.

4-1
 markings for airport operating surfaces are· (
given in detail. Aircraft arresting devices are
briefly described as well.

AIRSPACE
"Airspace" contains pertinent information for
both VFR and IFR pilots. It covers the VFR
visibility and distance criteria for controlled
and uncontrolled airspace, as well as the re-
quired altitudes and flight levels to be used in
VFR and IFR operations.

Special use and other airspace areas are also

defined. These include prohibited, restricted,
warning, alert, and military operations areas.
Other special airspace subjects discussed are
airport traffic/advisory areas and military
training routes. General airspace segments and
dimensions also are described. (See Fig. 4-2.)
Fig. 4-1. AIM Basic Flight Information
and A TC Procedures AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
New, deleted, or amended material is indicated The "Air Traffic Control" section is one of the
in the table of contents by a black dot. In the most important AIM sections for all pilots, but
text, new or amended information is highligh- especially for commercial and instrument pilots.
ted by a solid dark line in the margin. It covers services available to pilots, radio
Contents of the manual consist of eight sub- communications phraseology, and airport oper- (
jects and an extensive pilot/controller glos- ations for controlled and uncontrolled airports.
sary. The main subjects covered in the AIM In addition, this section also lists practical
include: steps for preflight planning and provides an
1. Navigation Aids insight into ATC clearance/separation practi-
2. Airport, Air Navigation Lighting, and ces during flight. Departure, enroute, and arri-
Marking Aids val procedures are covered, as well as pilot/
3. Airspace controller roles and responsibilities. The final
4. Air Traffic Control subject in this section is National Security and
5. Emergency Procedures Interception Procedures.
6. Safety of Flight
7. Medical Facts for Pilots EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
8. Aeronautical Charts & Related Publications "Emergency Procedures" discusses general
areas and then covers Search and Rescue
NAVIGATION AIDS
Coordination Centers, procedures and signals,
"Navigation Aids" presents a detailed discus- two-way communications failure, and safety,
sion of all air navigation radio aids used in the accident, and hazard reports.
national airspace system. This is followed by
background and current information on radar SAFETY OF FLIGHT
systems.
"Safety of Flight" highlights the hazards of
AIRPORT. AIR NAVIGATION LIGHTING. weather - particularly icing, thunderstorms,
AND MARKING AIDS and turbulence. It outlines weather services,
altimeter setting and wake turbulence proce-
"Airport, Air Navigation Lighting, and Mark- dures. The last section contains information
ing Aids" covers approach, surface and ob- pertaining to bird hazards and migratory
(
struction lighting for airports. The surface patterns.

4-2
 PUBLICATIONS

1--~.------FL600-------------.----l.-------l

1---l-----~-FL450-----------+----+-----~

Continental
Control Aircraft
Area Positive Tralnsponder
Jet Control With 4096 Codes
Routes Area and Mode C
I
L
Required

1-----<.----- 18,000' MSL ' ._1 --1

(
I.".._=k=~------..,..--__r_----- ,..--I-----"---l
14,500' MSL rr.......
I II I
I II
I I I
- - - - - - - -- - -- --l- r-rL-I- - -12,500'MSL - -
I II I
I II I
I +f-!-...L.+-------'~---<~
::I-oo~----1- Control Areas and Transition Areas--t-
,I I
I
I iI I
14--~-_J- Control
I II I
Zone "1!--!i-7-........J
Control Zone -;.. I I I Federal
Airways*
14--+---J-Controlzonet :: I

---
. - 3000' AGL_t- II I
f'-- - 3 0 0 0 ' AGL II I
- - --t.- - -i-I -1-j-.J-~1200'
Airport II I
AGL .:.:.:.:.:.::::
Transition :~:J{:{{::

I~~"~·l, ill, .~1~1

S.M:>-

Fig. 4-2. General Dimensions of Airspace Segments

4-3
MEDICAL FACTS FOR PILOTS
"Medical Facts for Pilots" reviews various as·
pects of fatigue, hypoxia, oxygen requirements,
drugs/alcohol, carbon monoxide, and orienta·
tion as they relate to flight. Other subjects of
interest include vision, middle ear discomfort,
and vertigo.
AERONAUTICAL CHARTS AND RELATED
PUBLICATIONS
The last section covers "Aeronautical Charts
and Related Publications." A full description
and the types of charts available is given. The
related publications, consisting of the Airport/
Facility Directory, additional charts, and
pamphlets, give a complete overview of the
items available.
AIRPORTIFACILITY (
DIRECTORY
The Airport/Facility Directory is published by
NOS in seven booklets - one for each of seven
regional areas in the United States. Effective
dates and the area of coverage for each are
shown on the cover. (See Fig. 4-4.) Contents
include data for civil airports, heliports, and
seaplane bases. There are sections for special
notices, NWS telephone numbers, VOR receiver
checkpoints, ARTCCs, preferred IFR routes,
parachute jumping areas, and aeronautical
chart bulletins. Also included are lists of
addresses and telephone numbers for GADOs
and FSDOs, upper air observing stations and a
map showing Enroute Flight Advisory Service
locations.

PILOT/CONTROLLER GLOSSARY

This glossary, located in the back of the man-

ual, was compiled to promote a common under-
standing of terms used in air traffic controL
Because of the international nature of flying,
(
terms used by the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) are included when they
differ from FAA definitions. These ICAO terms
are italicized in the glossary, as shown in fig-
ure 4-3.

AIRMAN'S INFORMATION MANUALI AIM-

A pu blication containing Basic Flight Informa-
tion and ATe Procedures designed primarily as
a pilot's instructional manual for use in the
National Airspace System of the United States.

ICAO - AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION

PUBLICA TlON-A publication issued by or
with the authority of a state and containing
aeronautical information of a lasting character
essential to air navigation.

AIRMET/AIRMAN'S METEOROLOGICAL IN·

FORMATION-Inflight weather advisories
which cover moderate icing, moderate turbu-
lence, sustained winds of 30 knots or more
within 2,000 feet of the surface and the initial
onset of phenomena producing extensive areas
of visibilities below 3 miles or ceilings less than
1,000 feet.
(
Fig. 4-3. Glossary of Aeronautical Terms Excerpt Fig. 4-4. Airport/Facility Directory

4-4
 PUBLICATIONS

(
Listings are alphabetical by state and by cities
within each state. A cross-reference system is
used for the names of facilities. Airports are
listed by associated city name and are cross-
referenced by airport name. Facilities asso-
ciated with an airport, but with different names,
are listed individually in the alphabetical tabu-
lation under their own names, as well as under
the associated airport name.
LEGEND
A comprehensive legend example is printed in
the first few pages of each regional directory.
The format, although similar to that used in
many aeronautical publications, contains sev-
eral unique abbreviations and symbols. Pilots
should become familiar with the directory
legend. A sample legend is shown in figure 4-5.

DIRECTORY LEGEND
SAMPLE

CITY NAME
§ AIRPORT NAME (ORL) 2.6 E GMT -5(-40T)

4"" H~'~
28"32'43"N 81"20'IO"W JACXSOHVlW

~ ~ ~~EL '~ET A OX~ 3 ~'~(800) ~ ~ I~" A

@-RWY07.25:H6000XlSO(A$PH) $-90,0-160,01-300 HIRl IN"

IlWY 07: AlSFI. Trees. IlWY 25: REIL Rgt tfc.
IlWY 13-31: H4620XlOO (A5PH) HIRL
IlWY 13: VASl-GA 3.3' TCH 89', Pole. RWY 31: VASJ-GA 3.1" TCH 36', Tree. Rgt tfc.
@- AIRPORT RfMARKS: Attended 12QO.0300Zt. llWSAS. Acft 100.000 Ibs or over etc Director of Aviation tor
approval (30S) 894-9831. Fee for all airline charters. tnIvel clubs and certain ,~ue producing actt.
t2O'-- COMMUNICATIOftS; "TIS 127.25 UNIroM 123.0
\eJ- NAME FSS (0Rl) on ftd 123.65122.65 122.2 122.1R 112.21 (305) 894.(l861
@NAME APP CON 124.8 (337"·179") 120.15(180"-336")
TOWERll8.7 GltD CON 121.7 ClNC DU12S.55 PRE TAXI ClNt 125.5
@DEPCON 124.8 {337"·1791 120.15 (180"-3361
STAGE I sve etc ORlANDO APP CON
@- RADIO AIDS TO NAVIGATION: VHf/OF etc PHOENIX FSS
IWIIE (H) VORl"C 112.2 OR\.. Chan 59 2so32'33"N SI"20'07"W at lid. IllO/SE
VOR unusable 050·060" beyond 5000'
HERMY NOB (LOM) 221 OR 28"30'24"N Slo26'03''W 067" 5.4 NM to fld.
lL$ l09.91-QRL Rwy 07. LOM HERNY NOB
~. ASR/pAJI
~ COMM/NAVAIO REMAJl1(S: [merg frequency 121.5 not available II tower.

CD City/Airport Name @ Fuel

® NOTAM Service @ Oxygen
e!) Location Identifier @ Traffic Pattern Altitude
(3) Airport Location @ Airport of Entry and Landing Rights Airports
o Time Conversion @ Certificated Airport (FAR 139) and FAA Inspection
o Geographic Position of Airport @ FAA Inspection
o Charts @ Runway Data
® Instrument Approach Procedures @ Airport Remarks
o Elev8tion (MSL) @ Communications
@ Rotating Beacon @ Radio Aids to Navigation
@ Servicing @ Comm/Navaid Remarks
Fig. 4-5. Airport/Facility Directory Legend Excerpt

4-5
In addition to airport information, each direc- certified airports, and continuous power facili- (
tory lists all national airspace system radio ties are explained, and special procedures are
navigation aids within the area. An example of identified.
a listing from the southwest directory is illus-
trated in figure 4-6. VOR/VOT RECEIVER CHECKPOINTS

SPECIAL NOTICES VOR/VOT receiver checkpoint procedures are

covered in the AIM. The information in the
Most of each regional directory is devoted to Airport!Facility Directory on VOR/VOT check-
the airport/facility listing; however, other im- points lists each regional facility, the identi-
portant information is included. Each direc- fier, type of checkpoint, distance/azimuth, and
tory has a special notices section. This section a description, if necessary. Again, the listing is
lists "hard to find" significant information. alphabetical by state. A typical listing of VOR
For example, civil use of military fields, newly receiver checkpoints is depicted in figure 4-7.

DOUGLAS 31'2S'Zl"N l09'36'05"W PHOElUX

(l) ABVORTAC 108.8 • DUG Chan 25 at Bisbee-Douglas IntI. 4160/13E l~F
TWEB opr 12oo.0506z.
OMf unusable 045"·065' beyond 26 NM below 10,000'
065'·095' beyond 28 NM below 9500'
355'·010' beyond 35 NM below 11,300'

Fig. 4-6. Radio Navigation Aid Listing

VOR RECEIVER CHECK POINTS VORjVORTAC

AND
(
VOR TEST FACILITIES (VOn
The use of VOR ,irborne and Bround check points is lIll"plalned in Airman's Information Manual, Basic Flight Information and ATe Protecur.s.

The FAA VOR test facility (VOn tr.nsmlts a tesl signal lor VOR receivers which provides UHrs 01 VQR. convenient and accurate mellns to determine the operational status of their
receivers. The VOT Is designed to provide a means of checking the accuracy 01 a VOR receiver while on the ground where a VOT Is located. In some areas a single VaT may provide
receiver check service while on the grooM! or while airborne over an airport over specified altitudes.
To utilize the VOT service either on the ground or in the air. tune in the advertised VOT frequency on your VOR receiver. With the Course Deviation Indk:ator (CDI) centered, the
omnibearlng selector should ~ad O' with the to-from indication beinll "from" or the omnibearlnll selector should reid 180' with the to-from Indication reading "to". Should the VOR
receiver operate an RMI (Radio Mallnetlc Indicator). it will indicate 180' on any OBS set1ins when using the VaT. Two means of identification are used with the VOR radiated test signal.
In some cases a Cl)ntlnuous 1020 Hz tone will Identity the test signal. Information concern;nllan individual test sillnal call be obtained from the localltlght service station.
The airports at which airborne Ind/or ground VaT service Is provided are tabulated in this directory In the VOR Receiver Check Points (VOR/DME, VORTAC) and VOR Test Facilities
(VOn section-see Table of Contents.

NOTE: Under Cl)lumns h,lded "Type of Check Point" & "Type of VaT Facility" G stands for ground. AI stands!Qr airborne followed by figures (2300) or 0000·3000) indicating
the altitudes above m.an sea level at which the check shOUld be Cl)nductecl. Facilities are listed In alphabetical order, In the stat. where the check points or VaTs are located.

ARIZONA
VOR RECEIVER CHECK POINTS
T,po Azimuth
Check Pl. '",m Dill

Facility Name (Arpt Nam.) Freq/ldent ""'.

AB/ALT
Fie.
M., from Fac.
N.M. Check Polnt Description
I&n!.. . 116.8/BZA AJ2000 242 5.' Ov.r Intarstlite B freeway crossing canal.
Doulln (Bisbee Dougl.. Inti) . • 10B.B/DUG
'F1'llItaff (Pulliam). •
Fort HulChuca (Libby AAF/Slerrl Vlstli Muni) ..
10B.2/FLG
. 111.6/FHU
"" 169
ISS 0.5
At Int rwy 30 and taxiway T·2.
At twy .ntranca to T·hangers midfield.

111.6/FHU
111.6/FHU
"" 111
164
On compass rose rwy 11·29.
On malt... cross on main rwy.

Gil. !erld (Gill Bend AF Aux)

KlnJll'llll (Mohave County)
116.6/GBN
lOB.B/IGM
"
A/2000
210
191 5.5
On nlllup 1m rwy 02,
Over lpeh .nd rwy 35.

Prncott (Pr.scett Munl)..

SCottsd.1e Muni .
..
.
114.1/PRC
115.6/PHX
"
A17000
AIlOOO
222
124
341
5.0
11.5
At cantar of runup lrea E of apeh .nd rwy 03.
Over lpeh end rwy 29.
Over rwy 21 thld.
TlICIOII (Tucson Inti). . 117.1ITUS A/4000 26. 6.0 Over mlln rwy InterMctlon.
WInslow ('WInslow Munl).. . 112.6/INW A/6000 107 5.0 Cftr apeh end rwy 29.

Fig. 4-7. VOR Receiver Check Points Excerpt

4·6
 PUBLICATIONS

PREFERRED IFR ROUTES AERONAUTICAL CHART BULLETIN

Certain preferred routes have been designated
by the FAA. The objective is to facilitate the
flow of air traffic into and out of major termi-
nal areas. The directory lists established pre-
ferred IFR routes for each region. Pilots who
plan to transit a busy air terminal area during
a flight should consult the preferred route sec-
tion of the directory before filing an IFR flight
plan. These routes pertain to both high and low
altitude airspace, as shown in figure 4-8.
This section of the Airport!Facility Directory
lists changes to aeronautical charts within the
region. Generally, only changes to controlled
and special use airspace which could pose a
hazard to flight or impose a restriction are pub-
lished in this section. Major changes to airport
or radio navigation facilities are also included.
When the affected aeronautical chart is repub-
lished, changes are included and the chart bul-
letins are removed from the directory. A chart
bulletin excerpt is illustrated in figure 4-9.

PREFERRED IFR ROUTES

LOW ALTITUDE

,...
lntdift
T...
T....... (GMT)

KANSAS CITY MnRC AIlfA

Indianapolis. .......... , ... , .. EXCELVl16UlNVSO
Midway .. "J..:, . . .•. EXCEL v116 JOT

~// HIGH ALTlTUOE

'V
RAIlSAYClTY
La Guardia .................. J80 Jl52 ReX> J29 J146 erG MIP MlPI08
( ewZ291 SWEET V232.. 1100-0300
Newaril.. .
......... ... J80 J152 ReX> J29 J584 STW295 STW

Fig. 4-8. Perferred Route Excerpt

AERONAUTICAL CHART BULLETIN

The purpose 01 this Bulletin is to provide a tablJlation 01 the major chang" in aeronautical information that have
oa:urred since the last publication date of each sectional Aeronautical Chart and Terminal Area Chart listed. The
general policy is to include only those changes to CQntroHed airspace and special use airspace that present II hazardous
condition or impose a restriction on the pilot: major changes to airports and radio navigatiooal facilities, thereby
providing the VFR pilot with the essential data necessary 10 update and maintain his chart current When the Aeronauti-
cal Chart is republished. the corrective tabulation will be removed from this Bulletin. Inol!l$much as this Bullmin provides
major changes only; pilots should consult the airport listing in this directory lor all new information. Users of U.S. World
Aeronautical Charts (WAC) should make apPropriate revisions to their chartslrom this Bulletin. NOTE: New data which
have been added to this iuue are shown below the rule line under the appropriate chart.
Military Training Routes (MTRs) are shown on Sectional Aeronautical Cham and VFR Terminal Area Charts. Only
the route centerline. direction of !light and the route designator are shown - route widths and altitudes al'l! not snown.
Since these routes are subject to change every 56 days and the charts are reiuued every 6 months. routes with a
change in the alignment of the cnarted route centet1jne will be listed in this Aeronautical Chart Bulletin below. You are
advised to contact the nearest FSS for route dimensions and current status for those routes eflectJOg yt)Ur flight.

------------------------- BILLINGS SECTIONAL

20th Edition, Octobet 2, 19_
Add strobe obs!. 2537' MSL (600' AGL) UC 47"22'12"N, 101"50'07''W. Add obs!. 2680' MSL (290' AGL)
4S"OI'S3"N, lOO"S4'20''W, Raise MEF bound by 45"OO'·45"30'N, lOO"30'·10I"OOW1rom 2800' 10 2900'. Delete
D1FFELY Arpt. 47'SO'N, 101"S7'W. Delete MELBY Arpt 41!"47'N, 102"20'W,

Fig. 4-9. Aeronautical Chart Bulletin Excerpt

4-7
FSS-CSIT AND NATIONAL WEATHER numbers, but also information on the Fast File (
SERVICE TElEPHONE NUMBERS Flight Plan System. Numbers are coded for
PATWAS, TWEB, "one call" FSS, Automatic
This section of the directory lists not only the Aviation Weather Service, and Fast File sta-
FSS and combined station/tower telephone tions. (See Fig. 4-10.)

FSS-CS/T AND NATIONAL WEATHER

SERVICE TELEPHONE NUMBERS
fiCht Service Stations (FSS) and Combined StationlTOONer (CS/T) provide information on airport conditions. radio
aids and other facilities, and process flight plans. CSJT personnel are not certi1ied plIot weather briefers: 1KIwever, they
pn:Mde factual data from weather reports and fofecasts.. Airport Advisory Service is provided at the pilot's request on
123.6 by FSSs located at airports where there are no control towers in operation. (See Airman's Information Manual.
Bask: Right Information and ATe Procedures.)
"Numerous additional telephone numbers are listed under COMMUNICATIONS in Ihe Airport/Facility Directory
tlIbulation. If you wish to call an FSS, but do not have access to a directory listing telt!?hone numbers, call the toll-free
information number 800·555·1212. Many FAA Flight Service Station numbers may be obtained through this service."
The telephone area code number is shown in parentheses. Each number given is the preferred telephone number
to obtain flip! weather information. Automatic. answering device$ are sometimes used on listed lines to give general
IocII weather information during peak wotWoads. To avoid getting the recorded general_atner announcement. use
U. selected telephone numbl!r listed.
FAST AlE fliGHT ptM SYSTEM

Some Right service Stations have inaugurated this system for pilots who desire to file IFRIVFR Might plans. Pilots
may call the discrete telephone numbl!rs listed and file flight plans in accordance with prerecorded instructions. IFR
Might plans will btl extracted from the recorder and subsequently entered Into the appropriate ARTCC comPtJter. VFR
flight plans will be transcribed; and both IFRIVFR flight plans will be filed in the FSS. This equipment is designed to
automatically disconnect after 8 seconds of no transmission, so pilots are instructed to speak at a normal speech rate
without lengthy pauses between flight plan elements. Pilots are urged to me flight plans into this system at least 30
minutes in advance of proposed departure. The s~tem may be used to close and canceillight plans.
Preffight weather briefing services remain available thf1)Ugh regular telephone numbers.
* Indicates Pilots Automatic Telephone Weathering service (PATWAS)
• Indicates Telephorle connected to the Transcribed Weather Broadcast
(TWEB) providing tnInscribed aviation weatner information.
(
• Indicates a restricted number, used for aviation weather information.
• call FSS for "one call" FSS-Weather service (WS) 8riefing service.
# Automatic Ayiation Weather service (AAWS)
Sf Indicates Fast File telephone number for pre·re<;orded and tran·
scribed flight plan filing only.
Area
Location and Identifier Cod. Telephone
ARIZONA
Douglas DUG (8isbee-Oouglas) . FSS (602) 364·8458
Flagstaff FlG ... WS (602) 779·3890
Phoenix P!-tX (Sky Harbor) .. ... fSS (602) 275-4121 ..

Fig. 4-10. FSS-CSIT and National Weather Service Telephone Numbers Excerpt

When completing frames one through seven below, refer to the Airman's Information Man-
ual excerpt in figure 4-2.

l. The base of the Continental Control Zone starts at

feet.
I

2. Jet route altitudes extend from feet to FL

14,500

3. Airport traffic areas extend from the surface to 18,000

feet. 450

4-8
 PUBLICATIONS

4. The positive control area extends from 18,000 feet up to FL

3,000

5. Flight above feet MSL requires an air-

600
craft transponder with 4096 codes and Mode C.

6. Federal airways extend from feet AGL

12,500
up to but not including feet MSL.

7. An airport traffic area extends five (sta- 1,200

tute, nautical) miles around the airport.
18,000

statute

Refer to figure 4-5, the Airport/Facility Directory legend, to complete the following
frames 1 through 14.
(

1. The field elevation for City Name airport IS

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ feet MSL.

2. The location identifier shown is _ 113

3. The airport is found on the sectional

ORL
chart.

4. (True, False) The airport does not have

Jacksonville
fuel for jet aircraft.

5. The traffic pattern altitude is feet AGL. False

6. (True, False) The airport has full

800
NOTAM service.

7. Runway 07-25 is feet wide. True

4-9
 (
8. Runway 25 has (left, right) traffic. 150

9. The frequency for the Automatic Terminal Information

right
Service is
I

10. The approach control frequency for a flight inbound from

127.25
the east is

I
11. Contact departure control on when de-
124.8
parting to the west.

12. The VORTAC is located at the 120.15

13. The VOR IS unusable between o and

Field
o beyond 5000'.

14. (True, False) The tower does not have 050 (

the emergency frequency 121.5. 060

True
I

To complete frames 1 through 9 below refer to the FSS-CS/T excerpt in figure 4-10.

1. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (True, False) Combined station, tower

personnel are certified pilot weather briefers.

2. Airport Advisory Service is provided on request on frequency

False
_ _ _ _ _ _ by the FSS.

3. The Fast File Flight Plan System provides flight plan fil-
123.6
ing and briefings.

4. The toll free number 800-555-1212 will provide you with the
number for the appropriate _
Weather (

4-10
 PUBLICATIONS

5. The Fast File tape recorder will disconnect after

FSS
seconds with no transmission.

6. Fast File Flight Plans should be filed at least

8
minutes prior to take off.

7. You may not use the Fast File System

30
to close a flight plan.

8. The symbol \\ indicates the telephone number for _

False

Automatic
9. The symbol • indicates " "
Aviation
FSS Weather Service (WS) Briefing Service.
Weather Service

one
call

NOTICES TO AIRMEN NOTAM-D

Time-critical aeronautical information that
was not known at the time of publication of
aeronautical charts or other documents re-
ceives immediate dissemination via the na-
tional notice to airmen service, a telecommun-
ications system. Two general types of NOTAMs
exist - The NOTAM-D and the NOTAM-L. In
certain circumstances, a third category - the
Flight Data Center (FDC) NOTAM - may be
issued. An FDC NOTAM contains regulatory
information.
NOTAM information is regularly passed to pilots
by telephone or radio. The FAA also produces
a separate publication, called Notices to Air-
men, to provide further dissemination.
Information designated for NOTAM-D dissemi-
nation is the type that could affect a pilot's
decision to make a flight. Events such as air-
port closure, interruptions in service of navi-
gational aids, n.s, or radar service are appropriate
NOTAM-D material. NOTAM-D information
is provided for all navigation facilities, all IFR
airports (with approved instrument approach
procedures), and for VFR airports annotated
by the NOTAM symbol (§) in the Airport/Fa-
cility Directory.
NOTAM-L
NOTAM-L information is that which is of an
advisory, or nice to know, nature. It includes
such information as taxiway closings, men
and equipment near or crossing runways, and
information on airports not annotated with the

4-11
NOTAM symbol (§) in the Airport/Facility
Directory. NOTAM-L information is main-
tained on file only at those local air traffic
facilities concerned with the operations at these
airports. This information, however, can be
made available upon specific request to the
local FSS having reponsibility for the airport
concerned.
FDC NOTAM
On those occasions when it becomes necessary
to disseminate information which is regula-
tory in nature, such as amendments to aero-
nautical charts, instrument approach proce-
dures, or to effect restrictions to flight, the
National FDC in Washington, D.C. will issue
the NOTAM containing the regulatory infor-
mation as an FDC NOTAM. FDC NOTAMs
are distributed through the National Communi-
cations Center in Kansas City for transmis-
sion to all air traffic faciities with telecom-
munications access. Current FDC NOTAMs
are published in their entirety in the Notices to
Airmen publication and also as part of the
instrument approach procedure charts.
NOTICES TO AIRMEN (CLASS II)
The Notices to Airmen publication contains
three basic parts, or subdivisions. The first
part consists of notices which meet the
NOTAM-D criteria and are expected to remain
in effect for an extended period. These
NOTAMs are included to reduce teletype cir-
cuit congestion. NOTAM-L and other special (
notices may be included in the interest of
flight safety. Data is republished until the
information is cancelled, is no longer valid or,
in the case of permanent information, is pub-
lished in other documents that are revised less
frequently. All notices in the first part are ex-
pected to remain in effect for at least seven
days after the publication date.
Notices are arranged in alphabetical order by
state and within the state by city or locality.
New or revised data, in this part, is indicated
by bold italicizing of the airport name. It is
important to note that, unless stated other-
wise, all times are local.
The second part contains all FDC NOTAMs
current through specific FDC NOTAM num-
ber and date. This is listed in the FDC legend,
an excerpt of which is shown in figure 4-11.
The third part contains special notices that,
either because they are too long or because
they concern a wide or unspecified geographic
area, are not suitable for inclusion in the gen-
eral notices. Contents of the special notices
vary widely. The main criteria for inclusion of
these special notices is enhancement of flight
safety. Each biweekly publication of the Noti-
ces to Airmen (Class II) publication lists the
special notices on the cover, as illustrated in
figure 4-12. This publication is one of the most
timely sources of new aeronautical information.

F.A.A. NATIONAL FLIGHT DATA CENTER

FDC NOTAMS
TIlE LISTING BELOW INCLUDES. IN P.... RT. CHANGES IN FLIGHT DATA. PARTICULARLY OF A REGULATORY NATURE. WHICH AFFECT
STANDARD INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES. AERON ....UTICAL CHARTS AND SELECTED FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS, PRIOR TO
THEIR NORMAL PUBLICATION CYCLE. THEREFORE. THEY SHOULD BE REVIEWED DUlliNG PRE·FLlGHT PLANNING. THIS LiSTING
INCLUDES ALL FDC NOTAMS CURRENTTHRU FDC SOTAM NUMBER SHOWN BELOW.
LEGEND
FOC NATIONAL FLIGHT DATA CENTER
61103 --_.. ACCOUNTABiLiTY NUMBER ASSIGNED TO THE MESSAGE ORIGINATOR 8Y Foe
FliT .•.••. FLIGHT INFORMATIONITHIPORARY
FliP FLIGHT INfORMATIONIPERMANENT
............ NEW NOTA!>I
THE FOLLOWING LISTING CONTAINS FDC NOTAMS
THRU FOe 8/1876 DEC 28, 19_
EAST CENTRAL
MICHIGAN
IlliNOIS
FOC 1t446 FlIT (MVN) MT VERNON·OUTLAND MT VERNON IL. FDC 8/650 FliT (MKG) MUSKEGON COUNTY MUSKEGON MI.
ILS RWY 2J AMDT 2 STRAIGHT·IN DECISION HEIGHT 721 FEET ILS RWY 32 AMDT 9 STRAIGHT IN RWY J2 DECISION HEIGHT
V1S181L1TY 314 MILE HEIGHT A80VE TOUCHOOWN 230 FEET 877 FEET HEIGHT ABOVE TOUCHDOwN 230 FEET VISIBILITY
ALL CATEGORIES. STRAIGHT·IN LOCALIZER VISIBILITY 3/4 RVR 4000 FEET ALL CATEGORIES. STRAIGHT IN LOCALIZER
MILE CATEGORY A 8 AND C. VOR RWY 23 AMDT 1 STRAIGHT. RWY 32 VISIBILITY RVR 4000 fEET All CATEGORIES. RADAR.I
IN VISIBILITY 3/4 MllECATEOGRY A AND B. AMDT J RWY 32 VISIBILITY RVR 4000 FEET CATEGORIES A B
AND C. TAKEOFF MINIMUMS RWY J2 RVR 4000 FEET
#FDC 811810 FliT (FWA) FORT WAYNE MUNI (BAER FJELO) AUTHORIZED FOR FAR 133 OPERATORS.
FORT WAYNE IN.llS RWY 31 AMDT 191LS SI RWY 31 RVR 3000 fT
ALL CATS. LOC SI RWY 31 RVR 3000 FTCAT A BAND C. RADAR.l
AMDT I' -:: I{WY 31 RVR 3000 fTCAT A B ANDC.

(
Fig. 4-11. Notices to Airmen Excerpt

4-12
 PUBLICATIONS

JULY 11_ Graphic Notices

I CLASS TWO NOTAMS
Nut
I.....
a.tob..
and
Su~emental

March 19. 19_

"- Data
Nutl"ue
Aprtl t, 11_

Notices to
Airmen "..,,.
... _--.
... ... ........... ... .. ... --"
, , ,- "
... _-, ..
" "~

... __
"_•. _,,,w..,•

... __....
,
_='::"''''':"i~.
......... ..._--
,....., ...':::''':'v..-.......
,,_._ ,.
w _ _ . . . . . . . _ _ ...

... __
,
..-._ .......... ...._....
..._-- .........
.._._
--- -. ,-
.........
-_
.. ---
--- __ ..........
..........
..-::::::::.: .........
.... ........
-
-_
,.
..._--
----
..--
,_ _..-

.............
..._-- ...
..,...-
__u

,,----,
--_.. --_
---
..
----

Fig. 4-12. Notices to Airmen
(
GRAPHIC NOTICES AND
SUPPLEMENTAL DATA
Graphic Notices and Supplemental Data is a
publication which has aeronautical data, area
notices and navigational route information
that is supplemental to other operational aero-
nautical publications and charts. (See Fig.
4-13.) Changes to the publication normally
appear in the Notices to Airmen (Class II)
when they occur between printings. The sec-
tions of the publication are: Area Advisories,
RNAV Routes, Civil Flight Test Areas, North
Atlantic Traffic Information, and Terminal
Area Graphics.
Fig. 4-13. Graphic Notices and Supplemental Data
These advisories are grouped under state head-
ings as shown in figure 4-14. The number in
parentheses following each entry is the month
and year that the advisory was issued.
UTAH
BINGHAM CANYON: Unmarked cables and pole lines
suspended across canyon and in vicinity of the open pit
mine. (10/_)
FLAMING GORGE DAM SITE: Cables and power lines
suspended from 2 towers on west side to one tower on
east sidp. of canyon across Green River approximately
100 feet higher than canyon rim. (101_)
Fig. 4-14. Area Advisory

AREA ADVISORIES AREA NAVIGATlOrli ROUTES

Area advisories are published here when the
information does not warrant publication else-
where. These advisories do not pertain to a
specific airport or navaid. Such information
will be automatically transferred to this sec-
tion from the NOTAM publication when the
originator indicates that the advisory is either
permanent or expected to remain current long
enough to warrant publication in this section.
Area navigation systems permit navigation
via a selected course to a predefined point
without having to fly directly toward or away
from a navigational aid. Typical of such sys-
tems are Doppler radar, inertial and course
line computers.
Introduction of the ar.ea navigation capability
into the National Airspace System provides a

4-13
 means of overcoming many of the constraints Each area navigation route is based on a cen- (
of the VOR system. Elimination of the require- terline which extends between fixes, described
ment to fly along radials that lead directly to by reference to VOR/DME, called waypoints,
or from the ground station makes it possible to specified for that route. Each waypoint is listed
design routes and procedures that better facili- by geographical name, followed by the
tate the movement of traffic. VOR/DME fix description in the format: VOR
STATION RADIAL/DME MILEAGE. Also in-
Since the VOR system forms the basis for the cluded are the magnetic track to be flown, the
existing airway and air traffic control sys- VOR changeover point (COP, with "MP" indi-
tems, area navigation route definitions and air cating Midpoint), the distance (DIST) between
traffic control clearances will be in terms of, waypoints, and the latitude/longitude descrip-
and referenced to, VOR ground stations. How- tion. Figure 4-15 depicts a 600 series high alti-
ever, latitude/longitude descriptions of fixes tude RNAV route.
forming area navigation routes are provided
to facilitate the use of airborne systems that
are not dependent upon VOR input signals.
WAYPOINT NAME DESCRIPTION GEOGRAPHICAL
VQR/OME COORDINATES
Area navigation routes are numbered in a
manner similar to VOR airways and jet routes. J620R
The suffix "R" identifies the route as an area HernIa (Pacific Ocean) to Daya", Oregon
navigation route. When filing an IFR flight Hemlo . ONP 216.0/137.0 4]" 18'08",116"40' 49"
plan containing an area navigation route, the MAG TRACK: 047.4/229.8 015T, 155
COP, NOT REOUIRED MEA, 18000
route number may be filed in the same manner MAA: 45000
as a VOR airway number. the filed route should Eugene. . ONP 10S.8/4S.2 .U 07'16",123"13'18"
clearly define the intended route during tran- MAG Tl!ACK: 050.21237.7 015T: 95
MAC TRACK: 059.1/2.0.2 0151: 70
sition from the VOR structure to the area nav-
igation structure.
COP, 95 E EUGENE MEA: 18000
MM: 4SOOO (
Doyoh POl 1/8.3/69.4 44"33'58",119"16'45"

Area navigation route numbering will be as

follows:
(1) Series 700 (low) and 800, 900 (high) routes-
Routes designated in Parts 71 and 75.
Routes expected to be in frequent use by
more than one user and published on ap-
propriate U.S. Government Charts. MEAs
will be published in FAR 95.
(2) Series 500 (low) and 600 (high) routes-
Routes published in the Graphic Notices
and Supplemental Data. Routes planned
for more than one user but their expected
usage does not justify Government chart-
ing. MEA's when not published in FAR
95 and the Graphic Notices and Supple-
mental Data, will be provided by ATC.
(3) Series 300 (low) and 400 (high) routes-
Routes established primarily for one user
and not carried on Government charts.
MEAs will be published periodically in
the listing of non-95 routes.
Fig. 4-15. High Altitude RNA V Route
CIVil FLIGHT TEST AREAS
This section graphically portrays flight test
areas used by civil aircraft manufacturers.
The flights are conducted by military jet type
aircraft at indicated airspeeds above 250 knots.
The flight test areas are from the surface up to
10,000 feet. The weather conditions necessary
for the use of these areas requires a ceiling of
3,000 feet AGL and 5 miles visibility. Hours of
operation for each area are printed on the graph-
ic or can be obtained from the nearest flight
service station. Figure 4-16 shows a typical
Civil Flight Test Area Graphic.
TERMINAL AREA GRAPHIC NOTICES
Terminal area graphic notices are published
for areas of concentrated IFR traffic. Normally,
these areas have at least one busy air terminal
with a complex air traffic flow involving a (
mixture of commercial, general aviation, and

4-14
 PUBLICATIONS

MCDONNEll AIRCRAFT COMPANY

MCAIR LOW ALTITUDE FLYING AREAS

ALLEN MOA

V50

V \ \\~'e--:::"?'-\

'OJ "t·

V4

Vl2

(
V23<

MAC SOUTH

OPERATIONS· AREAS USED BY McDONNELL DOUGLAS AIRCRAFT

COMPANY TO TEST MILITARY AIRCRAFT WHEN CerLiNG GREATER
THAN 3000 AGl AND VISIBIlITY 5 MilES OR MORE.

OPl:RATIONS SHAll aE CONDUCTED UNDER THE AUTHORITY Of

THIS CERTIFICATE ONLY UNDER VISUAL FLIGHT RULES WITH A
MINIMUM Of FIVE (5) MilES FLIGHT VISIBILITY BETWEEN THE HOURS
OF 0700 lel TO 1700 Lel. UNLESS OTHERWise PUBliSHED IPrepored by the Nolionol Ocean Svrvey
01 the direction of the
BY NOT AM.
f:EDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

1~ MAY 19_

Fig. 4-16. Civil Flight Test Area

4-15
military aircraft. The graphics are intended to ADVISORY CIRCULARS (
assist VFR pilots planning flights in the areas,
and in many cases recommended VFR routes Advisory circulars are issued by the
or corridors are shown. The information pre- FAA to provide aviation information of a
sented is advisory only. Pilots flying within nonregulatory nature. Although the
these areas are encouraged to use the graphic contents of most advisory circulars are
information and any other radar or advisory not binding on the public. they contain
service. A typical terminal area graphic notice informa tion and accepted procedures
is shown in figure 4-17. necessary for good operating practices.

TERMINAL AREA GRAPHIC NOTICE

(NOT TO ae USED FOR NAVIGATION)

MOUNTAIN HOME AFB, IDAHO

THIS CHART DEPICTS THE Ifit ARRIVAl/DEPARTURE CORRIDORS SfRVING MOUNTAIN HOM! AFI FOIl THE INFORMATION AND
GUIDANCE Of PILOTS OPERATING WI! WITHIN THE ARf.... PILOTS OflERATlNG WITHIN THIS AREA, OR PROPOSING TO TRANSIT
THE PARAOISf MOA WHICH LIES IMMEDIATELY SOUTH AND SOUTHWEST Of MOUNTAIN HOME All, AlE ENCOURAGED TO
CONTACT MOUNTAIN HOMf RAPCON fOIl TRAffIC AOVISQll:IES.

....
......":::: .

h ,..'",~·~ CONTACT MOO RAPCON

12' 8 13" 1

SHEEP CREEK '2 MOA

BRUNEAU 1 MOA

lEGEND

.~ Ifl! ot'AllTUIlfS
PARADISE MOA
U,SOO MSl TO aUT NOt INet FL 180
O~2100 LOCAL MON·FIlI I
SHEEP CREEK 1 MeA
<=>
h.p"..,d br NG,,_1 0<..... ~y, ••, ~0~ "'lI!f'ORT Tlv.mc .u:EA
0' <1"..,._ 01 Iho
flDlRAI AVIATION AO",''''15'''',110,,"
'·:·:-:.:·:-.1 AREA OF HEAVV TRAffIC

(
Fig. 4-17. Terminal Area Graphic Notice

4·16
 PUBLICATIONS

Therefore, questions found in airman's

written examinations may be based on
the advisory circulars.
Each of the subjects covered is identified
by a general subject number, followed by
the number for a specific subject matter,
as shown in the following list.
00 General
10 Procedural
20 Aircraft
60 Airmen
70 Airspace
90 Air Traffic Control and
General Operations
140 Schools and Other
Agencies
150 Airports
170 Air Navigational Facilities
When the volume of circulars in a
general series warrants a further
breakdown, the general number is
followed by a slash and a specific
subject number. For example, some of
the Airports series (150) are issued under
150/4000 Resource Management
150/5000 Airport Planning
150/5200 Airport Safety - General
The subjects covered by advisory circulars and
the availability of each are contained in the
Advisory Circular Checklist, which is printed
as part of the Federal Register. Generally, this
checklist is issued three times each year and
contains a listing of all current circulars, those
circulars which have been canceled, and any
additions since the last checklist was printed.
The checklist can be obtained by writing to the
following address.
Department of Transportation
Publications Section, M 443.1
Washington, D.C. 20590
Free advisory circulars can be ordered from
the Department of Transportation. Advisory
circulars for which a price is listed can be
ordered from the Government Printing Office
or GPO Bookstores listed in the front ofthe AC
checklist. Figure 4-18 shows checklist excerpts
which pertain to airline transport pilots.
91-24 Aircraft H[ydroplaning or Aqua-
planning on "Tel Runways (9-4-:.-).
Provides information to the problem
of aircraft tires hydroplaning on wet:
runways.
91-43 Unreliable Airspeed Indica.
lions (6-26-~).
Alerts pilots to the pOSSibility of erro-
neous airspeed/Mach indications that
may be cawed by blocking or freezing of
the pitot system and advises of corrective
actton that can be taken.
Fig. 4-18. Advisory Circular Checklist Excerpt
Part of AC91-43 is shown in figure 4-19. It
should be noted that the circular contains a
purpose, background, description, and recom-
mendation. A pilot will be better able to pre-
vent or cope with unreliable airspeed indica-
tions caused by blockage or freezing of the
pitot system after studying this advisory
circular.
The various types of hydroplaning are
covered in AC91-24. This circular explains
that dynamic hydroplaning is caused by
the speed of the airplane and depth of
water on the runway increasing until a
wedge of water is formed beneath the
tires. When this wedge builds to the
point that it lifts the tire completely free
of the runway, at least one-tenth of an
inch, the tire will no longer provide
directional control or braking action.
Viscous hydroplaning is due to the
viscous properties of water. With this
type, the tire cannot penetrate a thin
film of water and, therefore, rolls on top
of it. This type can occur with a water
film of less than one-thousandth of an
inch. Viscous hydroplaning mainly occurs on
smoother surfaced runways.
Reuerted rubber hydroplaning occurs with
a prolonged wheel skid, reverted rubber,
and a wet runway. The reverted rubber
forms a seal between the tire and the
runway, preventing the water from
leaving the tire footprint area. Then, as
the water heats, it turns to steam. The
steam supports the tire.
The mInimum speed for dynamic
hydroplaning is about 8.6 times the

4-17
square root of the tire pressure in
pounds per square inch. Since the
nosewheel usually contains less pressure
than the mains, it can be expected to
hydroplane at a slower airspeed. Viscous
hydroplaning can begin at 65 to 90
percent of the dynamic hydroplaning
speed.
EXAM-O-GRAMS
Exam-o-grams are brief explanations of aeronau-
tical knowledge subjects that cause general
difficulty in written exams. They include con- (
cepts and procedures critical to flying safety
and common misconceptions. The material
covered in IFR exam-o-grams should be thor-
oughly understood by an ATP applicant. They
can be obtained from the following address:
Federal Aviation Administration
Flight Standards National Field Office
Examinations Branch
P.O. Box 25082
Oklahoma City. Oklahoma 73125

SUBJECT: UNRELIABLE AIRSPEED INDICATIONS

1. PURPOSE. The purpose of this Advisory CircuLar is to alert pilots to the

possibility of erroneous airspeed/Haeh indications that may be caused by
blocking or freezing of the pilot system, and corrective action to be
taken.
2. BACKGROUND. Unreliable airspeed/Mach indications may have contributed to
one recent serious incident and a fatal accident. A frozen or blocked
pilot system may have caused the unreliahle indications. These erroneous
readings can be so subtle, that a pilot nl.:ly not detect the probLem until it
is loa late for .,dequate corrective> ,J.CllOl1. H,10Y pi.loLs m~IY ;\SSoci.1Le :I
frozen pitot head with symptoms of a rapidly decreasing or zero airspeed
indication. This is not always the case, especially when operating high
performance ai rcraft a t high a 1 ti tudes. (
3. DESCRIPTION. When blocking or freezing of the pitot system occurs, tWQ
situations c:ln develop as follows:

a. If the ram .. ir input to the pitot head is blocked, the indicated

airspeed may drop to 7.ero; and

b. If the ram air input plus the drain hole is blocked, the pressure is
trapped in the system and the airspeed indicator may react as an
altimeteri e.g.:

(1) During level flight, airspeed indication will not change even
when actual airspeed is varied by large power changes;

(l) During climb, airspeed indication will increase; and

(3) During descent. airspeed indic<ltion will dccrc<lse.

". RECONNENDATlONS. Duc Lo the cri tical n:lture of this in-flight problem,
pilots should be aW,1t"e of indic,1tions symptomatic of a frozen or blocked
pitot system and take the following corrective action:

a. Emphasis should be on attitude flying when these symptoms are

recogn i zed.

b. Check position of pitot he.1t switches and <lssociated circuit

breakers.

c. If conditions during or shortly after takeoff are conducive to

pitot system lcing, pitot heat should be on prior to flight.

(
Fig. 4-19. Excerpt from Advisory Circular

4-18
 PUBLICATIONS

To complete the following frames. refer to figures 4-11 through 4-17.

1. FDC NOTAMS are primarily in nature

and apply to standard instrument approach procedures,
aeronautical charts , and flight restrictions
I
2. A NOTAM that is an advisory containing "nice to know"
regulatory
information is categorized as
I
3. At Mt. Vernon Outland Airport, Mt. Vernon, Illinois, the
straight-in localizer visibility for category C aircraft is NO TAM-L
mile(s).

4. The correct approach chart to use for an ILS Rwy 32

approach at Muskegon County Airport is marked amend- three-fourths
ment
I

5. Area Advisories (do/do not) pertain to a

9
specific airport or navigation facility.

6. The number in parentheses that follows an Area Advisory

represents the and the do not
that the advisory was issued.

7. The letters "COP" are used in the area navigation (RNAV)

month
description to designate the location of the
year
point.

8. The RNAV routes designated series 700, 800, and 900 are
published on the NOS enroute charts. The RNA V routes
that are published in Graphic Notices and Supplemental changeover
Data are designated serIes and

4·19
 (
9. The maximum authorized altitude (MAA) for the J620R RNAV 500
route is feet. 600

10. The geographical coordinates for the Hemlo waypoint are

45,000
43°18'08"N, - - - - - - - -

11. The magnetic track from Hemlo to the Eugene Waypoint is

________ 0
126°40'49"W

12. A Civil Flight Test Area has a vertical limit of

047.4
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ feet MSL.

13. The flights conducted within a Civil Flight Test Area are
generally jet aircraft and operate in 10,000
excess of knots.

14. The use of a Civil Flight Test Area requires at least a

military
(
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ foot ceiling and miles
250
visibility.

15. The hours of operation of a Civil Flight Test Area can be

3,000
obtained either from the graphic notice or the nearest
5

16. Terminal area graphic notices are published for areas of

flight service
concentrated (IFR/VFR) traffic. station
I
17. Terminal area graphic notices are designed to aid
- (IFR/VFR) pilots operating in these
I IFR
areas.

18. Generally, the recommended (IFR/VFR)

VFR
routes and corridors are shown on terminal area graphics.

4-20
 PUBLICATIONS

19. The subjects covered by advisory circulars and the avail-

ability of each are contained in the Advisory Circular VFR

20. Advisory Circulars are issued by the FAA and are

checklist
________ (regulatory/non-regulatory) in nature.

21. Due to the speed of the airplane and water on the runway,
when a wedge of water builds to the point that the tire is
non-regulatory
lifted completely free ofthe runway, the condition is called
hydroplaning

I
22. When hydroplaning IS a result of the properties of the
dynamic
water, it is termed hydroplaning.

I
( 23. The type of hydroplaning that is associated with a pro-
longed wheel skid is called viscous
hydroplaning.

24. Hydroplaning creates a situation where the tire will no

reverted
longer provide control or
rubber
action.

directional
braking

4-21
(

(
(

chal)ter5

INTRODUCTION

To aid the ATP applicant studying the Federal Aviation Regulations, this FAR chapter includes many
different approaches to the subject of Federal Aviation Regulations. The parts of the FARs that are
applicable to the ATP written examination are included with the Jeppesen ATP Course and are listed
below by number and title:
FAR Part 1 - Definitions and Abbreviations

FAR Part 61 - Certification: Pilots and Flight Instructors

FAR Part 91 - General Operating and Flight Rules

FAR Part 121 - Certification and Operations: Domestic, Flag and Supplemental Air
Carriers and Commercial Operators of Large Aircraft

NTSB Part 830 - Rules Pertaining to the Notification and Reporting of Aircraft Accidents or
Incidents and Overdue Aircraft, and Preservation of Aircraft Wreckage, Mail,
Cargo, and Records.

5·1
The list of FARs below is included to indicate to the ATP applicant the FARs that he should study
(
in the included FAR packet prior to completing the programmed frames in this FAR chapter. The
list below includes all of those FARs that may be covered on the FAA ATP written examination.

FAR 1.1 121.117 121.313 121.437 121.565

.2 .119 .315 .439 .567
61.3 .121 .317 .440 .571
.21 .125 .321 .441 121.573
.23 .127 .443
.323 .575
.43 .129 .445
.325 .579
.51 Appendix A .447
.327 .5tH
.57 121.3 .453
.329 .584
.67 .29 .461
.331 .585
.123 .53 .463
.333 .587
.151 .131 .465
.339 .589
.153 .133 .471
.340 .591
.155 .135 .480
.341 .593
.157 .137 .481
.343 .595
.169 .139 .483
.347 .597
.171 .141 .485
.349 .599
.171 .487
91.3 .357 .601
.173 .489
.5 .175 .359 .491
.603 (
.6 .177 .360 .605
.493
.7 .179 .363 .500 .607
.8 .181 .381 .501 .609
.19 .183 .383 .503 .611
.23 .185 .385 .505 .613
.24 .187 .387 .507 .615
.25 .189 .389 .509 .617
.33 .191 .391 .513 .619
.34 .193 .395 .515 .621
.45 .195 .397 .517 .623
.51 .197 .400 .521 .625
.70 .215 .401 .523 .627
.75 .221 .411 .525 .629
.77 .253 .413 .533 .631
.81 .279 .415 .535 .633
.83 .281 .417 .537 .635
.85 .285 .418 .538 .637
.87 .287 .419 .543 .639
.89 .289 .422 .545 .641
.90 .291 .424 .547 .643
.97 .301 .425 .548 .645
.99 .303 .427 .549 .647
.105 .305 .550 .649
.431
.107 .307 .557 .651
.432
.109 .309 .652
.115 .310
.433
.433a
.559
.561 .653 (
.116 .311 .434 .563 .655

5-2
 REGULATIONS

121.657 121.683 121.695 121.721

.659 .685 .697 NTSB 830.1
.661 .687 .703 .2
.663 .689 .705 .5
.665 .691 .709 .6
.667 .693 .711 .10
Because of the complexity of many of the Federal Aviation Regulations, many of the FARs are
included in this chapter in a chart form. Since the FARs in the chart form are interpretations by
non-FAA personnel, it is the responsibility of the ATP applicant studying this course to rely on the
FARs as listed in the packet for the proper interpretation.

At the beginning of each programmed frame, the applicable FAR number is included in bold type so
the student can refer to the FAR section to determine the reason for the correct response if a question
is missed.

FAR PART 1
DEFINITIONS

1. 1.1 For turbine engine powered airplanes certificated after

August 29, 1959, an area beyond the runway not less than
500 feet wide, centrally located about the extended center-
line of the runway is called a

2. 1.1 The airport traffic area extends from the surface up to,
but not including, an altitude of feet clearway
above the elevation of the airport.

3. 1.1 The airport traffic area extends from the center of the
airport out to a horizontal distance of 3,000
statute miles.
I
4. 1.1 If a material is flash resistant, it will not
five
violently when ignited.

5. 1.1 An airplane is considered to be a large aircraft if the

maximum certificated takeoff weight is more than burn
pounds.

6. 1.2 VLOF means

12,500
speed.

5-3
 (
7. 1.2 VMC means
/ift-off
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ with the critical engine inoperative.

minimum
8. 1.2 V means _
R
control speed

9. 1.2 VSO means the _

rotation
or the minimum steady flight speed in the _
speed
configuration.

10. 1.2 VI means _ stalling speed

speed. landing

11. 1.2 V MU means

takeoff decision

minimum
unstick speed
(
FAR PART 61 CERTIFICATION: PILOTS AND FLIGHT
INSTRUCTORS
LOGBOOKS AND RECENCY OF EXPERIENCE
(See Fig. 5-1.)

1. 61.51 An ATP pilot may log instrument flight time only

when he flies the aircraft solely by reference to the

2. 61.51 An ATP pilot may log percent of

his flight time during which he acts as pilot in command or instruments

second in command.

3. 61.51 The pilot acting as second in

true, false
command may log the instrument time when he flies the air- 100
craft solely by reference to the instruments.

5·4
 REGULATIONS

CREW QUALIFICATION REQUIREMENTS

CAPTAIN FIRST OFFICER

1. Pilot Airline Transport Pilot At least Commercial

Certificate Certificate (ATP) with I nstrument Rating 3
( 121.437)

2. Age (61.123. 23 to under 60 1B to under 60

61.151,121.383)

3. Medical Certificate First Class At least Second Class

(61.123,61.151) (First Class if ATP Required)

4. Initial Training Approved Flight Approved Flight and

(121.433) and Ground Training Ground Training

5. Recurrent Recurrent flight training Recurrent ground and

Training or proficiency check flight training and flight
(121.433) within 12 months' in check within 12 months 1.2
type 2

6. Proficiency Check Proficiency check within Proficiency check within

1
(121.441) 12 months plus proficiency 24 months 1 plus
( check or simulator training proficiency check or
within 6 months 1,2 simulator training within
12 months 1, 2

7. Line Check Within 12 months 1 in type 2 none

(121.440)

8. Recent Takeoffs 3 takeoffs and landings 3 takeoffs and landings

Experience & Landings within 90 days in type within 90 days in type
(121.439)
6 hours actual or simulated
Instrument none
instrument including 6
(61.57) instrument approaches
within 6 months

9. Retaining Route and One trip as crewmember none

Airport Qualification within 12 months 1 into
(121.447) particular airport

10. Logging Flight Time 100% 100%

161.39,61.51)

1. calendar months
2. FAR 121.401 (b) allows one calendar month grace period before or after the month the check became due.
3. ATP required if member of three-pilot crew on flag or supplemental air carrier or commercial operator operation.

Fig. 5-1 Crew Qualification Requirements

5-5
 (
4. 61.57 An ATP pilot operating under FAR 121 must have
had at least hours of instrument time in
the preceding _________ months to fly in instru- true
ment flight conditions.

5. 61.57 A pilot operating under FAR 121 must have

made at least takeoffs and landings six
as sole manipulator of the flight controls 10 the six
previous days to act as pilot in
command.

6. 61.57 The night recency of experience requirement does not

three
apply to operations requiring an airline _
90
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ certificate.

transport pilot

MEDICAL CERTIFICATES
(
(See Fig. 5-2.)

1. 61.23 A first-class medical certificate issued July 15,

which is used for operations requiring an airline
transport pilot, would expire on

2. 61.23 A first-class medical certificate issued April 2,

which IS used for commercial pilot requirements, January 31 s t
would expire on next year

3. 61.23 After the end of the sixth calendar month, the

holder of a first-class medical certificate can use that April 30th
medical only for operations requiring a next year
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ pilot or lower certificate.

commercial

5-6
 REGULATIONS

FOR THIS PILOT AT LEAST THIS CLASS OF MEDICAL WHICH EXPIRES

CERTI FICATE CERTIFICATE IS REQUIRED AT THE ENDOF

AIRLINE TRANSPORT
CLASS I 6 CALENDAR MONTHS
PILOT (ATP)

COMMERCIAL PILOT CLASS II 12 CALENDAR MONTHS

PRIVATE PILOT} 24 CALENDAR MONTHS

CLASS III
STUDENT PI LOT

Fig. 5-2. Duration of Medical Certificates

ATP ELIGIBILITY REQUIREMENTS

(See Figs. 5-1 and 5-3.)

1 61 123 A pilot operating as second in command on a Boeing

727 must hold at least a -class medical certificate.

(
2. 61.151 The minimum age for an ATP pilot is
second
years.
I
3. 61.151 To receive an ATP certificate, a pilot must hold at
23
least a - class medical certificate.

4. 61.155 The FAA minimum total time for an ATP applicant

first
is hours.
I
5. 61.155 The minimum pilot-in-command cross-country time
1,500
for an ATP is hours.
I
6. 61.155 A second-in-command pilot operating under FAR
121 may credit percent of his copilot 100
time toward the ATP certificate.

5-7
 (
AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT
ELIGIBILITY REQUIREMENTS
161.151 and .1551

Total Time
Pilot-in- Without ICAO
Total Hours Command Optional Credit Limitation General

Total 1500 250 Air carrier copilots 1200 hours High School Graduate
(Less than credit 100% of second- (Credit 50%
Good Moral Character
150 with in-command time to copilot time.
ICAO limita- 1500 hour total) 23 years old
Credit 0% engi-
tion on cer- neer time or First Class Medical
tificate) Flight engineers receive pilot flight Read. Speak, and
1 hour pilot credit for 3 experience Understand English
hours engineer time.
endorsement Language.
(Maximum credit: 500 required on
hours) ATP certificate.)

Cross-Country 500 100

Night 100 25 After 20 night takeoffs

and landings, each night
landing good for one
hour night.
(Maximum credit: 25
hours)
(
Instrument 75 total -
50 in flight

Fig. 5-3. Airline Transport Pilot Eligibility Requirements

7. 61.155 The minimum night pilot time required for an

ATP applicant is hours. 100

8. The pilot acting as second in command of a two

pilot crew under FAR Part 121 must have at least
hours of instrument time within the
100
six previous calendar months to meet the recency of
experience requirements.

9. 61.169 An ATP pilot without an instructor certificate

can only instruct other pilots In air carrier service in
zero
an aircraft of the same category.
and for which he is rated.

5-8
 REG ULATIONS

10. 61.169 and .171 An ATP pilot with no instructor certificate

has the following on his ATP certificate:

AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT

AIRPLANE SINGLE AND MULTI·ENGINE LAND
B727 class
type
COMMERCIAL PRIVILEGES
AIRPLANE SINGLE-ENGINE SEA
DC-9.

_ _ _ _.,...,- The ATP pilot can instruct in the B727

true, false
in Part 121 operations, but not in the nC9.

The pilot in the above problem has commercial pilot privileges in

the DC9 but did not have an ATP check ride in the DC9. He has
ATP privileges in single- and multi-engine land airplanes and in the
Boeing 727.

A typical example of the above would be a pilot who was type true
rated in the DC9 on his commercial pilot certificate before he was
employed by an airline. After airline employment, he took his
( ATP ride in the B727 and later had single-engine privileges added
to his ATP.

This would give him instructor privileges with an air carrier in the
B727 but not the DC9.

FAR PART 91 GENERAL OPERATING AND FLIGHT RULES

VOR CHECKS AND SPEED LIMITATIONS
(See Figs. 5-4 and 5-5.)

1. 91.25 If a VOT signal is not available at the airport, the VOR

receiver check which is next in order of priority is the point
designated as the VOR checkpoint on an _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . (A dual VOR is considered to have
equal priority with a VOT.)

2. 91.25 The maximum error authorized for an airborne check airport

is plus or minus degrees. surface
l

5-9
 (
VOR RECEIVER CHECKS

(FAR 91.251

GROUND OR
FLIGHT TYPE OF CHECK MAX. ERROR

1. VOT
Ground ±4°
2. Designated VOR System Checkpoint on Airport
Surface.

3. Designated Airborne VOR Checkpoint

4. Made·Up Check

a. On airway
Flight ±6°
b. Over prominent landmark

c. At least 20 miles from facility

d. Reasonably low altitude

Either 5. Dual VOR s, both tuned to same VOR 40

VOR checks listed by order of priority, except No.5 can be used instead of any of the other four checks.

No checks necessary if radio maintained on approved program.

VOR checks must be made every 30 days.

VOR check must be entered into permanent record and include: date, place, bearing error, and signature.

Fig. 5-4. VOR Receiver Checks

3. 91.25 If no check signal is available, the pilot may make his

own check on an airway over a six

4. 91.25 The maximum bearing error when using dual VORs is prominent
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _degrees. landmark

5. 91.25 If VOR receiver checks are required, the checks must

have been performed within the preceding _ four
days.

5-10
 REGULATIONS

(
AIRCRAFT SPEED LIMITATIONS
(Max. Speeds: FAR 91.70; Min. Speeds: AIM)
Speeds are lAS and Knots

~.
/'
,I
TERMINAL CONTROL AREA AIRPORT TBAFFIC AREA
'-- ---- Recip. 156K Max. Turbine 200K Max.

-'-..-
---
..- §---2 ...:""- .... ~-
........

,~~,
- -

_.

200KM...
(2-= =-:.=---==-:::
Y7C
(beneath lateral limits)
7./"".
- r--\ .- -- ..

AIM RECOMMENDED MINIMUM SPEEDS

~ ~
Maximum speeds may be exceeded if necessary for air- -------------- ----- ~ Fl280
craft safety. JET 250K JET 250K
Aircraft Minimum Speeds do not apply to single-engine PROP 250K PROP 250K
jets. (AIM Minimum Speeds not regulatory)
(Minimum speeds can be disregarded if necessary for
-------------
Within 20 Miles
---- 1-10.000'
MSl
sake of safety or mobility.)
JET 210K of Airport JET 230K
Minimum speeds are included in the AIM primarily for PROP 200K JET 170K PROP 230K
use by ATe to avoid excessive vectoring. PROP 150K '~,
ARRIVING J OEPARTING
DESTINATION AIRPORT

Fig. 5-5. Aircraft Speed Limitations

6. 91.70 The maximum airspeed below 10,000 feet MSL is 250

30
knots airspeed.
indicated, true

7. 91.70 The maximum speed for turbine aircraft in an airport

indicated
traffic area is knots.

8. 91.70 The maximum airspeed beneath the lateral limits of a

200
terminal control area is knots.

5·11
 9. AIM To avoid excessive vectoring, the minImum
(
airspeed for a radar controlled aircraft which is
200
operating between FL 280 and 10,000 feet inclusive is
knots.

10. AIM The minimum speed for a radar controlled

turbojet below 10,000 feet MSL when vectored for a 250
final approach is knots.

11. AIM The minimum speed for a radar vectored aircraft that
is departing from the airport and level at 9,000 feet is 170
____ knots.

230

ATC CLEARANCES AND LIGHT SIGNALS

1. 91. 75 If a pilot in command is given priority by ATC in an

(
emergency, he shall make a report within _
hours to the chief of the ATC facility if the report is
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ by ATC.

2. 91.77 A pilot who receives a flashing red light from the tower
48
when airborne knows that _
requested

3. 91.77 An alternating red and green light indicates that the airport unsafe-
pilot must exercise caution. do not land

4. 91.77 In the event of a communications loss, a pilot who

receives a clearance to taxi should expect a _ extreme
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ light from the tower.

5. 91.81 If the altimeter setting on the ground is 29.46 in. Hg., flashing
the lowest usable flight level is FL _ green

190

5,12
 REG ULATIONS

AIRPORTS, POSITIVE CONTROL, AND VISUAL FLIGHT RULES

(See Fig. 5-6.)

TERMINAL CONTROL AREAS (TeA)

FARs 91. 24, 91. 70, 91. 90
Requirements ListC!d Below are Minimums Cor Civilian, Fixed-Wing Airplanes

Group I Group II

Pilot Requirements Private pilot certificate None specified

Maximum speed below 0001' of TeA or through VFR corridor is 200 knots 1. A. S. unless
a minimum safe speed is higher. Maximum speed in TeA is 250 knots LA.S.

Operating Rules Unless otherwise authorized by ATe, large turbine aircraft operating to or from the
primary aiqXlrt shall operate at or above the designated floors while within the lateral
limits of TeA

Prior ATe authorization required

A R Navigation von receiver

V E
Two·Way
I Q Required on appropriate ATC frequencies.
0 U Communi-
N I cations
I R Required lor all flights Required for aU flights to
C E 4096-Code airports within the TCA
S M Transponder
E Not required for IFR approach transition!; to near-by airport if transition penetrates TeA.
N
T Encoding Required [or all flights Not required [or any nights
S Altimeter

NOTE: A 4096-code transponder and encoding altimeter is required [or night that is within controlled airspace above 12,500 MSL
excluding the airspace .l.t and below 2500 AGL.
ATe deviations may be authonz.ed: 1. Immediately in the case of an inoperative transponder.
2. Immediately with an operating transpunder but without an operating encoding altimeter.
3. With four hours notice for flight without a transponder.
For other authorized deviations refer to FAR's 91. 24, 91. 70, and 91. 90.

Fig. 5-6. Terminal Control Areas

1. 91.87 At a tower-controlled airport, the traffic pattern alti-

tude for turbojets is feet.

2. 91.87 A Boeing 727 which lands on a runway served by an

ILS at a tower-controlled airport must maintain an altitude at
1,500
or above the
between the OM and the MM.

3. 91.87 If VASI is available on the landing runway at a tower-

controlled field, all aircraft must maintain an altitude at or glide slope
above the visual _

4. 91.87 After takeoff, a turbine-powered or large airplane must

climb to at least feet as rapidly as glide slope
practicable.

5-13
 (
5. 91.87 The appropriate runway to comply with the noise
abatement runway system (preferential runway system) will 1,500
be assigned by _
I

6. 91.87 A runway other than the preferential runway can be

selected by the pilot in command only in the interest of ATe

7. 91.89 When operating at an airport without a control tower,

all turns must be made to the unless safety

otherwise indicated.
I

8. 91.90 A pilot operating in a Group I TCA must hold at least

left
a certificate.

9. 91.90 A person operating in a TCA must have

private pilot
(
radio com-
munications.

10. 91.90 Large turbine aircraft must operate at or

two-way
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _the floors of the TCA.

11. 91.90 A transponder required for IFR

is. is not
operations into the nonprimary airport within the limits of above

the TCA.

12. 91.97 When operating in the positive control area at FL 200,

the aircraft must be equipped with instruments and equip-
ment required for operations, plus have
the following radio equipment: is not

1. with Mode C capability, and

2. the capability of communicating on any frequency
specified by _
l

5-14
 REGULATIONS

IFR
13. 91.33 When VOR radio equipment is required, aircraft oper-
transponder
ating at or above 24,000 feet must also have a _
ATe

14. 91.97 No person may operate in the positive control

area within the continental United States except on a DME
lanl _ _=-::-:-::-=-_ _ clearance.
IFRNFR

15. 91.105 The minimum VFR flight visibility at 12,000 feet is

IFR
_ _ _ _ mile(s). (Assume altitude also is 1,500 feet AGL.)

16. 91.105 For operations conducted under FAR 91, the mini-
mum VFR flight visibility for takeoffs and landings ill a five

control zone is mile( s).

17. 91.105 When operatingVFR within controlled airspace below

10,000 feet, an aircraft must maintain at least _
three
feet below, feet above, or _
feet horizontally from any cloud.

18. 91.107 The minimum flight visibility for FAR 91 operators 500
in a control zone with a special VFR clearance is 1,000
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ mile(s). 2,000

one

FAR 91.116 and .117 which cover the subject of takeoffs and landings under instrument flight rules
are covered in chapter 7, Terminal Procedures.

IFR OPERATIONS
(See Figs. 5-7, 5·8, and 5-9.)

1. 91.119 The altitude of the MEA when operating in central

Missouri (see figure 5-7) will be at least _
feet above the highest obstacle within a horizontal distance
of statute mile(s).

5-15
 (

(
Fig. 5-7. Mountainous Terrain Areas

2. 91.119 In central Nevada (see figure 5-7) the altitude of the

1,000
MOCA will be at least feet above the
five
highest obstacle.

3. 91.119 The MOCA can be used as a minimum usable IFR

altitude within statute mile( s) of the 2,000
VOR. (See Fig. 5-8.)

4. 91.119 If a pilot is maintaining the minimum usable IFR

altitude and the next IFR altitude is higher than his present
25
flight altitude, the climb to the next higher altitude should
begin _ _-,---;- -.Jthe intersection or VOR.
before, at

5. 91.119 The statement in the previous frame is applicable

unless there is an at the intersection or at
(
VOR.

5-16
 REGULATIONS

@]:

/12
II 5 mi.'

MOCA
_ ' - - -_ _ ?
Jl~...!..
t MEA-12.200·
L~.~=

5 mi.*
12.200' 2000'
• __-HIGHEST
OBSTACLE
ElEV. 10.200' MSL

MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN NON-MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN

_ ~\
55 V.1B-:--- ______

- --- @
~ ...--- i.

-
_ MEA 11.500' V 1B
,,, ~ Elevation 7.BOO· --- ~OCA 9.BOO· - MOCA can be :used as flight
, - - __ __ altitude within 25 statute
,, ...--- Area of no VOR
reception
:----- miles from VOR
:
:-

Fig. 5·8. Examples of Minimum Usable IFR Altitudes

6. 91.121 The "east-west hemispheric rules" which regulate the

appropriate altitude to be flown are applicable to IFR opera- MeA
tions only in airspace.

7. AIM It is necessary to report leaving a previously assigned

altitude to ATC only when ATC has assigned a new
_________. It is not necessary to report leaving an
uncontrolled
altitude when cleared for an approach or when the pilot
maintains the minimum usable IFR altitudes without a
specific ATC altitude assignment. (See Fig. 5-9.)

8. AIM When executing an instrument approach, it is necessary

to report to ATC after crossing the altitude
approach fix inbound. (See Fig. 5-9.)

5·17
 (
IFR RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
(FAR 91.125, .129,and AIM)
Compulsory Reports to ATC

1
•
""
C_"__ 2 3

1. Leaving previously assigned altitude for newly assigned altitude

'* 2. Reaching a holding fix or a point to which cleared

* 3. Leaving a holding fix or point

* 4. Final approach fix inbound

5. Executing a missed approach (and pilot's intentions)

6. Hazardous or unforecast weather

'* 7. ETA change by ± 3 minutes (

8. TAS change of 5 percent or ± 10 knots, whichever is greater

9. Anything affecting safety (equipment failure, etc.)

10. Change in altitude "VFR conditions-an-top"

'* 11. Position Reports

'* Reports not required if in "radar contact"

Fig. 5-9. Compulsory Reports to A TC

9, 91.125 It is necessary to report to ATe if a pilot encounters

final
any weather conditions, (See Fig, 5-9,)
I

10. 91.127 If two-way radio communications are lost in VFR unforecast

conditions, the pilot must land as soon as

For a further explanation and sample problems for two-way

radio communications failure, an additional section is in- practicable
eluded in chapter 7,
(

5-18
 REGULATIONS

r
11. 91.129 The loss of a VOR or ADF when operating IFR in
(no response)
controlled airspace should be reported to _

12. 91.129 If a pilot has a radio malfunction, he should inform

ATC
ATC of the type of which he desires.

assistance

FAR PART 121

CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS
(See Fig. 5-10.)

1. 121.3 An air carrier which has regular scheduled routes

within the 48 contiguous states is referred to as a
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ air carrier.

( 2. 121.3 An air carrier whose routes are regularly scheduled

(excluding extended domestic routes) in the United States
domestic
and to foreign countries are referred to as _
air carriers.

3. 121.29 A domestic or flag carrier's operating certificate can

be terminated only by the or flag

4. 121.3 An air carrier which does not fly regularly scheduled

CAB
routes, but whose area of operations is certified by the CAB,
Administrator
is considered to be a air carrier.

5. 121.53 The operating certificate issued to a commercial

operator of large aircraft is valid on initial issuance for a supplemental
period of _

one year

5-19
'f'
'"
Cl

FAR PART 121 OPERATORS

CERTIFICATE ROUTE OR
AIR CERTIFICATE OF CONVEN- AREA
TVPE LOCALE SCHEDULE
CARRIER DURATION IENCE OR CERTIFIED
NECESSITV BV

Domestic* Routes in 48 contiguous Regular Ves Termination Ves CAB

states and District Only by CAB
of Columbia. or
."
(See FAR 121.3 (dl.l Administrator
~.

'~" Flag" Domestic

plus Foreign
Regular Ves Termination
Only by CAB
Ves CAB

~ Routes or

'~" Administrator

Supplemental Domestic None Ves Termination Ves CAB

;::;
and Foreign Only by CAB

~OJ Area or
Administrator

~ Commercial Domestic None No One Year No FAA

Operators and Foreign (After 4 years,
(Large Aircraft Area termination
Only) only by CAB
or Administrator)

* Air carriers may conduct authorized scheduled cargo operations under rules specified for supplemental carriers.

r' ~ ..... .,.--..,

 REGULATIONS

AIRCRAFT TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE

(See Figs. 5-11, 5-12, 5-13, 5-14, and 5-15.)

1. 121.171 The angle of the obstruction clearance plane is a

slope of . (See Fig. 5-11.)

2. 121.171 For the purposes of landing, the "effective runway

length" begins at a point where the obstruction clearance
20:1
plane intersects the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . (See Fig. 5-11.)

-- '--

CENTERLINE COINCIOES WITH

RUNWAY CENTERLINE FOR AT
LEAST 1500'FT.

------
INTERS ECTION
- _ ~,O?\r)SLOP.!:. _ _ OF 20:1 SLOPE AND

<" . =:::====;::.:::=~~/_R_U_N_W_A_Y_S_U_R_F_A_C_E --,-__

v'
P-'-":»<b.._ce ......-'''--~0~-'C_--=."'-
I
-=
r---
Effective Runway Length~
~Actual Runway Length----j
Fig. 5-11. Obstruction Clearance Plane

5-21
 (
3. 121.177 The total accelerate-stop distance for reciprocating
aircraft must not exceed the length of the runway

(See Figs. 5-12 and 5-15.)

4. 121.177 If the critical engine fails after reaching Vl, the

reciprocating aircraft must be able to reach an altitude of
runway
feet AGL before passing over the end of
the runway.
I
5. 121.177 After passing the end of the runway during
takeoff. a reciproca ting aircraft must clear all
obstacles by feet vertically or 50
feet horizontally within the airport
boundaries. (See Fig. 5-15.)

6. 121.177 After passing the airport boundaries with a recip-

rocating aircraft, the obstacles must be cleared by at least 50 (
feet vertically or 200
feet horizontally. (See Fig. 5-15.)

7. 121.177 When compensating for the wind during takeoff, a

reciprocating aircraft must take into account no more than
50
percent of the headwind component
300
and not less than percent of the tailwind
-
component. (See Fig. 5-15.)

8. 121.189 The accelerate-stop distance for turbine aircraft

50
must not exceed the length of the plus
150
the length of any . (See Fig. 5-12.)

9. The horizontal distance from the start of the takeoff point to

the point at which the airplane is 35 feet AGL is considered runway
to be the takeoff for turbine aircraft. stopway
(Assume engine failure at Vl.) (See Fig. 5-12.) (

5-22
 REGULATIONS

TAKEOFF DEFINITIONS

Accelerate-Stop Distance - The horizontal distance to accelerate from a standing start to the V1 speed and
thereafter, assuming an engine failure at this speed, to bring the airplane to a full stop. The accelerate-stop
distance, used in entering the chart, must not exceed the length of the runway plus the length of any
stopway.

Balanced Field length - The condition where the takeoff distance is equal to the accelerate-stop distance. This
distance must not exceed the length of the runway.

Clearway - See Fig. 5·14.

Stopway - See Fig. 5·13.

Takeoff Distance - (Turbine) - The horizontal distance from the start of the takeoff to the point at which the
airplane is 35 feet AGL. (Assuming engine failure at V,. or 115% of above value if no engine failure,
whichever is greater.)
The takeoff distance available, used when entering the performance charts, is the sum of the runway length
plus the actual or maximum allowable c1earway length. The length of the c1earwClY used must not be greater
than one-half the length of the runway.

~~I:. .=_!!_~_-_-_-_-_-_-_
E...
~
ta-n-c"'e=-~~~~~~~--___.,._I
----T-ak-e-o-f-f-D-i-s...

Takeoff Path - The horizontal path from the takeoff point to a point at which the aircraft is 1,500 feet above
the takeoff surface.

Takeoff Run - (Turbine) - If the takeoff distance includes a c1earway, the takeoff run is the horizontal distance
from the start of the takeoff to a point equidistant between the location of V LOF and the point at which
the airplane is 35 feet AGL. (Assuming engine failure at V l' or 115% of above value if no engine failure,
whichever is greater.)
The takeoff run used when entering the performance charts must not exceed the length of the runway.

~
!!!!i!!!!!L. ...:V.:::LO::F==:::::::;==~
II__...
_ ---Takeoff Run -----J___I' Midpoint between
VLOF and 35' AGl

Unbalanced Field Length - The condition where the takeoff distance and the accelerate-stop distance are not
equal.

V-speeds - See FAR 1.2 included with this course.

Fig. 5·12. Takeoff Definitions

5·23
 (
10. The horizontal distance from the start of the takeoff to the
point midway between the location of VLOF and the point
where the airplane is 35 feet AGL is considered to be the distance
takeoff for turbine aircraft. (Assume
engine failure at VI') (See Fig. 5-12.)
I

11. 121.189 The takeoff distance may include the length of the
runway plus the length of a . (See Fig. run
5-15.)

12. 121.189 If a clearway is used when computing the takeoff

distance, the length of the clearway in the computation may
clearway
not exceed more than of the length of
the runway. (See Fig. 5-15.)

13. 121.189 The takeoff run must not be greater than the length
one-half
(
of the . (See Fig. 5-15.)

14. 121.177 and .189 The primary difference between the

minimum obstacle clearance after takeoff for recip aircraft
and turbine aircraft is the vertical clearance, which is runway
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ feet for turbine and _
feet for reciprocating aircraft. (See Fig. 5-15.)

15. If the width of a runway is 150 feet, the minimum width of

35
the stopway at the end of that runway is _
50
feet. (See Fig. 5-13.)

16. The minimum width of a clearway which extends from a

run way which is 175 feet wide is feet. 150
(See Fig. 5-14.)

5-24
 REGULATIONS

Width must be at least

same as runway

sop",av ~ ""J?-_
ot s,pecilied _ _

~
-- -------- Stopway must be:
1. able to support airplane in aborted takeoff without
causing structural damage

2. designed by authorities to decelerate airplane in aborted takeoff

Fig. 5-13. Stop way

Maximum Slope: 1.25%*

( c\ea,~av_ - - - --~- --

- - - .1'{)O,~
_
_,;;::;;;;:::::::;;f,~c~o~"t0tO\
under
at 3\
surlace

Clearway may have any type surface.

No object may protrude c1earway slope

(threshold lights excepted)

for airplanes certified 10-1-58-8-29-59- width 300' both sides and zero degree slope

Fig. 5-14. Clearway

17. In order for a surface at the end of a runway to be considered

usable as a stopway, it be able to 500
must, need not
support an aircraft in an aborted takeoff. (See Fig. 5-13.)

18. In order for a surface at the end of a runway to be considered

usable as a clearway, it be able to must
must, 'need not
support an aircraft in an aborted takeoff. (See Fig. 5-14.)

5-25
 (
TAKEOFF LIMITATIONS
(FAR 121.177and.189)
J/
....---

'a
~O'or35'
_

.. IT
I-..I----b--~ -I_·o----d---- ..
c(V,) e
•
TURBINE RECIPROCATING
1. Accelerate-stop distance must not exceed length
of runway plus stopway. During takeoff, reciprocating engine must be able to:
2. Takeoff distance must not exceed runway plus 1. stop on runway if critical engine fails during "b"
clearway. (Clearway length must not exceed Y2 of in illustration;
runway length.) 2. if critical engine fails at "e" climb to 50' at "e."
3. Takeoff run must not exceed length of runway.

Minimum obstacle clearance after takeoff requires either vertical or horizontal clearance as tabulated below.

Inside Airport Boundary Outside Airport Boundary

Turbine Reciprocating Turbine Reciprocating

Vertical 3S' SO' 3S' SO'

Horizontal 200' 200' 300' 300'

For above section, 0 0 bank below 50' and maximum of 150 bank thereafter in takeoff path. (
For computations, aircraft must consider field elevation, runway gradient, temperature, and wind at time of
takeoff.

To allow for wind, computations must use no more than 50% of headwind and not less than 150% of tailwind.
(Certification and requirements are listed in FAR Part 25,)

---
.... ~

(
Fig. 5-15. Takeoff Limitations

5-26
 REGULATIONS

19. The c1earway plane may have a maximum upward slope of

need not
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ percent. (See Fig. 5-14.)

20. 121.171 If the obstruction clearance plane intersects the

runway surface at a point 700 feet from the approach end of
1.25
an 8,000-foot runway, the effective runway length of that
run way for landing is feet.

21. 121.171 If landing on the opposite end of the runway

mentioned in the previous frame, the effective runway length 7,300
is feet.

8,000

DESTINATION AND ALTERNATE AIRPORT REQUIREMENTS

(See Figs. 5-16 and 5-17.)

1. 121.185 If runway 9 in figure 5-17 is the most favorable

runway and there is no wind, a reciprocating engine aircraft
wishing to use this airport as a destination must have a
landing distance which does not exceed _
feet. (It is assumed that the aircraft is 50 feet AGL when it
passes over the beginning of the effective runway length.)

2. 121.187 If runway 9 in figure 5-17 is the most favorable

run way and there is no wind, a reciprocating engine aircraft 5,100
wishing to use this airport as an alternate airport must be able
to land within feet.

3. 121.195 If runway 27 in figure 5-17 is the most favorable

run way and there is no wind, a turbine - engine aircraft
5,950
wishing to use this airport as a destination must be able to
land within feet.
I

5-27
 (
DESTINATION AND ALTERNATE AIRPORT REQUIREMENTS

(FAR 121.185,.187,.195,.1971

To use an airport as a destination or alternate, the airplane must be able to stop within:

% OF EFFECTIVE RUNWAY LENGTH

DESTINATION ALTERNATE

Reciprocating 60% 70%

Turbojet 60% t 60%

Turboprop 60% 70%

The percentage figures represent the percent of the effective runway length required assuming the airplane flew
50 feet above point "b."

"
'--
~t--t---:--
O'7~-------
, lope ------<"a ~ 50 feet
Don ~~!...::.:....
% -F __

---;;;;;;=..:---.,.-----,.:-;;-::.;;;-..----------------
Effective Runway Length : (
I
a
... b Actual Runway Length-----_-
c

ftl For wet runway, use 115% of requirement for a dry runway.

For computations, most favorable runway in still air is used if no wind is forecast. If wind is forecast, most
suitable runway is used.

For aircraft using most suitable runway when wind is forecast, not more than 50% of headwind nor less than
150% of tailwind can be used. (Certification of transport category aircraft is included in FAR Part 25.)

Fig. 5-16. Destination and Alternate Airport Requirements

_ 20:7 SLOPE
20'
: SLOPE _
-
RWY9 . . , . RW,,'27

• 1500' • •1000'•
10,000'
(ACTUAL RUNWAY LENGTH)

Fig. 5-17. Effective Runway Length

5-28
 REGULATIONS

4. 121.197 A turboprop airplane which desired to use the

airport in figure 5-17 as an alternate airport must be able to
5,400
land within feet if runway 27 was the
most favorable runway.

5. 121.197 To use the airport in figure 5-17 as an alternate

airport for a turbojet airplane, the aircraft must be able to
6,300
land within feet if runway 9 is the
favoring runway.

5,100

FIRE PRECAUTIONS
(See Figs. 5-18 and 5-19.)

(
1 121221 Th e cargo comp art men t wh"IC h mus t h ave a b Ul"It"-m
fire extinguisher that is controllable by a crewmember at his
station is cargo compartment class
I

2. 121.221 The cargo compartment which must be built in such

a manner as to completely contain a fire is cargo com- e
partment class
I

3. 121.221 The cargo compartments which must have a fire

detection system are compartment classes , D

, and

4. 121.221 The cargo compartment which will be found only B

on aircraft which do not carry passengers is cargo compart- e
ment class E
I

5-29
'"
c:..
Cl

CARGO COMPARTMENT CLASSIFICATION

(FAR 121.2211

MATERIALS
COMPARTMENT FLAME COMPARTMENT DETECTION FIRE VENTILATION
ENCLOSURE
ACCESSIBILlTV
CLASS RESISTANT LINING SVSTEM EXTI NGUISHE R SVSTEM

~ A Ves Flame resistant Discernible Accessible in Hand unit - -

to crew at flight for each
'~" station compartment

it B Ves Fire-resistant Detector Crew can reach Hand unit - Exclude hazardous amounts of
'8 (or additional with signal all of available smoke, flames, extinguishing
flame-resistant to crew compartment agent from crew or passengers.

f
~
C Ves
lining)

Fire-resistant Detector None Built-in Adequate so Exclude smoke,

3 (or additional with signal with control extinguisher flames. extinguishing
§ flame-resistant to crew by crew can control agent from crew and
~

passengers
[ D Ves
lining)

Completely None None None, but

fire

Adequate so Exclude smoke,

'"2 lined with fire must fire wilt not flames, noxious gases,
"c fire-resistant stay contained progress beyond from crew and
" material
(Keep heat
safe limits passengers

from adjacent
critical parts)

E Ves Completely Detector Exits accessible None Control in Exclude smoke, flames,
(Cabin area when lined with with signal to crew under cockpit to shut noxious gases from
carrying cargo fire-resistant to crew all loading off ventilating crew
only) material conditions air

/" r---. ~
 REGULATIONS

TYPES OF FIRES

Fires in ordinary combustible materials where the quenching and cooling effects of quantities
Class A fires
of water. or solutions containing large percentages of water, are of first importance.

Class B fires Fires in flammable liquids, greases, etc., where a blanketing effect is essential.

Fires in electrical equipment, where the use of a nonconducting extinguishing agent is of first
Class C fires
importance.

Fig. 5-19_ Types of Fires

5. 121.221 Materials used in the construction of the compart-

E
ments must be at least resistant.

6. 121.221 The cargo compartment where any fire must be

discernible to the crew at their stations is cargo compartment flame
class .

CARGO IN PASSENGER COMPARTMENT

1. 121.285 Cargo which is carried aft of the passengers must be

in an approved cargo _

2. 121.285 The cargo bin must be made of material that is at

bin
least resistant.

3. 121.285 Cargo that is carried forward of the passengers can

be in an approved cargo or be properly flame
secured by a safety or other tiedown.

5-31
 (
4. 121.285 Any carry-on baggage must be in a position so that
bin
it does not restrict access to any required _
belt
or exit.

5. 121.287 If a cargo compartment requires the physical entry

of a crewmember to extinguish a fire, the crewmember must emergency
be able to reach all parts with a hand regular

fire
ex tinguisher

The following excerpt from FAR Part 25 is
included primarily for the list of fire extinguish-
er requirements. Note that FAR Part 121 states
a need for two fire extinguishers in the passenger
compartment if the seating capacity is more
than 30. FAR Part 25 lists a requirement of
three fire extinguishers for a seating capacity of
61 or more.
FAR 25.853 Compartment Interiors.
sion grills, window transparencies, light cover
transparencies not in panel form, ducting, edge-
lighted instrument panels . . . and any other
interior materials not specified in paragraph (a)
of this section must be at least flame resistant ...
(c) Each compartment where smoking is to be
c
allowed must have self-contained, removable,
ash trays, and each other compartment must be
placarded against smoking.

(d) Each receptacle for towels, paper, or waste

Materials (including finishes, if applied) used in
each compartment occupied by the crew or pas-
sengers (other than materials such as wire in-
sulation, conduit, plastic material in "black
boxes," rub strips, pulleys, and small nonmetal-
lic materials that are located behind interior
walls or above interior ceilings) must meet the
following test criteria, as applicable:
must be at least fire resistant and must have
means for containing possible fires.
(e) There must be at least one hand fire extin-
guisher conveniently located in the pilot com-
partment.

(f) There must be at least the following number

(a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this of hand fire extinguishers conveniently located
section, interior wall panels, interior ceiling in passenger compartments:
panels, draperies, structural flooring, baggage
racks, partitions (including wind screens), ther-
mal insulation, light cover transparencies in Minimum number
panel form, and coated fabric insulation cover- of hand fire
ing must be self-extinguishing after flame re- extinguishers
moval ... Passenger capacity:

(b) Thermoplastic. window frames, clip-in trim

7 through 30
31 through 60
1
2
(
strips, light reflectors, speaker cones, decompres- 61 or more. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3

5-32
 REGULATIONS

EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT
(See Fig. 5-20.)

1. 121.309 The fire extinguisher requirements are based on the

passenger rather than the number of
passengers on board.

2. 121.309 If there are 27 people on board an aircraft with a

seating capacity of 47, the number of hand fire extinguishers capacity
required in the passenger compartment is _

3. 121.309 and 25.357 If 60 people are on board an aircraft

with a seating capacity of 125 persons, the number of hand
two
fire extinguishers that must be aboard the aircraft is

( 4. 121.309 An aircraft that has a seating capacity of 135 people

four
must have at least megaphone(s).

5. 121.309 The contents of the first aid kit which must be

two
aboard the aircraft is based on the seating _

6. 121.309 Each airplane must be equipped with at least

capacity
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ crash ax(es).

7. 121.310 No person may operate a passenger carrying air-

plane unless it is equipped with one
provisions accessible from each flight attendant seat.

8. 121.310 If the emergency exit is more than _

feet from the ground, there must be an approved means to flashlight stowage
assist occupants in descending to the ground.

5-33
 (
EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT
(FAR 121309)

Item Quantity Seating Capacity

Fire Extinguisher 1 in cockpit plus the following in passenger compartment:

1 7-30

2 31-60

3 61 and over (FAR 25.853)

Megaphone 1 (in rear) 61-99

2 (1 in rear, 1 forward) 100 and over

Crash Ax 1 per airplane

1 0-50
2 51 - 150
First-Aid Kits 3 151 - 250
4 250 and over
(
In addition to the above. the following equipment is required for extended overwater operations.
(FAR 121.3391

Life Preserver with 1 per occupant

locator light

Life raft enough to accommodate all occupants

Survival Kit 1 per life raft

Pyrotechnic Signaling Device 1 per life raft

Radio Signaling Device 1 per airplane (easily accessible in event of a ditching)

Fig. 5-20. Emergency Equipment

9. 121.310 Each required emergency light must be operable

manually and must operate from the six
independent lighting system.

5-34
 REGULATIONS

(
10. 121.310 Each required emergency light must be armed or
turned on during _ automatically
and _

11. 121.310 Each exterior exit marking must be outlined with a

taxiing, takeoff
colored band which is at least inch( es)
landing
wide.

12. 121.311 Seatbelts must be available for each person over

two
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ year(s) of age.

13. 121.311 It is a requirement for all

true, false two
adults to wear a seatbelt during each takeoff and landing.

14. 121.313 A door between the passenger and pilot compart-

ments must be provided with a means to keep it true

locked

SUPPLEMENTAL OXYGEN
(See Fig. 5-21.)

1. 121.327 If a reciprocating airplane without pressurization is

operated at an altitude of 11,000 feet for 45 minutes, the
crew must wear oxygen for at least _
minutes.

2. 121.327 A crew operating at an altitude of 13,500 feet for a

period of 1 hour and 30 minutes in a reciprocating, non-
15
pressurized airplane must use supplemental oxygen for at
( least minutes.

5-35
'"c:...
'"
SUPPLEMENTAL OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS
FAR 121.327, .329, .331, .333

PASSENGERS

Recip Pressurized Flights

All NonprllSsurized AIrplanes
Rccip and Turbine
Recip Pre~sur;zed Airplanes
Operating Above FL 250
Recip Pressurized Flighls
Irom 8,000' to 25,000'
if airplane £!!l!!.2! descend
10 14,000' in 4 min.
from 8,000' to 25,000' and
Turbine Pres~urized Flights
from 10,000' to 25,000' if
airplane £!!!. descend to
14,000' in 4 min.
Turbine Pressurized Flights from 10,000' to 25.000'
if airplane ~ descend to 14,000' in 4 min.
"
For flighlllititudts above FL 250

."
~'
Cabin Alli\udf, Ollvgen Oxygen Cabin Allilude Flight Altitude Cabin Altitude Oxygen lnot Ius than ]0 m;nulllsl
'!'
-'" Recip8.000'- II durSlion 30 minutes

rf 14,000 __ ~ over 30 min. for __ duration after depressurization for

10,000'-14,000'
30 min, for 10%01
I--- 8,000'-14,000' 10% of passengers
Turbine 10,000'-
14,000 10% of PUS, ponengers ~ e-
30 minutes
fOf duration after depressuri:tation for
14,000'-15,000'
~

~
14,000'-15,000'

-
duration at altitude for 30% of
poss,
f-- .- 14,000'-15,000'
10%of
passengers
- 30% 01 passengers
e-
9 above 15,000'
durotion ot altitude lor 100% of
above 15,000'
abo... 15,000'
duration alter depressurization for
100% of passengers
'"~
'lil -e- pass,
-- - f--

'"
II CREW ADDITIONAL REMARKS

"~' Stewardess considered to be crewmember (not on

flight deck duty)
~
;;:
Cabin Altitude Oxygen Flight AttilUde Oxygen Flight Altitude Requirement lor Flight Crewmemller Possenger briefing concerning oxygen use required belore
flights above F L 250 in pressurized turbine airplanes.

Crew on flight deck duty obove 10,000' Adequall oxygen

mask within easy reach lor each crew·
use for duration over 30 to comply w,th obove FL 250
member Oxygen masks considered quick-donning if mask can be
10.000' to minutes FAR 121.329
12,000' but nOt less than placed on lace with 1 hand in 5 seconds.
Provided lor other crew
2 hours for crew
Oll1lr 30 minutes Quick-donning mask available lor each
on floght deck
duty FL 250 to crewmember
FL 410 If one pitot leaves station, other pilot
Crew on flight deck dUly must wear oxygen
use for duration.
above 12.000'
Provided for other crew for One erewmember wearing muk and
duration, above FL 410 using oxygen

r' r--. ....

 REGULATIONS

I
3. 121.327 For airplanes without pressurized cabins, cabin
pressure altitude and altitude mean the 90
same thing.

4. 121.327 If a nonpressurized reciprocating airplane operates

at a maximum altitude of 13,500 feet for 25 minutes, sup-
flight
plemental oxygen must be provided for 10 percent of the
passengers for minutes.

5. 121.327 Passengers must use oxygen for

true, false
the entire duration of the flight that is at a cabin pressure zero

altitude above 15,000 feet.

6. 121.329 In a nonpressurized airplane operated at an altitude

of 11,000 feet for 45 minutes, the crew must use oxygen for false
at least minutes.

7. 121.329 A crew which is operating a turbine-powered airplane

( at a cabin pressure altitude of 12,500 feet for 55 minutes
15
must use oxygen for a period of min-
utes.
I

8. 121.329 For flights in a turbine-powered airplane at a cabin

pressure altitude of 13,000 feet for a period of 50 min-
55
utes, oxygen must be provided for _
minutes for 10 percent of the passengers.

9. 121.329 For flights in turbine-powered airplanes at a cabin

pressure altitude of 16,000 feet for 45 minutes, oxygen
20
must be provided for at least _
minutes for percent of the passengers.

10. 121.331 A crew which is operating a pressurized recipro-

cating-powered airplane at an altitude of 12,000 feet for 1 45
hour and 15 minutes must be provided with an oxygen supply 100
of at least hour(s).
I

5-37
 (
11. 121.331 If the crew in the above problem was on a flight at
12,000 feet for a period of four hours, that crew must be
two
provided with an oxygen supply of at least
hour(s).

12. 121.331 If a flight is in a pressurized, reciprocating-powered

airplane which is not flown above a flight altitude of FL 250,
but can descend to 14,000 feet or less within four minutes, four
oxygen must be provided for minutes
for percent of the passengers.

13. 121.331 For a flight in a pressurized, reciprocating-powered

aircraft at an altitude of 13,000 feet, oxygen must be pro-
30
vided for minutes for _
10
percent of the passengers.

14. 121.331 For flights aboard a recip pressurized airplane flying (

at a flight altitude of FL 230 and a cabin altitude of 9,000 30
feet, oxygen must be provided for min- 10
utes for percent of the passengers.

15. 121.333 Crewmembers on flight deck duty who are operating

pressurized turbine airplanes above 10,000 feet must have at 30
least a hour oxygen supply if that flight 10
is a one hour flight.
.
16. 121.333 If a pilot flying a pressurized turbine airplane at an
altitude of FL 310 elects not to wear the oxygen mask, that
two
flight crewmember must have a quick-
type of oxygen mask.

17. 121.333 A quick-donning oxygen mask is one which can be

placed into the ready position with one hand within donning
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ second(s).
I

5·38
 REGULATIONS

18. 121.333 If one pilot leaves his station while on a flight at

five
FL 330, the remaining pilot at the controls _--====-=-_
must, need not
put on and use his oxygen mask.

19. 121.333 Before a flight is conducted above FL 250, it is

necessary that a crewmember give the passengers a must
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ on the use of oxygen.

briefing

ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS

(See Fig. 5-20.)

1. 121.339 For an extended over-water flight in an aircraft that

has a crew of seven, 146 passengers on board, and a seating
capacity of 193, there must be at least life preservers.

2. 121.339 The two different types of signaling devices must be

153
the and types.

3. 121.339 For an extended over-water flight in an aircraft with

a seating capacity of 136 passengers with 93 passengers on pyrotechnic
board, there must be at least survival radio
kits if there are 15 life rafts.

4. 121.341 To operate an aircraft in icing conditions, the air-

craft must be equipped with a means of prevention or
15
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of ice on the structural parts where ice
adversely affects safety.

5. 121.341 In addition to the prevention or removal of ice, an

aircraft operating in icing conditions at night must have a removal
means of or otherwise determining the
(
ice formations.

5·39
 (
6. 121.357 If an aircraft is dispatched IFR in an area where
thunderstorms are reported or forecast, the airplane must be
illuminating
equipped with airborne _
equipment.

7. 121.349 If the DME becomes inoperative enroute, the pilot

weather radar
shall notify as soon as it occurs.

ATe

FLIGHT AND VOICE RECORDERS

(See Fig. 5-22.)

1. 121.343 A large airplane must have a flight recorder if it (

operates above feet or is _
engine powered.

2. 121.343 The five items that must be recorded on the flight

recorder are:
1. _
2. _ 25,000

3. _ turbine

4. _
5. _

3. 121.343 The flight recorder must be operated continuously time

from the beginning of the altitude
to the end of the _ airspeed
vertical acceleration
heading (

5·40
 REGULATIONS

FLIGHT AND VOICE RECORDERS

(FAR 121.343 and .3591

FLIGHT RECORDER VOICE RECORDER

TURN
Time of operation Beginning of Takeoff Roll Prior to Starting Checklist*
ON

End of Landing Roll SHUT Completion of Final Checklist*

OFF
(·Needs to record only previous 30 minutes.)

Required on aircraft Large aircraft certified above 25,000' Large turbine and Large, pressurized
and Turbine Engine Powered Aircraft with 4 recip. engines

I nformation recorded Elapsed time, altitude, airspeed, vertical
speed, heading, and time of radio
transmission
Original certificate after 9-30-69: Pitch
attitude, roll attitude, lateral acceler-
Two-way radio communications.
between fli9ht crew, interphone, nay
audio signals and loudspeaker (FAR
25.1457)

( ation, pitch trim, pitch and yaw

control surface position, engine thrust,
thrust reverser position, leading and
trailing flap position

Retaining information Retain 60 days for NTSB, or longer if requested by Administrator.

(only if accident)

Fig. 5-22. Flight and Voice Recorders

4. 121.343 In the event of an accident, the flight recorder must

be kept for a period of at least days, or lakeo ff roll

for a longer period upon the request of the _ landing roll

or the Administrator.
I
5. 121.359 The voice recorder must be operated continuously
from the beginning of the 60
to the end of the _ NTSB

5-41
 (
6. 121.359 The aircraft that are required to have operating
cockpit voice recorders are large engine starting checklist

powered airplanes and large airplanes final checklist

with four reciprocating engines.

7. 121.359 A voice recorder with an erasure feature may be

turbine
used if it does not erase information that is recorded less than
pressurized
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ minutes earlier. (After completion of the
operation of the recorder, the entire content may be erased.)

30

CREWMEMBER REQUIREMENTS AND QUALIFICATIONS

(See Figs. 5-1 and 5-23.)

1. 121.385 The minimum number of pilots aboard domestic

and flag air carriers operating large aircraft under IFR is
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ pilot(s).
(
2. 121.391 An aircraft with 149 people on board and a seating
two
capacity of 151, must have at least _
flight attendants (Stewardesses).

3. 121.391 There must be one flight attendant if the

minimum seating capacity is four
passengers.

4. 121.432 Except for operating experience. the

10
of an operation requiring three or more pilots must
be fully qualified to act as pilot in command.

5. 121.401 and 121.432 If a crewmember is required to take

recurrent training, flight check, or competence check, he has
a grace period of _ second in
command
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ before or after the calendar month in
which the training or check was required.
I

5-42
 REGULATIONS

FLIGHT ATTENDANT REQUIREMENTS

(FAR 121.391)

2
Seating Capacity 1 Number of Flight Attendants (Stewardesses)

10 - 50 1

51 - 100 2

101 and over 2 plus 1 additional attendant for each additional 50 seats (or fraction of 50)

1. Requirement based on seating capacity - not passengers on board.

2. Additional flight attendants required if the emergency evacuation demonstration requires more flight
attendants"than required for the seating capacity requirement.

Fig. 5-23. Flight A ttendant Requirements

6. 121.432 If three or more pilots are required on the aircraft,

the second in command must be qualified to act as one calendar month
_________ in command.

7. 121.433 The proficiency check required may be substi-

tuted for the flight training. pilot

8. 121.433 The approved simulator course of training may be

substituted for alternate periods of _ recurrent

flight training required in that airplane.

9. 121.433 Each pilot in command must satisfactorily complete

either recurrent flight training or a _
recurrent
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ within the preceding _
calendar months.

10. 121.437 A pilot in command operating under FAR Part 121

proficiency check
must hold an pilot
certificate and ·an appropriate rating.
12

5-43
 (
11. 121.437 Pilots other than pilot in command must hold at
airline transport
least a pilot certificate with an type
_________ rating. (Assume a two pilot crew.)
I
12. 121.439 The second-in·command pilot must have made at
least takeoffs and landings within the commercial
preceding days in an airplane of the instrument
type in which he is to serve.
I
13. 121.440 The pilot in command must have had a linecheck three
within the preceding calendar months. 90

14. 121.441 A pilot in command must have had a proficiency

check within the preceding calendar
12 (
months, plus have had a proficiency check or simulator
training within the preceding calendar
months.
I
I

15. 121.441 The second-in-command pilot must have had a pro-

ficiency check within the preceding _
12
calendar months, plus have had a proficiency check or simu-
six
lator training within the preceding _
calendar months.

16. 121.445 (True/False) A pilot in command

may make entry into an unfamiliar airport if the ceiling at 24
the airport is 1,000 feet above the MEA, MOCA, or initial 12
approach altitude and the visibility is at least three miles.

I true I (

5-44
 REGULATIONS

FLIGHT TIME LIMITATIONS

(See Fig. 5-24.)

1. 121.471 The maximum scheduled commercial flight time for

a domestic crewmember is hours in a
calendar year, hours in a calendar month,
and hours in any seven consecutive days.

2. 121.471 If a domestic crewmember is scheduled for more

1,000
than eight hours in 24 consecutive hours, he must have a re.t
100
period of at least hours after a six-hour
30
trip before flying a four-hour trip.

3. 121.471 If a domestic crewmember is scheduled for more

than eight hours in 24 consecutive hours, he must have a rest
( 12
period of at least hours after a three-
hour trip before flying a six-hour trip.

4. 121.471 If a domestic crewmember is scheduled for more

than eight hours in 24 consecutive hours, he must have a rest
eight
period of at least hours after a five-hour
trip before flying a four-hour trip.

5. 121.471 A domestic crewmember who has had more than

eight hours of duty in 24 consecutive hours must be given at
10
least hours of rest before doing any
other duty with the air carrier.

6. 121.471 A domestic crewmember must have at least

consecutive hours of rest during any 16
seven consecutive days.

5·45
 (
FLIGHT TIME LIMITATIONS: DOMESTIC
(FAR 121.471)
Examples of flight time, duty time, and rest periods are included in the table below. The minimum hours of rest
that are required are illustrated with the duty aloft hours.

Meaning of codes: D hours of duty

DA hours of duty aloft
DH hours of deadhead transportation
(to or from rest station)
R hours of rest

~ 8R 6DA 16R

I 4DA 4DA I 16R

4DA 8R 5DA 16R

5DA I lOR 5DA 16R

··
6DA I 12R 4DA 16R ··
! 7DA 14R bJ 16R
·
(
i 8DA 16R
·
12DJ 4DH 6DA 16R

16R ·
4DA ~.:::.2=-D,-,~~_ _-,-12::.;R-,-_ _,--I~:4.:. ;D::.;A.. :. . lI -----""'6.:..;R ---J

5DA bQ.'2_hD~ 13R lD:j...j~--------_1:..:6::..R'----

~\J Beginning 1st day end of: 1st day end of 2nd day 01
Fig. 5-24. Flight Time Limitations: Domestic

7. 121.471 ---,-:- Time which is spent in trans-

true, false
porting a flight crewmember from one station to another
24
station can be counted as a rest period if the crewmember has
no assigned duty. (

5-46
 REGULATIONS

8. 121.481 The maximum flight time for a flag flight crew-

member on an aircraft with one or two pilots IS

hours during 12 calendar months, false

_________ hours during one calendar month, and
hours during any seven consecutive
days.

9. 121.483 A flag crewmember flying aboard an aircraft with

two pilots and one additional flight crewmember is limited to
1,000
a maximum of hours during 12 calendar
100
months, hours during any 90 consecu-
32
tive days, and hours during any 30 con-
secutive days.
I

10. 121.483 A flag flight crewmember flying an aircraft with two

1,000
pilots and one additional flight crewmember is limited to a
300
( maximum of hours during any 24 con-
120
secutive hours.

11. 121.485 A flag flight crewmember, flying aboard an aircraft

with three pilots and an engineer, who flies for more than 12
hours during any 24 consecutive hours, must be provided 12
with adequate on
the aircraft.

12. 121.485 A flag flight crewmember, flying an aircraft with

three pilots and an engineer, is limited to a maximum of sleeping
_________ hours during 12 calendar months and quarters
_________ hours during any 90 consecutive days.

13. 121.485 After a flag flight crewmember returns to his base

from a flight, his rest period must be at least _ 1,000
the total number of hours that he flew since the last rest 350
period at his base.

5-47
 (
14. 121.489 A flag flight crewmember may do no other
_________ flying if that flying plus his air carrier twice
flying will exceed the flight time limitations.

commercial

FLIGHT OPERATIONS
(See Fig. 5-25.)

1. 121.533 During flight time, the person who has full respon-
sibility for the aircraft is the in com-
mand.

(
MINIMUM ALTITUDES FOR USE OF AUTOMATIC PILOT (FAR 121.579)

FLIGHT PHASE MINIMUM ALTITUDE

higher of:
2 times max. altitude loss
Enroute
or
500' above terrain

I LS Approach with Coupler 50' plus maximum

(Less than VFR) altitude loss above terrain

higher of:
I LS Approach with Coupler max. altitude loss
(VF R or better) or
50' above terrain
higher of:
All nonprecision approaches and I LS 2 times max. altitude los5
without Coupler or
50' below MDA or DH

Exception: If autopilot max. altitude

loss is zero feet with Coupler, safety touchdown (zero feet)
not affected, and authorized ops specs.
(
Fig. 5-25. Minimum Altitudes for Use of Automatic Pilot

5-48
 REG UlATIONS

2. 121.533 The persons who are jointly responsible for the

preflight planning, delay, and dispatch release are the
pilot
_________ in command and the _

3. 121.543 Each required flight crewmember must remain at his

station except for duties in connection with the operation of pilot
the airplane or in connection with his _ aircraft dispatcher
needs.
! I

4. 121.547 A person occupying the jump-

true, false
seat on an air carrier aircraft must be provided a seat in the physiological
passenger compartment.

5. 121.547 The pilot in command has the

true, false
authority to admit any person to the flight deck false
without other authorization.

( 6. 121.547
true, false
The pilot in command has the
authority to exclude all noncrewmembers from the flight false
deck in an emergency.

7. 121.549 The pilot in command is responsible for insuring I

that appropriate charts are aboard the true

aircraft for each flight.

8. 121.557 The pilot in command may

true, false
deviate from the required weather minimums in an emer- aeronautical
gency.

9. 121.557 If a pilot in command exercises his emergency

authority, he must make a written report within true
days after returning to his home base.

10. 121.557 If a dispatcher exercises his emergency authority, it

is necessary for him to send a report to the Administrator
within days after the date of the emer- 10

gency.

5-49
 (
11. 121.565 If an engine on a DC9 (two engine jet) fails, the
pilot in command shall land the airplane at the nearest 10
suitable airport in point of _

12. 121.565 If one engine stops, the pilot in command may

proceed to an airport other than the one closest in point of time
time if the airplane has or more engines.

13. 121.565 If a pilot proceeds to an airport other than the

nearest suitable airport, the operations manager or director of
operations must send a report to the FAA air carrier district three
office (ACDO) within days after the
pilot returns to his home base.

14. 121.571 In addition to the oxygen briefing requirement,

passengers must be orally briefed on the following items:
1. ~
10
2. the use of , and
(
3. the location of _

15. 121.575 (True/False) A passenger may smoking

drink an alcoholic beverage that he has carried on board safety belts
with him. emergency exits

16. 121.575 (True/False) An intoxicated

false
person may not be allowed aboard an air carrier aircraft.

17. 121.579 If the maximum altitude loss of an autopilot is

stated to be 300 feet, the minimum altitude for the use of true
the autopilot enroute is feet AGL.
I
18. 121.579 If the maximum altitude loss of an autopilot is
stated to be 200 feet, the minimum altitude for the use of 600
the autopilot enroute is feet AGL.
I

5-50
 REGULATIONS

19. 121.579 If an autopilot with an approach coupler has a

stated maximum altitude loss of 30 feet and is used on an
500
ILS approach during IFR conditions, the minimum altitude
for the use of the autopilot is feet AGL.

20. 121.579 If an autopilot with a maximum altitude loss of 30

feet is coupled to the ILS during VFR conditions, the mini-
80
mum altitude for the use of the autopilot is
feet AGL.

21. 121.579 If an autopilot with a maximum altitude loss of 60

feet is coupled to the ILS during VFR conditions, the mini-
50
mum altitude for the use of the autopilot is
feet AGL.

22. 121.579 If an autopilot with a maximum altitude loss of 25

( feet is used on a nonprecision approach and the minimum
descent altitude is 350 feet above the airport, the minimum 60
altitude for the use of the autopilot is
feet AGL.

23. 121.579 If an autopilot with a maximum altitude loss of 200

feet is used on a non precision approach and the minimum
descent altitude is 350 feet above the airport, the minimum 300
altitude for the use of the autopilot is
feet AGL.

24. 121.579 If an individual air carrier operations specifications

(ops specs) have been issued by the FAA and safety standards
are not affected on an approach which has an approved flight
400
control guidance system with automat.ic capability and an
altitude loss of zero feet, the minimum altitude for the use of
the autopilot is feet.

( zero

5-51
 DISPATCHING AND FLIGHT RELEASE RULES (

The weather requirements for alternate airports

are covered in chapter 7, Terminal Procedures.

1. 121.593 and 121.595 No person may start a flight unless the

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ specifically autho-
rizes that flight.

2. 121.595 If a flag air carrier lands at an intermediate airport

and is on the ground for more than aircraft dispatcher
hour(s), he must have a new dispatch release.

3. 121.593 If a domestic air carrier lands at an intermediate

airport and stays there for more than _
six (
hour(s), he must have a new dispatch release prior to starting
that flight.

4. 121.601 Prior to beginning a flight, the pilot in command

must be given all available current reports or information on
one
airport conditions and irregularities of navigational facilities
from the _

5. 121.611 If the weather is VFR and is forecast to remain VFR

and ops specs authorize VFR operations, an airplane may be ail'craft dispatcher
dispatched or released for operations.

6. 121.613 When the weather is IFR conditions, the weather

reports or forecasts must indicate that the weather at the
VFR
destination at the estimated time of arrival will be at or above
(

5·52
 REGULATIONS

7. 121.639 The fuel supply required for domestic air carriers is

enough to fly to the to which it is
dispatched, to fly to and land at the most distant authorized
airport, and to fly thereafter for minimums
minutes at normal cruising fuel con-
sumption. (Assume that an alternate is required.)
I
8. 121.641 A propeller-driven flag air carrier aircraft must have
enough fuel to fly to and land at the airport to which it was
dispatched, fly to and land at the most distant
airport
airport, and to fly for
alternate
minutes plus percent of the total time to
45
fly to the destination and alternate airports, or to fly for
minutes at normal cruising fuel consump-
tion, whichever is less.

9. 121.641 If an alternate is not required, a propeller-driven flag alternate

air carrier aircraft must have enough fuel to fly to the 30
destination and thereafter to fly for 15
hour(s) at normal cruising fuel consumption. 90

10. 121.645 When an alternate is not required for a turbojet flag

air carrier aircraft, it must have enough fuel to fly to and land
three
at the destination airport, and to fly thereafter for
hour(s).
•

11. 121.649 The basic VFR minimums for a Part 121 operator
during the day are a foot ceiling and two
mile(s) visibility.

12. 121.657 An air carrier operating below the MEA in VFR con-
1,000
ditions on top must maintain an altitude of at least
one
feet above the broken or overcast cloud cover.

13. 121.657 The flight visibility requirement for VFR on top

.. 1,000 I
conditIOns below the MEA IS a minimum of mde(s) .

5·53
 14. 121.657 The minimum altitude above ground for any day (
VFR operations for a domestic air carrier is _ five
feet.
15. 121.663 The two persons required to sign the dispatch
release to state that they believe the flight can be made with
1,000
safety are the in command and an
authorized
16. 121.663 The aircraft dispatcher may
true, false pilot
delegate his authority to sign a release for a particular flight
aircraft dispatcher
and his authority to dispatch.

17. 121.667 It is a requirement for sup-

true, false
plemental air carriers and commercial operators to file a false
flight plan for every flight.

true

(
RECORDS AND REPORTS

1. 121.697 The pilot in command of an aircraft shall carry in

the airplane to its destination the original or a signed copy of
the: (1) __
(2) _
(3) _

( 4) _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , and
( 5) ___

load manifest
flight release
airworthiness release
pilot route certification
flight plan
(

5-54
 ........
PE SE t. (OMPUTER
.
~

0 ~
~
"or-:-'- -- -=:-

• " :6-:::
0
~ :;:;
0-'::-
::::.

---
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"c
"'c8' ,- -'"
~

, ,," r.," .<."

• ,< C' ,
C

INTRODUCTION

The content of the computer chapter for the Airline Transport Pilot Course will be those problems
which are normally not found in the Commercial Pilot or Instrumental Pilot Training Courses. It
is assumed that the ATP applicant has a basic knowledge of the use of the computer; therefore,
elementary computer problems will not be covered in this chapter.

TYPES OF AIRSPEED theoretical pressure differential established

INDICATED AIRSPEED
The indicated airspeed is the airspeed read
directly from the airspeed indicator. Indicated
airspeed is not corrected for any errors.
between the impact and static pressure within
the pitot and static pressure lines. The instru-
ment and position error is generally given on an
airspeed correction card placed in the airplane or
the aircraft flight manual. Generally, the cali-
brated airspeed is greater than the indicated air-
speed.

CALIBRATED AIRSPEED
The calibrated airspeed can be computed by
correcting the indicated airspeed for instrument
and position errors. The instrument and position
error is the difference between the actual and
EQUIVALENT AIRSPEED
The equivalent airspeed is the calibrated airspeed
corrected for compressibility error. The com-
pressibility error is caused by the air·being com-

6-1
pressed in and around the pitot tube inlet which
results in a higher than actual airspeed reading in
the cockpit. This error is negligible at low air-
speeds, but increases proportionately as air-
speeds increase. The Jeppesen CR-2, -3, and -5
computers automatically correct for compres-
sibility error when using the long circular CAS
window for true airspeed computations rather
than the window labeled TRUE AIRSPEED.
Satisfactory high speed true airspeed computa-
tions can be made, however, with computers
that do not have this method of computing true
airspeed. The compressibility factor should be
subtracted from calibrated airspeed to receive
equivalent airspeed. The equivalent airspeed
should then be treated in the same manner as (
calibrated airspeed for computer problems. The
equivalent airspeed will always be lower than the
calibrated airspeed.
TRUE AIRSPEED
The true airspeed can be computed by
correcting the equivalent airspeed for
temperature and pressure altitude. If the
equivalent airspeed is not available for
speeds less than approximately 200 knots,
the calibrated airspeed can be used.
Normally, the true airspeed will be greater
than the equivalent or calibrated airspeed.

1. The indicated airspeed is received by reading directly from

the _

2. To obtain the calibrated airspeed, it is necessary to correct

the indicated airspeed for and airspeed indicator
(
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ errors.

3. Generally, the calibrated airspeed is instrument

less, greater
than the indicated airspeed. position

4. To compute the equivalent airspeed, it is necessary to correct

greater
the calibrated airspeed for error.

5, The compressibility factor should be ....,..,....,..,_ _

subtracted from,
_ _ _...,..,....,..., calibrated airspeed to receive equivalent compressibility
added to
airspeed.

6, The equivalent airspeed normally will be

subtracted from
----c-=c:o:==--- than the calibrated airspeed.
lower, higher
(

6-2
 COMPUTER

7. When computing high airspeed solutions, the true airspeed

can be computed by correcting the air- lower
speed for temperature and pressure altitude.

8. If the density altitude is above sea level, the true airspeed will
always be than the equivalent or cali- equivalent
less, greater
brated airspeed.

greater

TEMPERATURE RISE has been designed to reflect the temperature

In flight, particularly at high airspeeds, an out-
side air temperature thermometer will read
higher than the actual free air temperature
because of friction and compression. of air at
the temperature probe. The CR Computer is
( designed to correct for temperature rise using
the two most popular recovery coefficients.
Today's jets are equipped with temperature
probes which have recovery coefficients of 1.0,
while many older ones have a coefficient of .8.
The scale near the center of the computer en-
titled "TEMPERATURE RISE CO (CT 1.0)"
rise indicated by a CT 1.0 temperature probe.
If the temperature rise is desired for a tempera-
ture probe with a CT of .8, the value found on
the "TEMPERATURE RISE CO (CT 1.0)" scale
is multiplied by .8.
If the cursor is rotated in front of the TEM-
PERATURE RISE °c window, a small green
mark on the cursor 1Nill indicate degrees of
temperature rise. The hairline of the cursor will
also indicate values of indicated temperature
and true airspeed in the large window above.

True Airspeed 467 knots

~----- 2. Temperature - 25 0 C I
3. Temperature Rise 28 0 C

Fig. 6-1. Temperature Rise

6-3
Remember: Solution: (
true air temperature + temperature rise
indicated air temperature 1. Rotate the top disc until 467 knots
appears somewhere in the large true
or: airspeed window, as shown in figure
indicated air temperature - temperature rise 6-1.
= true air temperature.

Note that the indicated temperature is always 2. Rotate the cursor until the hairline
warmer than true temperature. passes through the 467-knot airspeed
mark.
If the true airspeed and indicated temperature
are known, the procedure for finding true air
temperature is simple. 3. In the temperature rise window near
the center of the computer, read 28°
Example: Celsius under the small green mark on
Given: true airspeed 467 knots the cursor. Indicated air temperature -
indicated air temperature .. -25°C. temperature rise = true air tempera-
recovery coefficient. . . . . . . .. 1.0 ture. [(-25°) - (-28°) ~ -53°)

Find: true air temperature Answer: -53°C.

1. At high airspeeds, the indicated air temperature will be warmer

than the true air temperature because of _ _ __
I I (
I
2. If the indicated air temperature is 15° Celsius and the temp-
erature rise is 10°, the true temperature will be friction
° Celsius.

3. If the indicated outside air temperature is _20° Celsius and

the temperature rise is 15°, the true outside air temperature 5
will be ° Celsius.
,
4. Indicated temperature is always than
colder, warmer -35
true temperature.
I

5. If the true airspeed is 390 knots, the temperature rise is

warmer
° Celsius.
I
I I (
20

6-4
 COMPUTER

TRUE AIRSPEED Example:

COMPUTATIONS
TRUE AIRSPEEO - AUTOMATIC COMPENSATION
The following method of computing true air-
speed embodies an improvement over earlier
conventional methods, since it compensates for
the effects of compressibility and temperature Solution:
rise due to high speed flight. With the conven-
tional method, true outside air temperature is
set against pressure altitude and the true air-
speed result is read above calibrated airspeed
using the two outside "log" scales of the com-
puter. If desired, this method can also be used
with the Jeppesen computer by using the
window labeled TRUE AIRSPEED. This con-
ventional method will also be explained follow-
ing this true airspeed explanation.
When taking the FAA ATP written examina-
tion, either method can be used, but it should be
remembered that the compressibility factor and
temperature rise must be considered only when
using the conventional method. The following
( example illustrates computing the true airspeed
using the Jeppesen CR computer (see Fig. 6-2): Answer:
Given: calibrated airspeed 272 knots
pressure altitude FL 350
indicated air temperature .. -25 0 C.
recovery coefficient. . . . . . . .. 1.0
Find: true airspeed
1. In the long circular CAS window,
line up the calibrated airspeed of 272
knots over the pressure altitude of
35,000 feet.
2. With the computer set as indicated in
step 1, move the cursor around to the
section of waved lines in the large
INDICATED TEMPERATURE °C.
window. Note the spiral line crossing
the waved lines. Line up the CT 1.0
hairline on the cursor with the inter-
section of the spiral on the tempera-
ture of _25 0 Celsius.
3. Follow the straight hairline down and
read true airspeed.
460 knots

(
True Airspeed Solution

6-5
 (
1. Given:
calibrated airspeed 260 knots
pressure altitude 17,500 feet
indicated outside air temperature -10 o C.
recovery coefficient 1.0
Find:
true airspeed knots

2. Given:
calibrated airspeed 305 knots
pressure altitude 20,000 feet
331 (knots)
indicated outside air temperature ·15 0 C.
recovery coefficient ...................•..... 1.0
F'ind:
true airspeed knots

3. Given:
calibrated airspeed 305 knots
(
altitude 20,000 feet
395 (knots)
indicated outside air temperature -15 0 C.
recovery coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Find:
true airspeed knots

4. Given:
calibrated airspeed . . . . . . . . . .. 300 knots
pressure altitude FL 310
400 (knots)
indicated outside air temperature -30 o C.
Find:
true airspeed knots

466 (knots)

TRUE AIRSPEED-CONVENTIONAL METHOD cally compensate for compressibility and temp-

To compute the true airspeed using the con-

erature rise. The following explanation will pro-
ceed through an entire true airspeed computa-
(
ventional method, it is necessary to mathemati- tion using the additional factor of instrument

6·6
 COMPUTER

and position error. To remember the proper speed to receive a calibrated airspeed
order of airspeeds, it might be helpful to use the of 272 knots.
memory jogger "ice tea" which identifies the 2. Subtract the compressibility of 15
first letters of the airspeeds in their proper knots from the calibrated airspeed to
order-indicated, calibrated, equivalent, and true receive the equivalent airspeed of 257
airspeed (I-C-E-T). knots.
3. Algebraically subtract the temperature
Example: rise of 23 0 from the indicated air
Given: indicated airspeed 269 knots temperature of -25 0 Celsius to receive
instrument and position a true air temperature of -4S o Celsius.
error + 3 knots 4. As illustrated in figure 6-3, set the
compressibility 15 knots true air temperature of -4S o Celsius
indicated air temperature .. -25 0 C: opposite the pressure altitude of
temperature rise . . . . . . . . . .. 23 0 35,000 feet.
pressure altitude FL 350 5. On the ring which is normally used for
calibrated airspeed, locate the equiva-
Find: true airspeed lent airspeed of 257 knots. Opposite
the equivalent airspeed, read the true
Solution: airspeed on the outside disc.
1. Add the instrument and position error
of three knots to the indicated air- Answer: 467 knots

or+ 0••
( 0,.

~;:"-==""":::""-------,
3. Equivalent Airspeed 257 knots

2. Pressure Altitude 35~~~!a

6·7
 (
1. Given:
indicated airspeed 254 knots
instrument and position error +2 knots
compressibility 10 knots
indicated outside air temperature -16°C.
temperature rise 19°
pressure altitude FL 310
Find:
calibrated airspeed knots
equivalent airspeed. . . . . . . . knots
true outside air temperature . . °C.
true airspeed. . . . . . . . . . . . . knots

2. Given:
indicated airspeed 347 knots
instrument and position error +3 knots
256 (knots)
compressibility 16 knots
indicated outside air temperature -30°C.
246 (knots) (
0
-35 (C.)
temperature rise 23°C.
420 (knots)
pressure altitude ..............•.......... FL 240
Find:
true airspeed knots

3. Given:
indicated airspeed 283 knots
instrument and position error +2 knots
468 (knots)
compressibility 12 knots
(CAS 350 knots
true outside air temperature -45°C.
EAS 334 knots
temperature rise 20°
TAT -53°C.)
pressure altitude FL 290
Find:
true airspeed knots

435 (knots)
(CAS 285 knots
(
EAS 273 knots)

6·8
 COMPUTER

MACH NUMBER Example:

Mach number is the ratio of the true airspeed of
an aircraft to the speed of sound. (Example:
Mach .5 is half the speed of sound.) The temp-
erature is the greatest single factor affecting the
speed of sound; therefore, the same Mach num-
ber can represent different true airspeeds depen-
dent upon the outside temperature. Next to the
number "80," which represents 80,000 feet in
the PRESS. ALT. window used for true airspeed
computations on most computers, is a Mach
number index (~ ). (See Fig. 6-4.) The Mach
number index is positioned on the computer to
relate Mach numbers to true airspeed in knots
only. With the Mach number index set to the
true air temperature, the speed of sound can be
read on the outside scale opposite the number
"10" on the inside scale. The true airspeed can
be read on the outside scale opposite the Mach
number on the inside scale, as shown in figure
6-4.
( set up the same way with the Mach index oppo-
Giuen: true air temperature -25 0 C.
Mach number . . . . . . . . . . . .. .80
Find: speed of sound
true airspeed
Solution:
1. Set the Mach index opposite _25 0
Celsius in the window labeled PRESS.
ALT. This pressure altitude window is
found in the conventional true air-
speed computation window.
2. Above the "10" on the inside scale,
read the speed of sound.
3. Above the Mach number .8 ("80" on
the inside scale), read the true air-
speed.
Answer: 612 knots (speed of sound)
490 knots (true airspeed)
In the above problem, the Mach number can be
found if the true airspeed and temperature are
known. In the problem, if the true airspeed was
known to be 490 knots, the computer would be
site the -250 Celsius to find the Mach number of
.80.

The Mach number can also be found on the

Jeppesen computer if the calibrated airspeed and
pressure altitude are known. The calibrated air-
speed in knots is set in the circular airspeed
window over pressure altitude and the Mach
number is read over the Mach number pointer at
the bottom of the large TRUE AIRSPEED win-
dow, as illustrated in figure 6-5.

Example:
Given: calibrated airspeed 250 knots
pressure altitude FL 350

Find: Mach number

Solution:
1. Place calibrated airspeed (250) in
curved window over pressure altitude
(35,000 feet).
2. Ahove Mach number pointer, read
Mach number at bottom of large
window in top disc.

Fig. 6-4. Mach Index and Speed of Sound Answer: .74

6-9
 (

1. The greatest single factor which affects the speed of sound (

for Mach number computations is _

2. The Mach number index gives the true airspeed in

temperature
_ _ _ _---,-- only.
m.p.h., knots

3. Given:
true air temperature -35 0 C.
knots
Find:
speed of sound . . . . . . . . . . . knots

4. Given:
true air temperature -15°C.
Mach number .". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .80 600 (knots)

Find:
true airspeed knots (

6-10
 COMPUTER

5. Given:
true air temperature -25 0 C.
true airspeed .4 77 knots 500 (knots)
Find:
Mach number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-----------------

6. Given:
calibrated airspeed 279 knots
pressure altitude FL 300 .78
Find:
Mach number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-----------------

7. Given:
pressure altitude FL 330
Mach number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . .. .82 .74
Find:
calibrated airspeed ........ knots
(
292 (knots)

SPECIFIC RANGE computations. The two factors necessary to

The objective of determining the specific range
is to find the number of nautical air miles that
the airplane will fly per 1,000 pounds of fuel (in
still air). Wind is not considered in specific range
compute the specific range are the pounds of fuel
flow in pounds per hour (p.p.h.) and the air-
craft's true airspeed. To compute the nautical air
miles (NAM) per 1,000 pounds of fuel, the true
airspeed should be divided by the fuel flow.

Example:
Given: true airspeed 480 knots
fuel flow 7,200 p.p.h.

Find: NAM/l,OOO lb. fuel

Solution:
1. As illustrated in figure 6-6, set the
\, .... true airspeed (480) over the fuel flow

~,\
to)
~O~.
:t'~'" -~
i i .ul , ~lit .- " '..0 (7,200 p.p.h.).
~~ ~ , . 'l~ .• 0

~\1~: '3~~:ec~iC Range 66.7 NAM/1000 I~S~fuel

2. Read the answer on the outside scale
above the number "10" on the inside
.~. < ";::l. / scale.
•
"
o..:::~,r ~ ", -'......"..-\-.,:-;-
....".......
~ '"
..,
.I- ~~~$
~ (h.'
0: t
... _

Fig. 6·6. Specific Range - NAM/l000 Ib5. Fuel Answer: 66.7 NAM/l,OOO lb. fuel

6·11
 (
1. In specific range computations, the wind .,-:- _
is, is not
considered.

2. Given:
true airspeed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 460 knots
fuel flow 6,800 p.p.h. is not
Find:
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ NAM/1,000 lb. fuel

3. Given:
true airspeed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 360 knots
fuel flow . .......•........•....•.... 5,800 p.p.h. 67.8
Find:
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ NAM/1,000 lb. fuel

4. Given:
true airspeed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 420 knots
fuei flow ..............•............ 7,400 p.p.h. 62
Find: (
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ NAM/1,000 lb. fuel

5. Given:
true airspeed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 425 knots
fuel flow 2,100 p.p.h./engine
56.8
3 engines
Find:
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ NAM/1,000 lb. fuel

67.5

RATE OF CLIMB (DESCENT) pressurization change in feet per minute for

Most modern turbojet aircraft are equipped with
pressurization systems which operate automati-
cally based on the cruise altitude and cabin
pressure altitude requirements which are set into
the controls of the pressurization system. On
some aircraft, where it is necessary to manually
set the rate of climb for the cabin pressurization,
the flight computer can be used to find the
both climbs and descents. In the following
example, to guard against pressurizing the air-
craft while still on the ground, the pressurization
system is not turned on until the aircraft is
1,000 feet above ground level. The AGL altitude
may vary in different problems, and each airline
also has different regulations regarding the alti-
tude to begin pressurization.

6·12
 COMPUTER

Example:
Given: field elevation 1,500 feet 29,000' MSL --,--
(Cabin Altitude-5,500')
enroute cruise altitude FL 290
aircraft rate of climb .1,840 Lp.m.
cabin altitude at cruise .. 5,500 feet
pressurization
begins at 1,000 feet AGL

Find: cabin rate of climb (See Fig. 6-7.) Altitude changed when cabin and
aircraft climbing at different rate

'"'"7' ".",
Solution: (Pressurization Computation based
L Determine the number of feet that the
aircraft climbs while the cabin is being
"0 <""
pressurized. This is accomplished by
subtracting the MSL altitude where
the pressurization begins (2,500 feet
MSL) from the enroute cruise altitude
(29,000 feet)_ This results in an air-
craft climb of 26,500 feet. The alti-
tude of 2,500 feet MSL is obtained by
adding the field elevation (1,500 feet)
to the AGL altitude where the pres-
-/-.,1--- 1,000' AGL (2,500' MSL)
surization begins (1,000 feet).
2. To determine the time required to
reach the cruising altitude, set the rate Aircraft Altitude Cabin Altitude

~
of climb (1,840 f.p.m.) on the outer
( scale over the "10" on the inner scale,
as shown in figure 6-8. (This is the 1,500' Field Elevation
method to set rate of climb on the
computer.) Fig. 6-7. Pressurization Computation

1. Aircraft Rate of Climb (1840 fpm)

I ~ t"t.
• rOVE_"um''''
0"'"
<:i ·-f ~
ii~~
( ~4\)
.J<)' ~._
"'-..
~NV-c.9-t
C $/?..:::
'\~ -& ..,:'
::..
#~.
Fig. 6-8. Aircraft Rate of Climb

6-13
 3. Under the number of feet that the
aircraft will climb (26,500) on the
outer scale, read the number of
minutes required for the aircraft to
climb from 2,500 feet MSL (1,000
feet AGL) to the cruise altitude (14.4
minutes).
4. Determine the number of feet that the
cabin climbs by subtracting the alti-
tude of 2,500 feet MSL from the
cabin altitude (5,500 feet) at cruise.
This results in a net climb of 3,000 (
feet for the cabin.
5. Set the number of feet that the cabin
climbs (3,000 feet) on the outer scale
over the time to climb (14.4 minutes)
on the inner scale. The cabin rate of
climb is read on the outer scale over
the "10" on the inner scale.
Answer: Cabin rate of climb is 208 f.p.m.

3. Cabin Rate 01 Climb 2081pm 1. Cabin Altitude Change 3000'

Fig. 6·9. Cabin Rate of Climb

1. Given:
field elevation 2,000 feet
enroute cruise altitude ........•........... FL 290
aircraft rate of climb 1,500 f.p.m.
pressurization begins at ...•........ 1,000 feet AGL
cabin altitude at cruise 5,500 feet
Find:
cabin rate of climb ....... f.p.m. (

6·14
 COMPUTER

( 2. Given:
field elevation 3,500 feet
enroute cruise altitude FL 180
145 ({.p.m.) (Time
aircraft rate of climb 1,350 f.p.m.
to climb 17.3 min-
begin pressurization at 1,000 feet AGL
utes.)
cabin altitude at cruise 5,500 feet
Find:
cabin rate of climb f.p.m.
3. Given:
field elevation sea level
enroute cruise altitude FL 290
100 (f.p.m.) (Time
time to climb 16.2 minutes
to climb 10.0 min-
pressurization begins at 1,500 feet AGL
utes.)
cabin altitude at cruise 5,000 feet
Find:
cabin rate of climb ....... f.p.m.

4. Given:
field elevation 500 feet
enroute cruise altitude FL 310
216 ({.p.m.) (Air-
aircraft rate of climb 1,780 f.p.m.
craft rate of climb
begin pressurization at 1,000 feet AGL
1,700 f.p.m.)
cabin rate of climb 209 f.p.m.
Find:
cabin altitude at cruise feet
5. Given:
field elevation 2,500 feet
enroute cruise altitude FL 350
pressurization begins at 500 feet AGL 4,970 (feet) (Time to
time to climb 20.8 minutes climb 16.6 minutes.)
cabin rate of climb 144 f.p.m.
Find
cabin altitude at cruise . feet

6,000 (feet) (Air-

craft rate of climb
1,540 f.p.m.)

6-15
FINDING WINDS IN FLIGHT
On any computer, accuracy for finding winds in
flight is more difficult to achieve than any other
type of wind problem. It is difficult for two
persons, working a problem where wind must be
determined, to obtain answers closer than one or
two knots or degrees. In the practice problems,
most people should be satisfied if the answers
come that close to the given answers.
Since true course and true airspeed are given, it
is possible to position the computer discs im-
mediately by setting these values opposite the
proper indexes. Then, once the crosswind com-
ponent and the headwind or tailwind compo-
nents are known, it is easy to fix the two coor-
dinates for the wind dot.
Example:
Given: true course 215 0
true airspeed 150 knots
true heading 220 0
groundspeed 130 knots
Find: wind direction and velocity
Note: Usually, when finding the
actual winds in flight, the course
and heading are given in magnetic
directions rather than true direc-
tions rather than true directions. In
this case, it is necessary to correct
for variation since the wind is usual-
ly stated with respect to true north.
1~
Fig. 6-10. Finding Winds in Flight
6-16
Solution: (see Fig. 6-10) (
1. Set TAS index at 15 (150 knots).
2. Set TC index at 215 0 .
3. Subtract true course from true head-
ing to get the wind correction angle:
220 0 _ 215 0 =5°
4. On the middle disc, locate 50 on the
white scale under the black "effective
true airspeed" section. Opposite 50
read 13 on the base disc. The cross-
wind component equals 13 knots.
5. Since the true heading is greater than
the true course, there is a right cross-
wind. Since the groundspeed is less
than the true airspeed, there is a head-
wind. Along the horizontal scale to
the right of the computer center,
measure 13 knots, the crosswind com-
ponent, and draw a line up from the
crosswind line (headwind direction)
parallel to the vertical lines.
6. No effective true airspeed is necessary
since the wind correction angle is less
than 10° Subtract groundspeed from
true airspeed to get the headwind
component: 150 knots - 130 knots =
20 knots. Measure up from the center (
on the vertical headwind scale to the
20-knot line. Draw a horizontal line
from this point until it intersects the
13-knot crosswind line. This intersec-
tion marks the proper position of a
wind dot in the problem.
_.!4-:--i?,,"",,--11. TAS 150 knots I
7. Wind Position
(
 COMPUTER

7. For ease of reading, turn the top disc 6-11.) Read wind direction at the end
until the penciled wind intersection of the line, opposite the TC index,
lies along the black headwind line 249 0 . Read wind velocity on the low-
above the computer center. (See Fig. speed scale, 24 knots. (See Fig. 6-11.)

1. Wind Direction 249 0

2. Wind Velocity 24 knots

( Fig. 6-11. Wind Solution

1. Given:
true course .....................•.........290 0
true heading 295 0
groundspeed ......•..............•.... 386 knots
true airspeed 460 knots
Find:
wind direction and velocity
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _0 at knots

2. Given:
true course 056 0
true heading 051 0
groundspeed 487 knots 3200
true airspeed .410 knots 82 (knots)
Find:
wind direction and velocity
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _0 at knots

6-17
 (
3. Given:
true course 1440
true heading 1490
groundspeed 438 knots 260 0
true airspeed 370 knots 86 (knots)
Find:
wind direction and velocity
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _0 at knots

4. Given:
magnetic course ....................•......1340
magnetic heading 1360
variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14°E
3000
groundspeed 586 knots
75 (knots)
true airspeed .490 knots
Find:
wind direction (true) and velocity
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _0 at knots (
5. Given:
true course 216 0
true heading 219 0
groundspeed 339 knots 3200
true airspeed 380 knots 97 (knots)

Find:
wind direction and velocity
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _0 at knots

2420
45 (knots)

EFFECTIVE TRUE AIRSPEED
When an aircraft is flying in a crosswind situa-
tion, a small portion of the true airspeed is lost
correcting for the crosswind. Since the aircraft's
nose is pointed into the wind, not all of the true
airspeed is working toward the destination.
When the wind correction angle is more than
100 , the true airspeed loss is considerable and
must be compensated for in wind problems. As
an example, for a true airspeed of 150 knots and
a wind correction angle of 11 0 , only 147 knots
is effective toward arriving at the destination. l
The effective true airspeed can be found on the

6·18
 COMPUTER

black band next to the T AS index on the wind course position, or to get back on course at a
side of the Jeppesen CR computer. desired distance.

Effective true aITspeed should always be used
when the wind correction angle is 100 or more.
The small mark just to the left of the TAS
index, between the index and the 10 0 mark (see
Fig. 6-11), indicates a five degree wind correc-
tion angle and may be used to find effective true
aITspeed for further accuracy with wind correc-
tion angles of less than 10 0 . Interpolate between
50 and 100 for angles between these values.
Thus, if the wind correction angle is eight degrees
and extreme accuracy is desired for a written
test, thp. student may want to make the correc-
tion for effective true aITspeed.
Where the crab angle is less than 10 0 , the error
caused by ignoring effective true airspeed is less
than 1 1/, percent. At a five degree wind correc-
tion angle, the error is less than one-half of one
percent. The answers which are given in this
textbook are based on effective TAS only when
the crab angle is 10 0 or more.
( OFF-COURSE CORRECTION
It would be possible, of course, to turn at right
angles to the course and get back in the shortest
possible time, but such a dogleg to get back on
course would be poor navigation technique and
would add more to the total flight time than
would a heading which, barring wind shift,
would take the plane directly to the destination.
The off-course correction method consists first
of finding the number of degrees of correction
necessary to parallel the intended course and
then, of finding the number of degrees addition-
al correction necessary to get back to the in-
tended course within a given distance. (See Fig.
6-12.)
Example:
Given: original course 090 0
heading 90 0
distance flown 25 miles
distance off
course . . . . .. 4 miles to the left
distance yet to fly ..... 115 miles

To work an off-course correction problem, the Find: magnetic heading to get back on
pilot should hold a constant heading for a course within 115 miles
known time from his point of departure or
another point on his course. He should then Solution:
measure the number of miles he is off course 1. Place the TAS indicator opposite 25,
and the distance he has traveled from the depar- the distance flown. (See Fig. 6-13.)
ture point. From this information it is possible
to compute the degrees of correction necessary 2. Opposite the miles off course, 4 (in
to get directly to the destination from the off- this case the figure 40) on the outer

Original track (090 0 Heading minus drift)

\ angle to parallel }
additional
/correction angle
Total change to heading
.
.; HeadIng to
- - - 1:.. _ _ _ _ _ parallel (099°)
--------
090 0 Heading 115 miles yet to fly Heading to correct (101 0 )

Direction of Course

Flight Path

Fig. 6-12. Pictorial Off-course Correction

6-19
 scale, read on the inside scale the near-
est whole degree of correction neces-
sary to parallel the course, 9 0 .
2. Distance off course 4 mi. Over
correction to parallel course gO
[m:UC1\~V'>(, .,?' /
Fig. 6-13. Degrees Off Course
3. Now it is necessary to find the degrees
of additional correction necessary to
get back on course within 115 miles.
As shown in figure 6-14, place the
TAS indicator opposite the point
marking 115 on the outside scale. This
will be the mark halfway between 11
and 12.
4. Opposite the miles off course, 4, read
the additional degrees of correction,
20 .
5. Add the 9 0 correction necessary to
parallel the intended course to the 2 0
correction necessary to get back on
course: 9 0 + 20 = 11 0 .
6. Since the original magnetic heading
brought the pilot left of the intended
course, the correction must be applied
,0 ,
~ mi. @ 60 mi.
___~==============================i11 I
Fig. 6-15. Off-course Correction Rule
6·20
(
Fig. 6-14. Correction to Return to Course
to the right, and the 11 0 correction
should be added to the magnetic head-
ing: 90 0 + 11 0 = 101 0 .
Answer: Magnetic heading to get back on
course in 115 miles = 101 0 . (
READING THE DEGREE SCALE
In reading the degrees of correction in an off-
course correction problem, it is necessary to use
good judgment in deciding whether the angular
correction should be large or small; for instance,
whether it should be 2 0 on the inside scale or
20 0 on the outside scale. It will be helpful to
remember the old rule that one mile off course
in 60 miles equals approximately one degree of
drift. (See Fig. 6-15.)
Another useful fact is that if the miles off course
are 10 percent of the number under the TAS
indicator (miles flown or miles to fly), the
,0 Drift
60 mi. flown
mi. off course
 COMPUTER

degree of correction is approximately six de-

grees. Hence, if the miles off course are more
than 10 percent of the number under the TAS
index, the correction angle will be more than six
degrees and Wil.l be read on the outside angle
scale. If the miles off course are less than 10
percent, the correction will be less than six If miles off course are 35 (greater
degrees and will be read on the inside angle than 10% of 200), correction is 10 0 a ..0'-'_
scale. If the miles off course are less than one (greater than 6°) I '.'l
percent, the correction angle can be no more
I ~~'···~·/
" lip ~/I\
... ..01
~~~ :-

than half a degree and should be ignored.

If miles off course are 3% (less . , :::_~
Example: than 10% of 200), correction is 1° ... 0 Ok
(less than 60 ) 0 ... i;;;..._.....
If the miles flown are 200, place the TAS ... 0 ~ .....

index at 20. (See Fig. 6-16.) Fig. 6-16. Reading the Degree Scale

1. Given:
magnetic heading 213 0
miles flown 14
miles to destination 72
miles off course 2 to left
Find:
( magnetic heading to return to course
o

2. Given:
magnetic heading 147 0
miles flown 114
miles to destination 177
miles off course 6 to left
Find:
magnetic heading to return to course
o

3. Given:
magnetic heading 355 0
miles flown 36
miles to destination 265
miles off course 10 to left
Find:
magnetic heading to return to course
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _0

6·21
 (
4. Given:
magnetic heading 126 0
miles flown 22
miles to destination 208
miles off course 2 to left
Find:
magnetic heading to return to course

- - - - - - -o

5. Given:
magnetic heading .......•............•.....211 0
miles flown 28
miles to destination 100
miles off course 3 to right
Find:
magnetic heading to return to course
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _0

CHECKING CROSSWIND FOR Find: crosswind and tailwind or headwind

LANDING OR TAKEOFF components

Runways are numbered by magnetic headings, Solution: (see Fig. 6-17)

rounded off to the nearest 10 degrees with the
final zero omitted. Surface winds, as reported by
the tower or flight service station, are also mag-
netic. Hence, in figuring a crosswind for landing
or takeoff, variation need not be considered.
However, a pilot using wind information from
hourly aviation weather reports should correct it
for variation before applying it to run way bear-
ings. Crosswind information relative to runway
direction can be checked by a simple setting on
the Jeppesen CR computer.
Example:
Given: runway 7 Answer:
wind 30 knots from 110 0
1. Mark wind dot at intersection of 30
knot circle with 110 0 radial.
2. Place TC index at 70, the runway
heading.
3. Read crosswind component on the
crosswind scale beneath the wind dot
- 20 knots right.
4. Read headwind component to the left
of the wind dot - 23 knots headwind.
A wind below the center grommet
would be a tailwind.
20 knots (crosswind component)
(
23 knots (headwind component)

6·22
 COMPUTER

(
12. Runway Heading

::too)
- -0
-~
o 0

-- --
-too)

3. Crosswind Component 20 knots I

Fig. 6-17. Crosswind Component

1. Given:
runway 13
wind 090 0 /25 knots
Find:
crosswind: _ knots, _ _,.-,------,--,---_
left, right
_ _ _ _ _---, knots
headwind, tailwind

2. Given:
runway .4 17 (knots)
wind 090 0 /30 knots
left
Find: headwind
crosswind: knots, -----,--;c-..,..,-,.- 19 (knots)
left, right
_-:----,--,--,---,::-:,.-~ knots
headwind, tailwind

6-23
 (
23 (knots)
right
headwind
19 (knots)

ElECTRONIC CALCULATORS
TIME-SPEED-DISTANCE
The development of small, portable,
Time = Distance ..;- Groundspeed
electronic calculators has provided pilots
Speed = Distance -;- Time
with an accurate, quick method for solving
Distance = Time X Groundspeed
aviation problems. Calculators can be used
for the simplest time-speed-distance
All times must be in decimals
problems to the most difficult navigation
Decimal time = Time in min. -;- 60
problems.
FUEL AND RANGE
Endurance = Fuel ..;- Fuel Flow
Models available vary from the least
Fuel Flow = Fuel Used';' Time
expensive four-function types to the
Fuel Consumed = Time X Fuel Flow
preprogrammed models designed exclusively
Range = Endurance X Speed
for aviation. When using the four-function
types, the pilot must know the basic Specific Range = TAS .;. Fuel Flow (
formulas and understand how they are set
up on the calculator. With the SPEED
preprogrammed models, the formulas are MPH = Knots X 1.15
stored in memory banks that can be Knots = MPH';' 1.15
retrieved by following the directions on the
calculator or in the instruction manual. TEMPERATURE
°F=oCX 1.8+32
Those models with memory storage must
have the memory erased before they can be °C = ° F - 32 .;. 1.8
used on FAA written examinations.
ALTIMETER SETTING
Inches Hg = Mb';' 33.86
Mb = Inches Hg X 33.86
Figure 6-18 provides formulas for some of
the basic aviation problems encountered by OFF COURSE CORRECTION
pilots. Each of them can be used with the
simple four-function calculators. The steps Degrees to parallel course = Miles off
shown in each formula should be followed in course X 59.6 -;- Distance flown
the listed order. For example, when Degrees to intercept course - Miles
converting degrees Fahrenheit to degrees off course X 59.6 -=- Distance remain-
Celsius, first subtract 32, then divide by 1.8. ing + Degrees to parallel course
Likewise, when converting Celsius to
Fahrenheit, first multiply by 1.8 and then
add32. Fig. 6-18. Calculator Formulas

6-24
 TerD'1in
Proced~
Chapter 7
(
IFR APPROACH
COMMUNICATIONS
The enroute portion of an IFR flight is usually
controlled by an air route traffic control center.
Approaching a destination, a pilot, in most
cases, is instructed to contact the destination
approach control in advance of reaching the
approach fix in order that traffic handling can
be planned. ARTCC will give the approach
control frequency and then approach control
should be contacted as follows:
EXAMPLE
Pilot: "Denver Approach Control,
8637 Bravo at 8,000 feet."
Approach control will acknowledge the call and
give instructions for continuing the flight.
ADVANCE INFORMATION ON
INSTRUM ENT APPROACH
When landing at airports with apl'roach control
services, and where two or more instrument
approach procedures are published, pilots will be
provided in advance of their arrival with the
type of approach to expect, or they may be
vectored to the traffic pattern. This information
will not be furnished when the visibility is three
miles or better and the ceiling is at or above the
highest initial approach altitude established for
any low altitude instrument approach procedure
for the airport, or when ATIS is provided for the
airport and the pilot indicates that he has
received the ATIS information. The purpose of
this information is to aid the pilot in planning
arrival actions; however, it is neither an ATC
clearance nor commitment and is subject to
change. Pilots should bear in mind that fluc-
tuating weather, shifting winds, blocked
runways, etc. are conditions which may result in
7-1
changes to approach information previously
received. It is important that the pilot advise
ATC immediately if he is unable to execute the
approach ATC advised will be used, or if he
prefers another type of approach.
If other traffic causes a delay in descending,
instructions may be given to hold at a specified
altitude and position. When given instructions to
hold, a pilot will also be given an expected
approach clearance time. This is the time at
which a pilot can expect to be cleared to begin
the published approach. He should plan his
holding pattern to arrive over the approach
facility on the appropriate descent heading at
the expected approach clearance time.
APPROACH CHARTS
The Jeppesen and U.S. Government (National
Ocean Survey, NOS) approach charts are de-
signed to implement the techniques and criteria
associated with the U.S. Standard for Terminal
Instrument Procedures (TERPs). The instrument
approach procedures are established with regard
to obstructions, terrain features, and navigation-
al facilities near the IFR airport. The altitudes,
courses, and other limitations have been
established for safe letdowns during instrument
flight conditions. It is important that all pilots
thoroughly understand these procedures and
their use.
DEFINITIONS
MDA - Minimum descent altitude means the
lowest altitude, expressed in feet
above mean sea level, to which de-
scent is authorized on final approach
where no electronic glide slope is
provided, or during circle-to-Iand
maneuvering in execution of a stan-
dard instrument approach procedure.
MDA figures are rounded to 20 feet
increments MSL.
VDP - Visual descent point is a defined
point on the final approach course of
a nonprecision straight-in approach
procedure from which normal de-
scent from the MDA to the runway
touchdown point may be commenced,
provided the approach threshold of
that runway, or approach lights, or
other markings identifiable with the
approach end of that runway are
clearly visible to the pilot.
7-2
DH Decision height is the height at which (
a decision must be made, during an
ILS or PAR instrument approach, to
either continue the approach or to
execute a missed approach. This
height is expressed in feet above mean
sea level (MSL), and for Category II
ILS operation the decision height is
additionally expressed as a radio
altimeter setting. DH is specified to
the nearest foot MSL.
HAA - Height above airport indicates the
height of the MDA above the
published airport elevation. HAA is
published in conjunction with circling
minimums for all types of approaches.
HAT - Height above touchdown indicates the
height of the DH or MDA above the
highest runway elevation in the touch-
down zone (first 3,000 feet of run-
way). HAT is published in con-
junction with straight-in minimums.
NoPT - No procedure turn required. When the
instrument approach procedures
specify "NoPT," no pilot may make a
procedure turn unless, when he re- (
ceives his final approach clearance, he
so advises ATC.
Precision approach procedure means a standard
instrument approach in which an
electronic glide slope is provided (ILS
or PAR).
Nonprecision approach procedure means a
standard instrument approach in
which no electronic glide slope is
provided.
SEGMENTS OF THE APPROACH (See Fig. 7-1.)
Feeder Route - Feeder routes, when required,
are used to designate courses and
distances from a fix in the enroute
structure to the initial approach fix
(IAF).
Initial Approach Segment - Although transi-
tions may be prescribed in an
instrument procedure, the instrument
approach, as such, commences at the
initial approach fix (IAF). In the
initial approach the aircraft has
departed the enroute or transitional
phase of flight and is maneuvering to
(
enter an intermediate segment.
 TERMINAL PROCEOURES

R.enter
Enroute
Phase

- - Missed - -
Approach
~~liliij~~~
Airport
Segment
Missed
Approach
Point
Intermediate
Segment

Fig. 7-1. Approach Terminology

Intermediate Segment - This is the segment
which connects the initial approach
segment with the final approach
segment. This is the portion of the
approach in which aircraft configura-
tions, speed, and positioning
adjustments are made for entry into
the final approach segment. The
intermediate segment begins at the
intermediate fix (IF), or point, and
ends at the final approach fix (FAF).
Final Approach Segment - The final approach
segment begins at the final approach
fix (FAF) and ends at the missed
approach point (MAP). The final
approach fix on an ILS approach may
be identified by an outer marker,
compass locator, orradar fix. The FAF
in a nonprecision approach procedure
is usually the facility which provides
course guidance for the approach; i.e.,
VOR, NBD, etc.
Missed Approach Point - The missed approach
point (MAP) for the ILS is at the
decision height (DH), while the MAP
for a non precision approach is usually
over the (straight-in) runway thresh-
old. In nonprecision procedures, the
pilot determines when he is at the
missed approach point (MAP) by
timing from the final approach fix
(FAF).
Missed Approach Segment - The missed ap-
proach segment begins at the missed
approach point and ends at an enroute
fix or IAF.

1. The lowest altitude that a pilot can descend to on a non-

precision approach is called the minimum _
_ _ _ _ _ _ (MDA).

7-3
 2. The minimum altitude that a pilot can descend to on a
(
precision approach is called the descent altitude

3. The AGL altitude used to determine the minimums for

decision height
straight-in landings is called the height above _

4. The AGL altitude used to determine the minimums for all

circling operations is considered to be the height above touchdown

5. If an approach procedure has an electronic glide slope, the

approach procedure is considered to be a _ airport
approach.

6. A non precision approach procedure is an approach where

precision
there is no glide .

7. When the initial approach fix (IAF) is not part of the enroute
electronic (
structure, the track from the enroute fix to the IAF is called
the _ slope

8. Unless the intermediate fix is part of the enroute structure,

the instrument approach procedure begins at the feeder route

9. The intermediate segment is the approach segment that initial

begins at the intermediate fix and terminates at the approach
fix

10. After completing the procedure turn on an approach where final

the F AF is off the airport, the pilot is positioned on the approach
fix

11. The primary reason for the intermediate segment is to allow

the aircraft configuration, speed, and positioning to be estab- intermediate
lished prior to the entry into the segment
_________ segment. (

7·4
 TERMINAL PROCEDURES

12. The final approach segment begins at the _ final

approach

final
13. The final approach fix on an ILS approach is the
approach
fix

14. If the outer marker is inoperative, the other methods of

outer
identifying the final approach fix are the _
TrUlrker
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ or fix.

15. The final approach fix on a VOR approach where the VOR is compass locator
off the airport is the radar
I

16. The missed approach point (MAP) on a precision approach is

VOR
the
1

( 17. When a straight-in runway is provided for the approach, the

decision
missed approach point for the nonprecision approach is over
height
the
I

18. The missed approach point on a non precision approach is runway

based on the from the F AF to the MAP. threshold

I time

TAKEOFF AND LANDING WEATHER MINIMUMS:
VFR: DOMESTIC AIR CARRIERS (FAR 121.649)
(b)
(a) Except as provided in paragraph (b),
regardless of any clearance from ATC, no
pilot may take off or land an airplane
under VFR when the reported ceiling or
visibility is less than the following:
(1) For day operations - 1,000 foot
ceiling and one mile visibility
(2) For night operations - 1,000 foot
ceiling and two miles visibility
Where a local surface restriction to visibil-
ity exists (e.g., smoke, dust, blowing snow
or sand), the visibility for day and night
operations may be reduced to one-half
mile, if all turns after takeoff and prior to
landing, and all flight beyond one mile
from the airport boundary can be accom-
plished above or outside the area of local
surface visibility restriction.

7-5
LANDING WEATHER MINIMUMS: IFR: DOMESTIC
AND FLAG AIR CARRIERS (FAR 121.651)
(b) Except as provided in paragraphs (c) and
(d), no pilot may execute an instrument
approach procedure or land under IFR at
an airport if the latest National Weather
Service report for that airport indicates
that the visibility is less than that
prescribed by the Administrator for landing
at that airport.
(c) A pilot may execute an instrument ap-
proach procedure if the National Weather
Service report indicates that the visibility is
less than the approved minimum for
landing, if the airport is served by operative
ILS and PAR and both are used by the
pilot. Thereafter, the pilot may land if the
pilot in command finds, upon reaching the
authorized MDA or DR, that actual weath-
er conditions are at least equal to the
prescribed minimums.
(d) If a pilot initiates an instrument approach
procedure when the current U.S. National
Weather Service report indicates that the
prescribed visibility minimums exist, and
a later weather report indicating below
minimum conditions is received after the
airplane -
(1) is on an ILS final approach and has
passed the outer marker;
(2) is on a final approach using a radio
navigation facility, or a final ap-
proach fix, has passed the appro-
priate facility, or fix, and has reached
the authorized MDA; or
(3) is on GCA final approach and has
been turned over to the final ap-
proach controller;
the approach may be continued and a
landing may be made, if the pilot in
command finds, upon reaching the autho-
rized MDA or DR, that actual weather
contitions are at least equal to the pre-
scribed minimums.
LANDING WEATHER MINIMUMS: IFR: ALL
CERTIFICATE HOLDERS (FAR 121.652)
(a) If the pilot in command of an airplane has
not served 100 hours as pilot in command
in operations under this part in the type of
7·6
airplane he is operating, the MDA or DR (
and visibility landing minimums in the
certificate holder's operations specifica-
tions for regular, provisional, or refueling
airports are increased by 100 feet and one-
half mile (or the RVR equivalent). The
MDA or DR and visibility minimums need
not be increased above those applicable to
the airport when used as an. alternate
airport, but in no event may the landing
minimums be less than 300 feet and one
mile.
DESCENT BELOW MINIMUMS (FAR 91.117bl
No person may operate an aircraft below the
prescribed minimum descent altitude or contin-
ue an approach below the decision height unless:
1. the aircraft is in a position from which
a normal approach can be made to the
runway of intended landing; and
2. the approach threshold of that run-
way, or approach lights or other
markings identifiable with the ap-
proach end of that runway, is clearly
visible to the pilot.
If, upon arrival at the missed approach
(
point (MAP) or at any time thereafter, any
of the above requirements are not met, the
pilot shall immediately execute the
appropriate missed approach procedure.
INOPERATIVE COMPONENTS OR VISUAL
AIDS (FAR 91.117c)
The basic components of the ILS (instrument
landing system) are the localizer, glide slope,
outer marker, and middle marker. The approach
lights are a visual aid which supplement the ILS
or PAR and may provide lower visibility mini-
mums. The basic component of a nonprecision
approach is the facility providing the course
guidance; i.e., VOR, NDB, etc. In the case of
VOR/DME type procedures, the basic compon-
ents are the VOR and the DME facilities. The
following visual aids are used to obtain lower
visibility minimums on some approach pro-
cedures:
ALS approach lighting system (3,000
feet long)
MALS - medium intensity approach light
system
 TERMINAL PROCEDURES

AIRCRAFT APPROACH CATEGORIES

CATEGORY SPEED
(1.3 Vsol

A Less than 91 knots

B 91 knots or more but less than 121 knots

C 121 knots or more but less than 141 knots

D 141 knots or more but less than 166 knots

*E 166 knots or more

·Category E contains only certain military aircraft and is not

included on Jeppesen or U. S. Government approach charts.

Fig. 7-2. Approach Categories

( SALS - short approach light system (1,500
feet long)
RAIL - runway alignment indicator light
SSALR - simplified short approach lighting
system with RAIL
MALSR - medium intensity lighting ofsimpIi·
fied short approach lighting system
with RAIL
TDZL - touchdown zone lights
RCLS - runway centerline light system
HIRL - high intensity runway edge lights
MIRL - medium intensity runway edge
lights (credit to takeoff minimums
only)
REIL - runway end identifier lights
ODALS - omnidirectional approach light
system
When components or aids of the system are
inoperative or are not utilized, the landing mini-
mums can be determined on the Jeppesen ap-
proach chart in the minimum box. A table of
inoperative components or visual aid effects is
published in FAR 91.117 which is to be used to
determine the minimums on a U.S. Government
approach chart if components are inoperative.
AIRCRAFT APPROACH CATEGORIES
Landing minimums are specified for the var-
ious aircraft groupings of U.S. manufacture
based upon a value of 1.3 times the stalling
speed of the aircraft in the landing configura-
tion at maximum certificated landing weight.
The previous USA category determination, in
addition to speeds, also used maximum certifi-
cated aircraft landing weight as a considera-
tion for establishing aircraft categories. Some
countries still use this method and the non-
USA operator must determine which approach
category is appropriate. The aircraft approach
category is to be selected according to the refer-
ence criteria in figure 7-2.

1. The basic day VFR takeoff and landing minimums for

domestic air carriers is a ceiling of feet
and a visibility of mile(s).

7-7
 (
2. An air carrier pilot may not execute an instrument approach 1,000
procedure or land under IFR unless the one
is at or above landing minimums for that airport. (FAR 121.649)

3. If the visibility is less than minimums for landing, a

pilot may execute the approach if the airport is served visibility
by both an operative and (FAR 121.651)

, and both are used by the pilot.

4. While executing an ILS approach, the air carrier pilot

ILS
may continue the approach after the weather has gone
PAR
below minimums if the flight has passed the
(FAR 121.651)
fix.
I

5. If a captain has less than 100 hours as pilot in

command in the aircraft he is flying, the MDA is final approach
increased by feet and visibility is (FAR 121.651) (
increased by mile(s).
I
6. The basic components of the ILS are the , 100
, one-half
I and (FAR 121.652)

I
localizer,
glide slope,
7. An aircraft with a stalling speed of 125 knots will be in outer marker,
approach category middle marker

I (FAR 91.117)

I D I

APPROACH CHART SYMBOLS
Complete the following programmed exercises
by reference to the Jeppesen and National
Ocean Survey ILS approach charts in figures 7-3
and 7-4. The numbers on the programmed
frames refer to the ball flag numbers on the
(
approach chart illustrations.

7-8
 TERMINAL PROCEOURES

r
o The automatic terminal information service (ATIS) for
arrivals at Denver is broadcast on MHz.

9 Arrow 2 indicates that is available. 125.6

e The tower frequency to be used for operations to the

radar
east and west is
I
e The ground control frequency is
118.3
MHz.

9 Arrow 5 directs attention to the minimum safe altitudes

within a 25 nautical mile radius of the DE LOM within each
specified sector. The minimum altitudes guarantee 1,000
foot obstacle clearance within each sector. The minimum 121.9
safe altitude for an aircraft located south of DE LOM is
( feet.
I
0 Arrow 6 shows the Altura locator outer marker
frequency box. The locator frequency is 8,500
kHz. Remember that all markers
transmit on a frequency of MHz.
,
0 The airspace enclosed by shaded lines in the plan view of
362
the approach chart identifies the position of a
75

0 Arrow 8 shows the initial track of the missed prohibited

area

e The missed approach procedure indicates that the aircraft

approach
should fly outbound on the radial of the
DenverVOR.
~

7-9
 (
JEPPESEN ~ OCT '7 DENVER, COLO.
"'SA",,,' 125.6 ~ STAPLETON INT'L

.=a
.
DENVER ApprOllch ( ) See first apeh chart lor Ireq ~ 7200'

DEN"" Towe, No"h & So",h 119.5 '0,600/' ' - ILS Rwy 26L
w ,] 18.3 •
~~
''0. M5A
8500'
tOe 11 0.3 IDEN 1::'
121u9n d . ' 5333'
:!.-'rG r o ...,
~~--------..l-..::::;;;;;;;;;:::....;O!?;E~tO:;M~:_T--..!.A~t.~E~/e~'~~:::,

()~
b" 5574'
•

ALTUR
7.2/DEN
ItS DME

(
®Lowry Af8'
(crosed)

..
5560.

•
5749'
10C-5D

MM
AlTUR laMI
7.2-,OEN·
104-40

t WAlKI
R-324 10C

I- !'
] GS 5'-53'-' (198' IlS DMf or 17.3/DEN
GS 7149'(1816') ItS DME

~
8-->'i~ Ig~~1I ~1~~+.72~,-,__---258"1 \2f.!'
TCH 47 _...-:s: ~.... "1I ~ - (1867') II
TO ERWY 26l5333' I ~~, I
5322' 1.',,'" -1
TOZE RWY 26ft
APT,5333'
MISSED APPROACH:
fir':
0.5 __ 5.0

Climt> ro 6500'; climbing RIGHT turn to

--",,0.,,'

1‫סס‬oo' via direct

--'

DEN ~,.~~ outbound DEN R-046 to FLOTS INT/17.0 DME.

I STRAIGHT-IN l~~.NGRWY 26l STRAIGHT-IN CIRClE-IO-LAND
ItS : Loe (GS out) LANDING RWY 26ft NA NortheaSl
DU 5533'(2 0) OM 5583' 250 J 0.... 5780'(447') 5780' Between Rwys

~
RAil or MO.... (45B) 17L & 26R
I FUll AlS ouf MM out RAil out ALS out MO.... _,f-C=j

~
A RVR24 RVR40 RVR50 1 : 5880'(547')-1
B RVR 24 RVR 40 RVR 24 or V, 0' 1/2 or 3/.. or 1
C or 1,4 Or % 1V2 C 5880'(547')-lV,
D RVR 400,3/.. i
RV:r O 1 1/2 2 D 5900'(567')~2
.. Gnds eltd·KIS 70 90 100 120 140 160
5 3.00 0 377 4B4 538 646 753 861
D MAP ill! 1.7 DME or
41 ALTUR 10 MAP 5,5 4:43 3:40 3:18 2:45 2:21 2:04
c ,"'" JI"l\IN '''''''''OlSON. IHC .. OfN"U. COlO.. u.......
CHANGES, See oth.r sid•. ...., "'D
(
Fig. 7-3. Jeppesen ILS Approach Chart

7-10
 TERMINAL PROCEDURES

.... mdt41
STAPLETON INTERNATIONAL(DEN)
ILS RWY 26L Al· 114 (fAA) DENVER, COlORADO
DENVER APP CON
NORTH 120.5 "288.1
(IAf)
SOUTH 120.8 363.0
HOTS
NVERTOWER DEN 17 DME
118.3 257.8 EAST ondWEST
119.5257.8NORTHondSOUTH
lIi.-+-GNDCON
121.9257.8
(lNC Del
127.6385.5
TIS ....RR 125.6 O~
DEP12-4.•5 ~'26 /~
DENVER .,/
1170 DEN ~:.
Chon 117

LOCALIZER 110.3
I-DEN :-::::-
Chan Z5'

5749

" A 6050

( 10 NM

A6156~

:.-+--<_

0--
MISSED APPROACH
Climb 10 6500; climbing tight

~~nR~o...~~Nv~~O~~:'~~~f
Inl/l7DME.
I
7149
J'
Al UR l
J. DEN
7.2 ~ME

I - - 25~10000"
t- DEN
17.3 ?ME

II
1<1

Procedure.
TUrI' NA
HEY 5333
TOZ/Cl Rwy 3,SR
HEll Rwysl7L.17R
and 26R

Rwy
.5252
at IdgMaS' l\
lItl . ~ i!"
mo

r:.. . _~~-
I-OEN MM

1.7 7200 : GS '_00' , ~

• TCH .7 ~
OJ H"/<O.
IUOOll UO
o
j m_'.SR
I (i'
o
C
~ 25soS.5NM
200 (2oo-lh)
5780/50
....7 500·1
5391
5.(97, 35.
~~a.:~.J)
~ ...'"
from lOM
l J,s 1~;, I
.5880-11,7 5900·2 A li:~~~"
.5..7 (600-1lh 567 601)·2 5337":' -10.00. II 150 ~'~ /:t..
5780-11,7 5780-2 TOZE N 5391
..58 (500-1 \oil ..58 500-2 MlRL Rwy 8L-26R .5333
HIRlRwvI8R-26L.I71-35R and 17R-35l
26R.
FAF 10 MAP 5.5 NM
Knoh 60 90 120 ISO 180
Min:Sec 5:30 3:"0 2'''5 2,12 1:50

ILS RWY 26L 39·A6'N-10"· 5J'W

'71
DENVER, COlORADO
STAPLETON INTERNATIONAL(DEN)

(
Fig. 7-4. National Ocean Survey ILS Approach Chart

7-11
 (
0 The DME collocated with the IDEN ILS can be used to
identify Watki, Altura, and the runway threshold which is 046
ILS DME miles.
•

CD The non-precision procedure indicates the chart can be used

for both an ILS approach and a (LOC)
1.7
approach. Arrow 11 points to the approach profile of the
localizer or approach.

I
~ A precision approach is one which incorporates both
lateral and vertical guidance to the localizer
Arrow 12 shows the profile of the ILS or nonprecision
approach.
I
I
~ The elevation (5,333 feet) is the altitude of the
which is appropriate only to a straight- runway (
in landing. In this case, the touchdown zone elevation is the precision
same as the field elevation.

4D The text pointed out by arrow 14 describes the ILS

touchdown
missed procedure.
zone
I
~ The altitude of the
(DH) is 5,533 feet. If all the ILS components are being util-
I
ized and the runway is not in sight when an altitude of approach
is reached, a missed approach must be
initiated.

o Arrow 16 pomts to 200 feet which IS the altItude that I

the decision height is above the touchdown zone. This
decision height
al ti tude is called the
5,533
(
(HAT).

7-12
 TERMINAL PROCEDURES

(
CD The approach categories A, B, C, and D are based on an height
approach speed value of 1.3 times the above
(Refer to figure 7-2.) touchdown
zone

~ The published visibility is the only required weather

condition for landing. The minimum visibility for
stalling
landing at Denver is an RVR of feet,
speed
or a meteorological visibility of
statute mile(s).

~ The angle of the glide slope is 3.00 0 • If the groundspeed used

during the 26L ILS approach were 100 knots, the rate of de- 2,400

scent would be feet per minute. one-half

I
( ~ The DME arc forming an initial approach segment to the 26
ILS approach is nautical miles from the
Denver VORTAC. The minimum altitude at which this 538
approach segment can be flown is feet.

G) The transition from the DME arc to the localizer utilizes a

lead-in radial from the Denver VORTAC. When the aircraft 17
crosses the radial a turn toward the 10,000
localizer should be initiated.
I
~ The inbound magnetic course of the localizer, as shown
080 0
by arrow 22, is 0

I
~ The broad arrow on the Jeppesen chart and the largest fig-
ure on the NOS chart designate the altitude of the highest 258 0
on the chart.
I

7-13
 (
~ Arrow 24 directs one to the glide slope interception altitude
given in terms of both mean sea level (and the altitude above
obstruction
the touchdown zone on the Jeppesen chart). The MSL inter-
ception altitude in this instance is feet.

~ Assuming the aircraft is inbound to Watki Intersection on

the 324 0 radial of the Kiowa (IOC) VOR, the minimum alti- 7,200
tude until Watki is feet.

~ The final approach fix (FAF), designated by the maltese

10,000
cross, is located at the
I

fII The LOM is located nautical miles from

outer marker
the middle marker.

f1l When the glide slope is not utilized, the approach becomes a
nonprecision approach and the minimum altitude becomes a
minimum descent altitude (MDA). The MDA for a straight-in 5
landing on runway 26L with the glide slope inoperative is
(
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ feet.

fD The MDA, when circling to land, is based on the height above

the airport (HAA), which in this case is _ 5,780
feet.

547

The following frames refer to the Burbank VOR approach chart in figure 7-5. The numbers
on the programmed frames refer to the ball flag numbers on the approach chart illustration.

o The approach segment from the Fillmore VOR to Suana

Intersection is considered to be a

7-14
 HRMINAL PROCEDURES

(
Vppesen Approach CharI JUN 6- 13·1 BURBANK, CALIF.
~ BURBANK·GLENDALE·
ATIS 134.5 (OP NOT CONT) 6800' ~ PASADENA
BURBANK Approach (R)·See first IIpch chert lor Iraq. 0 °-...../ ~
95
9100' "OR Rwy 7
BURBANK Tower 118.7 6000' /---2>$0 VOR
i 4300' MSA
113.1 VNY ::=_
Cl.us VORDME

~ I
~_G::":::0:::"":::d":1~2::3:.:.:.9...,.__ ..,,.,=
",3430'
~ __..JL""'::::::::::::;"~V~N!:Y~V:£o~,. ~A:e.P!;.,.!.'!:le:::.,.!.7.!.7;4'
,~,

1604' *
I!.

~
lllMORE

..D112.5
-. .. FIM
--
3050~.~
",
~+~ 4003
34-20

2701 ~+~
3756~+~

\
J
.ir~D l~i
'220' 3296'
1029' J~ ,.1 912 ' I
• 873' ',' ~
D.8 t I!. . ;;?
......':;:;:980'
2",,'J.
• 1862' ~018'
.,.~1756'
",
(~
2126~+:_
( o

890' •
<) Santa Moniclt
~'J- ';1::;1":i:5::' ,:,1l::'-<4i::. ~I~"~-'~D.J,L~O!iS~Ac!:N~G~El~E"S!..!:V~C,~)R!.J.!Jll!!;'-:l!2DL_-l

M
In
075 0
_

3500'
(2776')
CANOG

-;:~~~'
[O">So
I
3000' /
...._ - " 0.
V,OR.. -
T I
: (2276')~
5.1 --- 5<.S<OtooMMAAOP __ I- TOZE 724'
6.3 0 APT. 774'
MISSED APPROACH: Climbing RIGHT turn to 5000' direct VNY VOR direct
GINNA INT and hold EAST, RIGHT lurns, 255 0 inbound.
STRAIGHT-IN LANDING RWY 7 CIRCLE·IO-LAND
A,B,C: MOA 1300'(576') No! AUlhorlled Nor!hell~;t of Apl.l3etween
II-,.;:.=====+==D::'MD:"§.~lG5~8CO='(=85=6[·)=::Jlli-'~=~I~-.E:'~":"d:'~d.::cen,erline.
RAIL out AlS oul MDA _ _•
of ~~wy. 15·33 & 7·25
~

A A
B B 1300' (526')·1
C C 1360' (586' ·1'/2
D 11/4 1314 0 1580' (806') ·2
Reduction in visibility for loc81 con ·tions NA.

:il;'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~(:::===:::::::::::J
~ Gnd ""d-I(" 70 90 100 120 J4() 160
1 VOR to MAP 5.5 4:43 3:40 3:18 2:45 2:21 ;04
CHANGES: ATlS. Pin $cJII 7.5 NM Per 1,t11 o'''''''''Sl'''~:':~~~i;:t:.~~'''~ COlo.. ..........

Fig. 7-5. Typical VOR Approach Chart

7-15
 (
9 When approaching from the west, the initial approach feeder route
fix is
I

0 The Van Nuys VOR is miles from the Suana

airport. Intersection

Assuming the groundspeed is 120 knots, the time from the

0 6.3
VOR to the missed approach point is
minutes.

4:) The minimum sector altitude IMSA) inbound on a

2:45
magnetic course of 060 0 is feet.
l
I
0 The minimum sector altitudes are based on magnetic
6,000
courses to the VOR.

0 The altitude of the highest obstruction on this approach

Van Nuys
(
chart is feet.
I

o The final approach segment has a magnetic course of

5074
0

1
e The final approach fix for the approach is the
089

CD Airport elevation is feet MSL and the

VOR
touchdown zone elevation is feet
MSL.

$ Circle-to-land procedure is not authorized northeast of the 774

airport between the extended centerlines of runways 724
and

I 15-33 I (
7-25

7-16

TAKEOFF AND ALTERNATE
REGULATIONS
Listed below are some of the regulations from
FAR Parts 91 and 121 in an abbreviated form as
they apply to FAR 121 operations in the ter-
minal area.
TAKEOFF AND LANDING UNDER IFR:
GENERAL (FAR 91.116)
(c) Civil airport takeoff mlnlmums.
Unless otherwise authorized by the
Administrator, no person operating an
aircraft under Part 121, 123, 129, or
135 of this chapter may take off from
a civil airport under IFR unless
weather conditions are at or above the
weather minimums for IFR takeoff
prescribed for that airport. The
following standard minimums apply
to takeoffs under IFR unless other-
wise specified on the approach chart.
(1) Aircraft having two engines or
less: one statute mile visiblity
( (2) Aircraft having more than two
engines: one-half statute mile
visibility
TAKEOFF WEATHER MINIMUMS: IFR: DOMESTIC
AND FLAG AIR CARRIERS (FAR 121.651)
(a) Regardless of any clearance from ATC,
no pilot may take off an airplane under
IFR if the weather conditions reported
by the U.S. National Weather Service
or a source approved by the National
Weather Service are less than that
specified for the takeoff airport in
Part 97 (New) of this chapter, or in
the air carrier's operations specifica-
tions for the airport.
ALTERNATE AIRPORT FOR DEPARTURE
(FAR 121.617)
(a) If the weather conditions at the air-
port of takeoff are below the landing
minimums in the certificate holder's
operations specifications for that air-
port, no person may dispatch or re-
lease an aircraft from that airport
unless the dispatch or flight release
specifies an alternate airport located
within the following distances from
the airport of takeoff.
TERMINAL PROCEDURES
(1) Aircraft having two engines: not
more than one hour from the
departure airport at normal cruis-
ing speed in still air with one
engine inoperative
(2) Aircraft having three or more
engines: not more than two
hours from the departure airport
at normal cruising speed in still
air with one engine inoperative
(b) For the purpose of paragraph (a) of
this section, the alternate airport
weather conditions must meet the re-
quirements of the certificate holder's
operations specifications.
(c) No person may dispatch or release an
aircraft from an airport unless he lists
each required alternate airport in the
dispatch or flight release.
ALTERNATE AIRPORT WEATHER MINIMUMS
(FAR 121.625)
No person may list ,m airport as an alternate
airport in the dispatch or flight release unless the
appropriate weather reports or forecasts, or any
combination thereof, indicate that the weather
conditions will be at or above the alternate
weather minimums specified in the certificate
holder's operations specifications (ops specs) for
that airport when the flight arrives.
TAKEOFF MINIMUMS
Air carrier and other aircraft operated for hire
may not commence an IFR flight unless certain
meteorological and alternate airport require-
ments are met. To simplify the pilot's preflight
planning requirements, Air Carrier, Part 135,
and Non-Skd (nonscheduled) Takeoff Minimums
are published on the back side of the first
approach chart for each airport on the Jeppesen
approach charts.
For a discussion on the takeoff and alternate
minimums, refer to figure 7-6 and the explana-
tion below.
o The air carrier takeoff minimums are based
on one of the following three conditions:
7-17
 (

e 4) C:»

-
V
lea IIwyl7L&35R
UTAKE-OFF
~IR ;~~~~;..Rli~:~.~~J~~1;'3t~Q.129) ~GENERAl
DFOR FlUNG AS ALTERNATE

PreCIsion No,.·P'ec,.ion
" , ~R 7 with Cl. ReLM & IIVR 50 or 1
A
~ RVR 6 al rollOUI end RVR 16 or 1/41
B
600-2 800-2
,., (mid RVR 7 if operative)
'" 24 or 112
C

~ o321°)
IFR departure procedure: Westbound ,194° Ihru

•, Oe~arl<limb direct 10 DEN VORTAC via :·210 or R·

M:
90.
RVR
0
FAR 135: Rwy 35R. RVR 18; Rwys 26l & 35l,
RVR 24; Rwy 8R,3/4 mile.

-
-
DEN VORTAC ,,' or above 8200' BLOC Rwv'35l: HXXl·2.
CHANGES: Rwy 11R·3Sl closed rwy 7·25 add ~.

4»
Fig. 7-6. Takeoff Minimums

a. standard takeoff minimums specified o The first column in this chart refers to
in FAR 91.116; minimums for runways 17L and 35R.
b. specific takeoff minimums tailored for Since these runways have centerline
an individual airport; or lights. runway centerline markings, and
c_ operations specifications (ops specs) RVR transmissometers on each end of
for the individual airlines. the runway. lower than standard
The footnotes for this column apply to
minimums are specified. In this (
example. a pilot may take off if there is
all operators, and refer to takeoff
an RVR of at least 700 feet at the
restrictions. departure procedures. and
takeoff end and 600 feet at the rollout
other notes.
end. In addition. a midfield RVR of 700
feet is required if the transmissometer
f) The takeoff mInImums specified in is operative.
these columns are those authorized
minimums that are lower than standard
for operations conducted under FAR
Parts 121, 123, and 129. o The takeoff rrunImums specified in this
column can be divided into one-, two-.
three-. and four-engine aircraft
e If the weather conditions at the airport
at the time of takeoff are above the
minimums_ In this example, takeoff
rrurumums are the same regardless of
the number of aircraft engines.
landing minimums for the holder' sops
specs. it is not necessary to file for a
departure alternate. (FAR 121.617 a) If
the weather conditions at the time of
takeoff are below the landing weather
o The takeoff minimums for the -other
runways at Denver are listed in a
minimums. aircraft with two engines separate column since centerline lights
must have a departure alternate that is and two sets of RVR units are not
within one hour of flight time in still available. It should be noted that
air, and aircraft with three or four although these mInImums are greater
engines must have a departure
alternate within two hours. (FAR
than those required on runways 17L
and 35R, they are still below standard
(
121.617 a 11 minimums.

7-18

(
o The takeoff minimums specified in the
general column apply to FAR Part 135
operators and to FAR Parts 121, 123, and
129 air carrier operators when lower than
standard minimums are not authorized.
Footnotes in this column, however, pertain
only to FAR Part 135 operators. The
minimums of RVR 50 or one statute mile
visibility are the standard takeoff minimums
specified in FAR 91.116 c 1 for aircraft
with two engines or less. Unless otherwise
specified by ops specs, the standard takeoff
minimums are RVR 24 or one-half statute
mile visibility for aircraft having more than
two engines.
o The alternate mInImums specified in
the approach chart excerpt illustrated
in figure 7-6 are used for flight
planning purposes only. If the weather
at the destination airport requires the
filing of an alternate airport on the
flight plan. the ceiling and visibility
( requirements for the alternate are listed
in this box. If the alternate airport has
a precision approach available. at least
a 600-foot ceiling and two miles
1. The standard civil airport takeoff minimums for an aircraft
having three or more engines is
mile(s).
2. If the takeoff minimums used are less than the landing
minimums, it is necessary to file for an
TERMINAL PROCEDURES
visibility are required at the time of
departure. However. if NOTAMs
indicate the glide slope of the precision
approach is out of service. an 800-foot
ceiling and two miles visibility are
required at the time of departure. Once
the flight begins. alternate minimums
no longer apply. If a diversion to the
alternate airport is required. it then
becomes the destination airport and
destination minimums apply.
o Climb restrictions have been established
for this airport for departures in a
westerly direction (from 194 0 through
321 0 ). Aircraft departing westbound
must climb direct to the Denver
VORTAC via the 270 or 190 radials and
depart the VORTAC at or above 8.200
feet. due to a high mountain range to
the west of the airport.
The air carrier takeoff minImums are specified
only on the Jeppesen approach charts and not
on the Government approach charts.
statute
one-half
_ (FAR 91.116)
7-19
 (
3. According to FAR 121.617, an aircraft with two engines
departing an airport where the weather is below the landing
weather minimums must have a departure alternate filed that alternate airport

is within houris) from the departure (FAR 121.617)

airport at normal cruising speed in still air with one engine

inoperative.

4. An aircraft with three engines departing an airport where the

weather is less than landing weather minimums must have an
one
alternate airport within two hours at normal cruising speed in
still air with engine(s) inoperative.

one
(FAR 121.617)

NOTE: For the remainder of the programmed frames in this exercise, refer to figure 7-6. (

1. The takeoff minimums chart in figure 7-6 indicates a

two-engine turbine aircraft using runway 26L for
takeoff must have an RVR of at least _
feet.

2. An RVR of 700 feet on the departure end and 600 feet

on the rollout end IS authorized for takeoffs on runways 1.600
and if the
centerline lights are operative.

3. A DC-S taking off on runway 26L with RVR 16 I7L

reported must have a takeoff alternate filed within 35R
(Ops Specs)

4. If non-standard takeoff mInimums are not listed in the

two hours
air carrier column, the takeoff minimums for a
(Ops Specs)
three-engine jet is feet.
.

7·20
 TERMINAL PROCEOURES

(
5. If a scheduled aircraft is planning on using this airport as an
alternate and is equipped to make an ILS approach, the
weather at the estimated time of arrival at the alternate 2,400

airport must be a ceiling of at least feet rops Specs)

and a visibility of at least statute

mile(s).

6. Assuming an east bound departure from this airport, a spe-

600
cial IFR departure procedure (is, is not) two
(FAR 91.83)
required.

7. The takeoff minimum for a twin engine airplane operating

in accordance with FAR 135 planning a departure on run- is not
way 8R is mile.

8. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (True, False) Assume that a flight is

( unable to make a landing at the scheduled destination and

proceeds to this airport as the alternate. If the aircraft is three-fourths
equipped with full ILS instrumentation, the decision height
at this airport is 600 feet.

9. The basic takeoff weather minimums for a twin engine air-

plane at this airport is RVR _ feet or False
-- mile(s) visibility.

10. The departure runways at this airport that have the lowest
5,000
takeoff minimum are runways and
one

In
35R

ALTERNATE AIRPORT FOR DESTINATION
REQUIREMENTS:
DOMESTIC AND FLAG AIR CARRIERS
FAR 121.619 states the requirements for desig-
nating an alternate airport in the flight release
for domestic air carriers. This regulation is self
explanatory: one hour before and one after the
estimated time of arrival at the destination
airport, the ceiling must be forecast to be at
least 2,000 feet and the visibility at least three
miles. If the weather forecasts indicate weather
conditions less than these requirements, the
dispatcher must indicate an alternate airport
in the flight release.

7-21
FAR 121.621 indicates the alternate airport de-
signation requirements for flag air carriers and
differs slightly from those regulating domestic
carriers. The forecast time frame remains the
same, but the ceiling at the destination airport
must be at least 1,500 feet above the lowest cir-
cling MDA if a circling approach is required, or
1,500 above the lowest instrument approach
minimum, or 2,000 feet, whichever is greater.
The visibility must be at least three miles or
two miles more than the lowest visibility min-
imums, whichever is greater. Figure 7-7 com-
pares the two regulations and also shows a
landing minimum chart which will be used in
the following discussion of determining whether
an alternate airport is required for a flag air
carrier operating a category C airplane.
The first step in determining if an alternate (
airport is required is to locate the lowest land-
ing minimum of the chart in figure 7-7. The
straight-in decision height of 200 feet is the
lowest, and in accordance with the regulation,
1,500 feet is added to this figure which results
in a ceiling requirement of 1,700 feet. However,
the regulation requires 1,500 feet above the
lowest landing minimum or 2,000 feet, which-
ever is greater. Therefore, the forecast ceiling
must be at least 2,000 feet in this example. If it
is necessary to execute a circling approach due
to airplane or facility restrictions, 1,500 feet
would be added to the circling MDA of 515 feet
which results in a ceiling of 2,015 feet. Since
weather forecasts are given to the nearest 500
feet, the forecast ceiling must be 2,500 feet in

ALTERNATE AIRPORT FOR DESTINATION

(FAR 121.619 and .621)

No alternate required if destination airport weather is forecast to be at least:

Domestic Flag

Time of Forecast ETA :t 1 hour (

Period

1. 1,500 feet above the lowest circling minimum if a

circling approach is required, or

Ceiling 2,000 feet 2. 1,500 feet above the lowest published instrument
approach minimum, or 2,000 feet above the airport,
whichever is greater

3 miles, or 2 miles more than the lowest applicable

Visibility 3 miles
visibility minimums, whichever is greater

Additional If alternate is marginal, Flight less than 6 hours and route must be approved
Requirements additional alternate must for no alternate
be listed

Alternate must be listed in dispach release

I

CATEGORY A I • c 0
1188/20
5-19 1188/18 200 (200. 1';)
200(200-'';)

5-lOC19 1360/24 372 (.400·%) 1360/40

372(.400- J/4
CIRCLING 1540-1 515(600-1)
I 1540-1'12
5151600-1 1-':1)
1580-2
555 (600-2)
Fig. 7-7. Alternate Airport for Destination

7-22
 TERMINAL PROCEDURES

IAC~~J?~IJ;NN )_
433 "

(
this example or an alternate airport must be directional radio beacon (Walls
designated. Intersection is on the 242 0 radial
from the Memphis VORTAC.)
approach in use: Rwy 9 ILS
TWO-WAY RADIO COMMUNI- expect approach clearance (EAC)
CATIONS FAILURE (FAR 91.127) time: 2140Z
holding speed: 272 K (GS)
For an application of FAR 91.127, refer to
approach speed: 160 K (GS)
figures 7-8 and 7-9 and use the following condi-
tions: assume comm failure at: 2105Z

Given: Based on the information given above and IFR

altitude: FL 240 conditions for the entire problem, complete the
location: holding south of the Walls following programmed frames. It is assumed that
Intersection on the 360 0 mag- FAR 91.127 has been read and studied prior to
netic bearing to the Bruins non- completing the following exercise.

1. The pilot should depart the holding pattern at Walls Inter-

section at Z.

2. The altitude that the pilot should descend to or

maintain from the Walls Intersection to the Brooks 2135
LOM is feet.

7-23
 (
1340~
15-11

Well Memphi, *
Mun 0

OAK

•
$ ~). 087·
~ 677'
E~
JI-U
"'- (/

o ~~q~~<;),,-->,1 : /
'" J
~ '\co(S

o
Q.,
-l),' <>
,<or:;:j
c:,'S
0 Twinkle Town
.542'

ocJ--,W~~lS~'IN:;.LT '::":"·':::"t,;5~1;:'O' ":'::;"':;":-_..L ~

CAUTION:
• RWY 9 LANDING lENGTHS;
] BEYOND GS lOUCHDOWN __ 6812'

10 NM SOUTHWEST
1500'
10M
GS 1487';""0228')
~ ~ MM
TOTAllENGTH. 8926'
(
1800'
(l54I') GS4·95~7236')
~
-_ -~--- or TCH 92'

37 TOZE 259'
4.2 0.5 0 APT. 33
MISSED APPROACH, Climb to 1900' on course 087 0 IMEM LOC to OAKVILLE INT
and hold EAST, LEFT turns, or as directed.

Fig. 7-9. Approach Chart Excerpt

3. It the pilot arrives at the Brooks LOM at 2136Z, he

24,000
should begin his descent at Z,

4. After arriving at the LOM, the pilot would make his descent
2140
in the

5. The holding pattern used to lose altitude in this communica- holding

tions failure would be a holding pattern. pattern
standard, nonstandard

6. In the holding pattern, the pilot should descend to an

altitude of feet.
standard (
I

7-24
 TERMINAL PROCEDURES

7. After reaching the minimum holding pattern altitude, the

1.800
pilot_--:---:---:---:---:- execute the procedure turn.
should, should not

should not

RADAR APPROACHES areas, the radar is normally used to provide radar

vectors to the final approach course, but can
The table in figure 7-10 is included to help the also be used for ASR approaches in most areas.
ATP applicant review the major items of the PAR is available at most military bases, but has
radar controlled approaches. In radar equipped been eliminated from all but a few civilian fields.

RADAR APPROACHES

PRECISION APPROACH AIRPORT SURVEILLANCE

RADAR (PAR) RADAR (ASR)

Radio Required Two-way communications

(
Radar Guidance Azimuth and Elevation Azimuth only

Distance Information
Given every mile from runway
(final only)

Altitude Information If requested, recommended

Continuous
(final only) altitude given every mile

)(
Execute missed Initial - 1 minute Initial - 1 minute
approach if com- Final - 5 seconds Final· 15 seconds
munications lost
for·

Missed approach At the decision At a specified point between the final

point (MAP) height (DH) approach fix and the runway threshold
at the minimum descent altitude (MDA)

Fig. 7- 70. Radar Approaches

1. During a PAR approach, the radar controller provides alti-

tude and guidance.

7-25
 2. The only radio that is required to receive and execute a radar (
azimu th (heading)
approach is communications.

3. During the final approach of a PAR and ASR approach, the

pilot is given his distance from the runway at _ two-way
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ intervals.

4. The missed approach point for a PAR approach is at the

one mile
I

5. The missed approach point for an ASR approach is decision height

I
I as specified
I

RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR)
In the United States, runway visual range
IRVR) is an instrumentally derived value,
based on standard calibrations, that
represents the horizontal distance a pilot
can see down the runway from the approach
end in a moving aircraft. RVR is based on
the sighting of a high-intensity sealed-beam
light aimed at a photoelectric cell.
The RVR is a measure of the transparency of
the atmosphere, and is determined by the use
of transmissometers mounted on towers along
the runway. A full RVR system consists of a
transmissometer projector, transmissometer de-
tector, analog recorder, signal data converter,
and remote display programmer, as illustrated
in figure 7-11. The meter measures how well
light is being transmitted through the atmos-
phere and the value determined by this instru-
ment is converted to visibility in feet. In the
illustration, the remote digital panel indicates
an RVR of 4,000 feet. The projector and receiver
are located parallel to the runway near the
touchdown zone, and are spaced either 250 or
500 feet apart. The height ofthe tower for both
the projector and the detector are the same,
which makes the RVR a measure of horizontal (
distance rather than slant range.
RVR values are reported in the remarks section
of surface aviation weather reports when the
prevailing visibility is less than 1 mile andlor
the RVR is 6000 feet or less. ATe towers report
RVR when the prevailing visibility is 11/2 miles
or less andlor the RVR is 6000 feet or less.
Pilots are responsible for RVR minimums pre-
scribed for their class of operations in appro-
priate F ARs and operations specifications.
RVR RUNWAY REQUIREMENTS
RVR may be authorized for both precision and
nonprecision approach procedures and takeoff
minimums when the following requirements are
met with respect to the runway to be used:
1. A transmissometer shall be located
within 2,000 feet of the runway
threshold.
2. High-intensity runway lights, installed
not more than 200 feet apart, shall be
operative.

7-26
 TERMINAL PROCEDURES

-----= .c=--
--=-::::
~
::e--
- I
PROJECTOR

,
eitlher
250' or 500' " l
L_ I

J
JI II II II 1111 II 1 ---1----- lIDlllllIll

·I~
RUNWAY

VISUAl RANGE
3

.. 0
0 R :'.:.:

HUNDREDS
OfFEH

o § 0

REMOTE DISPLAY PROGRAMMER

~.1 , - f<-
,
TRANSMISSOMETER EQUIPMENT

( Fig. 7-11. Transmissometer Equipment for RVR

3. N onprecision approaches require a but RVR is not reported for the runway of
minimum of nonprecision runway intended operation, thE' RVR minimums can be
markings. Precision runway mark- converted to ground visibility in accordance
ings are required for precision ap- with the table in figure 7-12, and observed as the
proaches. Operative runway center- applicable visibility minimums for takeoff or
line lights and touchdown zone lights landing on that runway. The meteorological visi-
are required for landing minimums bility equivalents are included on the Jeppesen
of RVR 2000 and RVR 1800. approach chart. (See Fig. 7-6.)
COMPARABl.E VALUES OF
4. Runway centerline markings, opera- RVR AND GROUND VISIBILITY
tive centerline lights, or high-intensity RVR VIS RVR VIS
runway edge lights are required for (feetl (Stat. Miles) (feet) (Stat. Milesl
takeoff minimums less than RVR 1600 1/4 4500 7/8
2400. 2400 1/2 5000 1
3200 5/8 6000 1-1/4
RVR COMPARABLE VALUES 4000 3/4

If RVR minimums for takeoff or landing are Fig. 7-12. Comparable Values of RVR
prescribed in an instrument approach procedure, and Ground Visibility

1. An advantage of RVR over meteorologically derived data is

that it provides the pilot with visibility information at the
runway _

7·27
 (
2. The RVR value is determined by the use of a _ touchdown zone

3. The RVR IS based on the sighting of a high·intensity

transmissome ter
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ light.

4. The RVR is a measure of the distance

sealed-beam
rather than slant range.
I

5. An RVR of 2,400 feet is equivalent to

horizontal
statute mile(s).

6. An RVR of 6,000 feet is equivalent to

one-half
statute mile(s).

7. The meteorological visibility of one statute mile is equivalent

1'/4
to an RVR of feet.

(
8. A meteorological visibility of three-fourths mile is equivalent
5,000
to an RVR of feet.

9. In order for RVR minimums of 1,800 feet or 2,000 feet to

be authorized, the lights that are required on the runway are
4,000
runway lights and _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ lights.

centerline
touchdown zone

STANDARD INSTRUMENT for which standard instrument departures have

DEPARTURES (SIDs)
A standard instrument departure (SID) is an air
traffic control coded departure routing which
has been established at certain airports to simp-
lify clearance delivery procedures.
Pilots of air carrier or military aircraft operating
under instrument flight rules (IFR) at airports
been published may be issued a SID whenever
ATC determines it is appropriate.
A typical enroute IFR clearance containing a
SID for a departure from Columbia, South
Carolina via a route through Raleigh-Durham
would be as follows: "Global 714, cleared as
filed, Blythewood Two Departure, Chesterfield l
Transition, maintain FL 350 ..... The altitude

7·28

specified "as assigned" at Chesterfield VOR is
disregarded since ATC gives the final cruise alti-
tude in the initial clearance from ground control
and no restriction at Chesterfield is given. As
illustrated in figure 7-13, the SID is provided in
both graphic and textual form.
The reason for the SID at Columbia, S.C. is the
restricted area (R-6001) which is approximately
five miles northeast of the airport. The restricted
area is not shown on the SID, but can be found
by looking on the appropriate enroute chart.
Depending on the traffic, the clearance origi-
nally issued from ground control to flights
northea.t-bound will receive either the Blythe-
wood Two or the Hopkins One Departure to
divert traffic around R-6001 to the north or
east.
SIDs, in other areas, are issued because of terrain,
traffic, departure gates, or other procedures
recommended by the local air traffic control.
STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL
ROUTES (STARs)
A standard terminal arrival route (STAR) is
an air traffic control coded IFR arrival route
established to provide transition from the en-
route structure to a fix or point from which an
approach can be made.
Pilots of IFR scheduled air carrier aircraft des-
tined to airports for which STARs have been
published may be issued a clearance containing a
STAR whenever ATC deems it appropriate.
Use of STARs requires that the pilot have the
textual description of the STAR in his posses-
sion. It is the responsibility of each pilot to
accept or refuse the clearance issued.
The standard terminal arrival route (STAR)
for Albuquerque, New Mexico is shown in
figure 7-14 and is typical of STARs. The design
of STARs is based on the approach gates used
TERMINAL PROCEDURES
by approach control. The STAR begins at an
enroute fix and usually terminates at a fix which
can be found on the instrument approach chart,
or a fix from which radar vectors are provided to
the final approach course, or to a visual ap-
proach.
PROFILE DESCENTS
Profile descents, or fuel efficient descents, are
instrument procedures similar to STARs to
facilitate the transition from the IFR enroute
portion of the flight to an arrival segment.
These procedures are designed to minimize the
impact of aircraft noise and conserve aviation
fuel by reducing low-altitude flying time of
high performance aircraft, including turbojet
and any turboprop aircraft weighing over
12,500 pounds. Fuel conservation is accom-
plished by absorbing any arrival delays at the
higher and more fuel efficient altitudes.
Basically, the profile descent is an uninter-
rupted descent from cruising altitude to inter-
ception of a minimum altitude specified for the
initial or intermediate segment of an instru-
ment approach, based on descending at ap-
proximately 300 feet per nautical mile from
cruise altitude. When crossing altitudes and
speed restrictions are listed, ATC expects the
pilot to descend to the crossing altitude first
and then reduce speed. All pilots receiving a
profile descent clearance are expected to advise
ATC if they do not have a profile descent on
board or cannot comply with procedures.
The profile descent clearance does not consti-
tute a clearance to fly the complete instrument
approach procedure. The last "maintain alti-
tude" specified in the procedure, or the last
altitude assigned by ATC, is the clearance
limit. Pilots should review runway profile de-
scent charts before flights into airports with
charted procedures.
7-29
 (
cVeppesen COLUMBIA, S.c.
Standard 'rulrllment Depar ure (SID) COLUMBIA METRO
MEETS FAA REQUIREMENTS FOR AERONAUTICAL CHARTS

BLYTHEWOOD TWO DEPARTURE HOPKINS ONE DEPARTURE

NOT TO SCALE NOT TO SCALE

~
a-
REENSB0f)0
116.2 GSa
__ 0 ••• _

109

~
'-'0
\..,
\~
~
~
\'b
~\~
\~
\~
\-0
\~
~
'-'0
AS ASSIGNEDI

{CHESTERFIELD

-.-. - ..-.
108.2 CTF

'
x

::J\
(
C
\~
,~

\;:/ I
\
\
x

ilOC BACK CR:~~ ,?,,/~'l-",1

f
0
287 110.3 ICAE
0

-iFRONT CRS 107'j ~

"~~
""",U 0~,c,OlUMBI:'1
o ~4.7C~
-1AC:94 .

I BlYTHEWOOD TWO DEPARTURE HOPKINS ONE DEPARTURE

TAKE~OFF
All runways: After take-off tUfn LEFT or
RIGHT as directed by ATe, climb on 050'
heading to intercept Columbia 010 R. Thence
TRANSITIONS
I Chesterfield: Via Columbia OIOR and Chester-
field 238 R to Chesterfield VQR. Thence via
Chesterfield a60R to intercept J-51-52. Thence
via J-51-52 to Raleigh-Durham VORTAC.
Cross Chesterfield VOR as assigned by ATC.
J High Point: Via Columbia 010 R and Chester-
field 238 R to intercept J-75. Thence viaJ-7S
to Greensboro VORTAC.
TAKE- OFF
All runways: Alter take-off turn LEFT or
RIGHT as directed by ATC. climb on the
Columbia ILS localizer back course to inter-
cept the Columbia 074 R. Thence
TRANSITIONS
Greensboro: Via Columbia 074 R and Chester-
field 208 R to Chesterfield VOR. Thence via
direct route to Greensboro VORTAC. Cross
Chesterfield VOR as assigned by ATC.
Raleigh-Durham: Via Columbia 074 Rand
Chesterfield 208 R to intercept J-51-52.
Thence via J-51-52 to Raleigh-Durham VOR-
TAC.
©IO'. "",,,N &<0 DI ..... COLO " , . All ""'",, . ". . . . D

(
Fig. 7-13. Standard Instrument Departures (SlDs)

7-30
 A1BUQUERQ~ 1 -< Coo,»1
"'~

?
113.2~~.~
c: zc "
71 255 0 @ ("")

~t";1.GJ W~~tt~~ ~ °c""

.- TA"C ·79 07 4°t ~ C "'0

r
o ~
~m
0
." .' CHICEl
TAC·.3 zO
z
C
m
~.

':"
D<?
.1 X c;]
NTON
1.1.O~~•.A.~.H
TAC.37
TUCUMCARI ONE ARRIVAL (TCC·TCC')
Aircraft operating at or above FL 250
0
::: m
~;;
~z
m •
:;: <:>~
SQUAWK 2200 starting descent, SQUAWK n:::c
~:<
~~
1500 IsevinQ FL 240. Alrcrah operating at ~

.
m

I ,~'!>
'" ~
or below FL 240 SQUAWK 1500 slartlng m l> ~x
~
ii: descent, ~
~ 0,'0 ~

g- ARRIVAL
From over Tucumcari VQRTAC via Tucm·
-=i
~ E
c
el. carl 255 R 10 Anton Chico VORTAC. Then
via AnIon Chico 237 R end Albuquerque 090R ~
~
m
;;;i to Chill lnt. (Albuquerque 090R/D27). Depart n ~
n
3 Albuquerque 090R/D27 fix heading 270' for 3
®
vector to final approach. ~

~ ~

0
~
l>

~tAOo.--~·
~
~ N m

~13ZUNI~8090.
~
c:
~ F ~
0
Z

~~.4
~
'l>
c ___ LAVA o;b o c ~
r; ,it
,~8.~.
::::!
ZUN ......
~
:;: "Ae:.,'· - - -~
<. ---.... zm
Z
~g.

.,
~
It~lLBI3UQUERQU~
'"
x~ v/ Ol> r;o.
c;; \ O. ~ .2ABQ ~
~'"
0 -
'" "~
~
,
h! ZUNI ONE ARRIVAL (ZUN o ZUN1)
~1-0
~

lAC .79" ~< ~ 3

~ _.
'l> Aircraft operating 8t or above FL 260 r;l>
SQUAWK 2200 starting descent, SQUAWK
~=- !C
"" lEOO leavinQ FL 240. Aircraft operBling ot
or below FL 240 SQUAWK 1500 starling
descent.
''';;if(
mN
c:
Z
l>
,.
ARRIVAL
From over Zuni VORTAC via Zuni a9aR
and the Albuquerque 240 R 10 Lava Jnt. ~
N
'\ N
c:
z ~~
~ II
-t
m
""S
(Albuquerque 240 R/D27j. Depart Albuquer- • II
que 240R/D27 f:x heading 060· for vector
to final approach.
Vi
;: •• ""l>r-
~
'" .."

""
0
n
m
0
c:
....
.:., ""m
~

'"
 To complete the following programmed frames, refer to figures 7·13 and 7-14. (

L A pilot using the Blythewood Two Departure desiring to go

to the Greensboro VORTAC would use the _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Transition.

2. A pilot proceeding eastbound from the Columbia, S.C. Air·

port prior to intercepting the northeast·bound Jet route
High Point
would use the _
Departure.

3. A pilot using the Blythewood Two Departure would turn to a

Hopkins One
heading of 0 after takeoff.

4. The distance from the Chesterfield VOR to the Greensboro

VORTAC on the Hopkins One Departure, Greensboro Transi· 050
tion is nautical miles.
(
5. A pilot using the Albuquerque, N.M., Tucumcari One STAR
is directed to depart the Chili Intersection on a magnetic 85
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _of 270 0

6. The use of STARs requires that the pilot have a textual de-
heading
scription of the STAR in his _

7. Pilots are requested to Squawk 1500 when leaving FL

possession
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ when using the Albuquerque STAR.

240

VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE pilot to assist in making an approach and pro·

INDICATOR (VASI)
The visual approach slope indicator IVASI) is an
approach aid which supplies visual cues to the
vides a guidance to the touchdown zone. If the
pilot is too high, right on the glide slope, or too
low, the visual presentation will alert him to his
(
situation.

7·32

( The maximum glide slope angle for runways
used by jet aircraft is three degrees; however, if
the runway is used only by propeller-driven air-
craft, the maximum glide slope angle allowed is
four degrees, and the minimum may be as
shallow as 2.5 0 . The visual glide slope reference
can be used for vertical guidance by a pilot in an
aircraft during an approach and landing, while
course alignment is maintained by reference to
the runway or to the runway lights.
Use of VASI by pilots of all types of aircraft
will:
1. improve landing approaches during
daylight and night conditions;
2. improve safety, especially at night, by
giving the pilot a visual descent pat-
tern that assures proper clearance of
obstructions in the approach area;
3. provide visual reference for ap-
proaches over water and featureless
terrain where accurate depth percep-
tion references are not available, or
are misleading;
4. provide optimum guidance for descent
and landing of large aircraft, especially
turbojets, and reduce to a minimum
the possibility of overshooting or
undershooting;
VASI UNIT INSTALLATION
LENS APERATURE
WNWIND LIGHTS
600' RUNWAY THRESHOLD
Fig. 7·15. VASI Unit Installation
TERMINAL PROCEDURES
5. reduce ground noise level by reducing
the necessity for low-level approaches
with high power settings; and
6. provide guidance for a safe approach
and landing within the touchdown
zone.
The standard VASI is usually on the ILS back
course or a runway not served by the ILS front
course and consists of 12 light source units
arranged in light bars. Three of these light bars
are placed on either side of the runway at the
600-foot point inside the threshold and three on
either side of the runway at the 1,300-foot
point. (See Fig. 7-15.) The bars at the 600-foot
point are considered the downwind group and
those at the 1,300-foot point are the upwind
group.
Many new VASI units are now being installed
that are abbreviated units and are indicated by
the letters AVASI on ;reppesen approach charts.
The AVASI units consist of a total of four light
source units, two upwind and two downwind.
All four units are on the same (usually left) side
of the runway.
Some deterioration of the VASI system guid-
ance may occur as the pilot approaches the
runway threshold due to the spread of light
sources and narrowing of individual colors. How-
ever, the VASI will bring the pilot safely
through a "gate" at the threshold where he may
accomplish a normal f1areout and landing. Since
7·33
deterioration of system guidance occurs close in,
the VASI is primarily designed as an approach
aid rather than a landing aid.
The VASI is normally operated day and night
when the runway it serves is the landing runway,
or other times when requested by the pilot. The
light intensity can be regulated by the tower
controller and will be adjusted on request of the
pilot. The VASI lights are operated at full bril-
liance during daylight operations and can be
s~en for about five nautical miles. During the
hours of darkness, the lights are operated at a
lower setting, which is about 30 percent of full
brilliance, and can be seen for approximately 15
nautical miles. In brilliant sunlight and snow
conditions, the distance from which the pilot
can see the VASI is reduced to about three or
four nautical miles.
In haze or dusk conditions, or when an approach
is made into the sun, the white lights may
appear yellowish. This is also true at night when
the VASI is operated at a low intensity. Certain
atmospheric debris may give the white lights an
orange or brownish tint; however, the red lights
are not affected and the principle of color dif-
ferentiation is still applicable.
The unit has an intregal fail-safe feature, since
failure of all units on one side or parts of units
on different sides will still allow a safe approach.
The color relationship between the remaining
lights will provide glide slope information.
The basic principle of the VASI is that of color
differentiation between red and white. Each
VASI bank of lights consists of two rows of
lights. One row points upward at an angle of
approximately three degrees and is white. The
other row of lights in each VASI set is aimed at
a lower angle and is red. The lights are arranged
Fig. 7-17. VASI Glide Slope Indications
7-34
above the gl ide slope white upwind light banks (
white downwind lioht banks
slightly above the glide slope pink upwind light banks
white downwind light banks
on glide slope "d u wind Ii ht nk
white downwind light banks
slightly below the glide slope "d upwind light banks
pink downwind light banks
below glide slope "d upwind light banks
"d downwind light banks
Fig. 7·16. VASI Light Indications
so that on the approach a pilot will see the indi-
cations listed in the table in figure 7-16 and the
illustration in figure 7-17.
The procedure to use for a VASI approach is to
align the aircraft with the runway or runway
lights when approximately four or five nautical
miles from the runway. The altitude above the
runway or airport should be approximately 250
feet for each mile out or about 1,000 feet at
four miles from the runway. As the aircraft
approaches the visual glide slope, the downwind,
or near, VASI lights will transition from red
through pink to white; at this point the descent
should be initiated. When properly aligned and
on the glide slope, the pilot will see the down- (
wind (near) lights as white and the upwind (far),
or 1,300-foot, lights as red.
On the approach, if both bars of light at the
600-foot and 1,300-foot positions are red, the
airplane is too low. If both are white, the air-
plane is too high. Flying from the glide slope to
a position above it will cause the upwind lights
(1,300-foot) to change from red to pink to
white, and the pilot will see all the lights as
white (too high). Flying from the glide slope to
a position below it will cause the down wind
lights (600-foot) to change from white to pink
to red; the pilot will then see all the VASI lights
as red (too low).
 TERMINAL PROCEDURES

When using a VASI installation at an airport until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe
served by an operating control tower, regu- landing. However, normal bracketing maneu-
lations (91.87 d 3) require the pilot to main- vers necessary to remain on the glide slope
tain an altitude at or above the glide slope are permitted.

1. The FAA visual approach slope indicator is abbreviated

I
2. The glide slope provided by VASI is inclined a minimum of
0 VASI
o and a maximum of
from the horizontal on runways where jets operate.
I

3. VASI can be used by a pilot during the 2*

and landing. 3

4. Course alignment is accomplished by reference to the

approach
or the runway lights.

5. VASI improves safety because the glide slope is arranged to

( include clearance of
runway

6. The optimum guidance provided for large aircraft will reduce

obstructions
the possibility of undershooting and
I

7. Landings are directed to the

overshooting
of the runway.

8. The light source placed 600 feet from the threshold of the
touchdown zone
runway is called the group.

9. The light source located 1,300 feet from the threshold is

downwind (near)
called the group.

10. The light source intensity can be adjusted, and an adjustment

upwind (far)
will be made on the pilot's _

11. The system provides a fail-safe feature because it may be used

request
when part of the lights are _
I

7-35
 (
12. Certain atmospheric debris may give the white lights an
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ or tint (especially inoperative
on approaches into the sun).

13. When correctly positioned on the VASI glide slope, a pilot

orange
would see lights from the upwind bars
brownish
and lights from the downwind bars.

14. When descending from above the glide slope to a position on

red
the visual glide slope, the pilot will notice the upwind lights
white
change from white to pink to _

15. When the VASI light intensity is turned down, the white
red
lights appear to be a color.
I I

16. When both banks of lights are white, the pilot is too
yellowish

(
17. When the pilot sees the downwind lights change from white
high
to pink to red, he is getting too _

18. On the approach, as the glide slope is intercepted, the down-

wind lights transition from red to pink to white. At this low
point, the pilot should initiate the _
i
I I
descent

VASIINSTALLATIONS FOR JUMBOJETS 16-light and 6-light grouping VASI installa-

Since the advent of long-bodied jets (Boeing
747, DClO, LlOll, C5A), it has become neces-
sary to install another row of VASI light bars
on the upwind side of some existing VASI
installations. The pilots in the long-body jets
are so high above the ground, and so far in
front of the aircraft main gear, it is necessary
for them to visually land the airplane farther
down the runway so the main gear will land
near the 1,000 foot fixed-distance markers. The
two types of three bar VASI installations are
tions, as shown in figure 7-18.
The names attached to the three light bar
groupings can be seen in figure 7-19. The light
bars located farthest from the threshold are
called the upwind bars. The center group of
light bars are termed the middle bars, and the
light bars closest to the landing threshold are
called the downwind bars. The visual glide slope
between the middle bars and the upwind bars is (
called the upwind zone visual glide slope and is

7-36

111I1I11
16 LIGHT INSTALLATION
Fig. 7-18. VASllnstallations For Jumbojets
for the use of the long-bodied jets. The down-
wind zone visual glide slope, which is closest to
the runway threshold, is used for all other
aircraft. The upwind zone visual glide slope is
0
installed at an angle .25 higher than the down-
wind slope.
Pilots in aircraft other than the long-bodied
jets using the new VASI installations should dis-
regard the upwind lights and use the downwind
zone visual glide slope the same as all other VASI
installations. One exception would be the use of
the upwind bars to avoid wake turbulence from
a larger airplane.
TERMINAL PROCEDURES
1m III1
6 LIGHT INSTALLATION
The pilots of smaller aircraft will see the VASI
lights, as shown on the left side of figure 7-20,
when on the proper downwind zone visual glide
slope. The pilots of jumbojets, rather than visu-
ally aligning themselves between the middle bar
and the down wind bar, must visually align their
glide slope between the upwind bar and the
middle bar on the upwind zone visual glide
slope, as illustrated on the right side in figure
7-20.
The Tri Color V AS! is a much simpler
system which uses a single light source for
7-37
 (

DOWNWIND BAR THRESHOLO

(
.. ~approx 600'~

Fig. 7·19. 3 Bar VASI

approach slope guidance. The light is amber
when viewed from above slope, green when
within safe approach parameters, and red when
the pilot is too low.
CONTACT AND VISUAL
APPROACHES
Instrument flights frequently terminate at airports
where weather conditions would permit an
approach by visual reference to the ground. Thus,
it is not always necessary to make a complete
instrument approach. Naturally, if the weather is
VFR and the ops specs authorize a VFR flight,
the pilot can elect to cancel his instrument
flight plan. This is sometimes practical and
may even be advisable. Traffic or weather
conditions or ops specs, however, may be such
that the IFR clearance should be retained, but
the aircraft could proceed to the airport visually.

c
•••
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I
.. 1 __
>.-".-. .-
'''.t::I t::I 0
c c
c c
=
--
c
I
I
~
".
= = =
.. tI50

PROPER VISUAL CUES. MOST AIRPLANES PROPER VISUAL CUES FOR JUMBO JETS
red- _ white- c (
Fig. 7·20. 3-Bar VASI Visual Cues

7-38
 TERMINAL PROCEDURES

( The two possible situations whereby a pilot
can retain his IFR clearance without having
to conduct a full instrument approach are the:
1. contact approach, and the
2. visual approach
Both contact and visual approaches release
the pilot from having to fly the complete
standard instrument approach procedure.
This may reduce the amount of maneuvering
necessary to reach the airport and, thereby,
expedite the landing. However, the pilot is
still responsible for avoiding other VFR
traffic.
CONTACT APPROACH
A contact approach is made by "visual con-
tact" with the ground. This approach may be
requested by a pilot on an IFR flight plan who
is clear of the clouds and has at least one mile
flight visibility and can maintain visual con-
tact with the ground to complete the approach
and landing. The weather requirements for a
contact approach are similar to the require-
ments for special VFR. If the pilot requests
( and receives a clearance for a contact ap-
proach, ATe has insured that the flight will
required will be higher depending on local terrain
or other obstructions.
The purpose of the visual approach is to blend
arriving traffic into an orderly traffic flow and
landing sequence. The IFR arrival may be cleared
for a visual approach after reporting sight of the
airport or the preceding aircraft.
If radar is available, separation from IFR traffic
is provided until the clearance for the visual
approach is issued. Approach control will instruct
the pilot when to contact the tower, at which
time radar service is automatically terminated.
The tower will issue a landing sequence number
to the aircraft.
Both contact and visual approaches may be
requested before or during the letdown procedure
and initiated after ATe has given approval. In
both cases, the pilot is responsible for separation
from other VFR aircraft.
Figure 7-21 lists the highlight features or char-
acteristics of each of the different types of the
IFR noninstrument approach procedures.
CONTACT VISUAL

not be in conflict with other IFR operations. Weather Ground visibility of at Ground visibility of at
Therefore, the pilot may deviate from the stan- least one mile. least three miles.
dard approach procedure, proceed directly to ceiling at least 1,000 feet
the airport, and still have separation from IFR
and special VFR traffic. However, it is the Entire visual approach
must be accomplished
pilot's responsibility to avoid terrain and man- Aircraft must remain in VFR conditions.
made obstructions. clear of clouds and have
one mile flight visibility.

Airport Approved weather Approved weather

VISUAL APPROACH
observations. observations.

When VFR conditions exist at the destination

airport, a visual approach may be assigned to or
requested by the pilot. The surface weather Pilot Can only be requested Initiated by ATC or re-
Action by the pilot. ATC quested by the pilot.
conditions in the control zone must be a reported
may not initiate.
ceiling of at least 1,000 feet and three miles
visibility (basic VFR). Most often the ceiling Fig. 7-21. Contact and Visual Approaches

1. The contact approach is initiated by the _

2. The visual approach is initiated by the _

or _ pilot

7·39
 (
3. The minimum visibility authorized for air carriers during a pilot
contact approach is mile(s). ATe

4. The minimum visibility for a visual approach is

one
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ mile(s).

5. If a contact approach is made to an airport that is in VFR

conditions, the pilot must be alert for _
three
aircraft in the area. (Note: Separation is maintained between
IFR aircraft on contact approaches.)

6. If the contact approach is made to an airport when the

visibility is less than three miles, the pilot is provided separa-
tion from VFR aircraft and other _ VFR
flights. (Note: VFR aircraft are not authorized in a control
zone with IFR aircraft when the visibility is less than three
miles.)

IFR
(

CATEGORY II AND III APPROACHES
The basic ILS approach is termed Category I; it
requires only that the pilot be instrument rated
and that the aircraft be equipped appropriately.
Normally, minimum visibility is one-half statute
mile or RVR 2,400 feet, but may be reduced
to 1,800 feet RVR when centerline and touch-
down zone lights are provided. Decision height
(DH) is 200 feet above the touchdown
zone elevation.
CAT II and CAT III ILS approaches require
special certification for operators, aircraft, pilots
and air/ground equipment. The pilot-in-command
must hold a current pilot authorization for that
type aircraft and the second-in-command must
hold a current, appropriate instrument rating or
airline transport pilot certificate.
The aircraft used for the CAT II approach must
carry a current approved Category II manual for
that aircraft. Instruments and equipment required
by the manual must be inspected and maintained,
as specified.
In return for meeting these stringent require-
ments, "interim" CAT II minimums are 1,600
feet RVR and 150 feet DH. After a period of
consistently successful operations with inter-
im minimums, the operator may be authorized
"full" CAT II minimums as low as 1,200 feet
RVR, and a DH of 100 feet.
CAT III ILS approaches are subdivided into three
groups, all of which allow descents to touchdown
since decision heights are not specified. This
category pertains mainly to air carrier and mili-
tary operations because of the complexity and
high cost of the equipment required. The follow-
ing is a list of the RVR requirements for the
various CAT III approaches.
1. CAT IlIa -700 feet RVR
2. CAT IlIb -150 feet RVR
3. CAT Ilrc - authorizes approach and
landing regardless of RVR

7-40

LOA AND SDF APPROACHES
The localizer type directional aid (LOA) and
the simplified directional facility (SOF) are
very similar to a standard localizer. Each of
these systems operates within a frequency
range of 108.10 MHz to 111.95 MHz and pro-
vides course guidance to a specific run way.
The approach techniques and procedures to be
used with both the LOA and SOF approaches
are essentially identical to those employed
while executing a standard localizer approach.
Since both facilities transmit the same type of
signal as a standard localizer, the pilot simply
tunes his navigation radio to the appropriate
frequency and monitors the navigation indi-
cator. The course selector setting has no effect
on the COl indications.
The primary differences between the localizer,
LOA, and SOF facilities are the placement of
the transmitting antenna, course width, and
course alignment. Some of these differences
( are shown in figure 7-22. Oue to these differen-
ces, most LOA and SOF approaches do not
have usable back courses.
LOCALIZER FOR I LS
~, i port. The lead-in lights can be in the form of a
LDA~
SDF SYSTEM
Fig. 7-22. Guidance System Comparison
LOCALIZER TYPE DIRECTIONAL AID
The LOA facility employs the same utility and
accuracy of a localizer, but is not part of a
complete ILS system. However, the facility
itself is identified much the same as a stan-
dard localizer. For example, the LOA facility
is identified by a three-letter code prefixed by
the letter "I," as shown in figure 7-23, item 1.
In addition, the LOA course width is adjusted
between three and six degrees, as is the stan-
dard localizer.
TERMINAL PROCEDURES
The transmitting antenna for the LOA nor-
mally is located off the airport or at the ap-
proach end of the corresponding runway. Fig-
ure 7-22 illustrates an example of a transmit-
ting antenna located at the approach end of a
runway with the antenna array aimed at an
angle to the runway centerline.
The antenna location causes an apparent dif·
ference in course sensitivity between the LOA
and the ILS localizer. Most ILS localizers with
an angular width between three and six degrees
provide an approach course width of approxi·
mately 700 feet at the runway threshold. This
means that when an aircraft one mile from
touchdown is displaced horizontally 350 feet
from the runway centerline, it will display
half-scale COl deflection. If the antenna in a
similar LOA system is located at the approach
end of the runway, the horizontal distance of
the course width is much smaller on final
approach. At one mile from touchdown, a 350-
foot lateral course error will cause a full scale
COl deflection compared to the half-scale de-
flection for the ILS.
THE LOA approach may employ lead-in
(LOIN) lights for visual guidance to the run-
way. Generally, the lead-in lights are used for
the visual portion of the approach after pass-
ing the missed approach point. Item 2 of figure
7-23 shows the lead-in lights for the LOA run-
way 18 approach to Washington National Air-
single light or three to five lights in short
sequence. Additionally, a series of single or
multiple array lights can be employed to guide
the pilot in a straight or curved path to the
approach end of the runway.
SIMPLIFIED DIRECTIONAL FACILITY
The SOF approach facility normally is identi·
fied by a three-letter code. However, unlike the
LOA and localizer facilities, the three-letter
identifier is not prefixed with the letter "I."
The antenna array for an SOF approach can
be placed in various locations and provides an
approach course which :is seldom aligned with
an extended runway centerline. The SOF ex-
ample in figure 7-22 shows the antenna array
located next to the runway with the approach
7-41
 (

ATlS 132.65
WASHINGTON Approach (R) See 1"$lllpch char. for Iraq.

WASHINGTON Tower 119.1

Ground 121.7
721'
39-0D
~22' .' ~37' LDA WITH GLIDE SLOPE
'l1'qo ~p..~~"
\\' 750', 448'
~
1049' ~ • .454'
.,8.0oME 1049'MJ,. J,533'
810'" VORl - ~c1849' /PR.OHIB~~~~ AREAS
•
~
BRIAN OM 765' _!:""' 5"";' ~~696' -4
~1~4~5':'O~ '" LOIN light

38-50

Andrews AFB
535' ~
J;
o
475'
EANDREWS~
"
(
270'.
"l2 3~~. A.f!'!"
•
4QO'

7HD

.
]
NOTE: Radar required. DME from DCA VOR OME.
GS provided by standard GS equipment .
GS unusable below 1100'0087').
2600' 3.5 DME
(1587')
(DCA VORl
I</So I
1900' I
(1887'1 I
2.2 TOZE 13'

MISSED APPROACH: Climbing

5.6 DME and hold,
RWY 18 CIRCLE·TO·LAND
LOA WITH GS LOA WITHOUT GS

MDA 1100'(1087') MDA 1100'(1087')

A

•
c
2 2

c
1100'(1085')·2

3 3 1100'(1085')·3
0 o
Gnd seed·
GS
."
70 90 100 120
3.000 377 484 53. 646
140
753
160
861
MAP "' J.S DMf or
MAUDY to MAP4.5 3:51 3:00 2:42 2:15

CHANGES; MSA, MAP, "isibililies.

1:56 1 :41
(l , " " "..... N.AHOlOSON INC, Qf........ COlO..
.." ....."_ISU¥tO
u....... (
Fig. 7-23. LOA Approach

7·42
 TERMINAL PROCEDURES

Amdtl '60 P!m,FJElD MUNI

SDF RWY 26 AL-975 (fAA) PITTSFIELD, MA.SSACHU5en5
BOSTON CfNTeR
132.65

3698
:k
Finol oppl'OOf;h nvm holding pattem 2613
Of eQI NOI not authorizitd.
Procedure tum required.

01
,./ >
2313,

,000
CANAN 098"--", 12 ."'. ~_1325
(11.9) 1~f9 A f.\ -K 2558

~"~108.7:~F:::'::'I
2126

STELA

( 115.1
CHESlER
erR
Chon 98
~..::-.

HEY 1194

MISSED "PPROACH
Clomb to 3000, climbing right
tum to -4000 d'red 8QI NOB
and hold.
TOle ~

/t~
CATEGORY A
2000-1
.- •
2000-W..
SDf
0
,:>'{jP1-\
GCl
"
:';'1281
'~120
~~~
., t:..
116~~
""
826 (900-1) 826 (900.\14) 12~iO

ORO.ING 2520-2 26<Cl-2 14A6 11500-21

1326 (' 400-2

MlRlRwyIS·26onc! 1....;32
REIL Rwy 14
fAf to MAS> AI NM
Knott 60 90 120 150 180
Min,S- 4,00 2,""0 2,00 1,36 1;20

SDF RWY 26 PlnSFIElO, MASSACHUSETTS

P1TTSf'IELD MON.

Fig. 7-24. SDF Approach

course crossing the runway threshold. The case, an aircraft maintaining the course cen-
antenna array also can be located near the terline will fly parallel to and alongside the
approach or departure end of the runway. runway. Normally, the angle of convergence
between the final approach course and a run-
The transmitting antenna for the approach way heading is not more than three degrees.
( illustrated in figure 7-24 is installed north of This provides good accuracy to the runway
the runway and provides an approach course and does not require excessive maneuvering to
which almost parallels the runway. In this align the aircraft with the runway centerline.

7-43

The SDF antenna array transmits a signal
with a course width of either 6° or 12°. This
angular course width provides maximum us-
ability and optimum course quality. However,
it should be noted that this provides a much
(
wider course than the localizer or LDA sys-
tems. Although the greater angular course
width provides less precision with an SDF
approach, it provides adequate course guidance
for a safe approach.

1. The primary differences between localizer, LDA, and SDF

approaches are the placement of the transmitting antenna,
course width, and course _

2. The transmitting antenna for the LDA is normally located

off the airport or at the end of the alignment

runway.

7-44
 enroute charts
eha.pter 8

INTRODUCTION
The airways in the United States are divided into two levels, the low altitude and the high
altitude route structures. The low altitude routes extend from 1,200 feet AGL to 17,999 feet
MSL and are called Victor airways. These low altitude airways are shown on both area charts
and low altitude charts. The high altitude routes extend from 18,000 feet MSL up to FL 450
and are called Jet routes. All of the VORs and VORTACs which make up the Jet routes are
"H" class facilities, unless specifically identified as an "L" class facility. On both the
Jeppesen and NOS charts, all distances are nautical and all bearings and radials are
magnetic. The width of a Victor airway is four nautical miles on either side of the airway
centerline. The width of a Jet route is not specified.

AREA CHARTS Some of the items that may be shown on an

Area charts normally are printed on a scale of
one inch to five, six, seven, or eight nautical
miles. These scales, which are less than that of
a low altitude chart, permit much greater detail
to be shown. Navigation information that must
be eliminated from the busier terminal areas
on low altitude charts can be shown on area
charts. An excerpt from a typical area chart is
shown in figure 8-1.
area chart and not on the low altitude
enroute chart include navigation facilities,
holding patterns, and intersections
associated with the approach procedures.
Also shown is the terminal information such
as field elevation, lighting, and length of
longest runway. This information may be
omitted from the low altitude chart due to
chart clutter.
It should be noted that this type of
information will be omitted from a low

8-1
 altitude chart only if an area chart for that
area is available. Those areas not covered by
area charts will have adequate navigational
detail shown on the low altitude chart.
Although most area charts cover a smaller
area, some include up to 100 nautical miles.
For this reason, they generally are used for
navigation within the vicinity of a terminal
or for flights between nearby airports.
The symbols used on area charts are the
same as those used on low altitude charts.
Therefore, the symbology presented in the
next section of this chapter should be
studied for both types of charts.
Area charts are published by both Jeppesen
and the U.S. National Ocean Survey (NOS).
Jeppesen prints individual charts that can (
be filed with the approach charts or enroute
charts for the particular area. NOS prints
the area charts on one large sheet. In
addition, Jeppesen publishes area charts for
many more terminals than does NOS.
LOW ALTITUDE EN ROUTE CHARTS
The following programmed exercises present
the symbology found on NOS low altitude
enroute charts. The number of each
programmed exercise refers to the "ball
flag" numbers on the chart excerpt found III
figure 8-2. Reference should be made to
figure 8-2 as each exercise is answered to
relate the information to the chart.

TI!I''''UNAL CONTROL "'REA ,

RESTRICTIONS TO VFI'l "LIGHT TO AND
INCLUDINO 7000 FI!IIT. S.I! LOS ANOEl.I!$
VFlIt TI!RMINAL AREA CHART OR
APPROPRIATI! PUIIUCATlONS FOR DETAILS

.5000
... 700

11 ffi]
(
~
,k
.1

r LOS ANOI!LES - FUGHT WATCH

.-
" -----
Wi'.
10 em

3500
122.5 122.1R
lOS ANGELES
1@
LAX :"'=:::"113.6
Chin .3 1 lIMMA .,•
--- MeA
""kowth0,we Mun,
-I"
3 63't'50
,
.

-
... ATiS 118.4 •

Fig. 8-1. NOS Area Chart Excerpt

~ 011'--

1. The distance from the Tunic Intersection to the Naval

Intersection is nautical miles.
(

8·2
 ENROUTE CHARTS

ARGO
ARC 114.0 fOAl[ SCENE

Os;

NAYAl
J,-
l>~~
I '; ,
5?
...., (Rhine) <'1"
5S l AD
7000_
-6500 YUBIT
"6400
15

PRICE
V-15S MU SE
MRA71~"
fa...
•
R.l' 2

"> '''Uo;l
Jh.l.RP')lL HI'> ~':>S
CE', _

~oe /.,.,.."o~
vo
__....
~~
o:--..~oo _~,
URSULA SHAPE HOBBS
GRAHD USA 108.4

Fig. 8-2. NOS Low Altitude Enroute Chart

8-3
 (
2. The distance from the Berkshire VORTAC westbound on
V-112 to the next VOR on Jeppesen charts, and to the next
nine
compulsory reporting point or VOR on NOS charts is
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ nautical miles.

3. The Berkshire VORTAC a compulsory

is, is not
reporting point. It is necessary for a pilot to make a position
59
report over the Berkshire VORTAC unless he is in
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ contact.

4. The frequency of the Berkshire VORTAC is

MHz. The frequencies above the VOR
frequency information box on Jeppesen charts indicate that
is
air-to-ground communication facilities are available on those
radar
frequencies. On the NOS charts, only non-standard fre-
quencies available at the flight service station are shown above
(
the VOR frequency information box.

5. The 039 0 radial extends northeast from the Berkshire

VORTAC and is the angle measured from _ 116.6
north clockwise to the airway.

6. The airway formed by the 039 0 radial is named

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . The alternate airway south of the pri-
mary airway, which is formed by the 0540 radial, is named magnetic
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . On Jeppesen charts alternate airways
are shown by a dashed line.

7. The smal1 "x" on the airway, indicated by the number "7" in

the illustrations, is cal1ed a breakdown.
V-448
When navigating on an airway where an "x" is found, the "x"
V-448S
indicates a change in the magnetic course and navigation
radio. (

8·4
 EN ROUTE CHARTS

8. The frequencies available to contact Seattle Center in this

area are MHz and
MHz. The remote transmitter and
mileage
receiver from the Seattle Center is located near the city
of Union. On the NOS charts, the frequency of the
Seattle Center remote site IS given for VHF and UHF
radios.

9. The Union 1ntersection IS formed by the 334 0 radial

124.2
from the Floral VORTAC and the of
317.6
the ILS to runway 10 at Berkshire.

10. The Yubit Intersection is formed by the 070 0 radial

from the Berkshire VORTAC and 202 0
localizer
bearing to the locator.

11. Special VFR is not authorized 10 the control zone

surrounding the Berkshire Airport. This is shown on
magnetic
Jeppesen charts with a heavy dashed line around the
Jeep
control zone and is depicted on the NOS charts with a
series of the letter
I

12. The circular dot pattern indicated by the arrow 12 is

T
used to depict a

13. On NOS charts. the localizer is depicted with a

miniature symbol unless the localizer
locator
is used to form an enroute fix. On Jeppesen charts. a
feathered localizer symbol is used.
I
14. The frequency of the Jeep locator is
kHz. On the NOS charts. an underline under the
ILS
frequency indicates that no voice is available on the
navigational aid.

8·5
 (
15. The Quiet Intersection is formed by the 334 0 radial
from the Floral VORTAC and the 383
radial from the Berkshire VORTAC.

16. The elliptical pattern shown by arrow 16 depicts a 214

17. Pilots are expected to hold in the pattern depicted on the

chart unless specifically advised by ATC. The holding
fan marker
pattern at the Floral VORTAC is a
standard, nonstandard
holding pattern.

(
18. The Floral VORTAC station a com-
is. is not nonstandard
pulsory reporting point.
I
19. The MEA on V-500 between the Floral VORTAC and Villa
Intersection is feet. The MEA altitude is
based on an obstruction clearance criteria of 2,000 feet in
is not
mountainous terrain and 1,000 feet in nonmountainous
terrain for an area five statute miles either side of the airway
centerline.
I
I

20. The minimum obstruction clearance altitude (MOCAI on

V-500 between Floral VORTAC and Villa Intersection is
feet. This altitude IS designated on 4,000
the Jeppesen charts with the letter '"T," and on the
NOS charts with an _
(

8·6
 ENROUTE CHARTS

21. The DME can be used to identify the Karst Intersection

which is east of the Floral VORTAC on V-500. The DME
distance is nautical miles. When an inter-
section is the first intersection away from a VORTAC station
and DME can be used to identify that intersection, the DME
distance will be the same as the mileage of that leg. The DME 3,600
is indicated on the Jeppesen charts with an arrow pointing asterisk
from the VORTAC station and a letter "D" without the
mileage. On the NOS chart the DME indication is an open
arrow without the DME mileage when the intersection is the
first intersection away from the VORTAC station.

22. If there is a doubt concerning which two VOR stations

form an intersection. a single closed arrow will be used
on the Jeppesen and NOS charts La point from the
10
( VOR forming the intersection. In this case. the Swani
Intersection is formed by the Floral VORTAC and the
_ _ _ _ _ _ VORTAC.

23. When DME can be used to identify an intersection which is

not the first intersection from a VORTAC station, the DME
distance will be included with an arrow pointing from the
Berkshire
appropriate VORTAC station. The DME distance of the Villa
Intersection from the Floral VORTAC is _
nautical miles.

24. Selected commercial broadcast stations are included on

both the Jeppesen and as enroute charts. but are not
La be used for IFR navigation. The frequency of the
17
KYU Broadcast Station IS kHz and
the frequency of the KCRT Broadcast Station is
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ kHz.

8-7
 (
25. If the line forming an airway ends next to an
intersection with a small bar perpendicular to the
airway line on NOS charts, the small bar represents a 1190

change in the , or
1510

MAA. On the Jeppesen charts, this ;ndicates there is a

change in the MEA at that intersection.
•
26. If the small bar does not appear at the end of the line
forming the airway near an intersection, this indicates
MEA,MOCA
that there is no in the MEA, MOCA,
orMAA.
I
27. A hexagon shaped symbol indicates a VOR station
DME or TACAN. The size of the
with. without
compass rose has no significance. The smaller sizes are change
used on congested areas to reduce chart clutter. (

28. If a VOR station is a terminal·classed VOR, the VOR

name and frequency will not be enclosed by a box on
the Jeppesen charts. On the NOS charts a
without
terminal-classed VOR station is identified by the letter
in parentheses after the frequency of
the VOR station.

29. If a pilot is maintaining the minimum usable IFR

altitude. and the altitude after crossing an intersection
is higher than the one that is presently being used, it is
necessary to climb to the next higher altitude when
T
crossing the intersection, except when a minimum
crossing altitude (MCA) IS designated at that
intersection. For a pilot flying eastbound on V-500, it is
necessary to cross the Brick Intersection at or above
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ feet.
(

8-8
 ENROUTE CHARTS

30. Uncontrolled airspace on the low altitude enroute chart is

shown as a tint on the Jeppesen and NOS charts. The top of 7,800

the uncontrolled airspace is feet.

3l. If an airport does not have an approved instrument approach

procedure, the name of the airport on the Jeppesen chart will
be spelled with upper and lower case letters. On the NOS
charts the same airport will appear with a brown color. The 14,500
elevation, in feet above sea level, is included with all airport
names. The field elevation at the Sportsman Airport is
feet.

32. On Jeppesen charts, an airport that has an approved

instrument approach procedure will have the name spelled
with all capital letters. On the NOS chart the airport name 178
will be printed with a blue color. The length of the longest

( runway at the Swan Airport is feet.

33. The area designated as P-27 is prohibited from the surface up

4,100
to feet.

34. Unless otherwise specified, the pilot should change from one
navigational facility to the next navigational facility when he
is at the midpoint between those two radio aids. When the
changeover point (COP) is other than midway, a "dogleg"
4,000
symbol is placed on the airway to indicate the COP. A pilot
proceeding on V-23 from Berkshire VORTAC to the Estonia
VOR (ETI) should change to the Estonia VORTAC when
he is miles from Berkshire.

35. The division line between controlling air route traffic control
centers is designated on the Jeppesen chart with a dotted line
and on the NOS chart with an irregular line. The name of the 57
air route traffic control center south of the illustrated desig-
nated boundary is the Center.
I

8-9
 (
36. An intersection, which is designated by a filled-in
triangle, is considered to be a reporting Harroll
point.

37. The minimum reception altitude IMRA) is indicated

below the intersection name with the appropriate
altitude. In addition to the altitude, the NOS chart
compulsory
includes the letter "R" In a flag next to the intersection.
The minimum reception altitude at the Price
Intersection is feet.

38. The area designated as R-27I2 is restricted from the

surface up to altitude. To receive
clearance to navigate through this restricted area, it 7,000
would be necessary to communicate with the
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Center.
(
39. The name of the first intersection which falls outside
the border of the chart IS listed above the airway line
unlimited
on the Jeppesen chart and below the neatline on the
Harroll
NOS chart. The name of the intersection on V-I65,
which is the first intersection southeast of the Price
Intersection, is the ~__ [ntersection.

40. The three-letter identifier of the next VOR station and

the distance to that station are found inside the border
of the NOS chart. The name of the next VOR, its
frequency, and three-letter identifier are included Hobbs
outside the border of the Jeppesen enroute chart. The
three-letter identifier for the next VOR southeast of the
Price Intersection on V-I65 is .

MDD (

8-10
 ENROUTE CHARTS

HIGH ALTITUDE EN ROUTE CHARTS

For the following exercise, refer to the legend symbols for the high altitude enroute chart in figure
8-3.

1. Single-direction Jet routes will always include the effective

________ of operation.

2. All VORTAC stations on the high altitude enroute chart are

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ class facilities unless designated with the hours
letter "L."

3. A compass rose is used to depict the location of a VORTAC

station on the High Altitude Enroute Chart and zero indi-
cates north.

(
4. If an MEA is not designated for a Jet airway, the MEA is
magnetic
considered to be feet.
I

5. Unless otherwise specified, the maximum authorized altitude

18,000
(MAA) is feet.

6. The base of the positive control area in the United States is

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ feet. 45,000

7. The frequency of the Appleton (APE) VORTAC IS

18,000

8. _ _ _---:---:_ _ Appleton (APE) is a VOR station. 116.70

true, false

false

8-11
 (
ENROUTE HIGH ALTITUDE CHART
The following legend includes only those symbols which are unique to the high altitude charts and not commonly
found on the low altitude charts·

NOS SYMBOL EXPLANATION

Preferred single direction jet route during effective hours. Two way
. . .z during other hours.

Q .v
e>
I, _(.~
APE 116.1
Chan 114
"H" class VORTAC
"0" points to magnetic north.

If a station is a VORTAC. the word "Chan" will be placed in

the frequency box.

C111.5 HARRISBURG
(ll HAR 11(ll
Q "L" class VORTAC

219 is mileage of airway leg.

245 is total mileage between compulsory reporting points and/or
VORTACs.
(
MEA·14000 nmI
L1ill 119
J-I10 is number of Jet Airway jet routes effective at or above FL 180.
24000 is Minimum Enroute Altitude (MEA), MEA shown along
route when higher than 18,000'.

MAA-AOOOO
Maximum Authorized Altitude (MAA). MAA shown only when other
than 45,000'. ATe may authorize higher MAA.

MEA is established with a gap in nay-signal coverage, ATC may autho-

r.l1E:,l Gil' rize a lower MEA (Down to floor of JET Route Structure) with ATC
Radar Guidance.

.
··
Mountain Std
+ 7 = GMT
·· ··
Central Std
+ 6 = GMT Time Zone Boundary

.··.
.
Fig. 8-3. High Altitude Enroute Chart Symbols

8·12
 AUTOMATIC DIRECTION
FINDER (ADF)
Many new and improved types of direction
finding and navigational equipment have been
introduced in the last few years. However, the
radio compass still remains a basic and necessary
item of equipment for radio navigation.
The low frequency receiver operates in the range
of 190 kHz to 1750 kHz. This frequency range
Includes nondrrectional beacons (200 - 415
kHz) and commercial broadcast stations (535 -
1605 kHz). The low frequency navigational
equipment in most air transport category air-
craft can be used for automatic direction finding
(ADF), manual direction finding (MDF), or
simply as a low frequency receiver.
BASIC EQUIPMENT
( Each ADF system consists of a receiver, a sense
antenna, a sense antenna coupler, a fixed-
loop antenna, a radio magnetic indicator, and a
control panel similar to the one shown in
figure 9-1.
The ADF receives signals from the sense
and fixed-loop antennas. Circuits in the
receiver electrically determine the bearing of
radio stations and transmit bearing
information as a synchro signal to the radio
magnetic indicators. Audio signals from the
receivers can be monitored through the
speaker in the cockpit or by using the
headphones.
The tuning control uses a single knob for
selecting the desired frequency on the
variable tuner shown in figure 9-1. Crystal
tuned units may incorporate two or more
controls for rapid frequency selection.
A tuning meter is utilized to aid in accurate
tuning of the radio. When the tuning needle
is at the greatest deflection to the right, the
station is tuned in as accurately as possible.
9-1
 BEAT FREQUENCY
OSCILLATOR SWITCH
(
_..-~--~-------
BFO .---~-
LOOP
CONTROL~---;~
KNOB @)
OFF

.40·.84
A
o
FUNCTION -7_F__-j...{ TUNING
SELECTOR ~-+--~-CONTROL
KNOB

CONTROL'-1i~""'~-----------I--------­
VOLUME
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY BAND
INDICATOR SELECTOR

Fig. 9·1. ADF System Controls

The function selector is a four·position rotary
knob which controls the manner in which the
ADF system is used. When the function selector
is in the OFF position, the set is inoperative.
When the ADF position is selected, circuits are
selected which automatically determine the
bearing to the station being received. In the
ADF function, both the sense and loop·antenna
circuits operate and the bearing indicator in the
cockpit automatically points to the selected
radio station. When the ANT (antenna) position
is selected, only the sense antenna is used and
the radio is operating simply as a radio receiver
to provide reception of weather broadcasts and
other broadcast programs. The LOOP position
provides only for the manual determination of
the bearing to the station being received. In this
position, the loop and bearing indicator are
operated manually by the use of the loop con-
trol knob. The loop function is electronically
controlled by the loop control knob through a
servo and the null position is determined by
monitoring the tuning meter. The LOOP posi-
tion is used when manual direction finding
(MDF) operations are desired.
The volume control is labeled GAIN on the ADF
control panel in the aircraft and is used to regu- (
late the audio level in the headsets or speakers.
Turning the beat frequency oscillator switch to
the BFa position makes the continuous wave
signals audible by mixing a beat frequency oscil-
lator output with the received signals to produce
a tone. The BFa position is an alternate method
to accurately tune the ground station.
The frequency band selector is used to
change the frequency indicator display on
the control panel. The frequency band
selector is a three-position rotary switch
which selects one of the following three
frequency ranges: 190 - 400 'kHz, 400 - 840
kHz, and 840 - 1750 kHz. The frequency
displayed in figure 9-1 is 472 kHz.

1. The ADF system is used for radio navigation and as a standby

receiver for

2. The ADF system receives frequencies in the range from

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ kHz to kHz.
communications (

9·2
 RADIO NAVIGATION

3. The frequency range of the ADF system includes non-

190
directional beacons and broadcast
1750
stations.

4. To insure accuracy in tuning a station, the pilot should utilize

commercial
the tuning _

5. When the station is accurately tuned, the tuning meter will be

meter
deflected to the _
I I

6. When the ADF is to be used only for radio reception and not
navigation, the function selector switch should be placed in right
the position.
I
( 7. When a pilot desires to use the radio as a manual direction
finder, the function selector switch should be placed in the ANT
position.
I

8. To control the volume in the speaker or headset, the pilot

LOOP
should rotate the knob labeled
I
9. When both the sense and loop antennas are being utilized, the
function selector switch should be in the GAIN
position.
I
10. U the LOOP position is selected for manual direction finding,
the loop must be rotated manually by the use of the ADF
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ knob.

l loop control

9·3
 Sync
Heading
Compass Power Failure
Warning Flag
, """;. oS
o -'~
~
R /~ [
ADFIVOR ~ OFF
Selector Switch ~ ~ ~
ADF
Fig, 9-2, Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMJ)
RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMI)
Magnetic heading information from the direc-
tional gyro is displayed on a rotating compass
dial and is read against a fixed index at the top
of the indicator, The magnetic heading indicator
similar to that shown in figure 9-2 displays the
magnetic heading of the aircraft,
When the small triangle on the sy nchronizing
annunciator is pointed to the line between the
cross and the dot, the heading displayed is
synchronized with the magnetic direction-
seeking source,
The synchronizing knob is located on the upper
right of the RMI and is provided to accelerate
the synchronization of the compass card and the
magnetic reference, To correct the heading dis-
played, the synchronizing knob should be
rotated clockwise to the cross symbol if the
synchronizing annunciator triangle points to the
plus.
The compass power failure warning flag on the
RMI will appear when power to the system is
lost, or in the event that there is a gyro mal-
function,
1, The bearing indicators on the RMI can be used to indicate
the magnetic bearing to either a (an)
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ station,
9-4
Knob
(
'6~j~p- Bearing Indicators
(ADF or VORl
A.... - V
·v· 0
t6Jf-R
<!>" " .....
8L ,\' \, ADFIVOR
Selector Switch
ADF
The two bearing indicators display information
from the ADF and/or VOR systems.
The ADF/VOR selector switches are used to
select the source for each of the two bearing
indicators, The RMI illustrated in figure 9-2 has
both bearing indicators set to the VOR source,
If the selector switch in the lower left corner of
the RMI was rotated clockwise to point to the
ADF position, the bearing indicator with the
series of dashes would indicate the bearing to (
the low frequency station,
The RMI utilizes a rotating compass card which
al ways displays the magnetic heading of the air-
plane under the index at the top of the dial,
Since the magnetic heading is displayed at the
top of the dial, the bearing indicators will dis-
play the magnetic bearing to the selected ADF
or VOR station.
When the RMI bearing indicator is receiving
signals from a VOR test signal (VOT) the
bearing indicator will indicate a magnetic
bearing of 1800 , As a mental reminder, when
the VOT is used, the airplane can be mentally
visualized as being north of the transmitting
station; since, if the aircraft position is north of
the transmitting station, the magnetic bearing to
that station will be 1800 ,
or
(
 RADIO NAVIGATION

(
2. The bearing indicator with the dashed line in figure 9-2
VOR
indicates a magnetic bearing of degrees
ADF
to the VOR station.

3. The unit on the RMI in figure 9-2 that indicates to the pilot
that the magnetic heading display is not accurate with the 069
slave gyro is called the

I I
4. To accelerate the magnetic heading to the correct indication, synchronizing
the pilot should use the _ annunciator

( synchronizing
knob

THE LOOP ANTENNA which is relayed to the receiver. However, when

The direction finding function of the radio
compass is principally dependent on the charac-
teristics of the loop antenna. As seen in figure
9-3, the loop provides maximum signal reception
wnen It IS parallel to the direction of radio wave
travel. When the loop is rotated from this
position, the strength of the signals gradually
decreases until the plane of the loop is perpen-
dicular to the signal direction. With the loop in
this position, the signal strength is at a
minimum.
the plane of the loop is perpendicular to a line
to the station, the signal reaches both halves of
the loop at the same instant. In this case, the
opposing voltages result in a net induced voltage
to the receiver of zero or near zero. Thus, the
strength of the signals beard in the headset is at
a minimum. This lets the pilot know the loop
antenna is in the null or minimum signal
position.

The loop antenna exhibits these reception

Maximum Minimum
characteristics because the input to the receiver Signal Signal
from the loop antenna is the resultant of the
opposing voltages in opposite halves of the loop.
When the plane of the loop is parallel to a line
l pointing to the station, one-half of the loop
receives the signal first and creates an impulse Fig. 9-3. Loop Antenna Signal Reception

9-5
 (
1. As shown in figure 9-3, the loop antenna receives the
minimum signal when it is _ _-,,--,--_-,,--,--_ to the direc-
parallel, perpendicular
tion of radio wave travel.

2. The loop antenna is manually rotated by the _

perpendicular
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ knob.

3. The loop antenna, when parallel to the direction of radio loop

wave travel, provides the _ _--,-_ _--,--,-__ signal. control
maximum, minimum

4. The bearing indicators on the RMI are rotated along with the
loop antenna when the function switch is In the maximum
_________ position.

5. When the loop antenna is in the minimum signal position,

LOOP
this is known as the position. (
6. When the loop antenna is in the null position, the bearing
indicator is pointing to the station NULL
tuned.

radio

When the function selector is set to the ADF
position, the loop is automatically rotated to the
null, thus causing the ADF needle to auto-
matically point to the station. However, when
the ADF function is not used or is inoperative,
the loop must be operated manually by turning
the spring loaded loop control knob. When the
null is located, the pilot is sure that the loop is
perpendicular to the station, but the direction to
the station may be either of two directions
which are 180 0 apart. This ambiguity can easily
be solved by positioning the airplane so that the
null (or bearing indicator) is at the wingtip posi-
tion. When this is accomplished, a straight
course should be flown and the bearing indicator
observed. If the station is to the left, the null
moves behind the left wing. If the station is on
the right, the null will move behind the right
wing. Navigation utilizing MDF (sometimes
called aural null) is generally considered to be an
alternate method of navigation. MDF is nor-
mally not used unless other means of navigation
are not operational. General procedures incident
to MDF navigation are the same as in ADF
navigation. However, the direction to the station
must be located aurally as well as visually which
(
presents problems to the busy pilot.

9-6
 RADIO NAVIGATION

(
1. The ADF bearing indicator will automatically point to the
station when the function selector is in the _
position.

2. When the function selector is in LOOP position, the loop

antenna and ADF bearing indicator must be rotated to get a
ADF
null in order that the indicator will point to the

3. In the MDF function (LOOP), the bearing indicator may be

aligned with the station but may indicate _ station
degrees from the station.

4. This is known as the 180 0 ambiguity and is solved by flying

in a straight line, perpendicular to the station, and noting
180
which end of the bearing indicator moves to the

5. If the bearing indicator moves behind the right wing position,

rear
the station is to the _

6. The station is to the left if the bearing indicator moves aft of

right
the wing position.

left

HOMING WITH ADF the airplane oriented to the station. Homing,

After tuning the radio compass and placing the
function selector in the ADF position, the ADF
needle will point to the tuned station. Homing
to a station consists only of keeping the nose of
however, is generally considered poor pilot tech-
nique since any crosswind will displace the air-
plane from the shortest route to the station. The
curved track made by a homing airplane in a
crosswind is illustrated in figure 9-4.

9·7
 (
1. Homing to a station is accomplished by maintaining a relative
bearing of degrees.
2. As illustrated in figure 9-4, ADF homing with a crosswind
will cause the airplane to follow a path zero

to the station.
3. With a strong crosswind, ADF homing will require a
curved
longer, shorter

longer

Station TRACKING INBOUND

Tracking is usually more expeditious since this

method corrects for existing crosswind condi-
tions. To track inbound to the station, first turn
the airplane to position the desired course and
the bearing indicator under the top index of the
RMI. This heading should be maintained until
the bearing indicator registers a deflection from
the desired course. Relative movement of the
bearing indicator is evidence of a crosswind for
(
which the heading must be corrected. When a
definite deflection is noted, a corrective turn
should be made in the direction the bearing
indicator is moving. If the bearing indicator is
moving to the right, the corrective turn will be
Wind to the right; if the bearing indicator is moving to
the left, the corrective turn will be to the left.
The angle of interception must always be greater
than the number of degrees drifted in order to
reintercept the desired course.

The magnitude of the corrective turn depends

on the distance from the station, true airspeed,
existing wind, and how quickly it is desired to
return to the intended course. When the airplane
is a great distance from the station, large angles
of interception may be used to return to course
rapidly. When close to the station, small angles
of interception should be used to prevent over-
shooting.

A rapid rate of departure from the track, at 50

miles from the station, indicates a strong cross-
wind. The same rate of departure will occur with
only half the wind at approximately 25 miles
(
Fig. 9·4. ADF Homing from the station. The faster the airplane speed,

9-8
 RADIO NAVIGATION

the less the relative effect of the wind. When the
airplane is moving fast, the wind will not have as
long to act on the airplane while it is covering a
given distance.
The airplane is back on course when the desired
course and bearing indicator are located under
the top index. However, the desired course will
not be maintained unless an "into the wind"
heading correction is made. The amount of wind
correction applied depends on the crosswind
condition. If, after the wind correction has been
applied, the bearing indicator moves away from
the index, the correction is too great. If the
bearing indicator mov,~s toward the index, the
correction is too small.

1. Tracking IS ordinarily preferred to homing because, in

tracking, correction is made for the
effect.

2. In using ADF for tracking inbound, first turn the airplane to

coincide with the bearing and the wind
desired course on the RMI card.

3. In the above procedure, the bearing indicator will be posi·

indicator
tioned at the top
(
4. The airplane should be turned so the desired course will be
indicated by the rotatable compass card in the radio magnetic index

5. In the foregoing procedure, so long as the bearing indicator

remains stationary, the airplane is making good the desired indicator

6. If the bearing indicator is moving to the left or right, this

track
denotes that there is a
I

7. If the bearing indicator moves to the right, the correct

procedure is to make a small wind correction to the crosswind

8. A small wind correction to the left is made if the bearing

right
indicator moves to the
L

g.g
 (
9. If the airplane drifts off course, the angle of interception to
return to the course must be than the left
smaller. greater
number of degrees drifted off course.
I
I
10. When an airplane is distant from the station, _
smaller, larger
angles of interception may be used to get back on course greater
sooner.

11. When close to the station, small angles of interception should

larger
be used to prevent
I

12. The rate of departure of the airplane from the track, denoted
by slow or fast movement of the bearing indicator, denotes a overshooting
weak or strong _

13. A rapid rate of departure, indicated by a fast moving bearing

crosswind
indicator, denotes a
weak, strong
crosswind. (

14. The faster the speed of the airplane, the less the relative strong
effect of the _

15. After making a wind correction and the airplane is back on

course, the angle (degrees) of wind correction is indicated by
wind
the angle between the bearing indicator and airplane

16. If the bearing indicator moves away from the top index, the
heading
wind correction is too _
small, great

17. If the bearing indicator moves toward the index, the wind
_________ has been too small. great

correction (

9-10
 RADIO NAVIGATION

( Station TRACKING IN A CROSSWIND

I\ Figure 9-5 illustrates the recommended method

for tracking in a crosswind.
I \
I \ (1) Position 1 shows an airplane on a course of
f \ zero degrees to the station.
\
I \ \PO,;"OO 4 (2) Position 2 shows the heading is still zero
degrees; however, the bearing indicator is
I drifting to the left, indicating a crosswind
I from the left.

Wind
I
I ,k\- (3) To return to the desired course, the air·
plane must be turned toward the bearing
indicator, but beyond the course indicated
I by the bearing indicator. Position 3 shows
the proper method of applying the wind
I correction. Since the bearing indicator
shows a course of 355 0 to the station, the
I heading is altered to 350 0 to put the
I
+-
airplane on an interception course.

I Po"l,oo 1
(4) Position 4 shows the airplane back on
course with the bearing indicator showing a
I \ course of zero degrees to the station. Notice
that the heading is 355 0 , indicating that a
( !
I crosswind correction of five degrees has
Fig. 9·5. ADF Inbound Tracking been applied.

1. In figure 9-5, position 1, the airplane RMI shows the bearing

indicator and compass card aligned with the desired

2. The same heading is maintained in position 2, but the air-

plane has drifted off course to the right. With the left
course
crosswind, the bearing indicator has moved to the

3. In position 3, the airplane is headed back toward the desired

course. The heading is 0 and the bearing left
indicator points to 0

4. In the above case (position 3), the course interception angle is 350
________0
355

9·11
 (
5. In figure 9-5, position 4, the bearing indicator reads zero
degrees, denoting that the airplane is back on 10

•
6. In position 4, the wind correction is _
course
degrees to the _

five I
left

STATION PASSAGE TRACKING OUTBOUND

As the airplane approaches the station, a small de-
parture from the desired course will cause a large
deviation of the bearing indicator. As the station
is passed, the bearing indicator will fluctuate from
side to side and finally swing around to indicate a
bearing of approximately 180 0 from the course of
the airplane. Station passage is definitely estab-
lished by noting the time at which the bearing in-
dicator swings through either wingtip position.
Tracking outbound is similar to tracking in-
bound except that the tail of the bearing
indicator is used to establish the airplane on
course. After the airplane heacl.ing is adjusted
for wind correction, the correction is too
large if the tail of the bearing indicator moves
toward the top index. If the indicator moves (
away from the top index, the correction is
too small.

1. Station passage, using ADF, is denoted when the bearing

indicator swings toward the rear past either _
position.

2. As the station is approached, the

will swing from side to side before wingtip
reversing direction.

3. On a timed procedure, the timing is started when the bearing

bearing indicator
indicator passes through either position.

4. When tracking outbound from a station, the pointer end of

the bearing indicator is in the aft (bottom) half of the RMI wingtip
and the of the pointer is at the top. l

9-12
 RADIO NAVIGATION

(
5. The tail of the bearing indicator is used in this case to
tail
establish the airplane on the _

6. When the tail of the bearing indicator is used to determine

the wind correction, the rule is reversed. If the tail of the
indicator moves toward the top index, the wind correction is course
too ----,,..,- _
small, large

7. If the tail of the indicator moves away from the top index,
the amount of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ is large
too small.

wind correction

COURSE INTERCEPTION course, it is necessary to tum to a heading which

On some occasions, it may be necessary to inter-
( cept a predetermined bearing in order to cor-
rectly approach the station. Ordinarily, only one
turn is necessary to position the airplane on an
intercept heading. First, notice where the
desired course is located on the RMI compass
card, then locate the position of the bearing
indicator. In order to intercept the desired
is on the other side of the bearing indicator from
the desired course. Turn beyond the bearing
indicator a sufficient number of degrees to give a
desirable intercept angle; normally this is about
30 0 . When the bearing indicator closely ap-
proaches the desired course as indicated on the
RMI, start a tum so as to roll out on heading
and on course.

1. When using ADF to intercept a predetermined course (bear-

ing) to a station, first locate the airplane in relation to the
desired inbound _
I

2. To intercept a predetermined course to the station, a turn

must be made past the bearing indicator a sufficient number course
of degrees to give a desirable angle.
I
3. An angle of interception often used is 0
( interception

9-13
 (
4. After turning toward the course to be intercepted, start
another turn to roll out on course when the bearing indicator
30
approaches the desired _

course

Figure 9-6 graphically illustrates the method uti-
lized to intercept a predetermined course.
Notice in position 1 that the airplane heading is
270 0 and that the bearing to the station is 290 0 .
Assume that the pilot is required to approach
the station on a magnetic course of 280 0 . To
accomplish this, the heading is changed in the
direction of, but past, the bearing indicator by
30 0 In position 2, notice that the bearing
indicator still registers 290 0 ; however, the head-
ing has been changed to 320 0 , or 30 0 past the
bearing indicator. In position 3, the bearing indi-
cator has altered position to the desired course
(280 0 ) and the airplane heading has been
changed so as to fly inbound on a course of
280 0

0-
Statio=n:------
+ ... ......:::~~~~~_;...:~:..-----
'-.. 280
0 _
(
-
Position 1

Position 3
-+
• -e
Fig. 9-6. ADF Bearing Interception

1. In figure 9-6, position 1, the bearing indicator shows that the

bearing to the station is 0

2. To intercept a predetermined course of 280 0 , the airplane

should be turned to the right past 290 0 to achieve the desired 290
interception _ (

9-14
 RADIO NAVIGATION

( 3. The new heading to be used for a reasonable interception

angle
angle will be 0

4. Turn to the heading of the predetermined course at the time

the bearing indicator reaches 0 (or 320
slightly before).

280

THE TIME-DISTANCE CHECK
The homing characteristics of the radio compass
make it possible to calculate the approximate
time and distance to the station to which the
radio compass is tuned.
Before starting the time-distance check, be sure
that the desired station is tuned and identified
and that the function switch is set to the ADF
position. Next, position the airplane so that the
( bearing indicator is placed at either of the 90 0
indices (wingtip position) on the face of the
RMI. For example, notice in figure 9-7 that the
airplane in position 1 is heading 330 0 . In posi-
tion 2, the heading is changed to zero degrees in
order to place the station on the wingtip posi-
tion. The time should be noted as the bearing
indicator passes by the 90 0 indices. A constant
heading and airspeed should be maintained until
the bearing indicator registers a 50 to 20 0 bear-
ing change. A 10 0 bearing change is usually used
because the number 10 provides for easy compu-
tation.
After the bearing indicator registers the desired
bearing change, again note the time. The number
3 position in figure 9-7 shows the airplane still
on a heading of zero degrees, but with the bear-
ing indicator 100 behind the 90 0 indices indica-
ting a 100 bearing change.

1. To perform a time-distance check by using the ADF, first

tune and identify the radio station and then set the function
switch to the position.

2. Next, turn the airplane until the RMI bearing indicator is in

either of the positions (90 0 or 270 0 ADF
position).

3. In figure 9-7, position 2, the bearing indicator reads

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _0, which is a _ pOSI- wingtip
tion when heading zero degrees.

9-15
 4. When performing a time·distance check, begin timing when
(
270
the bearing indicator is on a wingtip bearing, as shown by
wingtip
position in figure 9-7.

5. Then fly for a suggested 100 bearing change, in this case to

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _0, as shown in position _ 2
figure 9-7.

260
3

Position 3

Fig. 9-7. The ADF Time Distance Check

Time TIME BETWEEN

BEARINGS (SECONDS)
Use the following formula to calculate the ap- MINUTES TO STATION
DEGREES OF BEARING (
proximate time to the station. CHANGE

9-16
 RADIO NAVIGATION

Assume, for example, that 90 seconds is re- Assume, for example, that the groundspeed is
quired for an airplane to fly through a 100 300 knots and that 1.5 minutes were required
bearing change. When these values are substitu- for the bearing indicator to change 10° When
ted in the above equation, the problem would these values are substituted in the previous equa-
look like this. tion, the problem would look like this.
90 seconds
MINUTES TO STATION 9 minutes
10 degrees 300
DISTANCE knots x 1.5 minutes_ 45 naut. miles
Distance
TO STATION 10° change
Use the following formula to determine the dis-
tance to the station.
GROUND- TIME BETWEEN
DISTANCE SPEED X BEARINGS (MINUTES) In this type of problem, TAS may be substituted
TO STATION DEGREES OF for groundspeed; however, the answer will not
BEARING CHANGE be quite as accurate.

1 Th e f ormu I a f or time to a st at"Ion IS:

Time between bearings (seconds) = minutes to station
Degrees of bearing change

2. If 60 seconds were required for a bearing change of 100 , the

( no response
time to fly to the station would be
minutes.

3. If a bearing change of 150 required 75 seconds, then the

airplane would be minutes from the six

station.
I
I
4. The formula for distance out from a station is:
Groundspeed x time between bearings (minutes) Distance five
Degrees of bearing change
=
to
station

5. If the groundspeed were 240 knots and the bearing changed

150 in one minute, the distance from the station = no response
n.m.
I
6. If the groundspeed is 180 m.p.h. and the time between a
bearing change of 100 is one minute, the distance from the 16

( station is miles (statute).

II

9·17

7. The approximate distance to a station may be found using
true airspeed 120 knots
bearing change = 100
time 1.5 minutes
The distance to the station -
VHF NAVIGATION
The VHF frequencies include the VOR and ILS
which are the two primary means of navigation
in the United States. As shown in figure 9-8, the
VHF frequency range is from 108.00 to 117.95
MHz. Within this frequency range allotted for
aviation, there are 200 frequencies which in-
clude both the VHF omnidirectional range
(VOR) and the instrument landing system (ILS).
Because of the problem of radio frequency con-
gestion for ILS and VOR systems in the larger
terminal areas, it has been necessary for the
FAA and FCC to provide additional frequencies
for new facilities by the implementation of 50
kHz spacing, thereby increasing the older 100
frequencies to 200 frequencies.
ILS (localizer) FREQUENCIES
Fig. 9-8. VHF Navigation Range
9-18
(
18
n.m.
18
In the 200-frequency system, the ILS (localizer)
frequencies will be from 108.10 through 111.95
on the odd-tenth frequencies plus the 50 kHz
frequency immediately above the frequencies
with 100 kHz spacing. For example, the fre- (
quencies of 108.55, 109.75, and 111.35 are ILS
frequencies. Within the frequency range from
108.00 to 112.00 MHz, the even-tenths frequen-
cies plus the 50 kHz spaces immediately higher
are VOR frequencies. For example, 108.25,
111.85, plus all frequencies from 112.00 to
117.95 MHz are VOR frequencies. A corre-
sponding change in the 962-1213 MHz band
provides additional paired DME channels. The
available number of DME frequencies has doubled
with the change to a 200-frequency system.
VOR FREQUENCIES
 RADIO NAVIGATION

( VOR usually are modified to conform with

specific location requirements.
The VOR system of navigation in its
present use is probably the most popular The four ground components of the ILS, which
means of navigation in the United States are radio transmitters, are the localizer, glide
and many foreign countries. Since it IS slope, outer marker, and middle marker. In
assumed the ATP applicant has a addition to the radio transmitters, there are a
commercial certificate with an instrument number of visual aids associated with the ILS
rating, the VOR will not be explained in this such as the approach lighting system, runway
course. As a brief reminder, a few principle lights, and other lights used to provide visual
characteristics are included below and guidance after descent below the cloud base.
should be remembered concerning the VOR:
LOCALIZER
1. VOR signals are line of sight;
2. VOR signals are relatively static-free; The localizer transmitter, which provides azi-
and muth directional information for the ILS, is
located approximately 1,000 feet beyond the
3. the accuracy of the VOR system used upwind end of the straight-in landing runway.
in IFR is regulated by FAR 91.25. The localizer operates on anyone of the 40
frequencies and sends out two patterns modu-
INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM lated at 150 and 90 Hertz (cycles per second).
These two signal patterns overlap along the line
The instrument landing system (ILS) is designed formed by an extension of the centerline of the
to provide precise vertical and horizontal naviga- runway. This line, or course, is identified by the
tion assistance for exact alignment and descent airplane receiving equipment as the area of equal
( for aircraft to a specific runway for instrument
approaches. The instrument landing system
signal strengths between the two modulated
patterns. As shown in figure 9-9, the overall
installation in figure 9-9 is typical of most ILS horizontal width of a standard localizer course is
units. The dimensions illustrated are average and five degrees.

All marker transmitters

MIDDLE MARKER approlCimately 2 watts
VHF Loca'iz~ 8175 MHz
Modulnion 1300 Hz
Keying: Alternate dot 8< dash
Amber light
Point 01 intersection, OUTER MARKER
........... runway and glide path
" el<tended. Modulation 400 Hz
~e~~:!~ ~a':h~s/.!.e~n.;'
/ Blue light

Localizer mOdulation
frequency
90Hz 150Hz

All distances approximate

or average
5 Miles

INNER MARKEA

Iwhen installedl
Modulation 3000 Hz
Keying: Six dots/second
............ - .
White light
Located at decision
height for CAT II

(
Fig. 9·9. Instrument Landing System

9-19
The 150 Hertz area is to the right of an airplane
inbound on the ILS front course and the 90 Hertz
area is to the left of the approaching airplane.
The approach course of the localizer inbound to
the runway is called the front course and the
course along the centerline of the runway in the
opposite direction (and on the opposite end) is
called the back course.
The range of the localizer transmitter is
approximately 18 nautical miles from the
antenna and between an altitude of 1,000
feet above the highest terrain along the
(
course line and 4,500 feet above the
elevation of the antenna site. The localizer
signals are reliable within 35 0 either side of
the approach path out to a range of 10
miles. Between 10 and 18 miles, reliable
signal courage is further reduced to 10 0
either side of the centerline.

l. The ground transmitting equipment for the ILS consists of

outer and middle markers, glide slope, and
I

2. The localizer is located approximately 1,000 feet from the

upwind, downwind
end of the landing runway.

3. Within the band from 108.10 to 111.95 MHz, the localizer

localizer
:
upwind
transmits on different frequencies.

4. The frequency of 109.75 is the frequency of a

40 (
I
5. The frequency of 110.45 is the frequency of a
localizer (IL8)

6. The principal disadvantage of VHF navigation is the

- of - characteristic VOR
of the VHF signals.
I

7. The localizer transmitter sends out two signal patterns, 150

line
and 90 Hertz. The 150 and 90 Hertz signals overlap along a
sight
line projected from the centerline of the

8. When the pilot is inbound on the front course, the 90 Hertz

runway
signal area is on his side.
r

9. The localizer signal that transmits on the opposite end of the

left
front course is called the course.

9-20
 RADIO NAVIGATION

(
10. The localizer signal should be considered accurate only
from the centerline out to _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _0 from the back
centerline when within 10 miles of the transmitter.

11. The localizer range extends miles outward

35
from the antenna.

18

GLIDE SLOPE The glide slope transmitter emits its signal

The glide slope transmitter is normally located
approximately 750 feet from the approach end
of the landing runway and approximately 500
feet from the runway centerline, similar to the
( typical ILS installation shown in figure 9-9. The
glide slope transmits a beam which is 1.40
wide (1.4 0 from maximum fly-up needle de-
flection to maximum fly-down needle deflec-
tion). The glide slope signal is transmitted at an
angle between 2.5 0 and 3 0 above the horizontal.
In most new ILS installations, the glide slope
angle is three degrees because of noise abatement
procedures.
in the direction of the final approach and
sends practically no signal toward the back
course. Glide slope indications should be
disregarded if they are received on the back
course.
The glide slope transmitter operates on anyone
of 40 channels in the band from 328.6 to 335.4
MHz, sending out vertical patterns which are
modulated at 90 Hertz and 150 Hertz. The air-
plane receiver identifies the glide slope as a line
of equal signal strength between the 90 and 150
Hertz patterns. Some typical glide slope indica-
tions compared with the appropriate airplane
positions are included in figure 9-10.

Position #2

"One Dot" Needle Deflection

Runway

(
Fig. 9-10. ILS Glide Slope Indications

9·21
 (
1. The glide slope transmits the same type of signal pattern as
the localizer, except patterns are vertically arranged. One
signal is 90 Hertz and the other is Hertz.

2. The angle of the glide slope is between 2.5 and

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ degrees. 150

3. If glide slope signals are received while executing a back

course approach, the glide slope indications should be 3.0

4. The 50 kHz spacing on navigation radios provides _

disregarded
frequencies for the localizer and glide slope.

5. The width of the glide slope from maximum fly-up needle

deflection to the maximum fly-down needle deflection is 40
degrees.

(
1.4

MARKER BEACONS The outer marker is usually located approxi-

On the most common ILS installations, there are
two fan markers - an outer marker (OM) and a
middle marker (MM). On some ILS installations,
a third fan marker is employed to indicate the
point where the decision height should occur
when used in conjunction with a Category II ILS
approach.
mately five miles from the end of the runway,
but can be located as near as four miles and as
far as seven miles from the runway end. The
middle marker is located approximately 3,500
feet from the landing threshold. Refer to figure
9-9 for the outer, middle, and inner marker
frequency modulations, dot-dash patterns, and
the colors of the marker beacon lights.

;< The ILS marker beacons have a transmitter
power of three watts or less and send a signal
which can be received only when the airplane is
airborne over the marker beacon antenna. When
a pilot is operating a marker beacon receiver
which has a sensitivity selection feature, he
should operate his receiver in the "low" sensi-
tivity position when using the ILS marker
beacons.
On some back course approach locations, a back
course marker has been installed to indicate the
location of the final approach fix which is the
point from where the approach descent is
commenced. When installed, the back course
marker is modulated at 3,000 Hertz and is
identified by two Morse code dots at a rate of
75 to 95 two-dot combinations per minute. The
back course marker will signal the white marker

9-22
 RADIO NAVIGATION

( beacon light when the aircraft passes over the
back course marker antenna.
COMPASS LOCATORS
Compass locators are often situated at the outer
marker position and occasionally may be found
at the middle marker site. Compass locators are
installed to allow the pilot to navigate to the
outer marker position since the marker beacon
does not transmit signals in a horizontal direc-
tion.
The compass locators have a power output of
less than 25 watts which limit the broadcast
~
transmitter range to approximately 15 miles. At
some locations, the compass locator may have a
transmitting power of 400 watts if the compass
locator is used to carry transcribed weather
broadcast (TWEB) information.
Compass locators usually have a two-letter
rather than a three-letter identification group.
The two letters of the locator at the outer
marker are the same as the first two letters of
the three-letter identification group of the
associated instrument landing system. If a
locator is positioned at the middle marker, the
two-letter identifier will be the second and third
letters of the three-letter identification group
with the associated ILS.

1 Th e au t er mar k er an d Its
. associated compass locator are

usually located approximately miles

from the runway threshold.
I

2. If an airborne marker beacon receiver has a sensitivity selec-

I
tion feature, when using the marker beacons on the ILS, the
five
sensitivity selector switch should be placed in the
position.
I

3. The middle marker is located approximately

low
feet from the runway threshold.

4. When the aircraft passes over the outer marker position, the
light on the marker beacon receiver that is illuminated is the 3,500
-colored light.
I
5. Due to the compass locator's low transmitter power, the
range of most compass locators is approximately blue
( miles.

9-23
 (
6. The audible tone that is heard on the speaker from the
marker beacon receiver when the pilot passes over the back
course marker (when installed) is modulated at a frequency 15
of Hertz.

3,000

AREA NAVIGATION The area navigation systems presently in use

Area navigation has been designed and devel-
oped to provide more lateral freedom and, thus,
more complete use of available airspace. This
method of navigation does not require a track
directly to or away from existing radio naviga-
tional aids. Therefore, it will prevent the tunnel-
ing effect of aircraft transitioning to or away
from heavily used enroute navigational aids.
The area navigation capability has three princi-
ple applications:
1. It permits a route structure between
any given departure and arrival points
organized so as to permit reduction in
flight distances and a reduction in
traffic congestion. Figure 9-11 shows
a typical comparison of a flight that is
made on airways and a flight that uses
area navigation. On a long flight, the
time and cost advantages of flying
with area navigation can be consider-
able.
include Doppler radar, inertial navigation sys-
tems, and course-line computers. The Doppler
radar and inertial navigation systems are not
dependent upon ground-based navigational aids
and are essentially self-contained units. The
course-line computers used for area navigation
are predicated on utilizing the signals of
VORTAC ground stations. (
A characteristic common to all three types of
area navigation is the use of waypoints. A way-
point is a predetermined geographical location
that may be the desired destination or a check-
point along the route to the destination. The
three systems differ in the manner in which the
waypoints are determined.

2. It permits aircraft to be flown in ter-

minal areas on varied preprogrammed
arrival and departure flight paths to
assist in expediting traffic flow and
reducing pilot and controller work-
load.

3. It will permit instrument approaches

within certain limitations to airports
(
not equipped with local landing aidf Fig. 9-11. Area Navigation

9·24
 RADIO NAVIGATION

( DOPPLER RADAR SYSTEM the control unit in figure 9-12, are 34 o lO.2'N
latitude by l1So 35.4'W longitude.
The Doppler system utilizes radar to detect
direction and rate of movement of the aircraft
across the ground. This information is sent to
the computer. The computer, in turn, relates the
aircraft's position and the desired course on the
pilot's navigational display.

INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

The inertial navigation system utilizes an inertial

platform and a computer. The inertial platform
contains two gyroscopes and three accelerom-
eters. The gyroscopes maintain their orien-
tation in space, while the accelerometers sense
all direction and rate of movement changes.
The information from the inertial platform Fig. 9-12. Inertial Navigation Control Panel
is sent to the computer. The computer makes
corrections in the information to allow for
such things as the rotation of the earth, and COURSE-LINE COMPUTER
then sends the information to the pilot's display
unit. The inertial platform may also be used in The course-line computer utilizes ground-based
conjunction with the aircraft's attitude instru- VORTAC facilities and a vector analog com-
ments. Figure 9-12 shows the control display for puter to create a phantom station at the desired
a popular inertial navigation system. waypoint. By the use of the small airborne com-
puter, any existing VORTAC can be elec-
tronically displaced to any new desired location
The push buttons are used to "type" the geo- within the VORTAC reception range. The air-
graphical coordinates of a desired waypoint. The plane in figure 9-13 is using a course-line com-
waypoint coordinates, shown in the window of puter to fly to a waypoint, or phantom station.

CAlA"OSA~
1°113.9 ALS I
N3121.0 W1D5 43.

PHANTOM STATION

Fig. 9-13. Phantom Station or Waypoint

9·25
The waypoint in figure 9-13 is established by
0
setting 280 and 54 nautical miles in a courseline
computer control, similar to the unit illustrated
in figure 9-14. After 280/54 is set in the control
panel, the computer creates a phantom station
54 nautical miles from the Alamosa VORTAC
on the 2800 radial. The pilot's VOR and DME
indications are exactly the same as if the Alamosa
VORTAC were actually located at the waypoint.
The pilot may fly to or from the waypoint on any
desired radial, and the distance in nautical miles
to the waypoint will be shown in the top digital
readout display window on the area navigation
control panel shown in figure 9-14. The aircraft
shown in figure 9-13 is 61 nautical miles from the
waypoint, which is illustrated by the area naviga-
tion control panel shown in figure 9-14.
~. NAUl. MILES
~o6T~
~ ')- TEST
I VOR R
D~E NA~DPR
BEARING
I =
.~ 28 O~'"
,,- ,
DISTANCE
>J=
~ 054~~
Fig. 9-14. Area Navigation Control Panel
The area navigation chart shown in figure 9-1~ is
the area navigation route J-912R from Dallas,
Texas to Chicago, lllinois. It is an excerpt from
the Airway Manual service published by Jeppesen.
Note that this route is depicted in schematic
form, and is not drawn to scale. This type of
presentation is found in the "Route Tabulations"
portion of the RNAV chart. The actual route is
drawn to scale and is shown with the other routes
on the face of the chart. The following discussion
and numbers refer to the ball flags in figure 9-15.
o The total distance between the beginning
and ending waypoints on J-912R from
Dallas to Chicago is 683.5 nautical miles.
9-26
8 The first waypoint on J-912R from Dallas (
is the Dallas-Ft. Worth VORTAC. The
Dallas-Ft. Worth waypoint is located at
0 0
32 52.0'N latitude and 97 01.7'W longitude.
• A four-pointed star is the symbol used to
designate a waypoint position.
• The distance from the Stick waypoint to
Springfield waypoint is 160.3 nautical miles.
Cit The magnetic course departing the Spring-
field waypoint is 0320 •
o The changeover point (COP) when navigat-
ing from the Springfield waypoint to the
Peony waypoint is located 110.0 nautical
miles from Springfield and 151.6 nautical
miles from the Peony waypoint. The mag-
netic course from the changeover point to
the Springfield waypoint (for a westbound
flight) is 218 0 and from the COP to the
Peony waypoint, for this flight, is 0380 •
o If a course-line computer is used to estab-
lish the Peony waypoint, the waypoint
(
should be placed on the control panel
using the 352.30 radial from Capital, lllinois
(CAP) at a distance of 46.7 nautical miles.
The CAP VORTAC frequency is 112.7 MHz.
The altitude of the Capital VORTAC is 590
feet MSL.
• When a waypoint is collocated with a
VORTAC, a circle with a dot will be super-
imposed inside the four-pointed star. On
J-912R, the Joliet waypoint is located at
the Joliet VORTAC station.
Pilots flying aircraft equipped with area naviga-
tion should specify this capability on their IFR
flight plan by using the following letters as a
suffix to the aircraft type:
IC-RNAV and transponder, but with no
altitude encoding capability.
IF- RNAV and transponder with altitude (
encoding capability.
 RADIO NAVIGATION

( {W- no transponder and approved area

navigation
the aircraft identification when transmitting the
aircraft or flight number by radio to a ground-
The suffixes listed above are not to be added to based communications station.

,z... 0"2=,""0----,=
0-_-.. . .- _---8
DALLAS FT WORTH ..
WRENS 117.0 DFW (557')
~~ 000.0"/00.0
PEONY

-../'- <? 7"04=5·:-------:2"'27==·

JOLIET
N41 32.8 was8 19.\ ~
~--:::6"'· ----='='6·
112.3JO'{S9~·
WRENS
N41 48.6 wass 16.1

+
112.3J01(590')
-CHI·DFW
'O:'f4i'
n
WRENS
Do\llAS WORTH
000.0"{00.0 006.0"'16.0 ~

Fig. 9-15. Area Navigation Route

9·27
(

(
( AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
chapter 10

INTRODUCTION

Chapter 10 primarily consists of information that is procedural in nature, since the regulations
applicable to the airline transport pilot were highlighted in chapter 5. The material presented in
this chapter was developed from data obtained from FAA instruction films, the TERPs manual,
FARs, and the appropriate flight information publications.

The basic assumption is made that certain elements of air traffic control procedures have been
assimilated by the instrument pilot in his training and experience; therefore, this chapter pre-
sumes an IFR rating is held by the student and presents knowledge areas common to instrument
pilot training only for reinforcement.

INDICATION OF EQUIPMENT area navigation route has not been requested.

ON THE FLIGHT PLAN
To aid ATC in the control of air traffic, it is
requested that pilots of transponder-, DME-, or
area navigation-equipped aircraft indicate this
( capability on the IFR flight plan. If the air-
plane is equipped with area navigation, pilots
should indicate this capability even though an
This procedure will alert ATC in the event an
area navigation route is available and may be
utilized to expedite the flight. The airplane
equipment is indicated by adding one of the
following letters as a suffix to the aircraft
type on the flight plan (a slash should be
entered between the aircraft type and letter
designation).

111·1
A - DME and transponder with altitude
encoding capability
D - DME, but no transponder
F - RNAV and transponder with altitude
encoding capability.
P - TACAN only and transponder with (
altitude encoding capability
U - Transponder with altitude encoding
capability
W - RNAV and no transponder

1. When filing his IFR flight plan, the pilot of an aircraft

equipped with DME and a transponder with altitude encod-
ing capability would indicate this equipment by the code
designation on the flight plan.

2. The code designation "U" would be entered on the IFR

flight plan for a transponder-equipped aircraft with _ A
_ _ _ _ _ capability.

altitude I
encoding

CLEARANCES deli very procedures have been developed for (

both VFR and IFR traffic. For these locations,
The radio communications reCiuired to
separate clearance deli very frequencies are
control the movement of aircraft at busy
used. Clearance procedures may also be trans-
air terminals frequently exceeds the
mitted over the Automatic Terminal Informa-
capacity of the normal tower and ground tion Service (ATIS) broadcast.
control frequencies. Additional special
purpose frequencies are sometimes added
At some locations, the IFR clearance can be
to relieve the resultant congestion.
received on a designated frequency up to ten
minutes prior to starting the aircraft engines.
TAXI CLEARANCE The availability ofthis service is shown by the
notation, PRE-TAXI CLNC, in the Airport!
At airports with operating control towers. Facility Directory listing, as shown in figure
a clearance from air traffic control is 10-1.
required before operating on the taxiways
or runways. These clearance instructions m lIS: AlSFI, 102,VA~_G,t, 2.08'. TeH 46'. Tr« Arrest devICe
/MY 23: MALSR, VASl_GA J.O', TeH SO', TMd d$lll<d 1780', Tree•. ArreSbng devn.
are issued over the control tower l!W'f 11-36: H_856X1SO (AS!'H-CONCl S-55. [PS. DJ.l2D HIRl .58% up N.
Il'If1 II: Thld d.pIcd 47S'.I'<>Ie. Rat tic. RW"I J6: Pole.
frequency or at larger airports. on a AIRPOll1ll1:MAllKS: Allende<l conMuously. fot MALSR Rwy 23 conlaCllDWl!'. u"mOIll\OIed, Fhght
N,,"hC3hon Servoce (AOCUS) ••••Iabofe.
separate frequency assigned to ground COMMUNICATIONS: UNICOM 122.95 ATIS 119.•
BIRMINGIlAM fSS (SHM) on ArpI 123.65 122,2 122.1R 114.4T (205) 254·\387
control. ® o\PP CON:
124,5 (231'.04n 124.9 (050'·2301
TOWotlI9.91IB.25 '"0 CON: 121.7 CLfjCOEL:120.9 PllE·TAXICLJlC:120.9
@loU' CON: 124,5 (231'.0491 124.9 (05<r·2301 ~
STAli£ III Svt etc AI'I' CON
RADIO AlDS TO NAVIIiATlOH:
CLEARANCE DELIVERY VULW (H) VOIllAC 114.4 VUZ Cnan 91 33"40'12"'N 86"53'59'" 9.6 NM 19 lid.
7S0/02E
M<DL'I NOB (H.s-.B/lOM) 224 • BH 33·30·40'·N 86"SO'U'W 054· 4.5 N.... ~ tlel.
At smaller airports where radio congestion is ROrBY NOB (MHW/lOM) 201 FlO
ILS 1103 I·BHM 'lwy 05 LOM MoDEN NOB
33"36'27"N 86·40·44·W 234' 4.0 NM \g llel

not a problem, IFR clearances are issued by the
Flight Service Station, control tower, or ground
control using their normal communications
radios. At busier terminals, special clearance
IlS/OME 109.51·110£ Chan 32 'lwy 23 lOM IIO£BY NOB lOC only.
ASH clc AI'I' CON
(
Fig. 10-1. Airport/Facility Directory Excerpt

10-2
 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

( CLEARANCE REAOBACK of the clearance or other pertinent factors

There is no requirement that an ATC clearance
be read back as an unsolicited or spontaneous
action; however, controllers may request that a
clearance be read back whenever the complexity
indicate a need. In addition, the pilot should
read back any clearance if he feels the need for
confirmation. ATC also expects the pilot to
request the clearance be repeated or clarified if
there is any lack of understanding.

l. Pre· taxi clearance procedures are

true, false
mandatory at certain designated airports.

2. At airports where pre-taxi clearance procedures are

in effect, a pilot may request the IFR clearance no false
more than minutes before taxi.

3. The availability of pre-taxi clearance delivery is shown in the

Airport/Facility Directory by 10

4. The pre-taxi clearance delivery frequency is

designated by the abbreviation "Cpt" on Jeppesen
, and area charts.

I
I
5. At high density airports. the frequency for pre-taxi
approach
clearance delivery can often be found by listening to
enroute

I
•
6. According to the Birmingham Municipal
Airport/Facility Directory excerpt in figure 10-1. a
A TIS
pilot would receive his pre-taxi IFR clearance on
MHz.

7. IFR clearances from clearance delivery

have to be read back 120.9
do, do not
automatically.

8. A pilot receiving a clearance enroute specifying a change in

altitude or radar vectors required do not
is, is not
to read back the clearance.
•
(
is

10-3
ABBREVIATED IFR DEPARTURE CLEARANCE
PROCEDURES
ATC facilities will issue an abbreviated IFR
departure clearance based on the route of flight
filed in the IFR flight plan, provided the filed
route can be approved with little or no revision.
The issuance of an abbreviated clearance will be
based on the following conditions:
1. A pilot should not accept an abbreviated
clearance if the route of flight filed with
A TC has been changed by him, or the
company, or the operations officer before
departure. He is expected to inform the
ATC facility in his initial radio com·
munication if he cannot accept the clear-
ance.
2. It is the responsibility of the company or
operations officer to inform the pilot when
a change is made to the filed route of
flight.
When issuing the clearance, the controller will
state, "cleared as filed to (destination airport,)"
and specify the assigned altitude and any
additional instructions to clear a departing
aircraft via the SID and route filed. For exam-
ple, "Transamerican 625, cleared to Miami
Airport as filed, Timberline 2 Departure, main·
tain 12,000, expect FL 310 40 east." It should be
emphasized that the statement "cleared as
filed" is a route clearance only and will always
be followed by an altitude assignment.
CENTER·STORED FLIGHT PLANS
ATC has a program available for pilots flying
the same route on a regularly scheduled basis
dubbed "canned flight plans." This program is
initiated by a letter of agreement between ATe
and the company involved in the flight opera·
tion. One of the criteria for the acceptance of a
center-stored flight plan by the pilot is that a
"hard copy" of this flight plan must be availa-
ble to him in the cockpit.
COMPUTER FLIGHT PLANS
In addition at the center stored flight plans,
some air carriers utilize computer flight plans
as shown in figure 10·2. This type of flight plan
follows the same route of flight as the center·
stored, but shows the flight crews the most effi·
10-4
cient altitudes and Mach numbers in terms of (
fuel consumption and time enroute. The flight
plan code is explained as follows:
o Address of the message in code
• Flight number 460 and date (18th day of
the month). The remaining figures are a
company code.
• The planned takeoff to arrival time is I
hour and 40 minutes - advertised pas-
senger schedule time for the flight is 1
hour and 48 minutes - fuel burnout,
15,000 pounds - combined fuel reserve
required by FAA and company policy,
8,100 pounds - fuel allowance for holding
or detouring, 7,000 pounds - fuel for alter-
nate, 8,000 pounds - alternate airport, Des
Moines (DSM), Iowa
•
Company policy index number 150 - total
route mileage, 800 nautical miles -
planned takeoff weight, 154,600 pounds-
maximum allowable takeoff weight,
157,500 pounds - planned landing gross
weight, 139,600 pounds - maximum (
allowable landing gross weight, 142,500
pounds - machine route number 1 -
airplane at zero fuel weight, 116,500
pounds - total fuel required, 38,100
pounds
When reaching cruise altitude (RCA), the
flight will have traveled 134 nautical miles
- altitude, FL 330 - speed, .78 of Mach -
there is predicted to be a +3 0 Celsius varia-
tion from the standard temperature at the
flight altitude - the planned true airspeed
is 457 knots - based on a wind from 210 0
at 73 knots - which would give a tailwind
(or headwind) component of 62 knots -
and produce a groundspeed of 519 knots -
and should require 20 minutes from depar-
ture to reaching cruise altitude - with a
fuel burnout during that flight segment of
5,400 pounds - and provide 32,700
pounds of fuel remaining.
• The three-letter identifier "OBH" repre-
sents the transition fix from standard
instrument departure to Jet route 128
(given later in flight plan). This point is
over the Wolbach (OBH), Nebraska
(
 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

o
VORTAC. The other numbers represent
values similar to those explained after ball
flag 5.

The three letters "POD" represent the

• FL 330 - planned takeoff gross weight,
point of descent in the flight. Again, the
remaining numbers are explained in the
same manner as after ball flag 5.
• The three-letter identifier "ORD" repre-
sents the destination, O'Hare Airport,
Chicago, Illinois, and the numerical values
are explained as after ball flag 5.
Ball flags 9, 10, and 11 represent flight planning
elements for FL 330, 290, and 270 respectively
at different Mach numbers. The inclusion of
values for a different speed and for two
additional flight levels makes the data readily
available to the pilot in case of a desired or
requested change in the flight plan.
154,800 pounds - time enroute1:38 -
total fuel burnout, 15,200 pounds - Mach
number .80 was used to compute the data
summary
Gi) Data for FL 290
G Data for FL 270
United Air Lines Flight 460 - Boeing 727
equipped with DME and transponder with
altitude encoding capability (/A) - esti-
mating a true airspeed of 457 knots in the
first segment offlight - departing Denver,
Colorado - planned departure time 2015Z
- planned FL 330
Route of flight: departing Denver via North
Platte 2 sm, Wolbach (OBH) VORTAC,
.J-128, Dubuque (DBQ) VORTAC, etc. The

Of---~"GU DENDD ORDDD SFODD

HDGDFUA 181828
8 ~ 460-18 7421 CGKL SF05 ORD6 FPF

O---;~~01:40101:48 150BO 81 70 80:DSM

O---~"150 800NM 1546/1575 1396/1425 RT: 1 1165 381TTL

e---l~~RCA 134 33 78 03 457 21073 062 519 20 54 327

.~--;~~OBH 180 33 78 05 458 22082 076 534 20 27 300

Of----l~~POD 389 33 78 03 457 23127 105 562 43 56 244

O~.~ORD 97 22067 040 16 13 231

• ....---l~~33 1548 01 :38 152 152 M80

Gi)~--l~~29 1551 01 :38 155 155 M80

G---l~~27 1558 01 :38 162 162 M80

CD>------l~~U A460 B727 I A 0457 DEN P2015 330

G)---l~~DEN NORTH PLATTE 2 DEPT OBH J128 DBG DBG 094R

RFD 276R RFD RFD 090R OBK 268R LAKEWOOD ORD,C/S

( Courtesy - United Air Lines

Fig. 10-2. Computer Flight Plan

10-5
 bottom line shows the information on file
with center and the code "CIS" at the end
of the flight route designation indicates
that this is a center-stored flight plan_
The clearance is obtained in the normal man-
ner, through ground control or clearance deliv-
ery_ The phraseology is the same as in the
usual clearance; for example, the controller
will ordinarily state, "cleared as filed to O'Hare
Airport, maintain FL 250," or other appro- (
priate altitude designation. If any questions
arise in regard to the clearance, the pilot is
encouraged to request clarification through
ATC, or request the clearance in its entirety.
Furthermore, if the clearance will not be util·
ized because of a change in schedule or delay,
the pilot is encouraged to notify ATC as soon
as practicable.

1. When a pilot receives an IFR clearance with the statement,

"cleared as filed, " he should be aware that this includes the
approval of his .
route only, route and altitude

2. "Cleared as filed," _ _-,--,---,- a clearance to the

is, is not route only
destination airport filed in the flight plan.

3. "Cleared as filed" is a route clearance only and will aI-

ways be accompanied by an assign- is
ment.

4_ A clearance which includes the stored flight plan is normally (

obtained through _ altitude
or _

5. In order to accept a center-stored flight plan, there must be

ground control
available in the cockpit a "- - - - - - -
clearance delivery
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _" of this flight plan.

hard copy

ADHERENCETDTHECLEARANCE and/or altitude verification from ATC if any

When an air traffic clearance has been obtained,
FARs state, "The pilot in command of the air-
craft shall not deviate from the provisions
thereof unless an amended clearance is
obtained." The guiding principle to remember is
that the last ATC clearance has precedence over
related items of the previous ATC clearance. For
example, a clearance which amends only altitude
items does not change the route items in the
previous clearance. Similarly, a clearance which
amends only the route items does not change
the altitude items. Pilots should request route
portion of the clearance or amended clearance is
not clearly understood.
DEVIATIDN FRDM THE CLEARANCE
In Case emergency authority is used to deviate
from the provisions of an ATC clearance, the
pilot in command should notify ATC as soon as
possible and obtain an amended clearance. In an
emergency situation which results in no devia-
tion from the rules prescribed in Part 91 of the
FARs, but which requires air traffic control to
give priority to an aircraft, the pilot of that

10-6
 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

aircraft shall, when requested by ATC, make a
report within 48 hours of the emergency situa·
tion to the Chief of that ATC facility.
CRUISE CLEARANCE
When operating in accordance with a cruise
clearance, the pilot may climb to and descend
from the assigned altitude at his discretion.
However, once the pilot has reported leaving an
altitude in a descent, he may not return to
that altitude without further ATC clearance.
Furthermore, a cruise clearance is approval for
the pilot to proceed to and make an approach at
the destination airport. This procedure also
permits the pilot to descend and land in accord-
ance with applicable F ARs governing VFR flight
operations.

1. Unless an amended ATC clearance is obtained, the pilot in

command of an aircraft shall not from
the provisions of a clearance.

2. The last ATC clearance received by a pilot has precedence

over related items of the ATC clear- deviate
ances.
I
3. A clearance which amends altitude items
does, does not previous
change the route items in the previous clearance.

4. If emergency authority is used to deviate from the provisions

of an ATC clearance, the pilot should notify ATC as soon as does not
( possible and obtain an amended

5. If an aircraft is given priority handling by ATC in an emer-

gency situation (but does not deviate from FARs), the pilot
of that aircraft clearance
when requested, without request
should make a report within 48 hours of the emergency
situation to the of the ATC facility.

6. If operating under the provisions of a cruise clearance, the

when requested
pilot may and
Chief
from the assigned altitude at his discretion.

7. A cruise clearance an approval for an climb

is. is not
IFR approach at the destination airport. descend

8. A pilot operating under the provisions of an IFR cruise

clearance , if in VFR conditions, descend
may, may not is
and land at the destination airport without executing an
instrument approach.

may

10·7
TRANSPONDER OPERATION
PERIOO OF OPERATION
The transponder should be turned to the "ON"
•
position as late as practical prior to takeoff and
to the "OFF" or "STANDBY" position as soon
as practical after completing the landing roll,
•oo
unless the change to "STANDBY" has been
accomplished previously at the request of ATC.
Thereafter, the transponder should be operated
only as specified by ATC. Activation of the
"IDENT" feature should be made only upon
request of the ATC controller.
ATC facilities are implementing the use of an
alpha numeric display on terminal and enroute
controllers' radar scopes. This enables the con-
troller to have pertinent flight information for
an aircraft visually presented and readily avail-
able without reverting to voice communications.
The primary purpose of the Automated Radar
Terminal System (ARTS-3) is to enhance safety
and efficiency of the air traffic system. The
basic elements presently displayed on the
ARTS-3 radar units utilized by some approach
and departure controllers are shown in figure
10-3.
-
;\TAG25
-
l1li 230 270
Fig. 10-3. Alpha Numeric Displav
1. When operating a transponder, it should be turned to the
position as late as practical prior to
takeoff and to the OFF or
soon as practical after landing.
10-8
o The present "double hashmark" which is
characteristic of a secondary (transponder)
(
radar return
8 The leader line connecting the radar image
(hashmarks) to the alpha numeric display
At the end of the leader line, the alpha
numeric group contains the following three
items:
The aircraft number or flight number
The aircraft's altitude in hundreds of feet
The groundspeed of the aircraft in knots
In addition, the controller has the optional
capability of "calling up" an alphabetical letter
code to identify which controller in the radar
room is presently controlling a particular air-
craft. Also, once radar identification of a non-
transponder-equipped aircraft is made, the iden-
tification number of that aircraft may be alpha
numerically encoded and attached to the radar
return display.
By way of comparison, the enroute controllers'
alpha numeric display has certain additional
capabilities. Their display includes the assigned
altitude as well as the altitude at which the (
aircraft is currently operating. When the altitude
assigned and the altitude at which the aircraft is
flying become the same, then only the altitude
at which the aircraft is flying is displayed. The
transponder code is also a part of the normal
display on the enroute controller's scope.
Certain optional items are also available to the
enroute controller for specific situations. For
example, when the controller wishes to "hand
off" an aircraft to a controller in an adjoining
sector, he can display the word "hand" in
addition to the basic display. When the con-
troller in the adjoining sector sees the flashing
word "hand" and accepts the handoff, the word
"over" replaces the word "hand" on both
controllers' scopes and the handoff is complete.
Also, if an aircraft activates the emergency code,
7700, the letters "EMER" flash on and off
below the basic display.
position as
(
 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

(
2. The IDENT button should be activated only upon ON
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of the ATC controller. STANDBY

The letters and numerals shown below represent certain

information items in an alpha numeric display. Use the infor·
request
mation to answer the next three frames. TD798
350 460
I
3. The aircraft's groundspeed is knots.
I no response

4. The flight number of this aircraft is _

I· 460

5. The aircraft is presently flying at FL _ I TD 798

6. The alpha numeric display be moved in

can, can not 350
relationship to the radar representation of the aircraft.

7. The use of the alpha numeric display substantially reduces

the number of can
between the pilot and the controller.

voice
transmissions

CONTROLLED AIRSPACE operations and flown by a pilot

rated for instrument flight.
Safety, user needs. and the volume of
flight operations within certain airspace 3. equipped with a coded radar
segments are factors considered in the beacon transponder having at
designation of controlled airspace. The least Mode A 4096'code
control of this airspace is augmented by capability. and replying to Mode
ground·to-air communications. navigation 3/A interrogation with the code
aids, and air traffic services. specified by A TC.
4. an encoding altimeter. and
POSITIVE CONTROL AREA 5. radio equipped to provide direct
pilot.-to-controller communications
When an aircraft is operated within the on the frequency specified by
positive control area, it must be: ATC.

I. operated under instrument flight The vertical extent of the positive

rules at specified flight levels control area is from 18,000 feet MSL to
assigned by ATC. FL 600 throughout the United States.
( and its relationship to other segments of
2. equipped with the instruments controlled and uncontrolled airspace IS
and equipment required for IFR shown in figure 10-4.

10-9
~

~ Uncontrolled Airspace
co f-FL 600

Aircraft
Transponder with 4096 codes
and Mode C required

Fl450

."
~.
FL 410 I
Positive

~ Control
Area

~
~
"l>
~ J"
Routes
Continental Control Area

~'
~
~
c:
~
~. ~FL 240 I \ I DME reqUIred above 24,000' I I
g.
~

- - -, - - - - - - . .
18,000'

j~
1
~-
14,500' 1------------- ---r---------------
~12,500' ~, Con"oll,d
AIrspace
R V",o,
A
,
':
Controt Zone'T' '
I '", ,
,'-
-- -- - I

I
'~'v' !: ,,,,,,<oon A'"

~- --- -
AIrspace

700' AGL
0' 1200' " - •- , '
1200' AGL
or higher ::,,' 700I' AGL1200'\ AGL .200 ... ...

... ~sea level ~ - ~ ""-~

r-- r---
'"
 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

(
TRANSPONOER ANO OME REQUIREMENTS and altitude encoder. It is important to
note that this equipment requirement
FAR Part 91 specifies the ATC applies to VFR as well as IFR flights.
transponder and DME operation In addition to transponder equipment.
requirements within the United States D ME is required for all flights conducted
airspace system. The regulation states at or above 24,000 feet MSL. In the
that no person may operate a civil event the DME should fail at or above
aircraft within ~ontrolled airspace above 24,000 feet MSL, ATC must be notified
12.500 feet MSL excluding the airspace immediately; then the flight may continue
at or below 2.500 feet AGL. unless the without changing altitude, to the next airport of
aircraft is equipped with a transponder intended landing where repairs can be made.

l. If a VFR flight is operating at 13.500 feet MSL

110.500 AGL) a transponder
is, is not
required.

2. An aircraft flying
required to have DME equipment.
at FL 230
is, is not
I is

3. The vertical limits of the positive control area are

from fee t MSL to FL is not
( throughout the United States.
I
4. Assuming a flight is operating at FL
true, false
330 and the distance measuring equipment becomes 18.000
inoperative. ATC will restrict the flight to a 600
maximum altitude of FL 230.

5. An aircraft on radar vectors at FL 650 !

be flying in the continental control [alse

would, WOUld not
area. I

6. Jet routes extend from feet MSL

would
to FL
I

18.000
450 I

FUEL JETTISONING intervals thereafter, a notice on appropriate air

If it should become necessary to jettison fuel
during flight, the pilot should immediately
advise air traffic control. Upon receipt of infor-
mation that an aircraft will jettison fuel, ATC
will broadcast immediately, and at three-minute
traffic control, flight service station, and air
carrier radio frequencies.
The basic information in the notice is given in
the following example: "Advisory to aircraft not
on ATC clearance - fuel dumping in progress -

10-11
Airbus 858, seven five DME miles west of
Denver VOR on J-56, FL 250 - avoid flight
within five nautical miles if at this altitude. If
within five nautical miles, remain at least 1,000
feet above or at least 2,000 feet below the
aircraft. "
When notified by the pilot of the aircraft per-
forming the fuel jettisoning operation, ATC
will issue a termination notice on the appropri-
ate frequency similar to this example: "Advisory
to all concerned - Airbus 858 - fuel dump
terminated. "
In order to prevent jettisoning a quantity of fuel (
that would prevent safe continuation of the
flight and subsequent landing at the destination,
FAR 25.1001 specifies that, for reciprocating-
powered airplanes, a means must be provided to
prevent jettisoning the fuel (in the tanks used
for takeoff and landing) below a level which
would permit 45 minutes flight at 75 percent
maximum continuous power. Also, for turbine-
powered airplanes, the jettisoning system must
retain enough fuel to allow a climb from sea lev-
el to 10,000 feet and thereafter allowing 45
minutes cruise at a speed for maximum range.

1. A notice of fuel jettisoning is broadcast at _

minute intervals on appropriate air traffic control, flight
service station, and air carrier radio frequencies.

2. In the notice of fuel jettisoning, pilots are advised to main-

tain their aircraft at a distance of
nautical miles, feet above, or three

_________ feet below the aircraft performing the (

jettisoning operation.

3. Reciprocating-powered airplanes must be provided with a

five
method to prevent jettisoning of the fuel below a level which
1,000
would permit minutes flight at 75 per- 2,000
cent maximum continuous power.

4. The jettisoning system in turbinepowered airplanes must

permit 45 minutes cruise at a speed used for maximum 45

•
I I
range

HOLDING minology and general features of the holding

Air traffic control, in most cases, will use speed
restrictions many miles from the destination air-
port to eliminate holding patterns; however,
when weather conditions cause very low ceilings
and visibilities, ATC will assign holds to aid in
the orderly management of air traffic. The ter-
pattern are illustrated in figure 10-5.
STANDARD AND NONSTANDARD
HOLDING PATTERNS
The standard holding pattern consists of right
(
turns and inbound legs that are flown for one

10-12
 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

( ABEAM HOLDING SIDE

OUTBOUND-__-

FIX END OUTBOUND END

.. INBOUND HOLDING COURSE

HOLDING FIX
J I :ON HOLDING SIDE
1 OR 1 1/2 MIN'
I
I
Fig. 10-5. The Holding Pattern

minute when holding at or below 14,000 feet
MSL. When the holding aircraft is above 14,000
feet, the inbound leg should be flown for
1-1/2 minutes, as shown in figure 10-5. The
nonstandard holding pattern consists of left
turns, plus any further changes requested by
ATC.
HOLDING PROCEOURES
An aircraft is considered to be in the holding
pattern upon arrival over the holding fix; there-
fore, pilots are expected to reduce speed to the
appropriate maximum holding airspeed, or less,
within three minutes prior to the estimated ar-
rival time over the holding fix.
The maximum indica Led airspeed for
propeller driven aircrafL in Lhe holding
pattern is 175 knoLs lAS. The maximum
indica Led airspeed for civil LurbojeL
aircraft in Lhe holding paLLern. up Lo and
including 6,000 feeL, is 200 knoLs. The
maximum indicated airspeed In the
airspace above 6,000 feeL, up La and
including 14,000 feeL, is 210 knoLs. and
when above 14.000 feeL. iL is 230 knoLs.
However. a LurbojeL aircraft which is
climbing in a holding patLern can use a
maximum speed of 310 knoLs.
Pilots will execute all turns while in the holding
pattern at a 30 0 angle of bank (25 0 if a flight
director system is used), or at three degrees per
second rate of turn, whichever requires the least
angle of bank. If the operating limitations of a
particular aircraft prevent compliance with
holding procedures, the pilot is expected to
advise ATC in order that adequate separation
may be effected.
When holding, a turn toward the outbound leg
should be initiated upon receipt of the first
positive indication of arrival over the holding
fix. For example, when holding at a VOR
station, the tum should be commenced upon the
first complete reversal of the TO-FROM indica-
tor. The timing of the outbound leg is begun
when the aircraft is abeam the holding fix out-
bound. If the abeam position cannot accurately
be determined, the timing should begin when
the fix end turn is completed. Wind effects
should be compensated for, except during the
turns.

1. The standard holding pattern consists of turns that are made

to the _
•

2. When in a standard holding pattern at 9,000 feet, the in-

right
bound legs should be flown for minute(s).

3. The direction of a turn in a nonstandard holding pattern is

one

10·13
 (
4. When holding at 16,000 feet, in a standard holding pattern, I
the inbound leg should be flown for left
minute(s).
I
5. An aircraft is considered to be in the holding pattern
1-1/2
when it initially crosses the

6. An aircraft is expected to be at, or less than, the maximum

1
holding pattern airspeed within minutes
holding fix
prior to the estimated arrival time over the holding

7. When holding in the airspace from above 6,000 feet up to

three
and including 14,000 feet, civil turbojets should have an indi-
fix
cated airspeed no greater than knots.

8. Turns made in the holding pattern should be at a

o angle of bank (25 0 if a flight director
0
210
system is used), or per second rate
of turn, whichever requires the least angle of bank.
(
9. When in the holding pattern, a turn toward the outbound leg
30
should be started at the first positive indication of arrival
3
over the holdin g - - - - - - - -

10. While in the holding pattern, the pilot should adjust his
heading and outbound leg timing to compensate for any fix
existing _

wind

HOLDING CLEARANCE 1. The direction to hold from the hold-

ing fix - this direction is specified by
using the eight cardinal points of the
If the holding pattern is depicted on an enroute compass such as north, northeast,
or area chart at the fix where a pilot has been east, southeast, south, etc. This infor-
cleared to hold, no specific instructions will be mation is provided to prevent the
provided by the controller. However, if there is possibility of holding on the wrong
no depicted holding pattern, the clearance to
hold will always include the following instruc-
side of the fix (
tions in the order listed: 2. The holding fix

10·14

r 3. The specified radial, course, airway, or
magnetic bearing on which to hold
4. The outbound leg length in nautical
miles if DME is to be used
5. Left turns if a nonstandard holding
pattern is to be used
6. The time to expect further clearance
or approach clearance. This informa-
tion is given to provide for general
flight planning and to insure against
misunderstanding between the con-
troller and the pilot in the event of
communication failure.
The following is an example of a holding clear-
ance: "Transamerican 625, hold northeast of
Sharylin VOR on the 04'1> radial, maintain
10,000. Expect approach clearance at 1745. "
Right turns are expected in the previous clear-
ance since the direction of turns was not speci-
fied. When a pilot receives clearance to depart a
( holding fix at a certain time, he should shorten
the leg length of the holding pattern legs as
necessary in order to depart the fix at the time
specified by ATC.
A ,
\
Parallel Entry \ ,,
\
,
':·~--l-
.....
B
Teardrop Entry
110" '.
!""'-----
Fig. 10·6. Holding Pattern Entry
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
HOLDING PATTERN ENTRY
Recommended procedures for holding pattern
entries to standard holding patterns are illustra-
ted in figure 10-6. In this figure, notice that
entry procedures are governed by an imaginary
line drawn through the holding fix at a 70 0
angle to the inbound holding course. The entries
are based on the relationship of the heading of
the aircraft to the holding course and the refer-
ence line rather than the actual course that the
airplane is flying. Note, also, that for the pur-
poses of this discussion, the area around the
holding fix has been divided into four sectors -
A, B, C, and D.
Aircraft entering from sector "A" execute a
parallel entry by flying over the holding fix,
proceeding parallel to the holding course out-
bound, then executing a left turn so as to return
to the fix or intercept the holding course in-
bound. Aircraft entering from sector "B" exe-
cute a teardrop entry by turning to a heading of
300 or less to the holding course, after crossing
the holding fix, then executing a right turn
maneuver so as to intercept the inbound course.
Aircraft entering the pattern from sector "C" or
"D" execute a direct entry consisting of a right
turn over the holding fix to the outbound
D
... Direct Entry
••
.' ..
,"
..,,-- .....
\
\ ,.
~ I
-----,'
Holding Course
I
•••••••••• C
Direct Entry
10-15
heading and continue flight in the holding
pattern.
Upon entry into the holding pattern, the first
outbound leg should be flown for 1 minute or
1-1/2 minutes, as the altitude dictates. However,
subsequent outbound legs should be adjusted as
necessary to obtain the proper inbound leg
times.
Procedures utilized for entry into the non-
standard holding pattern are oriented to the 70 0
line on the holding side of the airway, just as in
the standard entry procedures.
DME HOLDING (
Distance measuring equipment (DME) holding
involves the same procedures as standard holding
except that distance, as read on the DME
indicator, is utilized in lieu of time values.
VORTAC (or DME in conjunction with VORl
gives the pilot the added advantage of being able
to establish a holding fix at a given distance on
any specified radial. As illustrated in figure 10-7,
the fix is 10 miles from the navigational aid, the
inbound course is toward the navigational aid,
and the legs are seven miles in length.

(\1 tl""------ ---...-I

NAV AID __ - - - ----\ Holding Course

~---

Fig. 10·7. DME Holding

1. The holding clearance from ATC will include the direction

from the fix, the identification of the specific fix, the radial
course, airway or magnetic bearing on which to hold, and the
time to expect approach clearance or expect

2. It is a good practice to be sure that the expected further

clearance time is clearly understood since it will prove useful further clearance
in the event of a failure.

3. A pilot should depart a holding fix at the time specified by

communication
ATC even though it might be necessary to _
(radio)
the holding pattern.

10·16
 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

(
4. The holding pattern entry procedures are governed by an
imaginary line drawn through the holding course at an angle shorten
of 0

5. Aircraft entering from sector "A," in figure 10-6, should

parallel the holding course outbound, then turn left to return
70
to the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , or intercept the holding

6. It is recommended that aircraft entering from sector "B"

continue through the holding fix at an angle of 30 0 or less to fix
the holding course, then turn right to intercept the course

7. The recommended procedure for aircraft entering the holding

inbound course
pattern from sectors "e" or "D" in figure 10-6 is to execute
or
a turn and continue in the holding
holding course
pattern.
(
8. If the hold is east of the holding fix on the 090 0 radial,
aircraft entering the pattern on a heading of 030 0 would right
make an initial =:-;c--;c-_ _ turn.
right, left

9. Using the hold on the above question, the initial direction of

turn for an aircraft entering the pattern on a heading of 180 0 right
would be

left

For the next three frames, refer to the Oallas Area Chart included with this course and assume the following clearance:
"Transamerican 625, hold northwest of the Bridgeport VORTAC on V-355; maintain 9,0100; expect approach clearance
at 1425." Assume a no·wind condition and a standard rate of turn for this problem.

1. If the pilot is westbound on V-66, with a heading of 255 0 ,

after crossing the Bridgeport VORTAC, at 1410 Zulu, he
should turn to the to a heading of ap-
right, left 0
proximately

10-17
 2. The pilot flying the aircraft discussed in the preceding frame
(
r ight
will make a -type entry into a
279
holding pattern.
standard, nonstandard

3. If the pilot receives his approach clearance as he passes over

the VORTAC at 1422 with instructions to depart the holding teardrop
fix at 1425, the inbound leg should be flown for standard
minute(s).

4. When executing a DME hold, is used in-

ane-half
stead of values.

5. DME allows a holding fix to be established at a given distance distance

on any specified time

6. If a pilot were actually utilizing the DME holding pattern

I

illustrated in figure 10-7, a turn to the inbound course would

radial
be initiated when the DME indicated _
miles. (
17

RADAR MONITORING OF aries will be transmitted. At some airports it may

INSTRUMENT APPROACHES
When approaches are being monitored by radar,
the radar advisories serve only as a secondary aid
since the pilot has selected the ILS or other
navigational facility as the primary aid for
the approach.
At certain selected FAA radar locations, instru-
ment approaches made on navigational aids whose
final approach course from the final approach
fix (FAF) to the runway coincides with the pre-
cision approach radar (PAR) will be monitored
and radar advisories furnished to the pilot when-
ever the reported weather is below basic VFR
minimums at night or upon pilot request.
Prior to starting final approach, the pilot will
be advised of the frequency on which the advis-
be the ILS localizer voice channel.
Radar service is automatically terminated when
the landing is completed or the tower controller
has the aircraft in sight, whichever occurs first.
RUNWAY MARKINGS
NONPRECISION INSTRUMENT ANO PRECISION
INSTRUMENT RUNWAY MARKINGS
As shown in figure 10-8, the non precision
instrument runway has the basic runway mark-
ings plus threshold markings. The runway served
by a precision instrument facility, in addition to
basic runway and nonprecision instrument fun-
way markings, has touchdown zone stripes which
begin 500 feet from the threshold markings, (

10-18
 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

BASIC RUNWAY
-
_ _ '-CI

NON·PRECISION INSTRUMENT RUNWAY

THRESHOLD
MARKINGS
(

TOUCHDOWN ZONE ADDITIONAL STRIPES AT

STRIPES (500 feetl 500 FOOT INTERVALS

PRECISION INSTRUMENT RUNWAY

Fig. 10-8. Runwav Markings

fixed distance markers which begin at 1,000 feet
from the threshold, and additional stripes at 500
ft. intervals. The precision instrument runway is
also characterized by the addition of side stripes.
DISPLACED THRESHOLD MARKINGS
There are three conditions which may cause a
landing threshold to he located at a distance
from the beginning of the runway pavement.
Runway 36 in figure 10-9 has a displaced thresh·
old because of obstruction clearance criteria
necessary for landing. Since the area before the
threshold is full-strength pavement, taxiing and
the takeoff roll is permitted prior to the thresh-
old line on this runway. If an aircraft was taking
off from runway 18 (the opposite end of run-
way 36), this full-strenl~h paved area could he
used for computing runway requirements for the
takeoff roll.

111-19
The markings preceding runway 4 are charac-
teristic of a threshold that is displaced because
the pavement is only strong enough for use as a
blastpad, overrun, or stopway. A third condition
is illustrated by the markings for runway 3l.
The center portion of the area on the approach
side of the displaced threshold is strong enough
for taxiing; however, the marks perpendicular to
the side of the taxiway represent a deceptive
area not suitable for taxiing. The deceptive area
is a stabilized, relatively thin, hard surface which
prevents blast and water erosion, but is unusable
for supporting the full weight of an aircraft.
flight plan is automatically cancelled by the (
tower. On the other hand, if a pilot is operating
on an IFR flight plan to an airport where there
is no functioning control tower, he must initiate
cancellation of the IFR flight plan. If there is a
functioning flight service station on the airport,
this cancellation may be done after landing.
However, if there is no flight service station at
the destination airport or air-to-ground com-
munications with ATC are not available below a
certain altitude, the pilot should cancel his IFR
flight plan while still airborne if weather con-
ditions will permit.

Also shown are the holding lines for normal

operations as well as those to be used when
Category II ILS operations are in progress.
CLOSING THE FLIGHT PLAN
If a pilot is operating on an IFR flight plan to
an airport with a functioning control tower, the
An advantage of closing the IFR flight plan by
telephone after landing is that search and rescue
protection will be available until ATC is re-
quested to "cancel"; however, an airborne can-
cellation will quickly release the airspace for use
by other aircraft.

TH RESHOLD ---~;o-------c-'----~~

CATEGORY II HOLDING LINE

(
Fig. 10-9. Displaced Threshold Markings

10-20
 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

l. A pilot performing an ILS approach with radar monitoring

will use the radar advisories as a navi-
primary. secondary
gation aid.
I
I
2. Radar advisories for instrument. approaches may be
secondary
gi ven over the ILS voice channel.
localizer. glide slope
I
3. A nonprecision instrument runway has the basic runway
localizer
markings plus markings.

4. In figure 10-8, the second set of double stripes at 500-foot

intervals is feet from the threshold threshold
markings.
I
,

5. In figure 10-9, the threshold on runway 36 is displaced

because of criteria 2,000
in the landing approach zone.

6. The pavement prior to the displaced threshold on runway 36

in figure 10-9 ----,---,---cc--- full strength. obstruction clearance
is, is not

7. The shoulder area on the taxiway leading to runway 31 in

figure 10-9 _ _--,-.,---.,--- support the full weight of an is
will, will not
aircraft.

8. The chevron markings preceding the displaced threshold on

runway 4 in figure 10-9 indicate that the area will not
_ _----,---,----, suitable for taxi and takeoff.
is, is not
I

9. A pilot conducting an instrument approach into an airport

with a functioning control tower will have his flight plan is not
automatically by the tower. I

10. If there is no functioning control tower or flight service

station at the destination airport, the cancellation of an IFR cancelled
flight plan is initiated by the _
I

pilot

10-21
(

(
(
WEIGHT
AND
iii~;;;;;;;!~------BA~ANCE

e pter II

INTRODUCTION
The weight of a loaded airplane and the distribution of the load within the airplane are of vital
importance to the air transport pilot. If the airplane is improperly loaded, the negative effects of this
loading can be slower cruising speeds, poor landing characteristics, and possible dangerous situations at
low landing or takeoff speeds. A properly loaded airplane provides for more efficient and more
economical operations and enhances safety.

In some situations the pilot may not be directly responsible for the actual loading of the airplane;
however, he is always responsible for the safety of the flight. Because of the pilot's responsibility to
authorities and to his crew and passengers, he must be acquainted with the principles of weight and
balance. Familiarity with the following terms is necessary in order to understand the basic principles
of weight and balance. A weight and balance envelope is included in figure 11-2 to illustrate the weight
terms in relation to each other.

WEIGHT AND BALANCE required by the operator, and fluids which

DEFINITIONS
Airplane basic empty weight - is the weight of
the structure, powerplant, furnishings, un-
usable fuel, engine and constant-speed drive
system oil, chemical toilet fluid, basic
emergency equipment, fire extinguishers,
pyrotechnics, oxygen system, buffet, bar
and galley structure, electronic equipment
are contained in a closed system. (See Fig.
11-1.)
Unusable fuel - is the fuel remaining after a fuel
run-out test has been completed in accor-
dance with applicable government regula-
tions and is considered to be in two por-
tions, drainable and trapped. The drainable,

11-1
r-------------/
~.
't··, 't··, 't··, : : -,:;
•
,--;;7 <' 2--0·"--• c{T
<...,2-·----Q..".···..,..·····--·---.J~
AIRPLANE BASIC
BASIC OPERATING
EMPTY WEIGHT
WEIGHT
Fig. 11-1. Airplane Weight Summary
unusable fuel can only be drawn off from
the sump jiffy drains.
Basic operating weights (BOW) - is the aircraft
basic empty weight plus the following
operational items: flight and cabin crew
and their baggage; manuals and navigational
equipment; engine tank oil; food and
beverage and related service equipment;
washing and drinking water; emergency
equipment. life rafts, life vests; cargo
handling system and related airborne
equipment. (See Fig. 11-1.)
Maximum design zero fuel weight - is the maxi-
mum airplane weight less usable fuel,
engine injection fluid, and other consum-
able propulsion agents. It may include
usable fuel in specified tanks when carried
in lieu of payload. The addition of usable
and consumable items to the maximum
design zero fuel weight must be in accor-
dance with the applicable government regu-
lations so that the airplane structure and
airworthiness requirements are not
exceeded.
Actual zero fuel weight (ZFW) - is the airplane
basic operating weight plus the payload and
11-2
~"---~ (
I III '""
ftt; I~ PAYLOAD
~II
\
<2-n.··---W
•
BASIC
AIRPLANE
ZERO OPERATIONAL
FUEL TAKEOFF
WEIGHT WEIGHT
must never exceed the maximum design (
zero fuel weight. (See Fig. 11-1.)
Maximum design landing weight (also referred to
as maximum landing gross weight) - is the
maximum weight authorized at touchdown
by applicable government regulations. This
maximum landing gross weight is a struc-
turallimitation. (See Fig. 11-2.)
Operational landing weight - is the maximum
landing weight authorized at touchdown by
applicable government regulations when
this weight is subject to a varying degree of
destination airport limitations such as
wind, elevation, temperature, runway
length, etc. The operational landing weight
must never exceed the maximum design
landing weight.
Maximum design takeoff weight (also referred to
as maximum takeoff gross weight) - is the
maximum weight authorized at takeoff
brake release by applicable government
regulations and excludes taxi and runup
fuel. This weight is limited by the struc-
turallimitations of the airplane.
 WEIGHT AND BALANCE

(
CENTER OF GRAVITY -II MAC

42 38 34 30 26 22 18 14 '0
/MAXIMUM TAXi WEIGHT 161,000 ,~

160,000
".?O
MAX'~U)'N
'1/
35.0

150,00 0
153,000-
1\
'" F)GHT/
WEI GHI 160,0 O~

140,000
I~
//
'"oz
=>
o
0-
I
!;:
'"W
;:
130,000
~MAXIMUM LANOING
WEIGHT 137,500
'I1
FORWARO C.G.
LIMIT INFLIGHT
OPERATION LANOING
WEIGHT MUST NOT
EXCEEO MAXIMUM
LANOING WEIGHT

-
AFT C.G. LIMIT

(
'"
'"
o
'"'"w
~ 120,000
TAKE-OFF FLIGHT
ANO LANDI NG I GEAR ANO
fLAPS UP

~
0-

'";;' "-
114,000 - "'-'MAX'MUM 2ERO FUEL ACTUAL ZERO FUEL
WEIGHT 118,000 WEIGHT MUST NOT

110,000
I EXCEEO MAXIMUM
ZERO FUEL WEIGHT
108,000-
L
/ORWARO C.G. LIMIT
TAKE-OFF
ANO LANOING
100,000

,_ !,FT C.G. LIMIT

ZERO FUEL GEAR
ANO FLAPS OOWN

90,000

80,000 I
'I
I I
NOTE: AFT C.G. LI MIT ON
LEFT SlOE OF THIS
CHART.

42 38 34 30 26 22 18 14 10

Fig. 11-2. Weight and Balance Limitations

11-3
Operational takeoff weight - is the maximum
weight authorized at takeoff brake release
by the applicable government regulations
when this weight is subject to a varying
degree of departure and destination airport
limitations and enroute conditions. It ex-
cludes taxi and runup fuel, unless otherwise
stipulated, and must never exceed the
maximum design takeoff weight. (See Fig.
11-1.)
Maximum design flight weight - is the maxi-
mum flight weight with flaps and landing
gear retracted as limited by airplane struc-
ture and airworthiness requirements. (See
Fig. 11-2.)
Maximum design taxi weight (also known as
ramp weight) - is the maximum weight
authorized for ground maneuver by the
applicable structural limitations and in-
cludes taxi and runup fuel. (See Fig. 11-2.)
Gross weight - is the weight of an airplane after
all items have been added. When used
alone gross weight is not a limitation.
Pay load - consists of the total weight of the
revenue producing passengers, passenger
baggage, and/or cargo.
Useful load - consists of the payload, usable
fuel, and engine injection fluid.
o
-+I----840"-~~
1+-----1200"----+1
DATUM B.5.360
Fig. 11·3. Datum Line and Body Station Numbers
11-4
Datum line - is an imaginary reference line from (
which all calculations or measurements are
taken for weight and balance purposes. The
trijet in figure 11-3 has the datum line on
the airplane's nose. On some jet aircraft,
the datum line may be forward of the
airplane's nose.
Body station numbers - are the numbers which
represent the number of inches that the
particular location is aft of the datum line.
The main gear on the trijet in figure 11-3 is
1,200 inches aft of the datum line and is
considered to be at body station 1200.
Moment arm - is the horizontal distance from
the center of gravity of an object to the
datum line.
Moment - is the tendency, or the measurement
of the tendency, to produce rotation about
a point or axis. Moment can be determined
by multiplying the weight of a mass by its
horizontal distance from the datum line.
Center of gravity - is the point in an aircraft
around which all weight is evenly distribu-
ted or balanced. The point of balance in an
aircraft is the center of gravity. (
Empty weight center of gravity - is the center
of gravity of the airplane in an empty
weight condition.
Operating center of gravity range - is the dis-
tance between the fore and aft center of
gravity limits.
B.5.1200 (
 WEIGHT AND BALANCE

(
1. The proper loading of an airplane is the final responsibility of
the

2. The weight limitation which is the heaviest for a transport

pilot
category aircraft is the weight.

3. The weight which includes the airplane structure and power-

taxi
plant is called the airplane
(ramp)
weight.

4. The unusable fuel is part of the airplane

true, talse basic empty
basic empty weight.

5. The aircraft empty weight plus the crewmembers, navi·

gational equipment, food and beverages, is considered to be true
the weight.

6. The total weight of the revenue producing passengers and

basic opera ting
cargo is called the

7. The imaginary reference line from which all calculations are

payload
made on an airplane is called the line.
i
I
8. If an item is located 930 inches aft of the datum line, it is
considered to be at datum
930.

9. The payload is part of the zero fuel

true, false body station
weight.

10. The landing weight limitation is called the

true
landing weight.

11-5
 I (
1I. The zero fuel weight includes the pas-
true, false
sengers and crew. maximum design

12. The basic operating weight includes

true, false
flight crewmembers, stewardesses, crew baggage, and pas- true
senger baggage.

13. A weight which was located at body station 372 would be

false
inches aft of the datum line.

14. The maximum weight authorized for an airplane with no

usable fuel or oil is known as the maximum 372
weight.

15. The maximum design taxi weight is also known as the

zero fuel (
weight.

16. The maximum design takeoff weight is also referred to as the

ramp
maximum weight.

17. The point of balance around which all moments are evenly
distributed in an aircraft is called the of takeoff gross

18. The distance between the fore and aft CG limits is known as center
the CG gravity

19. The datum line is an imaginary reference line established by

range
the aircraft

manufacturer (

11-6
 WEIGHT AND BALANCE

CENTER OF GRAVITY
AND BALANCE
30 in.
~-----------------------
r-~~~----------- ---~~~-
1
Every object of every conceivable size, shape, or
form has a center of gravity (CG). The CG is
merely the point about which all moments are
b 20

equal in all directions. An object possesses only

one CG and its position does not change unless
the physical properties or load distribution of
the object are changed.
The CG of an airplane is very important to the
pilot since the CG must remain within estab-
lished limits to insure the aerodynamic stability
of the airplane.
In order to understand the basic principles of
balance as they apply to air transportation,
consider the bar and the arrangement of weights
illustrated in figure 11-4. Assume that the bar in
the figure is weightless. Notice that the bar is
balanced on a fulcrum which is not equidistant
from both ends of the bar. A 10-pound weight is
( suspended on the left side of the bar and a
20-pound weight is suspended on the right side
of the bar. The bar, in this case, is balanced
because the 10-pound weight is acting through a
moment arm (lever) which is twice as long as the
moment arm associated with the 20-pound
weight.
20 inches 10 inches
x 10 pounds x 20 pounds
200 inch pounds = 200 inch pounds
Fig. 11-4. Weights and Moment Arms
The rotating or twisting force exerted by each of
the two weights in figure 11-4 can be referred to
as a "moment." Moment, in this particular situa-
tion, is expressed in pound-inches because
moment is equal to the weight of an object
multiplied by the length of its moment arm.
Thus, the moment of the 10-pound weight in
figure 11-4 is equal to 10 pounds x 20 inches
which equals 200 pound-inches. The moment of
the 20-pound weight is equal to 20 pounds x 10
inches which equals 200 pound-inches. Since the
moment on either side of the fulcrum is 200
pound-inches, the weights are balanced and the
point on the bar directly over the fulcrum must
be the CG.

1. The CG of an object is the point about which all moments

are in all directions.

2. The location of the CG does not change unless the

properties or load distribution of the equal
object are changed.

3. When two unequal weights are balanced (as in figure 11-4),

physical I
the heavier weight has a shorter moment

4. Conversely, the lighter weight has a longer

arm
arm.
I
11-7
 (
5. In fact, since the 10-pound weight is half as heavy as the
moment
20-pound weight, it must have a moment arm (lever)
as long.

6. The length of a moment arm in inches multiplied by a weight

twice
in pounds gives an answer in

7. The 10-pound weight multiplied by its moment arm of 20

inches gives a total "moment" of pound- pound-inches
inches.

8. The heavier weight in figure 11-4 of 20 pounds has a moment

of 200 pound-inches, when multiplied by the moment arm of 200
inches.

!
(
9. In this situation, the weight of the object balanced multiplied
by the length of its moment arm in inches is called the 10

and is expressed in pound-inches.

10. In figure 11-4, the point on the fulcrum where both weights
are balanced is called the moment
of the bar.

center of gravity

AIRPLANE WEIGHT reference point. In order that a constant refer-

AND BALANCE
Airplane weight and balance works on the same
physical principles as previously outlined. How-
ever, because the CG of an airplane changes with
each loading situation, it cannot be used as a
ence point may always be available for use in
computations, a "datum line" is established. A
datum line is an arbitrarily chosen point about
which all moments are computed. For the
purpose of standardization in all weight and
balance computations, the nose of the airplane is
(
considered to point to the left.

11-8
 WEIGHT AND BALANCE

(
1. A datum line is an imaginary (arbitrary) line or point about
which all are computed.
I

2. A fixed datum line, rather than the CG, is used for a constant
reference point in weight and balance computations because moments
the CG

3. When two weights are balanced on a fulcrum, or about a CG, changes

the heavier weight has a moment arm. (moves)
longer, shorter

4. Moments tend to rotate about an imaginary point or line

shorter
called the line.
I
datum
!

(
In most modern transport airplanes, the datum
line is located at or ahead of the nose in order to
avoid computation with negative values. As is
seen in figure 11-5, all of the moments are
positive when the datum line is located at or
forward of the nose. Remember, it does not
matter where the datum line is located; however,
. once the datum line is established, it must be the
basis from which all measurements are calcu-
lated.

Datum Line

Fig. 11-5. Datum Line Position

11-9
 (
1. The datum line is arbitrarily located and usually is positioned
forward of the as in figure 11-5.
L

2. Since all measurements are calculated from a common point,

the line remains fixed for all airplane nose
weight and balance calculations.
I

3. When the datum line is forward of the nose, as shown in

datum
figure 11-5, all moments are a value.
positive, negative
I
positive

DETERMINING CENTER Step 2. Divide the total moment by the

OF GRAVITY total weight.

It is a simple matter to determine the CG of a 800 lb.-in.

26.7 in.
bar by the use of an arbitrarily chosen datum 30 lb.
line. Suppose, for example, that a weightless bar
is 50 inches long with a 5-pound weight 10
Step 3. Establish the center of gravity 26.7
inches from the left, a 10-pound weight 15
inches to the right of the datum line.
inches from the left, and a 15-pound weight 40
inches from the left, as illustrated in figure 11-6.
Datum
To avoid using negative moments, the datum line
line in this illustration is positioned at the most
distant position to the left. The datum line
could be placed a distance beyond the left which ----------~~~-----------
--------~~~--------1
would insure positive moments for all computa-
tions even though weights were placed to the
left of the bar. --1.§..i!'~-1
!!!.In.:..!
To determine the CG for the bar in figure 11-6,
complete the following steps:
Step 1. Determine the total weight and
moment.

WEIGHT MOMENT ARM MOMENT

26.7in. -
51b. 10 in. 50 lb.-in. CG LOCATION
10 lb. 15 in. 150 lb.-in.
151b. 40 in. 600 lb.-in. (
30 lb. 800 lb.-in. Fig. 11-6. Weight and Balance Bar

11-10
 WEIGHT AND BALANCE

(
1. In figure 11-6, the datum line is to the left of all of the
moment arms. Therefore, all moments will be

positive, negative

I
2. The moment of the l5-pound weight in figure 11-6, calcu-
lated from the datum line, is the product of 15 pounds x 40 positive
inches which equals pound-inches.
I

3. The moment of the 10-pound weight is equal to (+)

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ pound-inches. 600

4. The total moment for all three weights in figure 11-6 is

I

pound-inches. The total weight is 150

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ pounds.

(
5. To find the distance of the CG location, divide as follows: 800
lb.-in. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ m.
30
30 lb.

Datum
u':: .J.OJ!!: _
40 in.

~~~~~==1-----~------1

6. In this illustration the total moments are positive and equal

800
to pound-inches. (Assume bar to be
weightless.) 26.7

11-11
 (
7. In the previous example the total weight is _
1,600
pounds.

8. The location of the CG is located _

60
inches from the datum line.

26.7

EMPTY WEIGHT CENTER Step 1. Determine the airplane basic empty

OF GRAVITY LOCATION weight and moments.
ITEM WEIGHT BODY STATION MOMENT
The empty weight CG locatIon is determined by
Nose gear 2,089 lb. 311.0 649,679 lb.-in.
weighing and ascertaining the moment incident Left main gear 42,000 lb. 950.0 39,900,000 lb.-in.
to each landing gear. Suppose, for example, that Right main gear 42,057 lb. 950.0 39,954,150 lb.-in.
the datum line on a particular airplane is located
forward of the nose, as illustrated in figure 11-7.
86.146 lb. 80,503,829 lb.-in.
(
Upon determining the weight at each landing Step 2. Divide the total moment by the
gear and finding the distance of each from the total weight.
datum line, the problem can then be treated as 80,503,829 = 934 5
those previously explained. 86,146 .
Step 3. Establish the airplane basic empty
Translated into actual figures, the problem weight center of gravity to be at body sta-
would look like this: tion 934.5.

DATUM LINE

~;. 0 0..· · ·..·.. L _

B.S. B.S. B.S. B.S.

o 130 311 950 (
Fig. /1-7. Empty CG Location

11·12
 WEIGHT AND BALANCE

(
1. The first step in determining the CG of an empty airplane is
to find the weight on each landing gear and then the distance
of each gear from the line.

2. Next, multiply the weight on each gear times its distance in

datum
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ from the datum line.

3. Add these moments (pound-inches) to find the

inches

4. Divide the total moment by the total airplane

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ to find the location of the total moment
with reference to the datum line.
I

5. An airplane has the following basic empty weight data:

BODY
ITEM WEIGHT STATION MOMENT

nose gear 8,800 lb. 100 lb.-in. weight

( left main gear 20,500 lb. 500 lb.-in. CG
right main gear 21,000 lb. 500 lb.-in.

totals 50,300 lb. lb.-in.

Find the moments and total moment for this airplane. ,

880,000
6. The location of the empty weight CG is _ 10,250,000
inches aft of the datum line in the above example. 10,500,000
21,630,000
7. An airplane has the following basic empty weight data:
BODY
ITEM WEIGHT STATION MOMENT

nose gear 3,720 lb. 287 _ _ _ _ _ _ lb.-in.

left main gear 36,580 lb. 749 27,398,420 lb.·in.
430.02
right main gear 36,300 lb. 749 lb.-in.

totals 76,600 lb. _ _ _ _ _ _ lb.-in.

Find the moments for each weight and the total weight
moments.

11·13
 1,067,640
(
27,398,420
8. The location of the basic empty weight C.G is at body station
27,188,700

55,654,760

726.56

MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (MAC)
The CG location in a transport airplane is given
in terms of a percent of the mean aerodynamic
chord (% MAC). A chord is the distance from
the leading edge to the trailing edge of the wing.
The mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) is the
chord drawn through the geographical center of
the wing plan area. Since the wing on most
aircraft is not a rectangle, the mean aerodynamic
chord is determined for weight and balance and
aerodynamic purposes. A rectangular wing
which had the same chord as the mean aero-

(
o 130" 581" 860.2" 1040.9" 1719"
MAO BODY
180.7" STATION ITEM
NUMBERS
o DATUM LINE
130" NOSE OF AIRPLANE
581" CG OF FORWARD CARGO
860.2" LEADING EDGE OF MAC
1040.9" TRAILING EDGE OF MAC
1066" 1066" CG OF AFTER CARGO

CG LIMITS
FORWARD AFT
14% 36.5%

DATUM 25.3"

LINE 1--1-66"

LEMAC

(
Fig. 11-8. Location of CG Limits

11-14
 WEIGHT AND BALANCE

( dynamic chord of a nonrectangular wing would COMPUTER SOLUTION FOR

have the identical pitching moment character-
istics. The center-of-gravity range on most large
airplanes is expressed with respect to the CG
location on the mean aerodynamic chord. For
example, if the center of gravity is 15 percent
aft of the leading edge of a mean aerodynamic
chord which is 100 inches long, the center of
gravity would be 15 inches aft of the leading
edge of the mean aerodynamic chord.
PERCENTAGES
As an example of how the computer can
be used to determine the location of the
CG aft of LEMAC, refer to figure 11-9.
When using the computer to determine
the CG location, the outside scale is
used for inches and the inside scale for
the percentage figures.

The leading edge of the MAC is referred 1.S01 MAC-180.7 [2.Flead 25.3"
to as LEMAC and the trailing edge of ovor 10 (100%) ~ver 14%
the MAC is designated as TEMAC. The
location of LEMAC is usually expressed
as a body station number to aid in
determining the body station number of
the center of gravity. By referring to
figure 11-8, it can be seen that LEMAC
on this aircraft is at station 860.2 and
that TEMAC is at body station number
1040.9. The mean aerodynamic chord of
this wing is 180.7 inches. The mean
aerodynamic chord is not the average
( chord, but is the chord through the
geographical center of the wing.

The length of the MAC is established by

the manufacturer and can be found in
the airplane manual. When the length of
the MAC and the CG position are Fig. 11-9. Computer Solution for MAC Problems
known, it is an easy task to determine
Example:
the CG in percent MAC.
Given:
At the maximum landing weight of mean aerodynamic
137,500 pounds for this aircraft, the chord (MAC) 180.7 in.
center of gravity range with the gear forward CG limit 14% MAC
and flaps in the landing position is from aft CG limit 36.5% MAC
14% MAC to 36.5% MAC. (See Fig. Find:
11-8.1 By computing the percentage figure CG range in inches
in inches, it can be determined that the Solution:
forward CG limit is 25.3 inches aft of 1. Set the mean aerodynamic chord
LEMAC and the aft CG limit is 66 (180.7) over the "10" on the inside
inches aft of LEMAC. By adding these scale. (The 10 in this case represents
dimensions to the body station number 100 percent.)
of LEMAC (BS 860.2), it is determined 2. Over the 14 percent on the inside
that the forward center of gravity limit scale, read the number of inches
at the maximum landing weight with the (25.3) that the forward CG limit is aft
gear and flaps in the landing position is of LEMAC.
at body station number 885.5 and the aft 3. Over the 36.5 percent on the inside
( CG limit is at body station number scale, read the number of inches (66)
926.2. that the aft CG limit is aft of LEMAC.

11-15
The percent of MAC computations can also be
set up by dividing the length of MAC into the
distance between LEMAC and the CG location.
This can be done in the previous problem by
setting the percentage (14) over the "10" on the
inside scale. The answer of 25.3 inches for the
forward CG location can be read over the length
(
of MAC (180.7 inches) on the inside scale.
Both computation methods discussed will work;
however, it is recommended that the first pro-
cedure be used since many computer problems
can be solved with one computer setting rather
than a change for each percentage change.

1. That chord line which is used for engineering and

weight and balance computations is the
chord (MAC).
2. The mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) mayor may not be the
average , depending on the shape of the mean aerodynamic
wing.
3. The acroynm for the "trailing edge of the mean aerodynamic
chord
chord" is
4. MAC - 143 inches; 16.8% MAC -
TEMAC
inches.
,

5. MAC = 206 inches; 20.7% MAC =

24.0
inches. I (
I
6. MAC = 153 inches; % MAC = 32.6
42.6
inches. I

7. MAC = 187 inches; % MAC = 22.8

inches.
21.3
I
I
12.2
8. MAC = 154 inches; 13% MAC = inches. I
I
MAC = 238 inches; % MAC = 77.0
9. 20.0
inches.

10. Given:
32.4
LEMAC ............................ station 364
MAC .................................. 182 in.
CG ............................... 14.8%MAC
Find:
CG in. aft of LEMAC
CG at station
I 26.9 I
390.9

11-16
 WEIGHT AND BALANCE

( A TYPICAL WEIGHT AND BALANCE tank 2 17,000 lb.

PROBLEM tank 3 14,000 lb.
airplane gross weight 158,680 lb.
The following exercise is given as an
example of a typical weight and balance 3. To compute the gross weight CG loca-
problem. To solve this particular problem, tion, it is necessary to first compute
the charts in figure 11-10 should be the BOW CG to find the BOW mo-
used. It is assumed that the basic ments.
operating weight CG position has already BOW CG . . . . .. 34.3% MAC (given)
been established. BOW CG .... 62.0 in. aft of LEMAC
BOW CG station 922.2
Given:
BOW moment
LEMAC is at body station (BS) 860.2 (89,200 x 922.2) .. 82,260,240 lb.-in.
MAC is 180.7 in.
Basic operating weight (BOW) is 4. Find the moments for the remainder
89,200 lb. of the weights and find the total mo-
BOW CG is 34.3% MAC ment for the airplane at gross weight.
Payload: ITEM WEIGHT MOMENT/lOOO
20 passengers in forward compartment BOW 89,200 lb. 82,260
64 passengers in aft compartment passengers 3,400 lb. 1,632
cargo in forward hold at BS 581
weighs 5,000 lb. passengers 10,880 lb. 9,792
cargo in aft hold at BS 1066 cargo in
weighs 5,200 lb. forward hold 5,000 lb. 2,905
Fuel: cargo in
tank 1 14,000 lb. aft hold 5,200 lb. 5,543
tank 2 17,000 lb.
fuel tanks 1 14,000 lb. 12,604
tank 3 14,000 lb. and 3 14,000 lb. 12,604
Find:
zero fuel weight fuel tank 2 17,000 lb. 13,857
total weight
Totals 158,680 lb. 141,197
CG location
Solution: 5. To find the gross weight CG, divide
the total moments by the gross weight.
The solution to this problem is a multiple-part
(141,197x1000 = 141,197,000)
solution and can accurately be solved in many
different orders. The first solution explained 141,197,000 = 889 8
158,680 .
here is the calculation of the zero fuel weight.
1. To find the zero fuel weight, add the 6. Subtract the LEMAC station number
weight of the payload to the basic from the CG station number to find
operating weight. the distance that the CG is aft of
BOW 89,200 lb. LEMAC.
passengers (forward)..... 3,400 lb. 889.8 - 860.2 = 29.6
passengers (aft) 10,880 lb.
forward cargo. . . . . . . . . .. 5,000 lb. 7. With the flight computer, find the per-
aft cargo. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,200 lb. centage of MAC that the CG location
zero fuel weight 113,680 lb. is aft of LEMAC. The CG is 16.4%
MAC.
2. To find the airplane gross weight, add
the weight of the fuel to the zero fuel 8. By referring to the center of gravity
weight. limits chart in figure 11-11, it is
zero fuel weight 113,680 lb. determined that the airplane is loaded
tank 1 14,000 lb. within limits.

11·17
 (
FUEL LOADING TABLE CARGO LOADING TABLE

Weight Moment/lOOO
Tank in
Tank Fwd Aft
1&3 Pounds Hold Arm Hold Arm
Weight #2 581 1066
MOM (3 cell)
Arm 6,000 6,396
1000 5,000 2,905 5,330
4,000 2,324 4,264
3,000 1,743 3,198
894.7 8947 10,000 816.8 8168 2,000 1,162 2,132
895.4 9402 10,500 816.6 8574 1,000 581 1,066
896.1 9857 11,000 816.5 8982 900 523 959
896.8 10313 11,500 816.3 9387 800 465 853
897.5 10770 12,000 816.1 9793 700 407 746
898.9 11685 13,000 815.8 10605 600 349 640
900.3 12604 14,000 815.5 11417 500 290 533
901.7 13525 15,000 815.3 12230 232 426
400
904.5 15377 17,000 815.1 13857 174 320
300
907.8 17248 19,000 815.0 15485 116 213
200
910.1 18202 20,000 814.9 16298 58 107
100

STAB TRIM SETTING

Flaps
Fuel dump rates with all boost Tank #1 850 Ibs/min 5 I 15/20 I 25
pumps on, all dump valves open Tank #2 1100 Ibs/min CGo/.
Units Airplane Nose Up
and both nozzle valves open are: Tank #3 850 Ibs/min
10 6 3/4 71/2 81/4
12 61/2 71/4 8
14 61/4 7 73/4
PASSENGER LOADING TABLE 16 6 63/4 71/2
18 5 3/4 61/2 7
Number of Weight in Fwd Comp Aft Comp
20 51/2 6 61/2
Passengers Pounds MOM/1000 MOM/1000 22 5 5 3/4 61/4
24 43/4 51/4 53/4
1 170 82 153
2 340 164 306 26 41/2 43/4 51/4
5 850 410 765 28 4 41/2 4 3/4
30 33/4 4 41/4
10 1700 820 1530
32 31/2 33/4 4
15 2550 1230 2295
20 3400 1640 3060 34 31/4 31/4 31/2
25 4250 2050 3825 36 2 3/4 3 3
40 6800 3280 6120 38 21/2 21/2 21/2
50 8500 4100 7650 40 21/2 21/2 21/2
42 21/2 21/2 21/2

Weight Limitations

Basic operating weight (BOW) .................•..... 89,200 Ibs.

Maximum taxi weight . ............•.............. .161,000 Ibs. LEMAC = 860.2"
Maximum takeoff weight. .................•..•.....160,000 Ibs.
Maximum landing weight ..........•....•..........137,500 Ibs. MAC 180.7"
Maximum zero fuel weight 118,000 Ibs.

Fig. 11-10. Weight & Balance Data

11-18
 WEIGHT AND BALANCE

STAB TRIM SETTING CG is located at 890 inches aft of datum

( LEMAC is located 861 inches aft of datum
As shown in figure 11-10, a stab trim chart is MAC is 180.9
provided to determine the takeoff setting based Takeoff flap setting is 20
upon percentage of MAC and flap extension. According to these conditions, the CG is deter-
To use the chart, the CG in percentage of MAC mined to be 16.0% MAC (890-861=29-i-180.9=
must be determined first and the chart entered 16.0%). The chart is then entered on the left
at the appropriate flap setting. For example, side at 16.0%, and under the flap setting of 20,
assume the following conditions: the stab trim setting is shown as 6% units air-
plane nose up (AND).

For the following programmed frames use the loading tables in figure 11-10 and center of gravity units
in figure 11-11 in addition to the problem data in question number 1.

1. Problem data:
basic operating weight (BOW) 87,080 lb.
BOW CG 31.6% MAC
LEMAC BS 890.3
MAC 194.6 in.
CG range 13% MAC to 35% MAC
maximum takeoff weight 163,000 lb.
ITEM WEIGHT MOMENT/lOOO
( BOW 87,080 lb. 86,792Ib.·in.
passengers
forward (38) 6,460 lb. lb.-in.
passengers
aft (70) 11,900 lb. lb.-in.
forward cargo 5,300 lb. lb.-in.
aft cargo 5,000 lb. lb.-in.
fuel
(tanks 1
and 3) 32,000 lb. lb.-in.
fuel
(tank 2) 12,000 lb. lb.-in.

totals lb. lb.-in.

86,792 bZ. ~ 2..\ 'gb. ('\
3,101 3\\6 00 1>
10,698 \ 0 1 0 0 0 0
2. The basic operating weight CG is located at body station 3,079 ":\ .... ?,o"
5,330
28,972
9,793
147,765
weight=159,740

11-19
 (
951.8
3. The zero fuel weight is pounds.

4. The gross weight CG is located at body station

115,740

5. The gross weight CG is inches aft of

925.0
LEMAC.

6. The gross weight CG is % MAC. 34.7

7. The gross weight CG is ---::;..,--:-:-:-7,----- the CG range

within, outside 17.8
and is the weight limits.
within, outside

(
within
within

CENTER-Of-GRAVITY
LIMITS CHART
The center-of-gravity range usually falls within
the general range from 15% MAC to 37% MAC;
however, in most airplanes, the limits of the CG
range vary according to the gross weight. To find
the actual CG range, it is necessary to refer to
a center-of-gravity limits chart similar to the
one shown in figure 11-11. The only weight
limits charted on the graph are the maximum
taxi weight and the maximum flight weight with
the flaps up. The graph is used principally for
the CG limits. When using this chart, note that
the left side represents the forward CG limits.
As an example of the chart usage, refer to the
CG limits in figure 11-11 for a gross weight of
130,000 pounds. The forward CG limit for flight
(gear and flaps up) is 14% MAC and the forward
CG limit for landing and takeoff (gear and flaps
down) is 16% MAC. The aft CG limit at a gross
weight of 130,000 pounds is 38% MAC. At
higher gross weights, the aft CG limit moves
forward and, at lower gross weights, the aft CG
limit moves aft.
Assuming that LEMAC is at body station 860.2
and MAC is 180.7 inches, it can be determined
that, at a gross weight of 130,000 pounds, the
forward CG limit for landing is body station
889.1 and the aft CG limit is body station
928.9.
Complete the following programmed frames by
referring to figure 11-11. For all problems
assume LEMAC at body station 860.2 and MAC
(
equals 180.7 inches.

11-20
 WEIGHT AND BALANCE

1',;"~~:~i~;~~!i=~J~~-f~.~-~'~ .....
.. -....
.. ..•. ! :!
. _.: .. .
i.::.

l
Fig. 11-11. Center-oF-Gravitv Limits

11-21
 I
(
1. Given:
gross weight · ........................122,000 lb.
gear and flaps ............................ down
Find:
forward CG limit %MAC
aft CG limit % MAC

~
2. Given:
gross weight · ........................160,000 lb.
gear and flaps ...............................up 16.0
Find: 39.0
forward CG limit in. aft LEMAC
aft CG limit in. aft LEMAC

3. Given:
l
gross weight · ....•...................137,500 lb.
gear and flaps ...............................up 23.5 (
Find: 61.8
forward CG limit in. aft LEMAC
aft CG limit in. aft LEMAC

~
4. Given:
gross weight · ........................150,000 lb.
gear and flaps ...............................up 25.3
Find: 66.9
forward CG limit at body station
aft CG limit at body station

5. Given:
gross weight · ........................110,000 lb.
I
gear and flaps ............................ down 883.7
Find: 924.2
forward CG limit at body station
aft CG limit at body station

11·22
 WEIGHT AND BALANCE

( I

6. Given:
gross weight 140,000 lb.
gear and flaps (landing) down 889.1
Find: 935.0
forward CG limit at body station _
aft CG limit at body station _

889.1
926.5

INDEX UNITS Reduction factors such as 1,000 and 10,000 are

commonly used depending on the individual
As is seen in the problems just solved, many of problem. For example, in a previous problem
the values assume cumbersome proportions. In the following figures were utilized:
order to alleviate this problem, a system referred
30,472,825Ib.·in. = 437'
to as unit index or moment index was devised. 69,725 lb. m.
This incorporates the use of reduction factors to
reduce the size of the figures utilized in weight Using a reduction factor of 1,000 the computa·
and balance computation. Any reduction factor tion would look like this:
can be used so long as it is utilized throughout 30,472.8
437
the entirety of one problem. 69.7

1. Reduction factors are applied to weight and balance prob·

lems to reduce the size of numbers. Two formulas used to
apply reduction factors are:

moment d weight
reduction factor an lor reduction factor reduced numbers

2. If a moment of 37,169,427 pound·inches is reduced to a

' I flOOD th 37,169,427 no response
mu Itlp e o , , en 1 ,000
the new multiple.

3. If a weight of 59,936 pounds is reduced to a multiple of

59,936 37,169.4
1,000, then 1,000 ' the new mul·
tiple.

4. If multiples of 1,000 or 10,000 are used in solving weight and

balance problems, then all weights and _ 59.9
(
must be reduced.

11·23
 (
5. If all units are reduced to multiples of 1,000, then the
moments
moments are termed as "moments/l,OOO pound-inches."

no response

OUT-OF-BALANCE W = weigh t which is to be added

CORRECTIONS
One of the most frequently encountered prob-
lems in weight and balance concerns an out-of-
balance condition after the airplane has been
loaded. The problem can be approached in two
ways. First, weight may be added or removed to
bring the CG within allowable limits. Second,
weight may be shifted within the airplane to
bring it into a balanced condition.
D = distance that CG moves
GW= airplane gross weight (use the new
gross weight after the weight has been
added or subtracted if the adjusted
weight is not one of the unknown
factors)
A =moment arm of added weight
When the appropriate values are substituted, the
equation would look like this:
weight which is to be added =

ADDED WEIGHT CORRECTION 3 in. x 210,000 lb. = 3600 lb

As an example of the first problem, consider an
airplane with a gross weight of 210,000 pounds
with the fore and aft CG limits at 821 inches
and 845 inches respectively. Any weight added
to the airplane must be placed at 670 inches
(station 670). After the airplane is loaded, it is
found that the CG is at 848 inches which is
three inches out of tolerance with respect to the
aft CG limit. Thus, the problem is to calculate
the amount of weight which must be added to
station 670 to bring the CG to the nearest limit
which, in this case, is 845 inches.
175 in. ,.
Thus, 3,600 pounds is the minimum (
weight which must be added at station
670 to move the CG to the aft limit.
The added weight correction can also be set up
on the flight computer as shown in figure 11-12,
which saves mathematical computations by the
use of the following formula:
Set the CG change over arm of added weight
(3") (175"1

In this type of problem, three values must be

known:
1. gross weight (210,000 pounds),
2. distance the CG is out of limits (three
inches), and
3. the distance from the location of the
added weight to the new CG. In this
case, it is equal to 845 minus 670
which is 175. (In this type of prob-
lem, the moment arm is measured
from the CG, not the datum line.)

The formula is:

W= DxGW
A Fig. 1/·12. Added Weight Correction

11-24
 WEIGHT AND BALANCE

( distance CO moves amount of weight added added or subtracted, it must be determined

distance from added new gross weight which way the CG moves (forward or aft) as a
weighllo CO result of the weight change. Weight which is
added forward of the CG or removed aft of the
3 _ weight added (3,600 pounds) CG will cause the CG to move forward. Weight
175 - 210,000 which is added aft of the CG or removed for-
ward of the CG will cause the CG to shift aft.
If weight is subtracted or removed from the
airplane, the formula to use is the same as the Remember that the gross weight used in the
formula for computing changes as a result of formula must reflect the new gross weight after
weight being added. In problems where weight is the weight has been added or subtracted.

1. If the CG is outside limits, it is necessary to correct the

out-of-balance condition. This can be accomplished by
adding or subtracting weight or by
weight within the airplane.

2. A formula to be used when it is necessary to add weight to

( balance the airplane is:
shifting
(distance CG must be moved) x (gross weight) weight
moment arm of added weight to be
added

3. To apply the formula above:

distance CG must be moved 5 in.
gross weight 87,000 lb. no response

moment arm of added weight 185 in.

The weight which must be added = lb.

4. Applying the formula again:

distance CG must be moved 7 in.
gross weight 27,000 lb. 2,351.4
moment arm of added weight 100 in.
The weight which must be added = lb.

1,890

11-25
 SHIFTING WEIGHT CORRECTION Thus, 1,400 pounds must be shifted from (
station 1120 to station 670 in order to move the
To understand this type of correction, consider CG forward to the aft CG limit. It is well to note
an airplane configurated just as the one de- that it requires much less shifted weight than
scribed in the first out-of-balance correction added weight to balance an airplane. By com-
problem. Assume that any weight moved is to be paring the added weight formula to the weight-
taken from station 1120 and placed in station to-shift formula, it can be seen that they are
670. The total weight remains at 210,000 nearly identical. When using either formula, if
pounds and the CG position remains three the unknown value is not alone on one side of
inches behind the aft CG limit. Thus, enough the equation, the equation can be changed to
weight must be shifted from station 1120 to one of the following to fit the particular situa-
station 670 to move the CG three inches for- tion:
ward.
D=WxA A = Dx GW WxA
GW
The formula to correct the CG position by shift- GW W D
ing weight is:
The formula can also be changed for computer
W~ DxGW use with the following arrangement:
A
D W
W = weight of cargo to shift A GW
D =distance that CG moves
GW=airplane gross weight By substituting the values in the above weight-
A =arm (distance that weight is shifted) to-shift problem, the equation becomes the
following:
When the appropriate values are substituted, the
equation will look like this:
3 W (
450 210,000
weight of cargo = 3 in. x 210,000 lb.
to shift 450 in. 1,400 lb. W = 1,400 lb.

1. Using the above formula:

distance CG must be moved 5 in.
gross weight 37,000 lb.
distance weight is to be shifted 300 in.
The weight of cargo to be shifted = lb.

2. To determine how far a given cargo weight must be shifted to

balance the airplane, this formula is used:
distance 616.7
(distance CG must be moved) x (gross weight) weight
weight of cargo to be shifted must be
shifted (

11-26

(
3. Using the above formula:
distance CG must be moved ................... 4 in.
gross weight .......................... .41,000 lb.
weight of cargo to be shifted ...............1,000 lb.
The distance weight must be shifted =
GEAR AND FLAP RETRACTION
ALLOWANCES
The airplane operating empty weight center of
gravity on many transport category jets includes
( the nose gear and main gear extended and the
flaps extended to 40° When the gear and flaps
are retracted after takeoff, if the gear and flaps
retract forward, the effect is a center-of-gravity
shift forward. In a typical transport jet, the
following moments are considered for the gear
and flap retractions:
wing flaps 40 0 to 0 0 65,000 lb.-in.
main landing gear 114,000 lb.-in.
nose landing gear 33,000 lb.-in.
total gear and flap retraction
allowance _ 212,000 lb.-in.
There are two different methods to find the new
CG location after the gear and flap retraction.
The longer method will be presented first to
show how the gear and flap retraction allowance
is applied to the aircraft total moments. The
second method follows and is considered the
shortest and easiest method to use for most gear
and flap retraction computations.
The total gear and flap retraction moment of
212,000 pound-inches should be subtracted
from the aircraft's total moments to find the
new aircraft total moment after the retraction.
The new total moment is then divided by the
WEIGHT AND BALANCE
110 response
in.
164
gross weight to find the new CG location. In the
gear and flap retraction computations, note that
there is no weight change on the airplane.
As an example of the retraction allowance,
assume the total moment for an airplane that
weighs 150,000 pounds is 134,700,000 pound-
inches. The CG location for the airplane in this
problem is at body station 898.0. After retrac-
tion, the new moment is 134,488,000 pound-
inches (134,700,000 - 212,000 = 134,488,000).
The new moment divided by the airplane gross
weight results in a new CG location at body
station 896.59.
134,488,000
896.59
150,000
By subtracting the 896.59 body station from
898.0 body station, it can be determined that
the CG moved forward 1.41 inches.
The CG shift in inches can also be computed by
dividing the moment change by the gross weight.
212,000
1.41
150,000
The answer of 1.41 inches is subtracted from the
old CG to find the new CG. (898.0 - 1.41 =
896.59)
11-27
 (
1. Given:
airplane gross weight 160,000 lb.
direction of gear travel during retraction forward
CG body station 946.0
moment change after gear
and flap retraction 276,000 lb.-in.
Find:
CG location at body station _

2. Given:
I
airplane gross weight 215,000 lb.
direction of gear travel during retraction aft
CG body station 1032.0 944.3
moment change after
gear retraction 326,000 lb.-in.
Find:
new CG location at body station _
I
3. Given: I
airplane gross weight 126,000 lb.
direction of gear travel
during retraction forward
CG body station 815.4
moment change after gear 1033.5

and flap retraction 263,000 lb.-in.

Find:
new CG location at body station _

813.3 (

11-28
 WEIGHT AND BALANCE

( WEIGHT AND BALANCE MINI-EXAM

AIRPLANE SPECIFICATIONS
(N527JT)

DATUM LINE

."
o 135 390 BODY STATIONS 1050

MAXIMUM TAKEOFF GROSS WEIGHT(TO GW) . . . 205,000Ibs.

MAXIMUM LANDING GROSS WEIGHT(LGW! . . . . . . ..... .168,000Ibs,
MAXIMUM ZERO FUEL WEIGHT(ZFWI........ . .........•......... .135.000 Ibs.
BASIC OPERATING WEIGHT(BOW) . ..........•.......... 94,2301bs.
BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT. . .........................•......•........ 90.460 Ibs.
NOSE GEAR WEIGHT AT BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT. . ..•••... _ . _ 4,300 Ibs.
LEFT MAIN GEAR WEIGHT AT BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT... . 43,000 Ibs.
RIGHT MAIN GEAR AT BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT... . 43,160 Ibs.
BOW CG .. .. . . . -. . . ·36.0% MAC
LEMAC . .. .. . . Body Station 945
TEMAC . . . . Body Station 1155
MOMENT CHANGE AFTER GEAR AND FLAP RETRACTION (FORWARD). . .264,000 Ibs.-in.
CG RANGE..... . 14% MAC to 35.5% MAC

Fig. 11-13. Airplane Specifications N527JT

For the multiple-choice questions in this section, 2_ What is the length of MAC?
use the airplane specifications in figure 11-13 for
1. 45.1 in.
N527JT. The following weights are to be placed
2. 210 in.
on board the transport category airplane:
3. 945 in.
BODY 4. 1,155 in.
ITEM WEIGHT STATION MOMENT
Passengers (forward) 7,420 lb. 550 'f '8, •• 3. What is the length of the CG range 10
Passengers (aft) 14,670 lb. 1210 17,750,700 inches?
Cargo (forward) 4,200 lb. 590 2" " 1. 29.4 in.
Cargo (art) 11,IS0 lb. 1320 14,757,600
2. 45.2 in.
Fuel (tanks 2 & 3) 32,600 lb. 960 \'> 6, 3. 74.6 in.
Fuel (tanks 1 & 4) 34,200 lb. 1070 36,594,000 4. 210.0 in.
1. What is the location of the basic empty
weight CG? 4. What is the zero fuel weight for this flight?
1. 32.7% MAC 1. 121,540 lb.
2. 35.1% MAC 2. 127,930 lb.
3. 37.3% MAC 3. 131,700 lb.
4. 73.6% MAC 4. 135,000 lb.

11-29
5. What is the gross weight for this flight? 11. After 45 minutes of flight the new gross (
weight is 192,500 pounds and the new CG
1. 156,100 lb. is at 35.3% MAC. If fuel is burned at the
2. 198,500 lb. rate of 7,500 pounds per hour and is used
3. 200,640 lb. from tanks 1 and 4, what is the new CG
4. 205,000 lb. 1 hour and 45 minutes after takeoff?
1. 25.3% MAC
2. 33.2% MAC
6. What are the total moments for this flight? 3. 34.3% MAC
1. 106,957,300 lb.-in. 4. 35.2% MAC
2. 184,327,400 lb.-in.
3. 199,102,300 lb.-in.
4. 203,128,438 lb.-in.
12. Based on the loaded condition of N527JT
on the ramp, how much additional payload
could be carried on this flight?
7. What is the CG at the beginning of this
flight? 1. 3,300 lb.
2. 3,770 lb.
1. 34.2% MAC (legal) 3. 6,500 lb.
2. 35.5% MAC (legal) 4. 7,070 lb.
3. 36.4% MAC (illegal)
4. 37.3% MAC (illegal)
ANSWERS TO ATR MINI-EXAM

8. How many inches must the CG move for- Question 1 - Choice 2 (

ward to be at the aft limit? BODY
ITEM WEIGHT STATION MOMENT
1. 0 in. Nose Gear 4,300 lb. 390 1,677,000 lb.-in.
2. 2.73 in. Left Main Gear 43,000 lb. 1050
3. 3.78 in. Right Main Gear 43,160 lb. 1050
4. 27.3 in. (Main Gear Combined) 86,160 lb. 90,468,000 lb.-in.

Totals 90,460 lb. 92,145,000 lb.-in.

9. How much cargo must be moved from the 92,145,000 lb.-in.

1018.63 in.
aft cargo hold to the forward cargo hold to 90,460 lb.
place the CG at the aft limit?
CG 1018.63
1. 489.5 lb. LEMAC -945.00
2. 742.3 lb.
73.63 in. aft of
3. 1,027.8 lb.
LEMAC
4. 2,497.4 lb.
MAC = 210 in.
73.63 in. = 35.1% of 210 in.
Basic empty weight CG is 35.1% MAC.
10. Assuming that the CG is at the aft CG
location at takeoff, what will be the new
CG location after the gear and flaps are
retracted? (Assume no weight change.) Question 2 - Choice 2
1. 32.4% MAC
2. 34.9% MAC TEMAC BS 1155
3. 36.1% MAC LEMAC BS 945
4. 36.7% MAC MAC 210 in.

11-30
 WEIGHT AND BALANCE

( Question 3 - Choice 2 Question 7 - Choice 4

CG range 14% MAC to 35.5% MAC 203,128,438 lb.-in. 1023 30 .

CGrange 29.4 in. aft LEMAC to 74.55 198,500 lb. (gross weight) . In.
in. aft LEMAC
74.55 CG BS 1023.30 in.
- 29.40 LEMAC BS 945.00 in.
45.15 in. CG aft of LEMAC 78.30 in.

MAC 210 in.

78.3 in. is 37.3% MAC
Aft CG limit is 35.5% MAC
Question 4 - Choice 3
Takeoff gross weight CG is 1.8% too
far aft.
BOW 94,230 lb.
Passengers (forward) 7,420 lb.
Passengers (aft) 14,670 lb.
Cargo (forward) 4,200 lb. Question 8 - Choice 3
Cargo (aft) 11,180 lb.
Takeoff gross weight CG is 1.8% too
Zero fuel weight 131,700 lb. far aft.
1.8% of 210 in. (MAC) is 3.78 in.

( Question 5 - Choice 2 Question 9 - Choice 3

Zero fuel weight 131,700 lb. Gross weight x CG change

Fuel (Tanks 2 & 3) 32,600 lb. Arm between cargo stations = Weight to shift
Fuel (Tanks 1 & 4) 34,200 lb.
Cargo (aft hold) BS 1320 in.
Gross weight 198,500 lb.
Cargo (forward hold) BS 590 in.
Distance between cargo
holds 730 in.

Question 6 - Choice 4 198,500 lb. x 3.78 in. 750,330 lb.-in. =

730 in. 730 in.
BOW CG 36.0% MAC
BOW CG 75.6 in. aft 1027.8 lb.
LEMAC
LEMAC BS 945.0
BOW CG BS 1020.6 Question 10 - Choice 2
BOW 94,230 lb.
BOW Moments 96,171,138 lb.-in. Moment change _ 264,000 lb.-in.
Passengers (forward) .4,081,000 lb.-in. Gross Weight - 198,500 lb. 1.33 in.
Passengers (aft) 17,750,700 lb.-in. CG moves forward 1.33 in.
Cargo (forward) 2,478,000 lb.-in. 1.33 in. is .63% MAC
Cargo (aft) 14,757,600 lb.-in. MAC 210 in.
Fuel (Tanks 2 & 3) .31,296,000 lb.-in. Takeoff CG location 35.50% MAC
Fuel (Tanks 1 & 4) .36,594,000 lb.-in. CG change. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .63%
Total Moments ... 203,128,438 lb.-in. CG location after retraction .. 34.87% MAC

11-31
Question 11 - Choice 3 7,500 X 50.9 381,750 lb.-in. ~ 206 . (
185,000 185,000 lb. . m.
7,500 lb. removed from BS 1070 (location
MAC 210 in. 2.06 in. = 1.0% MAC
of Tanks 1 & 4)
Old CG location 35.3% MAC
Gross weight after 45 minutes 192,500 lb.
Change in CG 1.0% MAC
Fuel burn for 1 hour · 7,500 lb.
New CG location 34.3% MAC
Gross weight after 1 hour
45 minutes 185,000 lb.

CG location after 45 minutes ..... 35.3% MAC

(74.1 in.)
CG location after 45 minutes BS 1019.1 Question 12 - Choice 1
Fuel (Tanks 1 & 4) BS 1070.0
CG location after 45 minutes BS 1019.1 Maximum zero fuel
Distance from fuel tank to CG 50.9 in. weight 135,000 lb.
Weight removed x distance
Zero fuel weight (this
from fuel tanks to CG flight) 131,700 lb.
CG change in.
New gross weight Additional (Allowable) 3,300 lb.

11-32
(
Chapte

INTRODUCTION

This chapter, Jet Performance, is divided into three separate sections.

The first section deals with a discussion of jet aircraft aerodynamics, subsonic, transonic, and
supersonic flight with emphasis placed on compressibility and shock wave formation. In addition,
there is a short discussion on jet transport design.

Jet engine design is explained in the second section. The theory of jet engine operation and the main
types of commercial jet engines used today are discussed.

The final section deals with jet aircraft performance charts and the performance criteria for takeoff
and landing. Included in this section are many of the jet performance charts currently being used
today. It should be noted that this chapter applies primarily to jet aircraft performance.

At the end of the chapter, a jet performance glossary is provided for the convenience of the reader.

JET AERODYNAMICS happens to air passing over the top of an air-

All of us are aware of the Bernoulli Theorem. In
effect, Bernoulli proposed that when a fluid
l (liquid or gas) increases in speed, its static pres-
sure decreases. Essentially, this is what primarily
plane's wing.
Most pilots are also aware that air is compres-
sible and that at very low airspeeds (below 300

12-1
knots) compressibility is negligible. Therefore,
aircraft operating well below the speed of sound
are not affected by the compressibility effects.
When nearing the speed of sound, however, com-
pression of the air causes a deceleration which
radically changes the behavior of the airflow.
This compression, or deceleration, is referred to
as shock waves. The airflow accelerating over the
top of the wing reduces the pressure and density
toward the forward area of the wing to a greater
and greater extent until finally the pressure to-
ward the rear of the wing is so great that
an attempted backflow occurs on the sur-
face of the wing. This backflow tries to move
forward toward the leading edge of the wing and
when the speed is sonic, the flow begins to break
down, forming a barrier. This barrier, or shock
wave, makes an instantaneous change whereas
12-2
the pressure, velocity, density, and temperature (
return to their previous condition.
Whenever these shock waves begin to form,
there is a tremendous increase in drag. This drag
rise, which is sometimes referred to as the sound
barrier, requires the aircraft to have an excep-
tional amount of thrust to operate within this
region. It is extremely important to understand
the aerodynamics of high speed flight when
operating near the critical drag rise. High speed
buffets can be reached by jet transport aircraft
in level flight. It is, therefore, imperative that
never-exceed speeds be closely adhered to.
Before talking about the characteristics of high
speed flight, the following is a brief summary of
subsonic airflow behavior.
drag (

.;o\-o.~~4; ,'0'" ~~,
UPWASH
tCRE~::::::~
c
Fig. 12-1. Generation of Lift
SUBSONIC FLIGHT
Subsonic flight is when the airflow over the
surfaces of the plane does not reach the speed of
sound. Because of the wing design, the air flow-
ing over that portion of the plane is always
greater than the speed of the plane itself. It has
generally been accepted that the subsonic region
begins at Mach 0 to Mach .75. Airflow over the
top of the wing may reach the speed of sound
with the formation of shock waves when the
aircraft's speed is as low as Mach. 75. The speed
at which the airflow over the wing initially
reaches the speed of sound is referred to as the
airplane's critical Mach number.
Transonic flight is defined as that realm of flight
when part of the airflow over the plane is sub-
sonic and part is supersonic. It is within this
JET PERFORMANCE
... -t
INCREASED LOCAL
VELOCITY
VELOCITY
POSITIVE LI FT
speed range that the greatest aerodynamic prob-
lems take place. The transonic speed range is
generally considered to be from Mach .75 to
Mach 1.2. Supersonic flight extends from Mach
1.2 to Mach 5.0, and all Mach numbers above
Mach 5.0 are considered to be hypersonic.
With a well designed airfoil, the airflow under,
over, and around it should be smooth and con-
form to the shape of the wing during subsonic
flight. The lifting action of the wing only re-
quires that the air pressure above the wing must
be less than the pressure below the wing, as
illustrated in figure 12-1.
The majority of lift is developed by the negative
pressure on the top side of the wing close to the
leading edge. There is also a certain amount of
12-3
dynamic pressure exerted on the bottom of the
wing which is especially evident at high angles of
attack. When an aircraft is designed for subsonic
flight, the leading edge of the wing is rounded.
Part of the airflow is forced to flow up over the
leading edge while the remainder flows below
the wing. The design of the leading edge is such
that the approaching airstream is split near the
bottom of the leading edge. At this point, the air
is completely stopped and a stagnation point, or
high pressure area, is formed. This high pressure
area is below the leading edge of the wing and
contributes to lift. If it were to occur at the
cen ter of the leading edge, there would be an
increase in drag. As the angle of attack of the
wing is increased, the difference in pressure
between the upper and lower surfaces becomes
greater. The air flowing over the upper surface
travels further which decreases the static pres-
sure above the wing. Conversely, the air flowing
under the wing increases the static pressure be-
low the wing.
The trailing edge of the wing is designed so that
the upper and lower airflows meet smoothly and
with minimum disturbance. If the trailing edge
were to be thick and rounded, the lower stream
would tend to move around the curve to the
upper surface. A second high pressure stagnation
point on the upper surface of the wing would
form which would reduce lift. By using a sharp (
trailing edge, the airstream is not inclined to
turn and move toward the upper surface.
It should now be well understood that the
greater pressure difference occurs near the lead-
ing edge of the wing and that it is this pressure
differential that produces lift. Little lift is pro-
duced near the trailing edge since it is designed
to prevent the formation of any forces that
would oppose lift.
From the foregoing, it should be easily under-
stood what causes a wing to stall. If the angle of
attack of the wing is increased, the air is forced
to make a sharper change in direction as it flows
over the upper surface. At some critical angle of
attack, the airflow is unable to continue flowing
over the upper surface smoothly and separation
begins to occur toward the trailing edge. As the
angle of attack is further increased, this separa-
tion begins to move forward rapidly. Lift is
destroyed by the formation of turbulence and
the wing is now considered to be stalled. There
is another type of stall which is sometimes
referred to as a shock stall. This type of stall
develops at the speed of sound and can occur at
any angle of attack. The shock stall is discussed
under the subject of transonic flight.

1. Subsonic flight is when the airflow over the surfaces of the

-
airplane do not reach the speed of _

2. Transonic flight is that realm of flight when part of the

sound
airflow over the plane is subsonic and part is _

3. The majority of lift is developed by the negative pressure on

supersonic
the -.,---,---- side of the wing.
toP. bottom

4. Dynamic pressure exerted on the bottom of the wing is more

and more prevalent as the angle of attack _--,-_ _----, _ top
increases. decreases (

12-4
 JET PERFORMANCE

( 5. The greatest pressure differential occurs near the

increases
_-,--,-_-,--,-_ _ edge of the wing.
leading, trailing

6. A shock stall is the type of stall which occurs at

leading
_ _---:-:--:---,--- speeds of flight.
high,low

7. _ _ _ _-,--- A shock stall can occur at low angles of

true, false high
attack.
I I

true

TRANSONIC FLIGHT is reached. Compressibility effects are many and

It is within the region of transonic flight that the
greatest aerodynamic difficulties become evi-
dent. In earlier designed aircraft, control reversal
was not uncommon. Using left rudder and
aileron might cause the airplane to tum to the
right. Sometimes the airplane would tend to
pitch down or "tuck under." Aircraft designed
( today have pretty well eliminated these prob-
lems. As shock waves begin to form on a wing,
there is an obvious buffet which gives the flight
crew ample warning that a shock stall is near.
varied. Their causes should be understood.
Whenever an object moves through air, it con-
tinually causes small pressure disturbances in the
airstream as it strikes particles within its path.
These disturbances cause a small change in air
pressure which is transmitted outward in the
form of a wave from the point where it origina-
ted. These expanding pressure waves travel at
the speed of sound and move outward equally in
all directions, as depicted in figure 12-2.

As stated previously, air is compressible, but it is If the object is moving at a low velocity, or
not considered serious until the speed of sound subsonic speed, pressure waves travel well ahead

BELOW MACH 1
AT MACH 1 ABOVE MACH 1
NO SHOCK WAVE
.......- - - -
DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT

F;g. 12-2. Pressure Waves

12-5
 of the object that created it. As the speed of the
object increases, these pressure waves begin to
pile up in front of the disturbance, which in turn
causes the air density to increase. As the object
reaches the speed of sound, the pressure waves
begin to pile up directly in front of the object.
This causes the particles of air directly in front
of the object's path to be delayed or slowed
down in passing the object, but at the same
time, the density and pressure have been con-
tinually increasing.
As the object's speed is increased beyond that of (
the speed of sound, the pressure and density of
the air just ahead of it are increased corres-
pondingly. This compressed region of air
extends some distance ahead of the object, de-
pending on the speed and size of the object and
the temperature of the air. Where the very sud-
den change in temperature, velocity, pressure,
and density takes place, a boundary line is
formed between the undisturbed air and the
compressed air. This boundary line is called the
shock wave.

1. The greatest aerodynamic difficulties occur in the

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ flight realm.

2. _ _ _ _---,-,.--- With the formation of shock waves on

true, false
the wings, a buffeting occurs indicating the approach of a transonic

shock stall.

3. When an object moves through the air, it causes small pres- (

sure disturbances which change the air pressure. This change
true
in air pressure expands outward in the form of waves at the
speed of _

4. __--,_---,--;-:- If the object is moving at subsonic

true, false
speeds, these pressure waves travel at the speed of sound well sound
ahead of the object and present no problem.

5: -----=-::-c=,------- As the object reaches the speed of

true, false
sound, the pressure waves begin to pile up directly in front of
true
the object which causes the air to be delayed or slowed
down, thereby increasing its density and pressure.

6. _ _ _ _-;-:- As an object reaches the speed of sound,

true. false
the pressure and density of the air just ahead of the object true
are increased and tend to move ahead of the object.

12-6

7. The very sudden change in pressure and density causes a
boundary line to form which
SHOCK WAVES
There are several different types of shock waves.
However, each shock wave has the following
characteristics:
1. The density and pressure of the air
passing through a shock wave in-
creases.
2. The velocity of the air decreases sud-
denly from supersonic to subsonic as
it passes through the shock wave.
3. The temperature of the air increases
( suddenly as it passes through the
shock wave.
One type of shock wave commonly found is
referred to as a normal shock wave. A normal
shock wave takes place when air slows from
supersonic to subsonic speeds without a change
in direction. An example of this type of shock
wave takes place over the wing surfaces of a
subsonic aircraft when it exceeds its limiting
Mach number. As seen in figure 12-3, the air
flowing up over the leading edge of the wing
increases in velocity and passes the speed of
sound. The airflow then passes through a normal
SUPERSONIC REGION SUBSONIC
~/
l the drag rise decreases rapidly. This decrease in
Fig. 12-3. Normal Shock Wave
JET PERFORMANCE
is called the shock true
wave
shock wave, decreasing from supersonic to sub-
sonic speeds in the process. It should be noted
that the shock wave is formed only durin the
instantaneous decrease in spee rom supersonic
flow to subsonic flow. The transltton of the air
~ subsonic flow to supersonic flow is alwa)'s
smooth and has no shock waves. But, when the
lin' changes from supersonic to subsonic flow, it
is rapid and is accompanied by changes in den-
sity, pressure, and temperature at the point
where the shock wave is formed.
When a shock wave is formed, a turbulence wake "\
can be found after the shock wave. This is what
causes the high speed buffet. Initially, high
speed buffet is quite gentle, but as the shock
wave increases in size, the buffet becomes ever
greater. The center of pressure on the wing will
also change and this is what tends to cause "tuck
under," or the pitching down of the aircraft's
nose.
Figure 12-4 illustrates what happens as the speed
of the airplane increases above the critical Mach
number. The speed of the air increases over the
wing, and the area of supersonic flow increases
causing the shock wave to move back toward the
trailing edge. In addition, supersonic flow
develops below the wing and another shock
wave begins to form. Eventually, the entire wing
will become supersonic and the shock waves on
both the top and bottom of the wing will have
moved to the trailing edge. At the same time, a
new shock wave begins to form in front of the
leading edge due to the air piling up at this
point.
When the shock waves begin to form, the drag
rise begins to increase drastically. As the shock
waves grow, so does the drag rise, but when the
shock wave reaches the trailing edge of the wing,
drag rise occurs at about Mach 1.2.
12-7
 (
SUPERSONIC
AREA SUPERSONIC
POSSI BLE SEPARATION AREAS

BEGINNING OF TRANSONIC SPEED RANGE

gooooooooo

SECOND SHOCK WAVE

FORMS UNDER WING
,
TURBULENCE
WAKE
MACH .75 MACH .90

SUBSONIC
AREAS
SUPERSONIC
AREAS ---;'-""'~.-\

SHOCK WAVES MOVE TOWARD TRAILING EDGE FORMATION OF BOW WAVES

NEARING MACH 1 ABOVE MACH 1

Fig. 12-4. Shock Wave Progression

1. As air passes through a shock wave, it suddenly decreases

from supersonic to _

2. Whenever air slows from supersonic to subsonic speeds with-

out a change in direction, it is referred to as a subsonic
_________ shock wave.
,
3. When a shock wave is formed, a turbulence wake can be
normal
found __-,---,-_--,- the shock wave.
before, after (
I
12-8
 JET PERFORMANCE

(
4. This turbulence is what causes the speed
high,low after
buffet.

5. "Tuck under" is a phenomena whereby the center of pressure

on the wing changes causing the aircraft's nose to pitch high

6. As the entire wing becomes supersonic, the shock waves on

both the top and bottom of the wing will have moved to the down
edge.
leading, trailing

7. When the shock waves have reached the trailing edge of the
wing, the drag rise rapidly. trailing
increases, decreases
I
I decreases I

(
JET TRANSPORT DESIGN
As mentioned previously, as the airplane's speed
approaches the speed of sound, there is a very
sharp increase in drag. Operating at just below
the speed of sound can cause the drag increase
to be as great as four times its previous value.
Depending upon wing design, some wings gen-
erate shock waves at lower airspeeds than others.
The problem for the aircraft designer is to design
an airplane capable of attaining high speeds
before shock waves begin to form on the top of
the wing with their attendant high drag.
THICKNESS OF THE WING
With a thick wing, the shock waves and drag rise
occur earlier. Making the wing thin improves the
cntJcal Macn performance but creates structural
problems. A thickness of about 12 percent of
the chord provides a com ro . e for seeds
an s ruc ur Integrity. The position of the
maximum thickness IS usually located at about
40 percent of the chord (40 percent aft of the
leading edge), resulting in improved critical
Mach numbers at high altitudes.
WING CAMBER
A large upper camber is detrimental when trying
to increase the Mach number before reaching·the
critical drag rise. Use of a symmetrical wing
provides higher Mach numbers prior to reaching
the critical drag rise. However, a certain amount
of curvature is necessary on the upper portion of
a jet transport wing. The camber is needed to
improve the lift/drag r"lationship necessary for
low speed flight, takeoff, and landing perfor-
mance.
WING SWEEPBACK
On a straight-wing airplane, the airflow meets
the leading edge of the wing at a 90 0 angle. By
designing a wing with sweepback, the airflow
strikes the leading edge of the wing at an angle
smaller than 90° Therefore, the theory of
sweptback wings is that the component of air-
flow perpendicular to the leading edge is what
affects pressure distribution. As illustrated in
figure 12-5, the airflow component which is
parallel to the leading edge has no effect on the
lift and drag pressure forces. The airflow com-

12·9
ponent which is perpendicular to the leading
edge produces a distribution of pressure around
the wing as would be found in a straight wing.
Thus, by use of a sweptback wing, it is possible
to increase the critical Mach number, as the
component which is perpendicular to the leading
edge is considerably less than the forward speed
of the airplane.
VELOCITY COMPONENT
"" PARAllEL TO
"" LEADING EDGE.
NO EFFECT ON
"" , LIFT AND DRAG
FREE STREAM FORCES
VelOCITY
VELOCITY COMPONENT
PERPENDICULAR TO
LEADING EDGE.
AFFECTS LIFT AND
DRAG FORCES AS
STRAIGHT WING
Fig. 12-5. Sweptback Wing
A big disadvantage of a sweptback wing is the
lateral control problems attendant with low
speed flight. A sweptback angle of approxi-
mately 350 provides a compromise whereby the
critical Mach number is less and lateral control is
not sacrificed.
PITCH-UP
One of the undesirable characteristics of a swept-
wing design airplane is pitch-up. It occurs at very
high speeds and is a result of the flow compon-
ent parallel to the leading edge of the wing. This
component does not produce lift, but does have
a skin friction effect. This causes the airflow to
move slightly outward from the fuselage toward
the wingtips. Thus, the wingtips are shockstalled
first at high speeds. This results in the center
of pressure moving inward and forward, causing
the airplane to pitch up. Jet wing design incor-
porates an increasing thickness from the wingtip
toward the wing root. This causes both the
wingtip and root to stall at the same time, and
the center of lift to remain in the center of the
wingspan.
12-10
STABILIZER ELEVATOR DESIGN (
In level flight attitudes, the stabilizer elevator
forms a "wing" with the same characteristics as
the main wing. If shock waves form at the mid-
section, the airflow behind this point makes the
elevator useless. By designing the stabilizer with
sweepback and using a thinner section than the
wing, it permits the aircraft to operate at speeds
close to Mach 1.0. Since the aircraft wing's criti-
cal Mach number is considerably less, the stabili-
zer elevator unit will be operating in a speed
range which is not detrimental to its effective-
ness.
Another serious effect of having the stabilizer
stall is the stick force required for longitudinal
corrections at high speeds. The hinged moment
force which must be overcome increases with
the square of the speed and may be further
increased as the result of compressibility effects.
This difficulty is overcome by use of the adjust-
able stabilizer which varies its angle of attack
over the entire horizontal tail surface.
RUDDER
On an aircraft with a sweptback wing, there is an
effect which causes a rolling tendency. As one
wing advances forward due to yaw, its lift is
increased which in turn causes the wing to lift.
At the same time this wing is rising, the drag
increases which causes the yaw in the reverse
direction. This action has been termed "dutch
roll" and is illustrated in figure 12-6. By use of a
yaw dampener attached to the rudder, the dutch
roll effect is eliminated.
AILERONS
Ailerons which are installed at the tip of a thin,
flexible wing are subjected to extreme forces
when operating at high Mach numbers. These
forces can cause the entire wing to twist and
thus cause a reverse in aileron control. To
combat this tendency, high speed ailerons are
installed inboard, and the outboard ailerons are
only used during low speeds when the flaps are
used.
Spoilers are also used for lateral control. Nor-
mally, ailerons and spoilers are used together to
provide good control at both high and low air-
(
speeds.
 JET PERFORMANCE

~~:J
Sequence of events continues. Dutch roll is eliminated by yaw
10 dampeners. In the event the yaw dampeners are inoperative,
dutch roll is controlled using aileron control only by stopping

it:
the rising wing.

=:::=c = ®

c .. ~ ® Vertical stabilizer assists in yaw to the right.

~ o The right wing starts moving forward which starts a roll to the
left and a yaw to the right.

-=-----.~ ® Now the inclined lift begins a movement toward the right.

=.-c ~ Vertical stabilizer assists the induced drag by yawing nose further
to the left.

= The left wing now begins to move forward which causes a roll to

-f
~ CD
the right and a yaw to the left.

The inclined lift starts movement toward the left.

~ CD Right wing moves forward developing exce'ss lift and induced drag
causing a roll to the left and a yaw to the right.

~ (2) Sharp gust from the left causes the nose to yaw toward the left.

I
DEVELOPMENT OF DUTCH ROLL AS VIEWED FROM BEHIND AND ABOVE THE AIRPLANE
(Sequence of events should be read from bottom to top of page)

Fig. 12-6. Dutch Roll

1. With a thick wing design, shock waves and drag rise occur

earlier, later

12-11
 (
2. Use of symmetrical wings provides
true, false earlier
higher Mach numbers prior to reaching the critical drag rise.

3. By using a sweptback wing, the critical Mach number is

true
increased decreased
I

4. Pitch-up is a phenomena which occurs

true, false
at high speeds when the wingtips are shock-stalled first, and increased
the center of pressure tends to move inward and forward.

5. The stabilator/stabilizer/elevator design

true, false
is such that it permits the aircraft to operate at close to the true
speed of sound.

6. Dutch roll is a phenomena whereby as one wing rises, the

true
nose yaws in the direction.
same, opposite
I
(
7. Aircraft equi pped with both high speed and low speed aile-
rons utilize the outboard ailerons only during opposite
high, low
speeds.

low

THE JET ENGINE
Essentially, a jet engine can be envisioned as a
tube in which a four-stage combustion cycle
takes place, like that of the reciprocating engine.
The jet engine incorporates an air inlet section, a
compression section, a burner section, and an
exhaust section. In terms of working principle,
the two different propulsion systems have much
in common, as illustrated in figure 12-7. How-
ever, mechanically speaking, they are quite dif-
ferent.
the economy at low altitudes and low airspeeds.
The main advantages of jet propelled aircraft are
high airspeeds and the ability to fly at high
altitudes.
I~ Both the reciprocating engine and the jet engine
obtain their power from gases expanded by
burning fuel. They both utilize oxygen obtained
from the air outside the engine to support com-
bustion. The basic laws of motion are utilized in

The chief advantage of an aircraft using a re-

each system to obtain thrust. Finally, they
both use a four-stage cycle of intake, compres-
(
ciprocating engine and propeller combination is sion, combustion, and exhaust.

12-12
 JET PERFORMANCE

(
INTAKE VALVE BOTH VALVES BOTH VALVES EXHAUST VALVE
OPEN CLOSEO CLOSEO OPEN

•
INTAKE STROKE COMPRESSION POWER STROKE EXHAUST STROKE
STROKE TURBINE
SECTION

AIR INLET SECTION COMPRESSION BURNER SECTION ( ; EXHAUST SECTION

SECTION
If:
--
,
r
~~ ~. .
- --- - . . - )
,
~
• ....

-<J <.... D
--
-:J
~~
---_ . . - - ~:>
<:::::: ;;:::::? .... -
Fig. 12·7. Four Stage Combustion Cycle

)-
The major differences between reciprocating en- engine exhaust is the force that thrust is derived
gines and jet engines is that the exhaust in a from.
reciprocating engine is mainly lost while the jet

1. The jet engine and the reciprocating engine both use the
four-stage cycle of _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , and _

2. Like the reciprocating engine, the jet engine obtains its power intake
compression
through the expansion of gases by burning _
combustion
exhaust

12-13
 (
3. The exhaust gases in a reciprocating engine are mainly lost.
However, the jet engine's exhaust gases are the force by fuel
which is derived.

thrust

JET ENGINE PRINCIPLE OF
OPERATIONS
A jet engine applies Newton's Second and Third
Laws of Motion in its operation. Newton's Sec-
ond Law states that a change in motion is pro-
portional to the force applied. Mathematically,
it is expressed as F ~ Ma; or, stated simply, the
force is equal to the mass times acceleration. His
Third Law states that to every action there is
always an equal and opposite reaction.
Newton's Second Law, as it applies to jet en-
gines, means that the force generated (thrust) is
equal to the mass (quantity) of air which is
taken into the engine's intake, multiplied by the
acceleration (the increase in speed) of the air
before it leaves the exhaust nozzle at the back of
the engine.
An illustration of Newton's Third Law is de-
monstrated by the action of a balloon filled with
air when released with its neck open. A balloon
begins to move as air escapes from the open
neck. Its movement is caused by the reaction to
the escaping air inside rather than by air pushing
against the air outside the balloon. The air rush-
ing out of the balloon may be called the action.
Inside the balloon, there is a reaction which is
equal to, but in the opposite direction, to the
outrushing air. The motion of the balloon is
caused by the reacting air pushing against the
inside surface of the balloon, which is in ac-
cOl·dance with Newton's Third Law of Motion.
It can be seen that the jet engine and the reci-
procating engine's propeller both provide thrust
by moving quantities of air backward. The jet
(
engine actually moves a smaller mass of air than
does that of a propeller. However, in the jet
engine, the acceleration of the moving air is
much greater than the acceleration of air moved
by a propeller. Since the velocity, or action, of
the air leaving the jet engine is very high, the
thrust, or reaction, is equally as great.

1. Applying Newton's Second Law to jet engines, increasing the

mass of air taken into the jet engine's intake will develop
more .

2. Newton's Third Law states that for every action there is

always an equal and opposite reaction. Air escaping from the
open neck of a balloon would be called the _ force or thrust
Air pushing against the inside surface of the balloon would
be called the _

12-14
 JET PERFORMANCE

(
3. Both the jet engine and the reciprocating engine's propeller
provide thrust by moving quantities of air backward. The action
reaction
propeller moves a mass of air than does
smaller, larger
the jet engine.

4. The acceleration of the moving air in the jet engine is much

larger
less, greater

greater

THE TURBOJET by the exhaust gases. A shaft connects the tur-

The basic operational sequence of a turbojet bine wheel to the compressor. Therefore, the
engine is illustrated in figure 12-8. Air enters the compressor is turned by the turbine; which, in
air inlet section, goes through a compressor sec- turn, sends more air through the engine.
tion where its pressure is increased, enters a
burner section where fuel is added for combus-
( tion, passes through a turbine section, and then
The compressor section of a turbojet is where
leaves the engine through the exhaust section
the air is compressed in preparation for the
nozzle at a high velocity which produces thrust.
burner section. It corresponds to the compres-
Note the radical changes in velocity, pressure,
sion stage in a reciprocating engine cylindeq In J-
and temperature that the airmass undergoes, re-
general, turbojet engines are classified as either
sulting in the total propulsive force.
having a centrifugal flow compressor or an axial
The turbine section which is between the burner flow compressor. Some jet engines incorporate a
and exhaust sections has a wheel which is turned I combination of the two.

1. The compressor is driven by the wheel.

2. The turbine section is located just aft of the _

turbine
section.

3. The compressor section is where air is compressed in prepara-

tion for the section. burner

burner

12-15
 I COMPRESSOR TURBINE
(
AIR INLET SECTION BURNER SECTION EXHAUST
I SECTION I I SECTION I I SECTION
I I I I, I,
I
•
•
•
<J [ .D
. .
D •
I
I I

VELOCITY --k+-~--
TOTAL
PRESSURE

TOTAL I
TEMPERATURE :::!=~ (

THRUST I
I TOTAL PROPULSIVE FORCE

Fig. 12·8. Jet Air Stages

CENTRIFUGAL FLOW COMPRESSORS

Figure 12-9 illustrates the centrifugal flow com-

pressor which is composed of an impeller, a
diffuser, and a compressor manifold. The impel-
ler is mounted within the diffuser and the entire
assembly is enclosed by the compressor mani-
fold. The impeller is made up of a series of
blades. As the blades revolve, the incoming air
begins to revolve and increases in velocity. Cen-
trifugal force causes the air to move outward
o
from the center toward the diffuser. As the air
leaves the impeller blades, it strikes the diffuser
with considerable velocity.
IMPELLER DIFFUSER COMPRESSOR
The diffuser, which does not rotate, consists of MANIFOLD

blades. The air moving from the impeller toward

the diffuser blades acquires energy in the form Fig. 12-9. Centrifugal Flow Compressor

12-16
 JET PERFORMANCE

( of velocity. The diffuser blades cause the air to
lose its velocity and convert its energy into the
form of pressure. From the diffuser, the com-
pressed air is collected by the compressor mani-
fold and fed into the burner section.
.Each set of impellers and diffusers is called a
stage. In a single-stage centrifugal flow compres-
sor, the compression ratio is about Jour to one.
In other words, the volume of air isreduced to
approximately one-fou:rth its original volume.
Additional stages may be incorporated to in-
crease the compression ratio. However, because
of the drastic changes in direction, centrifugal
compressors are relatively limited.

1. The centrifugal flow compressor is comprised of a

, , and a
manifold.

2. Air moving from the impeller toward the diffuser blades impeller
diffuser
acquires energy in the form of compressor

3. The diffuser blades cause the air to lose velocity and convert
velocity
energy into the form of
I

4. Each set of impellers and diffusers is called a

pressure

(
5. A compression ratio of 4:1 means that the volume of air is
reduced to approximately its original stage
volume.

one-fourth

AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS
The majority of today's turbojets use an axial
compressor. They have the main advantage of
producing high compression ratios - in excess of
Wrte~3:.- ,tp £!}e. An axial compressor, as the
name implies, compresses air as it flows in an
axial direction through the engine. It is made up
of rotor blades and stationary stator vanes. The
rotor blades are shaped like airfoils; thus, the
airmass moves in a fairly straight line toward the
rear of the engine.
The stator vanes, also designed like an airfoil, are
mounted behind each set of rotor blades. They
do not rotate, but receive the air from the rotor
blades and direct it toward the next stage of
rotor blades, as illustrated in figure 12-10.
One set of rotor blades and stator vanes con-
stitutes a stage in the axial flow compressor. As
air passes each stage, its compression continually
increases.
Two types of axial compression engines are
commo nly found - those with so-called single
compressors and those with dual compressors. In
a dual-compressor engine, each compressor is
mechanically independent of the other, although
they are related to the same airflow. Further,
each compressor has its own turbine. The tur-
bine for the forward, or low-pressure, compres-
sor is driven by the rear turbine. A dual-com-
pressor engine provides greater flexibility and is
capable of maintaining high compression ratios
at high altitudes.

12-17
 (

; t a t i n g Rotor Blades

---~
ENTERING AIRFLOW

---~

--- ROTOR BLADES

(
STATOR VANES

Fig. 12·10. Axial Flow Compressor

1. Axial flow compressors are capable of producing high com-

pression ratios in excess of .

2. Axial flow compressors are made up of rotor

13: 1
and stationary _

3. Stator vanes are mounted behind each set of blades

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ blades. stators

4. In a dual-compressor engine, each compressor is mechanically

rotor
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of the other. (

12-18

(
5. The turbine for the low-pressure compressor is driven by the
_________ turbine.
BURNER SECTION
Once the air leaves the compressor, it is forced
to the burner section where it is mixed with fu~l
and burned in a continuous combustion process.
Refined kerosene normally is used as a fuel in jet
engines; however, aviation gasoline can also be
used.
~b.out 25 percent of the total volume of air
entering the burner section is mixed with fuel
for combustion. The rest of the air bypasses the
fuel nozzle and is used to cool the combustion
chamber liner and also help cool the burned
gases before they enter the turbine section.
( There are many different types of combustion
chambers and the temperature of the burning
gases reaches as high as 3,000 0 Fahrenheit. How-
ever, because of the bypassed air, these tempera-
tures never reach the walls of the burner section.
Figure 12-11 illustrates a typical combustion
chamber.
The ignition system for jet engines is consider-
ably different than those used for reciprocating
engines because the requirements are not the
Fig. 12-1'. Combustion Chamber
JET PERFORMANCE
independent
rear
same. Basically, a jet engine ignition system does
not have to be used continuously for extended
periods of time. Also, jet fuels, at the extremely
cold temperatures encountered at high altitudes,
require a very hot spark in order to relight the
engine in case of a flameout. The spark pro-
duced is similar to that of a spark plug found in
piston-type engines and are termed igniter plugs.
Normally, there are two igniter plugs which
serve the entire combustion section. Once the
engine is started, the igniter plugs are turned off.
In some cases, ignition is continuous during
takeoff and when encountering turbulence or
icing conditions.
Turbojet engines may have as many as 14 separ-
ate combustion chambers. These chambers are
connected with crossover tubes in order that
the initial flame from one chamber with an
igniter plug will light the other chambers. Once
the engine is running, a high pressure air blanket
then blocks off the openings in the crossover
tubes before the temperatures reach very high
limits.
OUTER
CHAMBER
IGNITER PLUG\
~~t~~~~~
12·19
 (
1. The fuel normally used in jet engines is refined

2. If jet engine fuel is not available, avia-

true, false kerosene
tion gasoline can be used as an alternate.

3. _________ Of the total volume of air entering the

true

4. _________ Normally, there are ·only two igniter

true, false true
plugs which serve the entire combustion section.

true

TURBINE SECTION the turbine wheel may reach as high as 1,5000

Once the hot exhaust gases and unburned air
leave the combustion section, they are directed
into the turbine section at velocities nearing
2,000 feet per second. The turbine wheel is one
of the strongest parts of the jet engine because
of the high temperatures and stresses placed
upon it. The temperature of the gases striking
Fahrenheit. (
Similar to the compressor, the turbine section
may consist of more than one stage. And, like the
compressor, they are composed of alternating
rows of turbine wheel blades and stationary vanes.
Figure 12-12 shows how the turbine wheel is
connected to the compressor which it drives.

Fig. 12-12. Single Stage Turbine

12·20

( EXHAUST SECTION
After the gases leave the turbine section, they
exit the engine through the exhaust section.
The exhaust section is a slightly tapered tubular
duct which connects the turbine outlet to
the exhaust nozzle. The exhaust duct is so
designed as to increase the velocity of the gases
1. Similar to the compressor section, the turbine section may
consist of more than one
2. The exhaust duct connects the turbine outlet to the exhaust
3. The velocity of the gases leaving the jet engine is held at
_________ speeds.
(
THE TURBOPROP ENGINE
As stated previously, pure jet-powered aircraft
are superior to propeller-driven aircraft at high
speeds and high altitudes. Propeller-driven air-
planes excell at generally low airspeeds and low
altitudes. In fact, the turbojet engine does not
begin to approach the efficiency of a recipro-
cating engine propeUer system until speeds of
nearly 350 knots are reached.
Also, most of the gases passing through a turbo-
jet engine are forced out of the exhaust nozzle
to produce thrust. In the turboprop engine, the
reverse is true. The turbine in this engine, as
illustrated in figure 12-13, is designed to absorb
most of the energy from the exhaust gases.
Part of this energy turns the compressor, allow-
ing the engine to function in essentially the same
manner as a pure turbojet. However, the remain-
l ing energy is passed from the turbine to the
propeller and makes it possible for the aircraft
JET PERFORMANCE
to a point where they furnish the maximum
thrust as they leave the engine. The velocity of
the gases, as they leave the nozzle, is maintained
below the speed of sound. If the velocity was
allowed to exceed Mach 1, the attending shock
wave would obstruct the efficient flow of air
through the engine.
_
stage
nozzle
subsonic
TURBINE DRIVES
AIR d~;!IC:t0~M~PRRkEiiSiiso~R~==C:OMPRESSOR
!.
INLET
PROPELLER
Fig. 12-13. Turboprop Engine
to attain its thrust from the propeller by moving
a large mass of air at low velocity.
The turboprop engine can supply the propeller
with double the horsepower of a conventional
reciprocating engine. However, reduction gearing
must be used in order to reduce the r.p.m. of a
propeller and keep its tip speed below that of
£he speed of sound. Therefore, the limitations of
. a propeller still apply to the turboprop engine.
12·21
 (
1. _ _ _ _---,-,--- In the turboprop engine, the turbine is
true. false
designed to absorb nearly all of the energy from the exhaust
gases.

2. In order to keep the propeller tip speeds below that of the

speed of sound, it is necessary to use _ true
gearing.
I
3. - - - - - : - c - - - Turboprop airplanes are normally limit-
true, false reduction
ed to speeds of less than 350 knots.

I true
I

THE TURBOFAN ENGINE
.. The turbofan engine, sometimes referred to as a
p ducted fan, O!.",-ypa,s~ en!d.lle, is of a more recent
development than the turboprop engine. Like
the turboprop's principle, the turbofan engine
moves large volumes of air at lower velocities.
As shown in figure 12-14, the turbofan en-
gine has one or more rows of compressor
blades which extend beyond the normal length
of the rest of the compressor blades. These
longer blades are capable of pulling large vol- (
umes of air through ducts outside the compres-
sor section of the engine. This ducted air com-
pletely bypasses the combustion section; thus,
the fan portion of the engine resembles the
action of a propeller as in the turboprop engine,
but the fan is run directly by the turbine and

HIGH PRESSURE
FAN COMPRESSOR
LOW HIGH SPEED &
I
/
PRESSURE LOW SPE D TURBINE
COMPRESSOR
/
AIR INLET -.-.-.-.i"::

Fig. 12·14. Turbofan Engine

12·22
 JET PERFORMANCE

( does not require reduction gearing, as does the

turboprop. Turboprop

~ The great advantage of the turbofan engine is

that it is capable of moving four times as muc~ Turbofan
air as a simple turbojet, which, in turn, provides T---L.-
greater thrust at lower airspeeds than does the Turbo)!t
turbojet. Figure 12-15 depicts the net thrust
o 200 400 , 600
versus true airspeed which would be found in TRUE AI RSPEED - KNOTS AT SEA LEVEL

turboprop, turbofan, and turbojet engines. Fig. 12-15. Net Thrustvs. True Airspeed
.~

1. The turbofan engine is sometimes referred to as a ducted fan

or engine.

2. Similar to the turboprop's principle, the turbofan engine

bypass
moves large volumes of air at velocities.
low, high

3. _ _---:---:--;:-;-_ _ The main advantage of a turbofan en-

( true, false
gine is that it is capable of moving four times as much air as a
low
simple turbojet which provides greater thrust at low air-
speeds.

true

THRUST REVERSERS JET NOZZLE

Due to the high landing speeds and high gross
weights of modern jet-powered aircraft, thrust
reversers have been developed in order to mini-
mize the wearing of wheel brakes. In the event
of an emergency, they are sometimes used in
flight in order to increase the rate of descent.
Figure 12-16 illustrates a mechanical blockage- THRUST REVERSER DEFLECTORS
type thrust reverser. Usually located at the
rear of the jet nozzle, this type of thrust Fig. 12-16. Thrust Reverser
reverser mechanically blocks the exhaust gases
and diverts them at an angle whereby the direc-
tion of thrust is reversed. The thrust reverser JET ENGINE STATION
is most effective immediately after touchdown DESIGNATIONS
when the landing speed is at its greatest. Numerical station designations are used to faci-
As the aircraft decelerates, the effect of re- litate specific references to the various sections
verse thrust diminishes with decreasing speed. of a jet engine. As illustrated in figure 12-17,

12-23

Fig. 12·17. Jet Engine Station Designations
these numbers coincide with the location of var-
ious components. The ambient, or surrounding,
air ahead of the engine is designated by the
letters "am." The entrance to the aircraft inlet
air duct is designated by the number "1." These
reference stations are used when indicating the
characteristics of the many aerodynamic or ther-
modynamic variables at a given point as the air-
mass progresses through the engine. When desig-
nating pressures within the jet engine, a capital
"P" is used; a capital "T" is used for tempera-
ture. Following the capital letter "T" or "P" is
the lowercase letter "s" or "t" for static or total.
The two letters in the engine station designator
are followed by a number to indicate the loca-
tion on the engine. For example, the designators
Pt and Tt are explained as follows:
2 5
P = pressure T = temperature
t = total t = total
2 = engine station 2 5 = engine station 5
TACHOMETER
Fig. 12·18. Thrustlndicators
12·24
MEASUREMENT OF THRUST (
For the flight crew, any of the instruments
depicted in figure 12-18 are used as an indi-
cation of thrust. On small-type turbojet en-
gines, compressor speeds in revolutions per min-
ute (r.p.m.) are usually used for the measure·
ment of thrust. With this type of engine, the
measurement of thrust is approximately propor-
tional to the thrust actually being produced. On
larger engines it is necessary to have a more
precise indication of thrust. Because engine pres-
sure and thrust produced are proportional, the
larger jet engines use turbine discharge pressure
or engine pressure ratio (EPR). EPR is the total
pressure of the turbine discharge inside the en-
gine divided by the total pressure of the com-
pressor inlet. EPR = Pt
7
OTHER ENGINE INOICATORS
N, INDICATOR
The N 1 indicator shows the low pressure com·
pressor speed in percent of the maximum r.p.m. (
speed at which it is designed to operate. (See
Fig. 12-19.)
N 2 INDICATOR
This indicator is used to show the high pressure
compressor speed in percent of the maximum
r.p.m. speed it is designed to run.
TURBINE DISCHARGE ENGINE PRESSURE
PRESSURE RATIO
(
 JET PERFORMANCE

( EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE (EGT) FUEL FLOW INDICATORS (FF)

The exhaust gas temperature (EGT) indicates The fuel flow indicators (FF) are used to indi-
the temperature of the gases in the turbine cate the fuel consumption rate in pounds per
exhaust case. hour for each engine.

N1

EPRO
(

EGTO

FF 0

Fig. 12-19. Engine Indicators (typical three-engine installation)

12-25
 (
1. _ _---:-_-,-, Thrust reversers have their greatest ef-
true, false
fect immediately after touchdown
I
2. The engine station designation Ps means that the static true
4
pressure is taken at engine reference station

3. Turbine inlet total temperature at engine reference station

four
five would be labeled as
I

4. EPR is the total pressure of the turbine discharge inside

Tt
the engine divided by the total pressure of the 5
inlet.
i

5. TheN 2 indicator shows the seed

p of the I compressor
pressure compressor. (

high

FACTORS AFFECTING THRUST
From the previous discussion of jet engine oper-
ation, it was noted that the action of the heated
airmass being discharged at a very high velocity
results in a reaction which propels the airplane
forward. The extent to which this airmass is
heated and discharged determines the amount of
thrust. Since the mass of air discharged is the
most significant variable in determining the
thrust output and is directly affected by the
density of the air, we will discuss those proper-
ties which determine air density.
EFFECT OF PRESSURE
When the air pressure increases, more air is com-
pressed into a given volume. This increases the
density of the air, which in turn provides greater
air pressure at the engine air inlet. Pressuxe at
the air inlet provides a greater mass airflow to
the engine, which in turn increases the net
thrust. Since an increase in altitude has an
accompanying decrease in pressure, this will
decrease the mass airflow through the engine,
which decreases the thrust.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
A gas turbine engine is very sensitive to tempera-
ture variations and its thrust output can vary as
much as 20 percent. As air temperature de-
creases, the density of the air increases and,
conversely, an increase in air temperature will
result in a decrease in air density. Thus, at high
ambient temperatures, the air entering the en-
gine will have a low density with a resulting
low airmass, which decreases the thrust out-

12-26

( put. At any given power setting, a turbojet en-
gine will produce more thrust on a cold day than
it will on a hot day.
EFFECT OF AIRSPEEO
As the airspeed of an airplane increases, the ram
effect causes an increase in air pressure, or den-
sity of the air, as it enters the compresso, sec-
tion. This results in an increase in airflow which
tends to increase the thrust output.
EFFECT OF HUMIDITY
It is worthwhile to note the effect of
humidity upon a jet engine's output
compared with that of a reciprocating-type
engine. The capability of air to hold
moisture varies directly with the air
temperature. As the temperature of air
increases, its capacity to hold water
increases. Since water vapor is less dense
than air, this results in a decrease in weight
per volume of air.
( 1. As the pressure of air decreases, it will cause a(n)
_--,-- in thrust.
increase, decrease
2. High ambient temperatures will result in a(n)
_--,-- in thrust output.
increase, decrease
3. _ _--,--_--;-: Jet engines, like reciprocating engines,
true, false
are greatly affected by humidity.
TAKEOFF AND LANDING
PERFORMANCE
There are several "V" speeds and other terms
which are used to describe the various takeoff
and landing requirements of large aircraft that
should be understood. AIl of the criteria in the
remainder of this chapter is in reference to tur-
bine-engine-powered transport category aircraft.
JET PERFORMANCE
The power developed by the reciprocating
engine is dependent upon the weight of air
consumed. At any fixed power setting, the
engine draws in a fixed volume of
atmosphere. If part of the volume is water
vapor, the result is less volume of air
consumed, which means less power will be
developed due to a richer fuel/air
composition ratio. Near sea level with Illgh
humidity, the power loss can be as great as
seven percent.
Increased humidity causes a decrease in weight
per unit volume of air within the jet engine.
However, its effect on thrust output is almost
negligible because the jet engine operates with
an excess of air needed for complete combustion
of all fuel. The jet engine is not penalized by loss
of heat energy from improper fuel/air combus-
tion ratio, as in the case of the reciprocating
engine.
decrease
decrease
false
STAll AND MIrIlIMUM CONTROL
SPEEDS
- Stall Speed. The stalling speed or the
minimum steady flight at which the air-
plane is still con trollable.
VMC - Minimum Control Speed. The minimum
speed at which :it is possible to control the
12-27
 aircraft in flight when the most critical
engine is inoperative and the other en-
gine(s) are at takeoff power.
TAKEOFF SPEEDS
VI - Takeoff Decision Speed. The speed be-
low which the takeoff must be aborted
and the aircraft brought to a stop in the
event of an engine failure and the speed
above which a takeoff is continued.
- Rotation Speed. The speed at which the
airplane is rotated to the takeoff attitude.
VR may not be less than VI nor less
than 105 percent of VMC' This speed also
allows reaching V2 (see V2 definition) be-
fore reaching a height of 35 feet above the
takeoff surface.
V MU - Minimum Unstick Speed. The mini-
mum speed at and above which the airplane
Fig. 12-20. Takeoff Speeds
LANDING SPEEDS
VSO - Stall Speed In Landing Configuration.
The stalling speed, or the minimum steady
flight speed, with the landing gear and land-
ing flaps down.
1. VS represents the
12·28
can safely lift off the ground and continue (
the takeoff.
V LOF - Liftoff Speed. The speed at which the
aircraft first becomes airborne. If the air-
plane is rotated at its maximum practical
rate, VLOF must not be less than 110
percent of VMU with all engines operating,
nor less than 105 percent of VMU with one
engine inoperative.
V2MIN - Minimum Takeoff Safety Speed. This
speed may not be less than 120 percent of
VS ' nor less than 110 percent of VMC '
V2 - Takeoff Safety Speed. The speed that
meets the required climb gradient with one
engine inoperative. It cannot be less than
V2MIN and must be attained before reach-
ing a height of 35 feet.
Figure 12-20 depicts these takeoff speeds.
Approach Speed. - At 50 feet above the
runway threshold, the approach speed must
not be less than 1. 3 times VSO'
speed.
(
 JET PERFORMANCE

(
2. The minimum speed at which it is possible to control the
aircraft in flight when the most critical engine becomes
inoperative and the other engine(s) are at takeoff power is stall

designated as the speed.

3. __....,-,-,....,.-;- If an engine failure occurs at a speed

true, false
above VI' but below V2' the takeoff must be aborted.

4. The speed at and above which the airplane can safely lift off
the ground and continue the takeoff is designated as the false
minimum ---"speed.

5. VR represents the speed. unstick

6. VLOF is the speed at which the aircraft

true, false rotation
first becomes airborne.
(
7. V2MIN is the minimum takeoff safety speed. This speed may
true
not be less than the stall speed, nor less than the
_______________ speed.

8. V2 is the speed that meets the required climb gradient with

one engine inoperative and is referred to as the takeoff minimum control
_______________ speed.

9. VSO is the stalling speed, or the minimum steady flight speed,

safety
with the landing gear and landing flaps -,- _
up. down

10. At 50 feet above the runway threshold, the approach speed

down
must not be less than 1.3 times ___

12-29
/I TAKEOFF TERMINOLOGY
Accelerate-Stop Distance - The accelerate-stop
distance is the sum of the distances necess-
ary to accelerate the airplane from a stand-
ing start to VI; and assuming the critical
engine to fail at Vl,come to a full stop.
The accelerate-stop distance, used in enter-
ing the chart, must not exceed the length
of the runway plus the length of the stop-
way.
Balanced Field Length - The balanced field
length is a condition in which the takeoff
distance is equal to the accelerate-stop dis-
tance. This distance cannot exceed the
length of the runway.
Unbalanced Field Length - The condition
where the takeoff distance and accelerate-
stop distance is not equal.
Clearway - As illustrated in figure 12-21, a
clearway is an area beyond the runway
which cannot be less than 500 feet wide.
I'
Takeoff Distance ______
c
:>
Clearway
00
"'
Takeoff Run
I'
,........ ....
35'
.....
-""""":':'k,e~earwaYPlane
i~r:..M'X ~
I, :"e-a~"'~"'ay""-=:;;=,~I---";::"'----P-R-O-F-I-L-E----""':;'----
Fig. 72-27. Clearwav
12·30
The clearway is expressed in terms of a
plane extending from the end of the run-
(
way with an upward slope not exceeding
1.25 percent, above which no object nor
any terrain protrudes, with the exception
of threshold lights located at each side of
the runway. A clearway can be no more
than one-half the length of the runway. It
should be noted that a clearway is not on
the ground, but is a plane extending into
the air from the end of the runway (not the
stopway). Naturally, a clearway is not suit-
able for stopping the airplane in the event
of an aborted takeoff, but is used to pro-
vide additional takeoff distance for the
climbout. Its use by turbine-powered air-
craft provides an additional takeoff dis-
tance necessary, because of the slow initial
acceleration rate below V2' Therefore, a
clearway provides extra distance required
after liftoff in order to meet the criteria
concerning climb gradient.
Note: For the purpose of establishing takeoff dis-
tances and takeoff runs, the clearway plane is con-
sidered to be the takeoff surface, and the 35·foot
height is measured from that surface.
(
,I
Runway Clearway
Rwy L.
Max.
2
•
• •
PLAN
Clearway Plane
~,
0.0% Min~. }5'
.-"" ~ --
c::'~ ~-l _
Clearway .1
(
 JET PERFORMANCE

Runway Length ~ Takeoff Run Stopway

I.

Accelerate Decelerate

Accelerate-Stop Distance

Fig. 12-22. Stop way

Climb Gradient - The climb gradient expressed
in terms of percent is the net flight path
achieved. This percentage expresses the
2.
height obtained in relation to the ground
distance covered.
Stopway - A stopway is an area beyond the
engine failure at the V1 speed, as
shown in figure 12-23, or
1.15 times the horizontal distance
from the point of brake release to the
point where the airplane attains a
height of 35 feet above the takeoff
surface with all engines operating, as

c takeoff runway which is able to support

the airplane during an aborted takeoff
without causing structural damage. Some-
Takeoff Run - Takeoff run is a term used when
times referred to as an overrun, a stopway
is in tended for takeoff computations only.
Figure 12-22 depicts a stopway.
Takeoff Distances - The greater of:
1. the horizontal distance from the point
of brake release to a point where the
airplane attains a height of 35 feet
above the takeoff surface, assuming an
illustrated in figure 12-24.
the takeoff distance includes a clearway
(the un balanced field concept) and is the
greater of:
1. the horizontal distance from the point
of brake release to the midpoint be-
tween the lift-off point and the point
where the airplane attains a height of
35 feet above the takeoff surface, as-
suming an engine failure at V1 speed,
as depicted in figure 12-25, or

(Runway)*

TAKEOFF DISTANCE WITH CRITICAL ENGINE FAILURE AT V,

'* may include clearway

l
Fig. 12-23. Takeoff Distance With Critical Engine Failure at VI

12-31
 2. 1.15 times the horizontal distance airplane attains a height of 35 feet (
from the point of brake release to above the takeoff surface with all en-
a point equidistant between the lift- gines operating, as indicated in figure
off point and the point where the 12-26.

Start V LOF .-'" ................. 1

! [------- r
X . . . .: :O.c:.15: .:X. :. . .~1
1.....
Takeoff Distance = 1.15X
• (Runway)*

TAKEOFF DISTANCE WITH ALL ENGINES OPERATING

*may include clearway

Fig. 12-24. Takeoff Distance With All Engines Operating

Start V LOF
I' --
_- -- --1 (
! ,1,__ - - - - - Mid'POi:.. J 35'

.1
I:
Ground Roll

Takeoff Run Clearway

(Runway)

TAKEOFF RUN WITH CRITICAL ENGINE FAILURE AT V 1

Fig. 12·25. Takeoff Run W,th Critical Engine Failure at VI

Start

! 1" ."".."".,.",. - - __ J____

_-
Mid-point
-- --1 35'

•
•
X

Takeoff Run - 1.15X

(Runway)
•
-
.15X

•
•
Clearway
..
Takeoff Distance
• •
ALL ENGINES OPERATING

Fig. 12-26. Takeoff Run With All Engines Operating

12-32
 JET PERFORMANCE

- - -~oach
A

r .
1·3 II_ _ Complete
s ~__ S

5t -...
__--_.. .;.;.::a.. .
i- L_a_nd_i_n.::.9.;:D_i;:.;st.;:anc.c;:.;e'- 1
Landing Runway Length

Fig. 12-27. Landing Distance

Takeoff Path - The takeoff path begins from
the standing start and ends at 1,500 feet
above the takeoff surface or the enroute
altitude, whichever is higher.
Takeoff Flight Path - The takeoff flight path
begins at the end of the takeoff distance
at a height of 35 feet above the takeoff
surface, and ends at 1,500 feet above the
takeoff surface or the enroute altitude,
whichever is higher.
( must be such that in an approach config-
LANDING TERMINOLOGY
Landing Distance - As shown in figure 12-27,
the landing distance is the distance required
to land and come to a complete stop from
a height of 50 feet above the landing
surface. The landing distance must not
be greater than 60 percent of the ef-
fective runway length at the airport of des-
tination, nor greater than 60 percent at the
alternate airport.
Approach Climb - With the critical engine in-
operative, the landing weight of the aircraft
uration, it is possible to execute a go-
around or missed approach with a certain
minimum climb gradient.

1. The accelerate-stop distance is the total distance necessary to

accelerate the airplane from a standing start to
_ _ _ _ and then come to a complete stop.
I

2. The accelerate-stop distance must not exceed the length of

the runway plus the length of any _

3. - - - - : - c - - - - A balanced field length is a condition

true, false
whereby the takeoff distance is equal to the accelerate-stop stopway
distance.

4. A clearway is a plane extending from

true, false
the end of the runway with an upward slope of 1.25 percent
true
above which no object nor any terrain can penetrate with the
(
exception of threshold lights.

12·33
 (
5. A clearway can either begin at the end
true, false true
of the runway or the end of a stopway.

6. _ _ _ _-:-:- A climb gradient is the net flight path

true, false false
achieved and is expressed in terms of feet per minute.

7. Stopways can be used for both takeoff

true, false false
and landing computations.

I
8. The takeoff distance is a horizontal distance from the point
of brake release to a point where the airplane attains a height false
of feet above the takeoff surface.

9. The takeoff distance available is the sum

true, false
of the runway length plus the actual or maximum allowable 35
clearway length.

10. If 5,000 feet of runway is required from the point of brake

(
release to the lift-off point, and 1,000 feet from the lift-off
true
point to a height of 35 feet, the takeoff run would be
considered feet long.

11. The condition where the takeoff distance and accelerate-stop

distance are not equal is considered to be a(n) _ 6,325
field length condition.

12. The landing distance is computed from

true, false
50 feet above the point where the obstruction clearance unbalanced
plane intersects the runway.

13. At both the destination and alternate airports, turbojet air-

craft must be able to land and come to a complete stop
true
within percent of the effective runway
length. (

12·34
 JET PERFORMANCE

(
14. Approach climb criteria dictates that
true, false
with the critical engine inoperative, the landing weight of the
60
aircraft must be such that in an approach configuration, it is
possible to execute a go-around or missed approach.

true

TID Flight Path

Runway 35'

Takeoff Run
Clearway
Stopway -
Accelerate-Stop Distance

Takeoff Distance

Fig. 12·28. Stop way and Clearway Application

DISCUSSION ON TAKEOFF with one engine out. The climbout is

PERFORMANCE
In essence, there are two main factors which
must be considered in determining the takeoff
performance of jet aircraft.
These are:
1. The runway requirement of the air-
craft if one engine fails at V l' The
airplane should be able to accelerate
to VIand then stop, or, assuming
engine failure at V l' the takeoff can
be continued to a height of 35 feet.
From this point, the airplane must
now meet certain takeoff climb re-
quirements. Figure 12-28 illustrates
the runway requirements when both a
stopway and clearway are used.
2. The takeoff climb requirements insure
that the aircraft will be able to main-
tain a minimum climbout gradient
normal1y divided into three separate
segments. These segments are:
first - actual lift-off to landing
gear retraction;
second -- landing gear retraction
to 4.00 feet above runway
surface; and
third - 400 feet to 1,500 feet
above the runway.
Occasionally, the takeoff weight of the jet air-
craft is limited by the climb compliance in the
second segment. This segment is based upon
using the takeoff safety speed (V 2) and that
speed must be attained at or prior to reaching a
height of 35 feet. In general, the takeoff weight
restrictions are usually associated with low alti-
tude airports because of runway length limita-
tions. The climb compliance limitations are
more common at high altitude airports. Figure
12-29 shows the diffenmt segments and what
occurs in these segments.

12·35
DISCUSSION ON LANDING PERFORMANCE the event of a go-around or missed (
There are also two main factors which must be approach. This is an approach climb
considered in the discussion of landing perform- compliance criteria whereby the land-
ing weight of the aircraft is such that
ance. These are:
it can make a safe climbout with the
1. The distance required to land and
critical engine inoperative.
come to a full stop. This is based on
the effective runway length which
states the aircraft must be able to stop
within 60 percent of available run way Generally speaking, the maximum al-
lowable landing weight is restricted by
after crossing the threshold at a height
the landing field length available.
of 50 feet and at a speed of at least
However, at high altitude airports, the
1.3 times VSO. approach climb criteria may be more
2. The ability of the aircraft to climb out restrictive, but is seldom encountered
with the critical engine inoperative in by jet aircraft.

1/
Final
Segment Climb
--
2nd Segment Acceleration

clim~

Ground Roll

v, VRVLOF~
I
h, S,gmoo,
Climb

/
;.------~:......,-

I~ is
~

Landing Gear ~.--D-o-w-o-"iO!-"'~";T·~:.c:Retrac'ion (") ---'-i-I--R-"-"-'-"-d-~I:-----.L----..!.--'~

-g,-"
E" " I--,,!::::.:A'~' "-1'_-_'__~~*~~_..lI
I _ Operating I _ One Inoperative 1

Air Speed 1 V:.:.: .,;"'.b"'I", I~I---'V.::;""';.,,b"",~-I~ V s Min.

Flaps 1 . . :D::OO:w::.O:.. . ~ 1._....!CR'~'~,,~"!:'~d __ 1

Power 1 T~.::k:::'o::.f:..f I__ ....!M~.Cc.. __./

1st TID 2nd TIO Transition Final TID M.e. .. Maximum Continuous
Items
Segment Segment (Acceleration) Segment
v, . Takeoff Decison Speed
Two
PositiVI:: 2.4% Positive 1.2%
Engine V • Takeoff Safety Speed
. Three
Engine .03% 2.7% Positive 1.5%
Vs
2

• Calibrated Stalling Speed,

Four or min. steady flight speed
0.5% 3.0% Positive 1.7%
Engine at which the airplane is
controllable.
Wing Flaps T.O. T.O. T.O. Up

Landing Gear Down Up Up Up VR • Speed at which airplane

can start safely raising
Engines nose wheel off surface.
lout lout lout lout
(Rotational Speed)
Power T.O. T.O. T.O. M.e.
V LOF ~ Speed at point where airplane
AirSpeed V LOF -- V 2 V2 V 2 __ 1.25V (min) 1.25V (min)
S S
lifts off.

~ Required Absolute Minimum Gradient of Flight Path (

Ffg. 12-29. Takeoff Climb Segments

12-36
 JET PERFORMANCE

(
1. The climbout segment from actual lift-off to landing gear
retraction is referred to as the segment
climb.

2. The second segment climb is based upon using the V2 or

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ speed. first

3. Runway length limitations are normally associated with

takeoff safety
_ _---;:-=-,-,- altitude airports.
high, low

4. Climb compliance limitations are usually restricted to

low
---;-c-:--:----- altitude airports.
high, low

5. _ _ _ _..,.-;- The maximum allowable landing weight

true, false
high
is usually restricted by the approach climb criteria.

false

JET PERFORMANCE Solution:

CHARTS
RELATION OF TEMPERATURE
TOISA
The chart in figure 12-30 is used to relate the
actual outside air temperature (OAT) at a given
pressure altitude to the value in the international
standard atmosphere (ISA). Some performance
charts use the actual OAT while others express
the temperature as a deviation from ISA.
TYPICAL PROBLEM
1. Enter the chart on the left at the
pressure altitude (26,000 ft.) and pro-
ceed to the right.
2. Enter the outside air temperature
(-25°C) on the bottom of the chart
and proceed upward.
3. Locate the intersection of the two
lines and read the temperature devia-
tion from standard (+ 12°C) by inter-
polating between the diagonal lines
labeled ISA ± deviation.

Given:
pressure altitude 26,000 ft. (Note: The standard temperature for any altitude
outside air temperature -25 0 C. can be found by proceeding to the right from the
pressure altitude line until intersecting the diag-
onal line labeled ISA. From this point, proceed
Find: downward and read the temperature on the bot·
ISA deviation tom line.)

12-37
 IRELATION OF TEMPERATURE TO ISA l (

40

36

32

28

I-
IJ... 24

-
§
U..I
Q
I

(
~ 20
!::
I-
....J
«
U..I
c:::
~
V>
16
V>
U..I
c:::
"-

12

-80 -60 -40 20 40 60

Fig. 12-30. Relation of Temperature to ISA

12-38
 JET PERFORMANCE

(
1. Given:
pressure altitude 33,000 ft.
outside air temperature -56°C.

Find:
ISA deviation _

2. Given:
pressure altitude _ 18,000 ft.
outside air temperature +2 o C.

Find:
ISA deviation

, I
3. Given:
pressure altitude ....................... 24,000 ft.
ISA deviation ........................... +IOoC.
+23 0 C.

Find:
OAT

I
4. Given:
pressure altitude ....................... 29,000 ft.
ISA deviation ........................... -15°C.
-22°C.

Find:
OAT

-S'PC.

12-39
FLIGHT PLANNING FLIGHT PLANNING PROBLEM
Figure 12-31 is a commonly used flight planning Given:
chart. It provides the flight crew with a simplif-
ied method for determining the trip time and
fuel required.
o This flight planning chart is based upon an
indicated Mach .82 cruise airspeed. Find:
• The climb speed is predicated on a 340
knot indicated airspeed until Mach .78 is
obtained (approximately 23,500 feet). Solution:
Mach .78 is then used until reaching the 1.
cruising altitude. The descent is .80 Mach
until reaching the altitude where an indi-
cated airspeed of 280 knots is obtained. 2.
• The trip distance is given in nautical miles
starting at 200 miles. 3.
•
A wind correction reference is provided for
headwind or tailwind components up to
100 knots. 4.
• Two cruise pressure altitude references are
used - one for determining time and one
for determining fuel.
5.
6.
o The landing weight correction factor is
used for trip fuel.
o The trip fuel is given in pounds.
7.
o The international standard atmosphere
(ISA) deviation factor is used when finding
trip time.
• The trip time is broken down into hours
and min utes.
8.
12-40
(
trip distance 950 nautical miles
average wind 60 knot tailwind
cruise pressure altitude FL 310
landing gross weight 124,000 lb.
outside air temperature -53 0 C.
trip fuel
trip time
Enter the chart at the bottom at 950
miles. Proceed upward to the wind
reference line (zero wind velocity).
Follow the curved line back down and
to the left to the horizontal line for a
60-knot tailwind. Then plot a vertical
line upward.
From the point where the vertical line
crosses the first cruise pressure altitude
line for 31,000 feet, go to the right
to the landing weight reference line.
Follow the curved line upward and to
the right from this intersection to the (
vertical line for a landing weight of
124,000 pounds.
To the right on the trip fuel line, read
the total trip fuel, 16,200 pounds.
To find trip time, go back to the ori-
ginal vertical line and continue up-
ward to the other set of cruise pres-
sure altitude lines (the 31-35 line, in
this case).
Proceed to the left to the [SA refer-
ence line, then parallel to the slant
line to the _6 0 temperature deviation
line. (The 'ISA deviation can be ob-
tained from the chart titled, "Relation
of Temperature to ISA.")
Directly to the left is the total trip
time, 1 hour and 57 minutes.
 JET PERFORMANCE

(
.. 1-

.!

.... ;. : .... ;

. ;

35
•••• J

•••.J

o
"!"

+~-~~
15,LI
;. : :: . ~

.1
.... _ . : -.. :~
:. j
..... ;

-'--:
.. 1"
; ..
... ; . ::·:·:1
...•.....:...1. ::": .:~

.... 1:·· :.":.:::1

~-'!-~~f.!'~,""oIiII~~~"'-~~!~_•.•..'!'L.·.·~l~d~Ej;]
(
Fig. 12-31. Flight Planning Chart

12·41
 (
1. Given:
trip distance 1,400 nautical miles
average wind 30 knot headwind
cruise pressure altitude FL 290
landing gross weight 130,000 lb.
outside air temperature -30°C.

Find:
trip fuel lb.
trip time hours _
minutes

2. Given:
trip distance 750 nautical miles
average wind 90 knot tailwind
cruise pressure altitude FL 270
landing gross weight 110,000 lb. 31,200
outside air temperature -42°C.
3 hrs. 13 min. (
Find:
trip fuel lb.
trip time hours _

minutes

3. Given:
trip distance .....•............ 1,240 nautical miles
average wind 60 knot headwind
cruise pressure altitude FL 350
landing gross weight 115,000 lb. 12,200
outside air temperature -57°C.
1 hr. 24 min.
Find:
trip fuel lb.
trip time hours _
minutes

24,400
3 hrs. 14 min.
(

12·42

( TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE
Figure 12-32 is a representative takeoff perform-
ance chart for a flap setting of 15° The maxi-
mum allowable gross weight of the aircraft at
brake release is influenced by either the runway
limit gross weight or the climb limit gross
weight. Of these two weights, the lowest value is
the limiting weight. In most cases, it will be the
runway limit weight. However, under certain
conditions, the climb limit weight may be the
lesser value. The following factors are taken into
account.
RUNWAY LIMIT FACTORS
o This takeoff performance chart is based on
the following airplane configurations:
flap setting 150
antiskid ON
nose brakes ON
CG location AFT 14%
• Runway length available - Usually the
( length available is limited to the paved area.
In some cases, an overrun area designated
as a "stopway" may be considered. Stop-
ways that are adequate to roll out on when
a takeoff is aborted are not to be used in
normal operations.
• Wind - A headwind component effectively
increases the length of the runway allowing
for a higher gross weight, whereas a tail-
wind component has the opposite effect.
However, not more than 50 percent of any
headwind component and not less than 150
percent of any tailwind component is fig-
ured into the takeoff planning data chart.
Do not apply a correction factor for wind
when using the performance charts. Use the
wind as stated.
o Slope - Uphill grades increase the ground
run required to reach takeoff speed, but
improve stopping distance. The reverse is
true for downhill slopes. Given as a per-
centage, runway slope is determined by
dividing the difference in elevation of the
l two ends of the runway by its length. The
figure obtained is then multiplied by 100
to convert it to a percentage value.
JET PERFORMANCE
• Average takeoff EPR - The amount of
thrust available is determined by using the
takeoff EPR chart in figures 12-34 and
12-35.
o Pressure altitude - The altitude correction
necessary is determined by using pressure
altitude. High pressure altitudes reduce the
gross weight allowed and low pressure alti-
tudes permit higher gross weights.
o Outside air temperature - With high temp-
eratures, the density of the air is reduced
which reduces the allowable gross weight.
The opposite is true for low tempera-
tures.
If the CG is forward of 14% MAC, the gross
weight answer obtained should be reduced
by 1,500 pounds. For gross weight in ex-
cess of 160,000 pounds, another instruc-
tion note is included.
CLIMB LIMIT FACTORS
FAR 25.121 specifies the climb gradients which
must be met during the takeoff and climb
phases. The maximum weight allowed for climb
limit involves two items:
• Average takeoff EPR
o Pressure altitude
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Given:
runway length available .... 8,150 ft.
wind component .4 knot tailwind
slope 1% up
average takeoff EPR 1.88
pressure altitude 4,000 ft.
outside air temperature 88 0 F.
Find:
gross weight at brake release
Solution:
For Runway Limit:
1. Enter the chart at the lower left at the
runway length available (8,150). Pro-
ceed upward to the horizontal wind
reference line.
12-43
~

...'".;,.

·.~:.:.i.:

."
~.

;;;
f\l
Q;i
...
'"fl ---

······.········k!····
:;:
~
'~" I . : ; i: "!.' . r:r:l~~.l3~~;'
~
'" _-L~:~t,.iJc:.,hJ2:~;~~" j .~...
.: .ffirtG·f A.'!'fR~GrEPR;m.~ (;R~UtlO ~Y ,o~'F:
~• ~
·~oI l'" ~C ['j" 'lI. ;.t~rl~.· +=:f"'l:+.=.1i: :!o·.~· ·.·.·.Ls: t~" t·t02·':r· · ·-+.!: :=:·: : . ';f. : ~:;: E-+ ·.; ;~: : . .I~41iliI~:,t:~,-!(.: ~'.~t~~ .~~mtr
.. ::
.. <V
~.lj ,,;,,;;;;;!~,-:-
··Jf; BY :>0.•;,;"'~::,;!~~J":.:!;;;J
rsoo LB

'..
;iii..•,I;;~ .. ;.. <i;LI
....
'J;
~
,Hy '!1
"" .'" """ "", ""~, ,,~"''' """''' ""
~6~S~~~~.B; REDUCE BY 1500 LB OR USE 160,000 LB MAXIMUM, AS

,-.... ~
 JET PERFORMANCE

2. Follow the slanted line back down to
the left to the horizontal line which
represents the 4 knot tailwind line.
Proceed upward to the runway slope
reference line.
3. Follow the curved line upward and to
the left to the horizontal one percent
up slope line.
4. Proceed upward to the curved EPR
lines and plot 1.88. Proceed to the
right to the pressure altitude reference
line.
5. Follow the slant lines down to the
vertical line which represents 4,000
feet. Proceed to the right to the verti-
cal outside air temperature reference
line.
6. Follow the curved line downward and
to the right until reaching the vertical
line for +88 0 Fahrenheit.
7. Directly to the right of this point is
the gross weight at brake release; the
correct answer in this case is 132,000
pounds.
For Climb Limit:
1. To work the climb limit, start where
the climb limit line intersects the EPR
line for 1.88.
2. Proceed to the right to the pressure
altitude reference line.
3. Follow the curved lines to the right
and down to the vertical line above
4,000 feet.
4. Proceed to the right horizontally to
the extremities of the chart. Do not
correct for temperature.
5. The gross weight answer for this pro-
b)em is 143,500 pounds.
Since the lesser of the two limits is always to be
taken, 132,000 paunds is the limiting gross
weight at brake release for the specified condi-
tions.
Note: At no time may the actual takeoff weight
exceed the certificat.ed maximum takeofr weight.

1. Given:
runway length available 6,600 ft.
wind component 20 knot headwind
slope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5% down
average takeoff EPR ...........•............ 1.90
pressure altitude 2,000 ft.
outside air temperature 95 0 F.
Find:
gross weight at brake release
lb.
2. Given:
runway length available 9,500 ft.
wind component 5 knot tailwind
slope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .4% down
average takeoff EPR 1.89 142,500
pressure altitude 3,000 ft.
outside air temperature 59 0 F.
Find:
( gross weight at brake release
lb.

12-45
 (
152,000

ADDITIONAL FACTOR AFFECTING 0 The brake

inoperative.
anti-skid system is
TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE
The operating variables previously discussed (air-
plane configuration, runway length, wind, aver-
8 The selected EPR value must be
obtained before the airspeed
age engine EPR, slope, pressure altitude, and reaches 60 knots.
temperature) are based on a smooth, dry, hard-
surface runway. The following factor requires
consideration, when applicable.
• The airbleeds
3 are on .
for engines 1 and

RUNWAY COMPOSITION
Runway surface composition is the main vari-
able that affects the length of the takeoff roll.
• EPR settings must be adjusted
for nonstandard airbleed settings.

To find the maximum takeoff EPR.

Rough, uneven surfaces will decrease takeoff simply enter the chart at the correct
performance. Runways covered with ice, water, pressure altitude and move horizontally
slush, or wet or dry snow have varying factors to the actual outside air temperature
which affect acceleration and deceleration. column. Standard configuration EPR for
These factors are usually calculated in the form each engine is shown in the
of a table to account for runway surface condi- corresponding block. Interpolation will be
tions. The table in figure 12-33 accounts for necessary for temperatures and pressures
takeoff from runways covered with slush or between the values listed. Lastly, the
snow. EPRs must be corrected for non-standard
airbleed conditions.
4 INCH DRY SNOW 6 INCH DRY SNOW
FIELD Of 1/4" SLUSH Of 112" SLUSH
LENGTH V,
WEIGHT WEIGHT V,
REDUCTION REDUCTION REDUCTION REDUCTION TYPICAL TAKEOFF EPR PROBLEM
4000 Fl. 12100 lb. 11 KIAS 18600 lb. 3 KIAS
Given:
5000
6000
13100
13000 "
9
20300
20500
3
3
outside air temperature 50 F.
7000 "300 8 21800 3
8000 "500 7 22000 3 pressure altitude. _ 3,000 ft.
9000 '''00 7 22800 3
1‫סס‬oo "300 7 23000 3 engine anti-ice (all engines) ON
11000 16000 7 24800 3
air conditioning OFF
Fig. 12·33. Snow and Slush Table

Find:
NORMAL TAKEOFF EPR setting for number 1 and 3
engines
Figure 12-34 is representative of takeoff data
EPR setting for number 2 engine
charts. It provides the flight crew with quick
reference performance information on takeoff
thrust settings, speeds, and stabilizer trim set-
tings. Solution:
1. Under a temperature of 50 F, read the
The Maximum Takeoff EPR portion of EPR limit of 2.26 for engines 1 and 3
the chart is used to determine the at the pressure altitude of 3,000 feet.
maximum allowable engine thrust,
expressed in engine pressure ratio (EPR)
that may be used for takeoff under a 2. In the same block find the EPR
given set of circumstances: at 2.28 for engine 2.

12-46
 JET PERFORMANCE

(
o ~
----~
ENG 1 & 3 AIRBLEED ON
MAX TAKEOFF EPR -
ANTI SKID INOPERATIVE o- 60 I<NCTS ENG 2 NO AIRBLEED
RESS 0';'1' OF -67 TO -9 -4 14 41 68 77 86 104 113 120
ALT
FT
1 , 3
·C -55 TO -23 -20
5
-15 -10 "
-5·
32
0 5
50
10
59
15 20 25 30
95
35
40 45 4Q
-1000 , 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.03
1.99 1,94 1. 91

I--
S.L.
1 , 3
2.06
2.10
2.06
2.10
2.06
2.10
2.06
2.10
2.06
2.10
2.06
2.10
2.06
2.10
2.06
2.10
2.06
2.10
2.06
2.10
2.06 2.06
2.10 2.08
2.05
2.00
2.03
1.99
1.96
1.94
1. 92
1.91

I---
1000
1 ,2 3 2.11
2.15
2.11
2.15
2.11
2.15
2.11
2.15
2.11
2.15
2.11
2.15
2.11
2.15
2.11
2.13
2.11
2.12
2.11
2.12
2.11 2.10 2.05
2.00
2.11 2.08 2.0) 1.99
1.96
1.94
1. 92
1.91
2.16 2.16
f--~
2000 w 1
,2 3
2.21
2.16
2.21
2.16
2.21 2.21
2.16
2.21
2.16
2.20
2.16
2.17
2.15
2.14
2.13
2.14
2.13
2.14
2.12 2.10 2.05 2.00
2.11 2.08 2.03 1.99
1.96
1.94
1. 92
1.91
2.21
3000
1 ,2 3
2.22
2.26
2.22
2.26
2.22
2.26
2.22
2.25
2.22
2.23 2.20
2.18
2.17
2.16
2.14
2.16
2.14
2.15
2.14
2.12
2.11
2.10
2.08
2.05
2.03
2.00
1.99
1.96
1.94
1. 92
1. 91

3856 ,1
2
3 ,
2.28
2.31
2.28
2.29
2.28
2.27
2.27
2.25
2.24
2.23
2.21
2.20
2.18
2.17
2.16
2.14
2.16
2.14
2.15
2.14
2.12
2.11
2.10
2.08
2. 05
:2.03
2.00
1.99
1.96
1.94
1. 92
1.91
ABOVE 2.32 2.31 2.29 2.27 2.24 2.21

o{
2 2.18 2.16 2.16 2.15 2.12 2.10 2.05 2.00 1.96 1.92
EPR BLEED CORRECTIONS ENG 1 ~ 3 ENG 2
PRESSURE
AIR CONDITIONING OFF+.04 - ~-OAT

f
ALT - 1000 FT
ENGINE ANTI-ICE ON - -.03 ·F -65 25 26 87
9 TO 11 (ABOVE CERTIFIED ALTITUDE) -54 TO TO
·C -4 -3 31
REDUCE ENG 2 EPR BV .05 WITH 6TH ·F -65 9 10
7TO 9 75 76 104
STAGE BLEED ON HI' INSTALLED) FOR llf'C
·C -54 TO -13 TO 25 TO <0
(SOD"1 OAT 3< WARMER -12 24
·F -65 -10 -8 42 43 97 98

I 5 TO 7 TO III
TO TO
VI' V R, V 2
·C -54 TO -23 -22 5 6 36 37 44
·F -65 32 33 TO 90 91 113 11' TO 120
3 TO 5 TO
·C 54 0 1 32 33 TO 45 46 49
·F 65 83 8' TO 10. 107 TO 120
1 TO 3 TO
·C -54 28 29 41 42 49
·F -65 99 100 120
STAB TRIM -1 TO 1
·C 54
TO
37 38
TO
4'3
SmlNG GROSS

z-
WEIGHT
CG. FLAPS FLAPS V =V V V =V V V =V V V =V V,
1000 LB 1 R 2 1 R 2 1 R 2 1 R
5 15 20 25 210 165 175 166 175
UNITS AIRPLANE NOSE UP 200 160 171 162 171

( 10
12
6 3/4
6 1/2
7 1/2
7 1/4
8 1/4
8
190 155 167 157 167 158 167

,.
180 150 163 152 163 154 163
14 6 1/4 7 7 3/4 170 144 159 147 159 149 159 150 158
6 6 3/4 7 1/' 5
160 140 154 141 153 143 153 145 153
18 5 3/4 6 1/2 7 150 135 149 136 14~l 138 149 140 148
20 5 1/2 6 6 1/2 140 129 145 130 14S 132 144 134 144
22 5 5 3/4 6 1/4 130 124 140 125 13~l 126 138 128 138
24 4 3/4 5 1/4 5 3/' 120 119 135 120 13~1 120 134 121 133
26 4 1/2 4 3/4 5 1/4 210 156 166 157 166
28 4 4 1/2 4 3/4 200 151 162 153 162
30 3 3/4 4 4 1/4 ,
190 146 158 148 IS!! 149 158
32 3 1/2 3 3/4 4 180 141 154 143 15/1 145 154
34 ] 1/4 3 1/4 3 )./2 170 136 150 138 150 140 150 141 149
36 2 3/4 3 3 15
160 132 146 133 14S 135 145 137 145
3U 2 1/2 2 1/2 2 1/2 150 127 141 128 14J, 130 141 132 140
40 2 1/2 2 1/2 2 1/2 140 122 137 123 137 124 136 126 136
42 2 1/2 2 1/2 2 1/2 130 117 133 118 13:1 118 131 120 131
120 112 128 113 127 113 127 115 126
210 151 161 152 16J.
200 146 157 148 157
190 141 153 143 15;1 144 153
FLAP RETRACTION/ 180 136 150 138 150 140 149

M AN :UVERINGM~EDS
170 132 146 133 146 135 145 136 145
20
160 128 142 129 141 131 141 133 141
GROSS FLAP POSITION 150 123 137 124 137 126 136 128 136
WEIGHT 140 118 133 119 133 120 132 122 132
LB 15 5 2 0 130 113 129 114 12fl 114 127 116 127
154500 120 109 124 109 123 109 123 III 122
150 160 190 200
& BELOW 210 146 157 147 15;7
154501 200 141 153 143 15:::1
TO 160 170 200 210 190 137 149 138 149 139 149
176000 180 132 145 134 14S 136 145
176001 170 127 141 129 141. 131 141 132 140
TO 170 180 210 220 25
160 123 137 124 137 126 137 128 136
191000 150 119 133 120 13::1 122 133 124 132
ABOVE 140 114 129 115 129 116 128
180 190 225 235 118 128
191000 130 109 125 110 124 110 124 112 123
FOR MANEUVERS IMMEDIATELY AFTER
.
TAKE OFF EXCEEDING 15 BANK MAINTAIN
120 105 120 106 120 106 119 108 118

AT LEAST V +10 AT TAKEOFF FLAPS

2
(
Fig. 72-34. Takeoff Data Chart

12-47
 3. The EPR bleed corrections table 4. Since the engine anti-ice is on, a -.03 (
lists a correction factor of + .04 correction is applied to the maximum
for engines one and three when EPR of 2.28 for the number 2 engine
not using air conditioning. When to arrive at the engine EPR limit of
added to the standard EPR of 2.25. No anti-ice correction factor is
2.26, the maximum, takeoff EPR applied to the maximum EPR settings
becomes 2.30 for engines 1 and 3. for engines number 1 and 3.

The following five programmed frames can be answered by referring to figure 12-34.

1. Given:
outside air temperature DoC.
pressure altitude .4,000 ft.
engine anti-ice ON
air conditioning OFF
Find:
EPR setting for number 1 and 3 engines _
EPR setting for number 2 engine _

2. Given:
outside air temperature 68 0 F.
pressure altitude .................•...... 7,000 ft.
air conditioning . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 N
2.24
engine anti-ice OFF
2.18

Find:
EPR setting for number 1 and 3 engines _
EPR setting for number 2 engine _

12-48
 JET PERFORMANCE

(
3. Given:
outside air temperature _5° C.
pressure altitude sea level
engine anti-ice ON 2.14
engines 1 and 3 airbleeds ON 2.15
Find:
EPR setting for number 1 and 3 engines _
EPR setting for number 2 engine _

4. Given:
outside air temperature _4° F.
pressure altitude 1,500 ft.
engine anti-ice OFF 2.10

engine 1 and 3 airbleeds ........•.....•........ON 2.08

Find:
EPR setting for number 1 and 3 engines _
EPR setting for number 2 engine _

5. Given:
outside air temperature _35° C.
pressure altitude 2,000 ft.
2.18
engine anti-ice ON
2.19
engine 1 and 3 airbleeds ON
Find:
EPR setting for number 1 and 3 engines _
EPR setting for number 2 engine _

I 2.21
2.19

12-49
 (
TAKEOFF PR B' E' CORRECTIONS ENG 1 & J ENG 2
EPR ENG 1 & J - AIC ON
E~G 2 - NO BLEED
ENGINE ANTI-ICE ON
.+
_n,-

O.A.T. Field Pressure (Inches Hg not corrected to sea level)

of °c 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
120 49 1.78 1.78 1.78 1.78 1.78 1.78 1.78 1.78 1.78 1.78 1.78
104 40 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.85
95 35 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90
86 30 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94
77 25 1.97 1.97 1.97 1.96 1.96 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95
68 20 1.97 1.97 1.97 1.96 1.96 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95
59 15 1.97 1.97 1.97 1.96 1.96 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95
50 10 1.98 1.98 1.98 1.98 1.98 1.98 1.98 1.98 1.98 1.98 1.95
41 5 2.01 2.01 2.01 2.01 2.01 2.01 2.01 2.01 2.01 2.00 1.95
32 0 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.00 1.95
23 -5 2.07 2.07 2.07 2.07 2.07 2.07 2.07 2.07 2.05 2.00 1.95
14 -10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.05 2.00 1.95
5 -15 2.12 2.12 2.12 2.12 2.12 2.12 2.12 2.10 2.05 2.00 1.95
-4 -20 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.10 2.05 2.00 1.95
-13 -25 2.18 2.18 2.18 2.18 2.18 2.18 2.16 2.10 2.05 2.00 1.95
-22 -30 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.16 2.10 2.05 2.00 1.95
-31 -35 2.23 2.23 2.23 2.23 2.23 2.23 2.16 2.10 2.05 2.00 1.95
-40 -40 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.231 2.16 2.10 2.05 2.00 1.95
-49 -45 2.27 2.27 2.27 2.27 2.27 2.23 2.16 2.10 2.05 2.00 1.95
-65 -54 2.31 2.31 2.31 2.31 2.31 2.23 2.16 2.10 2.05 2.00 1.95
Fig. 12-35. Takeoff EPR

Figure 12-35 is another example of a takeoff Solution:

EPR chart. All that is required to determine the 1. To solve this problem, it is necessary
EPR setting is to read the value under Field to find the approximate field pressure.
Pressure opposite the Outside Air Temperature Since a difference of 1,000 feet of
and, if necessary, apply the bleed correction elevation makes a difference of about
table_ one inch in barometric pressure, the
field pressure at 5,000 feet would be
EXAMPLE PROBLEM FOR DETERMINING approximately 25 inches of mercury
TAKEOFFEPR when the altimeter setting is 29.95. (If
the altimeter setting is 29.31, the field
Given: pressure would be approximately 24
outside air temperature __ .. _+20 0 C_ inches of mercury.)
field elevation _. __ . ... 5,000 ft.
altimeter setting 29.95 in. Hg. 2. Opposite the outside air temperature
of 20 0 Celsius, read 1.95 EPR directly
Find: below the field pressure of 25 inches
EPR setting for number 1 and 3 en- of mercury. In this problem, 1.95
gines EPR would be used for all three en-
EPR setting for number 2 engine gines.

12-50
 JET PERFORMANCE

( The Vl, YR. V2 section of the chart in figure flaps 150

12-34 is for detemining V speeds. Vl is the gross weight 150,000 lb.
takeoff decision speed and VR symbolizes the
rotation speed. (On this particular aircraft, Vl
Find:
and VR are equal to each other.) V2 is the
takeoff safety speed. V 1 and VRspeeds

•
Because takeoff performance is a
function of density altitude, it is
necessary to determine the pressure
altitude prior to using this chart.
o This item refers to the
ambient, air temperature.
outside, or
o Four takeoff flap configurations
available - 5°, 15°, 20 0, and 25 0.
are
V2speed
Solution:
1. Opposite a pressure altitude of 3,000
to 5,000 feet, read to the right and
locate the t"mperature column which
includes 68° Fahrenheit. In this case,
it is between 33° Fahrenheit and
90° Fahrenheit.
2. Again, refer to the 150 flap configura-
tion and read to the right to select the

o For each takeoff flap configuration,

corresponding gross weights are 3.
gross weight of 150,000 pounds.

By reading vertically down from the

listed. selected temperature column into the
tabulation of V speeds, select the
TYPICAL PROBLEM
VI ~ VR and V2 speeds appropriate
Given: for 15° flap and 150,000 pounds
pressure altitude .4,000 ft. gross weight. They are, res!>"ctively,
( outside air temperature 68 0 F. 128 knots and 141 knots_

Refer to figure 12-34 to answer the following programmed frames.

1. Given:
pressure altitude 500 ft.
outside air temperature 150 C.
flaps ....................•................25 0
gross weight 145,000 lb.

Find:
V 1 and VR speeds _
V2speed _

12-51
 2. Given:
(
pressure altitude 2,000 ft.
outside air temperature 109° F.
117
flaps 15°
131
gross weight 135,000 lb.
Find:
VI and VR speeds _

V2 speed _

121
134

The Stab Trim Setting Chart in figure is reached. This will normally occur at ap-
12·34 is used to determine the pitch proximately 23,500 feet.
trim setting for takeoff. The units of
nose up trim required are determined by
the center of gravity position in % of
• The gross weight of the airplane at the time
of brake release.
(
MAC and the degrees of flaps used. To
illustrate, an airplane loaded to a CG of
32% of MAC and using 15 or 20 degrees • The field elevation columns allow for ad-
justment in fuel consumption in pounds.

•
of flaps would require 3% units of nose
up trim for takeoff. The time required from brake release to
climb speed is approximately three min-
The Flap Retraction/Maneuvering Speeds utes.
Chart shows the speeds to be used for
maneuvering after takeoff for specified
flap position and gross weight limits. TYPICAL PROBLEM

Given:
TIME AND FUEL FROM BRAKE gross weight 155,000 lb.
RELEASE TO CLIMB SPEED field elevation 2,000 ft.

Figure 12-36 is an example of a Time and Fuel Find:

From Brake Release To Climb Speed Chart. These fuel consumed
charts do not consider the FAR 250-knot speed
restriction which applies below 10,000 feet Solution:
MSL. However, no significant difference in 1. Enter the chart at the left column at a
climb time, fuel, and distance will result from gross weight of 155,000 pounds.
use of these tables. 2. Proceed to the right to the column

o The desired climb speed is 340 knots indi-

cated airspeed until an indicated Mach. 78
3.
labeled "2,000 ft., fuel lb. "
Read the answer of 930 pounds of
fuel.

12·52
 JET PERFORMANCE

(
1. Given:
field elevation .4,000 ft.
gross weight 145,000 lb.
Find:
fuel consumed in pounds _

890

0-340/.78 CLIMB ~ at the beginning of the enroute climb is

GROSSWT
-100~ LB

170
S.L.
FUEL LB

1030
FIELD ELEVATION----;JIIE'"
2000 FT
FUEL LB

1090
4000 FT
FUEL LB

1150
6000 FT
FUEL LB

1210
+ 150,000 pounds.

The predetermined cruising altitude is

stated as a pressure altitude (i.e., the alti-
tude when the altimeter is adjusted to

+
165 970 1020 1080 1140 29.92 inches of mercury).
160 920 980 1030 1090
155 880 930 980 1030 Climb data includes the time required to
150 840 890 940 990 reach the cruising altitude, the amount of
145 800 840 890 940
fuel that will be consumed in pounds, the
140 770 850 900
distance that can be covered in nautical
810
( 135 740 780 820 870
miles, and the average true airspeed in

+
knots.
130 710 750 790 830
125 690 720 760 800
The temperature deviation column is ap-
120 660 690 730 770 plied when the predetermined cruising alti-
115 640 670 700 740 tude has a temperature greater or less than
110 620 650 680 710 standard ISA temperature for that altitude.
105 600 620 650 680
100 590 610 630 660 TYPICAL PROBLEM
Given:
cruise altitude FL 350
ITiME = APPROX 3 MINI'" 0 start climb weight 150,000 lb.
indicated airspeed 340 knots/Mach. 78
Fig. 12-36. Time and Fuel From Brake Release
temperature at cruise
To Climb Speed Chart
altitude 50 warmer than ISA
Find:
EN ROUTE CLIMB CHART time for enroute climb
fuel consumed
Figure 12-37 represents an enroute climb chart
distance covered
which would be used after the time and fuel
average true airspeed
from brake release chart. The various entries on

+
the chart are explained as follows:
All engines are assumed to be operating
with two airconditioning airbleeds being
used. The indicated airspeed is 340 knots
to approximately 23,500 feet and then
Mach .78 is used during the remainder of
the climb. The gross weight of the airplane
Solution:
1. Enter chart on left at pressure altitude
of 35,000 feet.
2. Proceed to the right to column labeled
+5 0 C.
3. Read answer of 24 minutes, 5,491
pounds of fuel, 178 nautical miles,
and 440 knots average true airspeed.

12·53
 (
ALL ENGINES ENROUT£ CLIMB
2 AIR8LEEOS START CLIMB WT
340/.78 150,000 LB
PRESS. CLIMB DEVIATION FFlOM I SA - DEGR-Hcrl ,.-

~
Al T -FT ;l0ATA -1' -10
• -0
• 10 lS '0 ZS

TIME ",.
7390M
FUEL
DIST
AVlAS KTS

TtME
FUEL
LBS
"'"
HTN
LBS 5~
25
67
31
61 ')1
DIST 177
AVTAS "'"
KTS ."
'18
429

38000 TI~E "I' 21 23 Z7 33

FUel LBS 414q 5194 57~7 6661
DIST
"'"
AVIAS KTS
1"
427
16T
477
197
4'3
243
438

37000 TIME "'N ,. '0 Z3

Sign
'6 31 39
FUEL LB' 43 <;7 4752 5148 6506 7663
DIST NA" IZR 144 I.' 1<3 '31 2<)2
AVTAS KTS 421 4'6 431 437 442 44 •

36000 TIME 17 ZI 39 SZ
FUEL
orST
"'N
LBS 414<>
'8
4456 4P30 5?SQ "
16 0
'7
5811
3Z
6647 7775 9742
"'"
AVTA S KTS
tl6
420
13n
4ZS
147
4,n 436
197
441
236
447
'94
4.,
401
4'0
3500n TIME HIN lS t7 10 21 24 '8 34 4Z
FUEL LRS )957 4236 4574 4 qe, 54C:l1 6144 7031 8'\54
'JIST NAM 1n7 "0 I" 1S4 17. '00 253 321

34000
AVlAS KTS 420

14
475 43C 435 440

n
446 4S!

30
458

37 47
(
TT"'E
FUEL
"I'
LOS HeR
'6
4053 "
4366 47-40
'0
5t<J<)
'6
5117 6536 7592 9217
DIST
"'"
AVIAS KTS
Ion
419 "'
424
IZS
42°
142
434
163
439
'90
445
".
450
'79
456
3.'
463
330(1(1 riME HI' 13 IS , 6 1• 21 24 Z8 33 41
FUel L'S 3MO 36Aq 4 lEn 45?Q 4952 5478 6153 7059 6360
DrST NAH 94 '04 117 13' lSI 17. '07 ZSO 314
AVT AS KTS 418 423 428 433 438 443 449 4SS 461

32000 TIMF
FUFL
"'N
IRS 350)
13 ,.
3139
ts
4014 4340
17 19
4734 "
'>220
'6
5834
'0
b639
37
7154
nisT NAH 98 110 141 163 190
AVTAS KTS 417 " 4" 426
"4
432 437 442 448
'ZB
453
'81
460

31000 T IMF# H'N IZ 13 IS 16 18 21 Z4 '8 34

FUEL L"S 3315 3598 3859 4167 4537 49S9 ~,)55 6285 1274
OIST NAH 8' 9' 103 116 13' IS' 17T 210 ,.6
AVTAS KTS 41S 420 475 430 435 441 446 4S> 458
~{\OO{\ HIN 17 19
TTME
FlJFL L8S
DI';T NAH
II
'H53
tZ
~466
14
3113
IS
40e5 4354 477R "
5304
'6
5976
3t
b873
79 87 97 I C9 1Z4 14' 16' 19' 23.
AVTAS KTS 414 419 424 429 434 439 444 450 456
2Qnon HIN II 14 16 18
TTME
FUEL
0151
L8S
NAH
31 37
74
"
B4n
8'
"
1576
0'
38')3
103
4184
117
4583
134
Zt
5075
IS.
Z4
5700
18'
'9
6521
219
AVTAS KTS 413 417 ." 427 432 437 443 448 454

2-:10Clfl TIME "'N In II 12 14 IS 17 '0 Z3 '7

FUH LRS 3025 371Q 3444 37C8 4021 4397 4858 5441 6207
0151 NA" 70 78 .7 <7 110 126 14. 170 '03
AVTAS .TS 411 41. 420 4" 430 43S 441 446 4S>

NOTE: 1- Enter chart at cruise flight level.

2. Subtract 150 Ibs. fuel and ~ min. of time for each
1000 feet that departure airport is above sea level.
(
Fig. 12·37. Enroute Climb Chart

12-54
 JET PERFORMANCE

(
1. Given:
start of climb weight 150,000 lb.
cruise altitude FL 330
temperature deviation from ISA +10 o C.

Find: (See Fig. 12·36.)

time for enroute climb _________ minutes
fuel consumption _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ lb.

distance covered _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ nautical miles

average true airspeed _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ knots

2. By using both the time and fuel from brake release to climb
speed chart in figure 12·36, and the enroute climb chart in
figure 12-37, solve the following problems.

Given:
field elevation .4,000 ft.
24
cruise altitude FL 370 5,478
( temperature deviation from ISA ·5 0 C.
175
443
gross weight at brake release 150,940 lb.

Find:
gross weight at start
of cruise altitude _ _ _ _ _ _ lb.

145,410

NORMAL CRUISE
The cruise planning chart shown in figure
12-38 is explained below.
• The actual outside air temperature for the
flight at 30,000 feet is used for calcula-
tions.

o The indicated Mach is .82, or 82 percent of

the speed of sound. The aircraft is operat-
• The actual gross weight of the aircraft at
the cruising altitude.
ing in cruise flight with all engines. Two
airconditioning airbleeds are assumed to be
o The indicated Mach, associated true air-
speed, and the total fuel flow for all en-
operating. gines in pounds per hour.

f) The cruising altitude is 30,000 feet. o When the desired cruise schedule cannot be

•
obtained (i.e., .82 Mach), the maximum
( The international standard atmosphere cruise Mach and true airspeed are printed
(ISA) temperature is -44.4 0 Celsius for this for the maximum allowable EPR (some-
altitude. times referred to as the limit EPR).

12-55
~

'"
u. I
~
CO>

IND. MACH .82cRUISE

PLANNING
..ALL ENGINES 2 AIRBl£EOS

)\ IS"-A~ DE. C ~O.OOO FT -

loROSS lilt OAT -OE<. C -.0 -55 -'0 -AS -AD -J5 I -'0 I -25 I -20

165000 I1ACH/T AS .eZOHo4 .820/469 .820/414 .820/480 .8201485 .8131486

La TOTAL Ff 9219 9351 9483 9b15 91<lt4 9711

~ 1 bOUOD MACH/TAS
TOT Al Ff
.820/4blo
9012
.820/409
9141
• BlOH 74
9270
.820/460
9399
.B20/US
9528
.820/490
965'"
'B
155000 "'ACH/TAS .820/4bo\ .820/469 .820/414 .820/480 .820/485 .820/490 .811H90
." 'B TOT AL f f 8820 89"6 9011 9198 93241 9Hl 9375
~.

;;; 150000
'B
fI1ACHI1 AS
TOT AL FF
.820/464
8631
.820/469
8757
.820/414
8880
.S20/4dO
9001
.820/485
912b
.820/490
9H~
.810/495
9369
~ Ilt5000 MACH/lAS .820/lt64 .820/469 .820'lt74 • 820/lt80 .8201485 tf20/49~ .820Jlt95 .801H92
_'B WULFF 8457 8580 8700 BHll 89".3 \..... 9060 9180 9012
~~. 140000 HACH/lAS .820/46,. .820/469 .820/414 .820/480 .820/U5 .820/490 .820/495 .816flt98

-'B
TOTAL FF 8295 54 IS 8535 8652 81!>9
.
88116 9003 9042

i¥
•
~

~
~
135000
'B
"1ACH/TAS
TOTAL fF
.820/464
8139
.820/469
8256
.820/41't
8313
.820/480
8481
• 820/485'
8604
.820/490
8116
.820/495
8832
.820/500
8946
.800/ 493
86ltO
1
1

~.
130000 I4ACH/US .820/464 .820/469 .820/414 .820/480 .820/485 .820/490 .820/495 .820/500 .810/499
'B TOTAL FF 1992 8106 8220 8334 8-448 8562 867] 8787 8670
9
~
~
125000
'B
... ACH/TAS
TOTAL FF
.820/464
7845
.820/469
7959
.8201414
a070
.820/480
8Ult
.820/48'$
8295
.820/490
8406
.620/495
8517
.820/500
8625 rr·818~
B.' ..-
120000 "'ACHIlAS .620/464 .820/4b9 .820/414 .820/480 .820/485 .820/490 .820/0\95 .820/500 .820/505
," TOTAL FF 7113 7624 7935 8043 8154 8262 8310 8478 B'86
115000 MACH/lAS .820/464 .. 820/469 .820/4711 .620/480 .820/485 .820/490 .820/0\95 .820/500 .820/5005
'B TOUL FF 75lH 7689 7800 7908 8016 8121 8229 8314 80\.,.2

110000 "1ACH/TAS .820/4604 .820/469 .820/47ft .820/4>80 .820/485 .e201490 .820/495 .820/500 .820/505
'B TOTAL FF 74601 7575 16080 7l1J8 1893 7998 8103 8208 8313

1050uO "'ACHlllS .820/464 .820/4609 .820/414 .820/480 .820/485 .820/490 .8201495 .820/500 .820/S0~
'B TOTAL FF 1356 7461 15M 7bn 7776 7881 7981 80118 8190

1011000 MACHI"TAS .8201464 .820/469 .820/474 .820/0\80 .820/485 .820/490 • 820flt95 .820/500 .. 820/5005
'B TOTAL FF 7251 1356 7458 7563 7665 7167 1869 Hll 807)

V
r -'\
 JET PERFORMANCE

( TYPICAL SAMPLE PROBLEM TYPICAL ACCUMULATIVE PROBLEM US-

ING CRUISE PLANNING CHART
Given: Given:
planned cruise speed 82 Mach time 1000 GMT
cruise altitude 30,000 ft. altitude FL 300
gross weight at cruise 135,000 lb. gross weight 160,000 lb.
outside air temperature -40 o C. outside air temperature -50 o C.
wind component (headwind). -30 knots
Find:
Find: gross weight at 1200 GMT
true airspeed
total fuel flow Solution:
The solution to this problem is outlined in
the following table. Note that the wind
Solution: component has no bearing on the problem.
1. Enter the chart at the left at a gross Total
weight of 135,000 pounds. Gross Fuel Fuel Time Clock Time
Weight Burn Flow Interval GMT (1000)
2. Proceed to the right to the column
labeled "-40 o C." 160,000 5,000 9,270 32 minutes 1032
155,000
5,000 9.072 33 minutes 1105
3. Read the Mach number of .82 and the 150,000
145,000 5.000 8,880 34 minutes 1139
answers of 485 knots true airspeed
and a total fuel flow of 8,604 pounds 141,950 3,050 8,700 21 minutes 1200
per hour. Answer: 141,950 lb.

Refer to figure 12-38 to answer the following four questions.

1. Given:
altitude FL 300
speed Mach .82
gross weight 150,000 lb.
outside air temperature -50 o C.
Find:
true airspeed c- knots
total fuel flow _ _ _---'- p.p.h.

2. Given:
altitude FL 300
gross weight 140,000 lb.
474
outside air temperature -25 0 C. 8,880

Find:
Mach number at maximum allowable (limit) EPR
(

12·57
 (
3. Compared to ISA temperature at 30,000 feet, an outside air
temperature of -35 0 C. is 0 Celsius .816
_ _--,- than ISA.
less. greater

4. Given:
time 1835
altitude FL 300
gross weight 145,000 lb. 9.4
greater
outside air temperature -35 0 C.
wind component (tailwind) ·50 knots

Find:
gross weight at 2030 GMT lb.

128,000

o f) o NORMAL DESCENT
Figure 12·39 is representative of a descent plan-
1·80/280- 0 1 1 ning chart.
PRESS T1Mt- FUEl- DIST-
AlT - 1000 fT
39
MIN

20
lBS

B50
NAM

124 o The pressure altitude from which the de·

scent begins.
37 19 BOO 112
35 IB 700 101
33 17 650 92 8 The time required for the descent in min-
31 I. 600 B. utes.
29
27
25
15

"
13
600
550
550
BO

.
7' o The amount of fuel consumed in pounds
during descent to sea level.
23 12 500 63
21 II 500 58
• The distance covered in nautical air miles.
19 10 .50 52
17 10 '50 4.
15 9 .00 41 • The chart is based on a Mach .80 indicated
10
5
•3 300
150 13
2. airspeed until an indicated 280 knots is
obtained.
Subtract 30 lb. of fuel and 36
Note:
seconds for each 1,000 feet that (Note: The FAR 250-knot airspeed limitation be-
the destination airport is above low 10,000 feet MSL is not included on the chart.
sea level. However, its affect is minimal. Also, the effect of
temperature or weight variation is negligible and is
Fig. 12·39. Descent Planning Chart therefore omitted.)

12-58
 JET PERFORMANCE

( 1. Given:
cruising altitude FL 290
airport elevation sea level

Find:
time for decent minutes
fuel consumed _ _ _ _ _ _ _ lb.

distance covered _________ nautical air miles

2. Given:
gross weight of aircraft at
start of descent 129,800 lb.
cruising altitude FL 350
airport elevation 5,000 feet MSL . 15
600
80
Find:
approximate gross weight of
( aircraft when landing _ _ _ _ _ _ _ lb.

time required for descent _________ minutes

129,250
15

LANDING PERFORMANCE Note: Item 0 Field Length Weight Corrections

Figure 12-40 is a typical landing performance
chart for a flap setting of 400. It is used to
determine the maximum field length limit gross
weight of the aircraft.
Field Length Limit Factors
are applied when the above conditions cannot be
met.
Runway Length Available - The length
available is normally limited to the paved
area. If a displaced threshold is present,

o Conditions - The chart is based upon:

1. Brake anti-skid system turned on
only that length beyond the displaced
threshold can be considered. In no case can
stopways be figured into the total length.

•
2. A dry runway
3. Nosewheel brakes either on or Reported Wind - A headwind component
off effectively increases the length of the run-
4. A landing weight below 160,000 way and a tailwind component decreases it.
pounds Not more than 50 percent of any headwind
5. A center of gravity aft of 16 per- component and not less than 150 percent
cent of the mean aerodynamic of any tailwind component is computed
chord into the landing performance chart.

12·59
 (

ON 0 LB
e.G. AFT 1I1Z. 'DRY I-"OC;;F'"'F,.-·-+-~O:-il~'8:;'"--II
MAC AHD WY 'C ON· 'ON ,. . ""UOOO'l!B: .
BELOW' ~ET OF F - 22000 LB
.. 160.000 LB . O,FF' DRT.· .... OF.F. . -,5400IH.8:..
WET OFF -75000 LB
C.G;" DR Y.1---..,0:f.H~-+-=-:...;;40=:0",0:-;.L;o.!8:~iI
FORW.... RD: 0" OF F -,12000 L
... ON"'; 14000 LB
1611 MAC OR >,\lET ., .OTF' -' 28000 LB..
..... WT' .... BOVE ·!-'-....,...---1f...,.,R"'Y,+-....,.O"'F-::F-.+-_-.6~1;;;OO"'0~L~B-i1
160.000 LB OFF WET OFF -' B300B LB

Fig. 12-40. Landing Performance Chart

• Pressure Altitude - The altitude correction

necessary is based upon the use of pressure
altitudes. Low pressure altitudes increase
the allowable landing gross weight and high
aircraft can be landed based upon the
conditions stipulated in item 0 '
runway
length, wind component, and pressure alti-
tude.
pressure altitudes decrease the gross weight.
Field Length Weight Corrections - When
0
•
12·60
Field Length Limit Gross Weight - This is
the maximum gross weight at which the
the conditions in item cannot be met,
these weight corrections are applied as nec-
essary .
(
 JET PERFORMANCE

( SAMPLE PROBLEM: 2. Follow the slanted line back down to

Given: the left to the point representing the
runway length available .... 7,600 ft. five knot tailwind. Now, proceed to
wind component 5 knot tailwind the right toward the pressure altitude
pressure altitude 5,600 ft. reference lines.
center of gravity 15% MAC
weight 161,000 lb.
anti-skid ON 3. Locating the pressure altitude of
runway wet 5,600 feet, proceed vertically down-
nose brakes ON ward to the field length gross weight.
Find: The limit gross weight is 185,000
field length limit gross weight pounds.
Solution:
1. Enter the chart at the upper left at the
runway length available (7,600). Pro- 4. Apply the field length weight correc-
ceed to the right to the vertical refer- tions by subtracting 14,000 pounds.
ence line for winds. The correct answer is 171,000 pounds.

1. Given:
runway length available 6,000 ft.
wind component 10 knot headwind
pressure altitude 1,000 ft.
center of gravity 17.4% MAC
weight 153,000 lb.
anti-skid OFF
runway dry
nose brakes OFF
Find:
field length limit gross weight _

2. Given:
runway length available 8,000 ft.
wind component calm
pressure altitude 6,000 ft.
center of gravity 15.1% MAC
weight 161,000 lb. 128,000 lb.

anti-skid ....................•............. ON
runway ..........................••....... wet
nose brakes OFF
Find:
field length limit gross weight

173,000 lb.

12-61
 Figure 12-41 represents the maximum landing Note: At no time may the actual landing weight
(
weight climb limits which comply with the ap- exceed the certificated maximum landing weight
proach climb and landing climb gradient. or the maximum field length limit gross weight.

MAXIIlUM LARDII«l lIEIGBl.'

CLIMB LIHI1.'S 0-2Sey40o

/8 • - Pressure Altitude
on
·r. st 1000' ·2000' 3ClOO ' 4000' ~' 6000' 7000' 8000' 9000'

~ 160,000 160,000 160,000 160,000 160,000 160,000 160,000 160,000 160,000 154,500

-50 1 158,000 152,000

f.4o 160,000 155,500 149,500

~30 158,500 152,500 147,000
1-20 160,000 155,500 149,500 144,000
1-10 158,000 152,000 147,000 141,000
0 160,000 154,500 149,000 143,500 1}8,500
10 160,000 156,500 151,000 145,500 140,500 135,000
20 159,000 153.000 147,500 142,000 137,000 132,000
30 160.000 155.000 149,500 143,500 l}8,ooo 133.500 128.000
40 160.000 156,000 150,500 145,000 139.500 1}4.500 129,500 124.500
50 156.500 151,500 146,000 140.500 135.500 130,500 125.500 120,500
60 157.500 152.000 146.500 141,500 136,000 131,000 126,000 121,500 116,500
70 160,000 154,000 149.000 143,500 l}8,OOO 133.000 128.000 123,000 118,500 114,000
80 156.500 151.000 145,500 140,500 135.000 130,500 125.000 120,500 116,000 111.500

90 153,500 147.500 142,500 137,000 132,000 127,500 122.500 118,000 113,500 NA

~oo 148,000 142,500 l}8,ooo 133,000 128,000 12},500 118,500 116,000 109,500
~o 143,000 l}8.ooo 133.000 128,500 123,500 119,000 NA NA NA

IJ.2o l}8.ooo 133,500 128,000 NA NA NA

1 1 (
Fig. 12-41. Maximum Landing Weight Climb Limits

12-62
 JET PERFORMANCE

( APPROACH AND LANDING CLIMB LIMIT SAMPLE PROBLEM:

FACTORS Given:

o The approach climb configuration limit

is based on 25 0 of flap and the landing
outside air temperature
pressure altitude
75 0 F.
6,000 ft.
Find:
configuration is based on 40 0 of flap.
maximum landing weight climb limit
Solution:
• Outside air temperature - Low tempera- 1. To the right of 70 o F, locate 128,000
tures allow greater maximum landing pounds directly below a pressure alti-
weight climb limits. tude of 6,000 feet. Opposite 80 0 F
and under 6,000 feet locate 125,000
pounds.
• Pressure Altitude - High pressure altitudes 2. By interpolation, a temperature of
reduce the maximum landing weight climb 75 0 F results in a maximum landing
limits. weight climb limit of 126,500 pounds.

1. Given:
outside air temperature _ 104o F.
pressure altitude _ _ 2,000 ft.
(
Find:
maximum landing weight climb limit _

136,000 lb.

SAMPLE LANDING PROBLEM using field Find:

length climb and approach and landing climb maximum allowable landing weight
limit charts.
Solution:
Given: l. Determine field length limit gross
runway length available .... 5,500 ft. weight. (122,000)
wind component 6 knot tailwind
2. Determine maximum landing
pressure altitude .4,000 ft.
weight climb limit. (128.000)
center of gravity 16.8% MAC
weight below 160,000 lb. 3. The lower of these two weights is
anti-skid ON the limiting weight for landing.
runway wet However. this weight must not
nose brakes ON exceed the certificated maximum
temperature lOOoF. weight of 137.500 pounds.
certificated maximum landing weight - Therefore. the answer becomes
137,500 lb. 122,000 pounds.

12-63
 JET PERFORMANCE GLOSSARY
Accelerate-Stop Distance - The distance to ac-
celerate from a standing start to the critical
engine failure speed (VI) and thereafter,
assuming an engine failure at this speed, to
bring the airplane to a full stop. The accel-
erate-stop distance must not exceed the
length of the runway plus the length of the
stopway.
Approach Climb - The landing weight of the
aircraft must be such that it can climb out
after a go-around with the most critical
engine out at a maximum climb gradient of
2.1 percent for two-engine airplanes, 2.4
percent for three-engine airplanes, and 2.7
percent for four-engine airplanes.
Balanced Field Length - The condition where
the takeoff distance is equal to the acceler-
ate-stop distance. This distance must not
exceed the length of the runway. The air-
craft can either accelerate to VIand then
stop, or accelerate to VIand continue to a
height of 35 feet, with one engine cut at
VI'
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) - CAS is lAS cor-
rected for instrument and static system or
position errors.
Clearway - Expressed in terms of a clearway
plane, extending above the end of the run-
way with an upward slope not exceeding
1.25 percent, above which no object nor
any terrain protrudes.
Compressibility - The compressing together of
the molecules of air by an object moving
faster than the molecules can move out of
the way; the result of compressibility is to
increase the density of the air in the im-
mediate vicinity of the object.
Compressibility Drag - Compressibility drag is
caused by turbulence and an airflow separa-
tion associated with shock wave formation
when airflow exceeds the speed of sound
locally over the wing. This increase in drag
is often referred to as the "drag rise."
12-64
(
Compressor Speed (r.p.m. or percent)
N - for a single compressor engine
N I - speed for the low-pressure compres-
sor of a dual-compressor engine, or
the compressor speed (r.p.m. or per-
cent) of a single-compressor engine
equipped with a free turbine
N2 - speed of the high-pressure compres-
sor of a dual-compressor engine, or
the free-turbine speed (r.p.m. or per-
cent) of a single-compressor engine
equipped with a free turbine.
Takeoff Decision Speed (VI) - This is the
speed at which the engine is assumed to fail. It
is usually selected to make the accelerate-
stop distance equal to the distance to 35
feet for the continued takeoff.
Critical Mach Number (M CRIT ) - A Mach num-
ber representing the speed of a given air-
craft at which a Mach number of one is
attained at any local point on the aircraft.
Generally, the shape of the airfoil deter-
mines the critical Mach number. Planform,
angle of attack, and sweepback also have an
appreciable effect.
Density Altitude - Density altitude is pressure
altitude corrected for temperature. It is the
altitude in standard atmosphere cor-
responding to a particular value of air den-
sity.
Drag Rise - The rapid increase in drag encoun-
tered by an airplane as it approaches the
speed of sound.
Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) - The ratio of
tailpipe total pressure divided by engine
inlet total pressure.
Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) - The calibrated air-
speed of an aircraft corrected for adiabatic
compressible flow for the particular alti-
tude. Equivalent airspeed is equal to cali-
brated airspeed in standard atmosphere at
sea level.
Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) The gas tem-
perature downstream of the last turbine.

( Feel Simulation - A means of providing the
pilot with a sense of proper feel of control
surfaces.
Free-Turbine Speed (N3 ) - The r.p.m. or per-
cent of a dual-compressor engine equipped
with a free turbine.
Hydroplaning - A condition where liquid
water or steam lifts the footprint
area of a tire clear of the runway
surface.
Indicated Airspeed (lAS) - lAS is the reading
obtained directly from the airspeed in-
strument. This reading includes no correc-
tion for static system, instrument position,
or compressibility errors.
Indicated Air Temperature (IOAT) - This is the
temperature indicated on the ram tempera-
ture gauge. This instrument reading is high-
er than the ambient outside air temperature
due to adiabatic compressibility tempera-
ture rise felt on the temperature gauge
pickup.
(
Landing Field Length - At a destination air-
field, the aircraft must be able to stop
within 60 percent of the available runway
after crossing the threshold at a height of
50 feet and a speed of at least 1.3 V SO'
Leading Edge Flaps - Small flaps on portions of
the wings' leading edges. They are flush
with the underside of the wing during
cruise and are extended during takeoff and
landing to maintain excellent lift character-
istics of the wing even at low flying speeds.
Mach Number (M) - A number expressing the
ratio of the speed of a moving body to the
speed of sound in air.
Mach number ~ true airspeed
speed of sound at flight temp.
Mach 1.00 ~ speed of sound
Maximum Operating (Mach) (MMO) - This is
the certified maximum Mach number per-
( missible in flight operations which is limit-
ed by high speed buffet characteristics of
the airplane. V MO is a "buffet" limit.
JET PERFORMANCE
Maximum Operating (Velocity) (VMO ) - This
limit is the FAR certified speed establishing
the limiting normal operating air load (im-
pact or dynamic pressure) permissible on
the aircraft strueture during "smooth"
flight conditions.
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) - The chord
of an assumed rect:angular airfoil, represent-
ing the mean chord of an actual airfoil.
Minimum Control Air (VMCA) - Minimum
speed at which control can be recovered
and straight flight maintained if the most
critical engine suddenly fails with the air-
plane airborne and out of ground effect.
Minimum Control Ground (VMCG) - Minimum
speed during the takeoff run while in
ground effect at which controllability by
primary aerodynamic controls alone per-
mits a safe continued takeoff if any engine
suddenly fails. This permits forward pres-
sure on the yoke to use the nosegear reac-
tion to aid contml, but not nosewheel
steering.
Minimum Liftoff Speed (VLOF) - The rmm-
mum speed at which the aircraft will lift
off the ground if the airplane is rotated at
its maximum practical rate.
Minimum Takeoff Safety Speed (V2MIN) -
May not be less than
a. 110 percent of YMCA' or
b. 120 percent of VS at takeoff flap
setting.
Minimum Unstick Speed_l.YMU) - The mini-
mum speed at which the aircraft can be
g)
made to lift off the ground (unstick) and to
continue the takeoff without displaying
any hazardous characteristics. V MU may be
low enough so that the airplane would have
to be rotated beyond the point where the
tail would hit the ground before a high
enough altitude could be reached to give an
unsafe takeoff.
Ram Pressure - Ram pressure is the aerodyna-
mic pressure rise resuiting from high
velocities. It is also called dynamic pressure
12-65
 and is usually expressed in pounds per
square foot. It is expressed, in the cockpit,
as indicated airspeed (lAS).
Rotation Speed (VR) - The speed at which the
pilot should initiate raising the nosegear off
the ground.
Shock Waves - Waves formed by the pileup of
air at the point where the air reaches the
speed of sound. These waves first form
when the airplane itself is still traveling
considerably below the speed of sound, but
the air moving over curved portions attains
the speed of sound.
Speed of Sound - The speed at which sound
waves travel through a medium is primarily
a function of temperature. At standard sea
level conditions, the speed of sound in air is
661 knots, or 761 miles per hour.
Speed Ranges
Subsonic - Mach numbers below 0.75
Transonic - Mach numbers from 0.75 to
1.20
Supersonic - Mach numbers from 1.20 to
5.00
Hypersonic - Mach numbers above 5.00
Note: With the possibility of having both subsonic
and supersonic flow on the same aircraft, it is
convenient to establish approximate speed ranges,
as shown above.
Spoilers - Panels located on the upper camber
of the wing which aid in lateral control and
act as speed brakes to slow aircraft on
landing roll.
Stalling Speeds
VS - zero thrust stalling speed or mini-
mum steady flight speed at which the
airplane is controllable
VSI - stalling speed in the particular con-
figuration under consideration
VSO - stalling speed in the landing config-
uration
Static Pressure - The pressure exerted on an
object not taking into consideration any
movement of the air on the object.
12·66
Stop way - An area beyond the runway not less (
in width than the runway for use in decel-
erating the airplane during an aborted take-
off. A stopway can be used for increasing
the accelerate-stop distance.
Swept Wing - A wing that slants backward from
wingroot to wingtip. The sweep of the wing
has the aerodynamic effect of permitting
higher speeds before encountering shock
wave formation.
Takeoff Distance - The greater of:
(1) the horizontal distance from the point
of brake release to a point where the
airplane attains a height of 35 feet
above the takeoff surface, assuming an
engine failure at the VI speed; or
(2) 1.15 times the horizontal distance
from the point of brake release to the
point where the airplane attains a
height of 35 feet above the takeoff
surface with all engines operating.
The takeoff distance available is the sum of the (
runway length plus the actual or maximum al-
lowable clearway length. The length of the clear-
way used must not be greater than one-half the
length of the runway.
Takeoff Run - The greater of:
(1) the horizontal distance from the point
of brake release to a point equidistant
between the lift-off point. and the
point where the airplane attains a
height of 35 feet above the takeoff
surface, assuming an engine failure at
VI speed; or
(2) 1.15 times the horizontal distance
from the point of brake release to a
point equidistant between the lift-off
point and the point where the airplane
attains a height of 35 feet above the
takeoff surface with all engines oper-
ating.
Takeoff Safety Speed (V2 ) - The speed at
which the airplane should be flown after
lift-off (for the case when an engine fails
(
during the takeoff run).

( Thrust - Thrust is the forward pull expressed in
pounds. In unaccelerated, level flight con-
ditions, thrust is equal to the total drag of
the airplane. Basically, a jet engine is con-
sidered to have a somewhat constant thrust
with increase in TAS as compared to pis-
ton-engine aircralt which have a sharp drop
in thrust with increasing TAS.
Total Pressure - The pressure actually felt by an
object moving through the air. Total pres-
sure would be slightly greater than static
conditions would be.
Transonic Speed - A speed at which an aircraft
will have both subsonic and supersonic air-
flows around the wings or fuselage.
True Airspeed - True airspeed is the true speed
of the airplane relative to the air.
JET PERFORMANCE
Tuck Under - Tuck under is the tendency of
the airplane to pitch down during accelera-
g
tion as shock waves form on the wing caus-
ing flow separation. The resulant loss of lift
locally over the wing changes the location
of the center of pressure (center of lift)
which, in tum, affects the trim required
when accelerating at high Mach numbers.
Unbalance Field Length - The condition where
the takeoff distance and accelerate-stop dis-
tance are not equal.
Vortex Generators - Airfoil-like small surfaces
protruding in to the airstream which reduce
buffeting at high flight speeds.
Yaw Damper - A system that automatically
counteracts yaw.
12-67
(

(
(

ill~OO[~~~ TIOOill~~~rnmTI ~~[rnTI

~illill~~~illTI~rn~
APPENDIX A
INTRODUCTION
This examination includes 150 self-contained questions representative of the general knowledge
areas required for the ATP applicant. A question selection sheet identifies 80 of these questions to be
answered to help you determine problem areas for further study and to provide practice with the
FAA testing format. The remaining questions can be answered if you desire further testing or
review. Following the test an examination critique provides the correct answers, explanations
(where necessary), and suggested reviews.

The minimum equipment required for the FAA written examination is a computer. However, a
magnifying glass, dividers or a clear plastic straight edge and pin, and a small electronic calculator
will prove helpful in following line graphs and computing weight and balance.

The actual FAA ATP written exam usually requires a mmnnum of four hours. Be sure to allow
yourself sufficient time to complete the examination. Read each required question and each possible
answer carefully before selecting your response. It may be helpful to write down each answer choice
just to the left of the appropriate item number in the left columns of the question selection sheet.
Then, after all required questions have been answered and verified, transfer the answers to the
answer sheet which is located at the end of the exam.

A·l
The question selection sheet is arranged in three vertical columns with each column utilizing the (
following format. The FAA question selection sheets also use this format.

FOR ANSWER ANSWER

SHEET ITEM QUESTION
NUMBER NUMBER

1 201
2 202
ANSWER SHEET 3 204 QUESTION NUMBERS
ITEM NUMBERS 4 .......•....... 206 FROM EXAMINATION
5 208
6 209
7 212

Question Selection Sheet Excerpt

When taking an exam, remember to read the question selection sheet vertically, using each of the
three columns provided. Also note that the question numbers in the exam begin with 201 to minimize
confusion between item numbers on the question selection sheet and those on the answer sheet. After (
you have chosen a question number from the selection sheet, locate the appropriate question in the
exam. Study the question carefully, select the choice that best answers the question, then mark the
answer sheet accurately. The answer sheets for these exams and for the FAA written exams are
arranged in a vertical sequence, so be sure to mark answer choices accordingly.

NOTE:
Necessary illustrations have been placed as close as possible to related questions. Each illustration
contains a caption which identifies the question or questions to which it applies.

A·2
 EXAMINATION

(
AIRLINE TRANSPORTATION PILOT EXAMINATION

QUESTION SELECTION SHEET

NOTE:
The numbers on the left side of each column correspond to the numbers on the exam answer sheet. The
numbers on the right side of each column correspond to the question numbers in the exam booklet. It is
recommended that the answer choice be written down to the left of the corresponding item number as the
exam progresses. After completing the test and any review, the selected answers C8Ln be transferred to the
exam aIlS wer sheet.

FOR ANSWER ANSWER FOR ANSWER ANSWER FOR ANSWER ANSWER

SHEET ITEM QUESTION SHEET ITEM QUESTION SHEET ITEM QUESTION
NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

1 .. ·. 201 28 ·.·. 252 55 ·. ·. .. 310

2 ·. 202 29 ·. 253 56 · . ..... 311
3 ·. . .. 204 30 ·. · . · . ·. ·. 254 57 ·. ... ·. 313
4 .. .. ·. · . ·. 206 31 ·. .. ... . ·. 257 58 .. . .. . .. 317
5 ·. .. · . 208 32 .. ... ... 260 59 ·. ... .. .. .. 318
6 ·. ·. · . 209 33 ·. ... 261 60 ... ..... . .. 320

( 7 ·. .. . ·. .. . . 212 34 . .... · .... 266 61 ·. .. ·. .. 321

8 '" .... ... 213 35 ... ... . .. . . 267 62 ·. .. ·. .. · . 324
9 .. .. . .. 214 36 . .. .. ·. .. 270 63 ·. .. .. ... . 325
10 · . ... · ... ·. 219 37 .. . .. 271 64 ·. .. ... ..... 326
11 .. .. . .. .. 220 38 ... .. · . .. 275 65 ·. .. ... 327
12 ·. .. .. .. ... .. 221 39 ·. ... .. ... · . 276 66 ·. .. .. ... . 329
13 ·. .. 224 40 ·. ... .. ... 281 67 ·. .. . .. ... · . 330
14 .. .. ·. 226 41 .. ·. .. ·. 282 68 · . .. .. ... 331
15 .... . ... .. 228 42 · . ... · . ... .. 283 69 .. . .... ... 333
16 .. .. · . .. 229 43 .. .. ·. 284 70 ·. .. ... 334
17 .. .. .. · . 230 44 .. · . ... 288 71 .... .. ... 336
18 ·. .. ·. ... 234 45 .. .. · . .. 290 72 ·. ·. .. ... 338
19 .. .... . .. 236 46 ... ... . · . · . 292 73 .. ... ·. 339
20 ..... . .. 238 47 ·. .... . · . 294 74 .. ... . .. .. . · . 340
21 ·. ... 239 48 .. .... .. .. 299 75 .. ... . .. .. 343
22 .. .. .. ... · . 241 49 ·. .. .. 300 76 ... ·. .. 344
23 .. .. .. 242 50 . . · . · . .. 301 77 .... . .. 346
24 ·. ... .. .. ·. 243 51 ... ... . ·. 302 78 .. ·. ... 347
25 ·. .. .. · . 244 52 ·. .. ... 303 79 ·. ... . .. ... 348
26 .. .... . ... .. 249 53 ·. · . . ... 307 80 ·. ·. .. .. ..... 350
27 .. .. .. 250 54 . ...... ... 308

A·J
(

(
 EXAMINATION

( 201. To act as pilot in command of a 205. When an alternate airport is selected

scheduled air carrier flight, recent for an IFR flight and that airport
experience within the preceding 90 has only a published LDA approach,
days must include at least the current weather forecasts for the
1. three takeoffs and three landings to a ETA must indicate a ceiling and
full stop in any type of aircraft. visibility of at least
2. three takeoffs and three landings
1. 400 feet and one mile.
in the same type of aircraft.
2. 600 feet and two miles.
3. five takeoffs and five landings to
3. 800 feet and two miles.
a full stop in a similar type
4.1,000 feet above the ini tial
aircraft.
approach segment, MEA, or
4. five takeoffs and five landings in
MOCA.
the same type aircraft.

202. If a proficiency check was given to

the pilot in command on November
12, the next scheduled proficiency 206. For air carrier flights requiring a
check may be given as early as two pilot crew, the second in
command must hold
1. April 1.
2. April 12. 1. a commercial pilot certificate only.
3. May 1. 2. at least a commercial pilot
4. May 12. certificate and instrument rating.
3. an airline transport pilot
203. Assume a flight departing on certificate.
February 15 requires the pilot to 4. an airline transport pilot certificate
( have an airline transport pilot and appropriate ratings.
certificate. What is the lowest class
of medical certificate required, and
what is the earliest date it could
have been issued? 207. What constant pressure chart should
be consulted to plan a flight at FL
1. First class, issued August 15 of 390?
the previous year
2. First class, issued August 1 of the 1. 200 millibars
previous year 2. 300 millibars
3. Second class, issued February 1 of 3. 700 millibars
the previous year 4. 850 millibars
4. Second class, issued February 28
two years earlier
208. Assume that a pilot was originally
204. Assume that a pilot in command scheduled to fly a three-hour flight
received his last line check on and an eight-hour flight in the same
November 5th. The last day on day. After having flown the
which the next succeeding line check three-hour flight, he may not be
may be given is scheduled to fly the eight-hour flight
1. the last day of May In the until he has had a rest period of at
following year. least
2. the last day of December in the 1. 6 hours.
following year. 2.8 hours.
3. November 5th of the following 3. 16 hours.
year. 4. None of the above. No more than
4. the last day of November in the eight hours can be flown in a
following year. 24-hour period.

A-5
209. A pilot of a crew which consists of 213. On a 1 hour 30 minute flight in a (
two pilots and an additional flight turbine-engine powered airplane at
crewmember may fly at a maximum FL 350, the certificate holder must
of how many hours in 30 consecutive provide a supply of oxygen for each
days if he is employed by a flag crewmember on flight deck duty for
carrier? a period of
1. 90 hours 1. 1 hour 30 minutes.
2. 100 hours 2. 2 hours.
3. 120 hours 3. 2 hours 30 minutes.
4. 150 hours 4. 3 hours 30 minutes.

210. Whenever an aircraft accident occurs,
the operator is required to notify the
National Transportation Safety Board
1. immediately, and file a written
report with the nearest FAA
General Aviation District Office
within five days.
2. within 24 hours, and file a written
report with the nearest FAA
General Aviation District Office
within five days.
3. immediately, and file a written
report with the NTSB within 10 days.
4. within 24 hours, and file a written
report with the NTSB within 10 days.
211. If a flight departs at sundown, when
must the aircraft position lights be
turned on and when can night flight
time be logged officially?
1. Sundown, and one hour after
sundown
2. Sundown, and at the end of
evening civil twilight
3. One-half hour before sundown and
one hour after sundown
4. One hour after sundown in both
cases
212. In which of the situations below
would one pilot of a turbine-engine
airplane be required to wear and use
an oxygen mask? (Assume that
quick-donning masks are available to
all flight crewmembers.)
1. Above 12,000 feet if one pilot
leaves his station
2. For all operations above FL 180
3. For all operations above FL 250
4. Above FL 250 if one pilot leaves
his station
214. If cockpit voice recorders are
required, they must be in operation
from the beginning of
1. the starting checklist to the end
of the shutdown checklist.
2. taxi to the end of taxi after
landing.
3. taxi to the end of the landing
roll.
4. the takeoff roll to the end of the
landing roll.
215. Assume an airplane has 97 hours of
time in service since the last
100-hour inspection. If a group of (
people wish to charter the airplane
for a trip which will take nearly five
hours flight time, what inspection
requirements, if any, apply?
1. The airplane must have a 100-hour
inspection prior to departure.
2. No inspection is required as long
as the 100-hour inspection is not
exceeded by more than 10 hours.
3. No inspection is required, since the
airplane is departing with less
than 100 hours time in service.
4. No inspection is required as long
as the airplane can be inspected
upon landing.
216. What ceiling and visibility are
forecast if "LIFR" appears in the
outlook portion of a terminal or area
forecast?
1. Less than 100 feet; less than 1/2
mile
2. Less than 500 feet; less than 1
mile
3. 500 to 1,000 feet; 1 to 3 miles
(
4. 3,000 feet; 5 miles

A-6
 EXAMINATION

( 217. The minimum certification 221. If a pilot is located 270" from the
requirement for the pilot in command VOT transmitting antenna and has
of a night flight carrying passengers the VOT properly tuned, what
under FAR Part 135 is a indication will be displayed on the
RMI?
1. private certificate with an
instrument rating. 1. 090"
2. commercial certificate. 2. 180"
3. commercial certificate with an 3. 270"
instrument rating. 4. 360"
4. commercial certificate with an
instrument and multi·engine rating. 222. Does the issuance of a special VFR
clearance authorize the pilot of an
218. VOR equipment must be airplane to land or takeoff from any
operationally checked before an IFR airport within a control zone during
flight if the elapsed time since the the day, provided the primary
last operational check is airport is reporting ground visibility
of at least one statute mile?
1. 9 days.
2. 9 days and the flight progresses 1. Yes, provided the pilot is
into the 10th day. instrument rated.
3. 9 hours of flight time and the 2. Yes, provided the airplane is
ETE is 2 hours. instrument equipped.
4. 30 days. 3. Not unless the selected secondary
airport is reporting at least one
219. On aircraft where flight recorders are statute mile flight visibility.
4. Not unless the ground visibility at
( required, their time of operation
must be from the beginning of the selected airport (or the flight
visibility if gJround is not given I is
1. the starting checklist to the end at least one statute mile.
of the shutdown checklist.
2. taxi to the end of taxi after 223. What mInImum cloud clearance and
landing. visibility requirements apply when
3. taxi to the end of the landing roll. flying VFR at 3,500 feet AGL in
4. the takeoff roll to the end of the landing
controlled airspace below 10,000 feet MSL?
roll.
1. Clear of clouds and one mile
220. Regulations state tha, before any 2. 500 feet above, 1,000 feet below,
pilot may operate under an IFR 2,000 feet horizontally, and three miles
clearance utilizing the VOR system 3. 1,000 feet above, 500 feet below,
of navigation, the VOR receiver to 2,000 feet horizontally, and one
be utilized must be operationally mile
checked or consistently maintained 4. 1,000 feet above, 500 feet below,
under an approved procedure. When 2,000 feet horizontally, and three
a dual VOR receiver system within miles
an aircraft is operationally checked
utilizing the indication of one
224. According to the San Francisco
receiver against the indication of the
(SFOI area forecast issued at 0640
second receiver. the maximum
Zulu by the National Weather
permissible variation is
Service, the freezing level over the
United States-Mexico border is at
1. 2". 1. 7,000 feet AGL.
2. 3", 2. 7,000 feet MSL.
3. 4". 3. 10,000 feet AGL.
4.6". 4. 10,000 feet MSL.

A·7
 SFO FA 22li64~
~7Z MON - ~IZ TUE
OTLK ~IZ - 13Z TUE
WA OR CA AND CSTL WTRS

HGHTS ASL UNLESS NOTED ...

SYNS ... UPR COLD LOW NOW OVR SERN UT AND CONTS TO MOVE NE
WK MARINE INVRN BASED NR 2THSD FT

SIG CLD AND WX ...

WA OR ...
PATCHY ST OVR LWR CSTL SEC 12-16 SCT VRBL BKN 22
ST INCR TO BKN VRBL OVR AFT ~9Z AND SPRDG INLND 2~-3~ MI BY SR
VSBY BLO CLDS 2-5FHK ST DSIPTG BACK TO SHR LINE BY 23Z BCMG
-X3-6HK OTLK ... MVFR VSBY

CA ...
CLR V 15~ SCT SFC WNDS LCLY AFT 23Z 21-2715G25 OTLK ... VFR WIND ...

ICG ... NONE FRZLVL 7~ EXTRM SRN NV SLPG TO 1~~ ALG CST AND
MEX BDR

Questions 224 and 226

225. The notation "7545" at the 24,OOO·foot 228. If the weather conditions are below landing
level on a winds and temperatures aloft minimums at the time of departure for an air
forecast would signify carrier flight in a three-engine jet, what are
the requirements with respect to a depart-
1. a teletype error.
ure alternate?
2. wind from 250' at 145 knots.
3. wind from 175' at 45 knots.
1. A departure alternate must be within one
4. light and variable wind.
hour in still air with one engine inoperative.
2. A departure alternate must be within two
226. According to the San Francisco hours in still air with one engine inoper-
(SFO) area forecast on this page, ative.
what surface winds are forecast for 3. The departure alternate listed on the dis-
California at 0200Z Tuesday? patch release must have landing minimums
from the time of departure until the esti-
1. 15G25 mated time of arrival at the departure
2. Calm alternate.
3. Gusts of 25 knots or greater 4. No departure alternate is required.
4. Winds up to 25 knots
229. According to the relation of temperature to
227. For airframe Icmg conditions to [SA chart, an outside air temperature of _13°
exist, any moisture present in the Celsius at FL 180 is equal to an ISA
air must be deviation of
1. visible. 1. _34°C.
2. invisible. 2. -8'C.
3. in the form of rain. 3. +8°C.
4. in any form of precipitation. 4. +34°C.

A-8
 EXAMINATION

(
I RELATION OF TEMPERATURE TO ISA I
40

36

32

28

I-
..... 24
§
-
UJ
I

( C
~

t:::
20
I-
-'
...:
UJ
<>::
...,
~ 16
...,
UJ
<>::
0-

12

-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60

OAT - DEGREES C

Questions 229 and 230

A-9
 (
,,

"oJ

4
;.
,.
~
....

o
z
«3

. l..

Question 230

A·l0
 EXAMINATION

( 230. Compute the trip time and fuel consumption rate for the reserve is
required using the charts on pages 9,200 pounds per hour.
A-9 and A-I0, in addition to the
1. 31,500 pounds
following data:
2. 32,100 pounds
trip distance 1,120 nautical miles 3. 33,300 pounds
average wind +40 knots (tailwind) 4. 34,400 pounds
altitude FL 290
235. In a TRSA, the radar service provided to an
outside air temperature _35 0 C
arriving VFR flight includes
landing gross weight 129,000 pounds
1. only traffic advisories on other partici-
1. 2:18 and 21,000 pounds
2. 2:24 and 22,400 pounds pating aircraft.
2. sequencing and separation between par-
3. 2:30 and 23,900 pounds
ticipating VFR and IFR traffic.
4. 2:36 and 24,700 pounds
3. standard radar separation service between
all observed aireraft.
231. According to FAR Part 91.129, the
4. traffic advisories on nonparticipating 0 b-
pilot in command of each aircraft
served traffic and radar separation
operating under IFR in controlled
between all participating aircraft.
airspace must report immediately to
air traffic control if specific
236. If the airplane depicted in the illustration is
equipment malfunctions occur. The
instructed to hold short of the runway, the
equipment malfunctions referred to
holding lines marked "A" are used when
include loss of
1. CAT II operations are in progress.
1. weather radar.
2. the weather is below basic VFR for
2. transponder.
control zones.
( 3.
4.
ILS receiver.
autopilot.
3. aircraft classified as "heavy" are using
the runway.
4. ILS approaches are in progress.
232. The cumulonimbus mamma clouds
(CBMAMI are noted in surface ,
,,
~4
aviation weather reports because they
•
are generally a signpost of
1. low ceilings and visibilities.
·,
,,
,

2.
3.
violent turbulence.
frontal passage.
"A"
·
"6 "

4. steady precipitation.
\ I
HOLDING LINES
233. The most hazardous wind shear near
the ground often is produced by Question 236
1. thunderstorms.
237. The maximum takeoff distance
2. rugged terrain.
available for a turbine-engine
3. surface winds exceeding 25 knots.
powered airplane certificated after
4. occluded fronts.
August 29, 1959, at an airport with
the following specifications is
234. What is the minimum fuel required
by the F ARs to be on board an runway length . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,000 feet
aircraft at the time of brake release stopway length 1,500 feet
based on the following data? Assume clearway length. . . . . . . . . . .. 5,000 feet
that an alternate is required and the 1. 10,500 feet.
( enroute fuel is 21,000 pounds. The
fuel required for the alternate' leg is
2.
3.
13,500 feet.
14,000 feet.
4,200 pounds and the fuel 4. 15,500 feet.

A-II
 TAKEOFF EPR, SPEEDS (
AND
STAB TRIM SETIING
ENG & AIRBLEED O~
MAX TAKEOFF EPR o- 60 KNOTS ENG 2 NO AIRBLEED

MiS Oh'l' OF -67 TO -9 -, 5 14 23 32 41 50 59 68 77 86 95 10' 113

,.120
FT -55 TO -23 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 3S 40 45
1 , 3
°C
2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.03 1.99 1. 94 1.91
-1000
1 , 3
2 2.06 2.06 2.06 2.06 2.06 2.06 2.06 2.06 2.06 2.06 2.06 2.06 2.05 2.00 1.96 1.92
2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.08 2.03 1.99 1. 94 1.91
S.L.
1 , 3
2 2.11 2.11 2.11 2.11 2.11 2.11 2.11 2.11 2.11 2.11 2,11 2.10 2.05 2.00 1.96 1.92
2.15 2.15 2.15 2,15 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.13 2.12 2.12 2.11 2.08 2.03 1.99 1.94 1.91
1000

2000
0
z
"123
,2 2.16
2.21
2.16
2.21
2.16 2.16 2.16
2.21 2.21 2.21
2.16
2.20
2.16
2.17
2.15 2.13 2.13
2.14 2.14 2.14
2.12 2.10 2.05
2.11 2.08 2.03
2.00
1.99
1.96 1.92
1.94 1.91

1 , 3
2.22 2.22 2.22 2.22 2.22 2.21 2.18 2.16 2.16 2.15 2.12 2.10 2.05 2.00 1.96 1.92
2.26 2.26 2.26 2.25 2.23 2.20 2.17 2.14 2.14 2.14 2.11 2.08 2.03 1.99 1.94 1.91
3000
2 2.28 2.28 2.28 2.27 2.24 2.21 2.18 2.16 2.16 2.15 2.12 2.10 2.05 2.00 1.96 1.92
3856 & 1 , 3 2.31 2.29 2.27 2.25 2.23 2.20 2.17 2.14 2.14 2.14 2.11 2.08 2.03 1.99 1.94 1.91
AROVE 2 2.32 2.31 2.29 2.27 2.24 2.21 2.18 2.16 2.16 2.15 2.12 2.10 2.05 2.00 1.96 1.92
EPR BLEED CORRECTIONS ENG 1 .s:. 3 ENG 2
PRESSURE
AIR CONDITIONING OFF+.04 ALT - 1000 FT OAT
ENGINE ANTI ICE ON -.03 of 65 26
REDUCE ENG 2 EPR BY .05 WITH 6TH
9TO 11
·C
of
(ABOVE CERTIFIED ALTITUDE)

65 9
-54
10
TO -,
25
-3 TO
76
87
31
75
STAGE BLEED ON UF INSTALLEDI FOR lCPC 7 TO 9
·C -54
TO
-13
TO TO 10'
(SO"FI OAT & WARMER
5 TO 7
OF 65
TO
-10 -8
TO "
-12
43
TO
24
97
25
98
TO
111 '"
I VI' V R, V 2 3TO 5
·C
OF
°C
-54
-65
-54
TO
-23
32
0
-22
33
, TO 32
5
90
6
91
33
TO
36
113
45
37
114 120
46 TO 49
"
OF -65 83 8' 106 107 120
1 TO 3 TO 29 TO 41 TO
°C -54 28 42 '9
OF 65 99 100 120
STAB TRIM -1 TO 1
°C -54
TO
37 38 TO '9
SmlNG GROSS
WEIGHT
CG, FLAPS FLAPS V -V V V -V V V =V V V =V V
1000 LB 1 R 2 1 R 2 1 R 2 1 R 2

10
5 15 20
UNITS AIRPLANE NOSE UP
6 3/4 7 1/2 8 1/4
2 210
200
165
160
175
171
166
162
175
171
(
190 1SS 167 157 167 158 167
12 6 1/2 7 1/4 8 180 150 163 152 163 154 163
14 6 1/4 7 7 3/4 170 147
14' 159 159 149 159 150 158
16 6 6 3/4 7 1/2 5
160 140 154 141 153 143 153 145 153
18 5 3/' 6 1/2 7 150 135 149 136 149 138 149 140 148
20 5 1/2 6 6 1/2 140 129 145 130 145 132 144 13' 144
22 5 5 3/' 6 1/4 130 124 140 125 139 126 138 128 138
24
26 ,,
4 3/4
1/2 ,
5 1/'
3/'
5
5
3/4
1/4
120
210
119
156
135
166
120
157
134
166
120 134 121 133
28
30 3 3/' ,
4 1/2 4

,
4
3/4
1/4
200
190
151
146
162
158
153
148
162
158 149 158
32 3 1/2 3 3/' 180 141 15' 143 154 145 154
J4 3 1/4 3 1/' 3 1/2 170 136 150 138 150 140 150 141 149
3. 2 3/4 3 3 15
160 132 146 133 145 135 145 137 145
3B 2 1/2 2 1/2 2 1/2 150 127 141 128 141 130 141 132 140
40 2 1/2 2 1/2 2 1/2 140 122 137 123 137 124 136 126 136
2
" 1/2 2 1/2 2 1/2 130
120
117
112
133
128
118
113
132
127
118
113
131
127
120
115
131
126
210 151 161 152 161
FLAP RETRACTION/ 200 146 157 148 157

M AN :UVIIlING -if EEDS

190 141 153 143 153 144 153
180 136 150 138 150 140 149
GROSS FLAP POSITION 170 132 146 133 146 135 145 136 145
WEIGHT 20
160 128 142 129 141 131 141 133 141
L8 15 5 2 0 150 123 137 124 137 126 136 128 136
154500 140 118 133 119 133 120 132 122 132
150 160 190 200
& BELOW 130 113 129 11' 128 114 127 116 127
154501 120 109 124 109 123 109 123 111 122
TO 160 170 200 210 210 146 157 14 157
176000 200 141 153 143 153
176001 190 137 149 138 149 139 149
TO 170 180 210 220 180 132 145 134 145 136 145
191000 170 127 141 129 141 131
25 141 132 140
ABOVE 160 123 137 124 137 126 137 128
180 190 225 235 136
191000 150 119 133 120 133 122 133 124 132
FOR MANEUVERS IMMEDIATELY AFI'ER 140 114 129 115 129 116 128 118 128
TAKEOFF EXCEEDING 15° BANK MAINTAIN 130 109 125 110 124 110 124 112 123
AT LEAST V +10 AT TAKEOFF FLAPS
2
120 105 120 106 120 106 119 108 118
(
Questions 238 and 239

A·12
 EXAMINATION

( To answer questions 238 and 239, refer to the maximum LA

takeoff EPR, speeds, and stabilizer trim setting chart 2. B
and the following data: 3. C
4. D
0
temperature 49 F
0
flap setting 15
gross weight at brake release 150,000 lb.
CG location . . . . . . . . . .. aft of 14% MAC
altimeter setting 30.05 in Hg
field elevation 126 feet
000 PINK
238. What EPR setting should be used
for number two engine if engine 000 WHITE
anti-ice bleed air is ON?
1. 2.03 Question 241
2.2.08
3.2.10
4.2.11 241. If the VASI lights appear as shown
in the illustration, where is the
239. What are the VI. VR. and V2 speeds? airplane in relation to the glide
1. VI = 121, VR = 121, V2 = 139 paths during final approach?
2. VI = 127, VR = 127, V2 = 141 1. On the downwind glide path
3. VI = 128, VR = 128, V2 = 143 2. Slightly above the downwind glide path
4. VI = 130, VR = 133, V2 = 151 3. On the upwind glide path
4. Slightly above the upwind glide path

242. The number of flight attendants that

must be carried in an airplane
having 135 passengers aboard and a
passenger seating capacity of 150 is
1. two.
2. three.
3. four.
A B 4. five.

243. A tri-colored visual approach indicator

usually consists of a single light unit which
projects a three-color visual approach path.
The color of the above glide path indication
is
1. green.
2. amber.
3. white.
c D 4. red.

Question 240 244. According to FAR 121, an air carrier

240. After takeoff from runway 35, a
shallow turn to the west is initiated.
In the accompanying illustration,
what compass indication applies as
the airplane begins its turn to the left?
airplane with a passenger capacity of
90 and an actual passenger load of
56 must have at least
1. one hand fire extinguisher.
2. two hand fire extinguishers.
3. three hand fire extinguishers.
4. four hand fire extinguishers.

A-13
245. The compartment which is designed
so as to completely confine a fire
250. With reference to information concerning (
the loading of the airplane at takeoff
without endangering the airplane or time, a load manifest must be prepared
occupants is classified as class which shall include the
1. A. 1. landing weight.
2. B. 2. number of crew aboard.
3. C. 3. total weight of fuel and oil.
4. D. 4. number of passengers aboard.

246. An example of "category," with

respect to certification, ratings, and FLIGHT rATH
WIND COMPONENTS
limitations of airmen is
1. multi-engine land.
2. airplane.
3. DC-4. 30
4. utility.

247. Which class of cargo compartment

requires a built-in fire extinguishing
system?
1. Class A
2. Class B "z
Z 10
a
3. Class C ~ '0

4. Class D 8
a
z
"
a 0
(
248. How should the transponder be set while <
w
x
cruising at an altitude of 16,500 feet during
an IFR flight that has been cleared to 100"
maintain VFR conditions on top?
110

1. As specified by ATC
2. Standby
3. Code 1200
o 10 W m
4. Code 1400 CROSSWIND COMPONENTS - KNOTS

Question 257
249. Which of the following requirements
must be met before cargo can be
carried in the passenger compartment
251. Assume that while taxiing for a
of an air carrier airplane?
takeoff on runway 15, the pilot
1. Cargo may be carried aft of the receives a report from the control
foremost seated passenger if it is tower of ..... surface winds 190° at 26
placed in an approved cargo bin. knots." If the magnetic variation at
2. Cargo may be carried aft of the the airport is lOoE, the crosswind
rearmost passenger if it is securely component will be approximately
tied down with approved safety belts.
3. All cargo carried forward of the 1. 10 m.p.h.
foremost seated passenger must be
in approved bins. 2. 13 kts.
4. Passenger carry-on baggage must
be secured with an approved
3. 17 kts. (,
safety belt. 4. 20 kts.

A-14
 EXAMINATION

AIRCRAFT SPECIFICATIONS

Maximum ramp weight 161,000 lb.

Maximum takeoff gross weight 160,000 lb.
Maximum landing gross weight ........•....•..... 137,500 lb.
Maximum zero fuel weight 118,000 lb.
Basic operating weight (BOW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 88,900 lb.
Basic empty weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 86,146 lb.
BOW CG 34.6% MAC
LEMAC BS 860.2
MAC 180.7 in.
Forward cargo hold maximum capacity 5,850 lb.
Forward cargo hold station number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. BS 581
Aft cargo hold maximum capacity 6,,980 lb.
Aft cargo hold station number BS 1066
First class passenger compartment seating capacity. . . . .. 24 seats
First class passenger compartment station number. . . . . .. BS 480
Tourist passenger compartment seating capacity. . . . . . .. 69 seats
Tourist passenger compartment station number. . . . . . . .. BS 899
Passenger weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 170 lb.
per person

Fuel tank 1 capacity 12,730 lb.

Fuel tank 2 capacity 27,580 lb.
Fuel tank 3 capacity 27,580 lb.
Fuel tank 1 and 3 station number BS 901
Fuel tank 2 station number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. BS 815
Fuel weight 6.7 lb. per gallon

LOADING DATA

Ramp weight .............................•... 151,840 lb.

Total fuel (includes fuel for enroute,
alternate, FAA required reserve,
company additional reserve, and
1,000 lbs. for taxi) 37,000 lb.
Fuel (Tanks 1 & 3) 24,000 lb.
Fuel (Tank 2) 13,000 lb.
First class passengers 24 persons
Tourist passengers 65 persons
Cargo in forward hold 5,110 lb.
Cargo in aft hold 5,700 lb.

Questions 252. 253 and 254

A·15
To answer questions 252, 253, and 254, refer to the 256. After a loss of two' way radio (
loading data and aircraft specifications. communications capability in IFR
conditions, the transponder should
first be set to Mode A/3, Code
252. When the aircraft leaves the loading
gate, the center of gravity is located at 1. 0076.
2. 0077.
1. 14.3% MAC. 3. 7600.
2. 15.8% MAC. 4. 7700.
3. 16.6% MAC.
4.17.4% MAC. 257. Use the accompanying takeoff
performance chart to determine the
253. The zero fuel weight for this flight is maximum allowable weight for a
departure under the following
1. 112,086 pounds. conditions:
2. 114,840 pounds.
runway length available .. · ... 8,500 feet
3. 118,000 pounds.
wind component 4 knots (tailwind)
4. 125,900 pounds.
slope . . 0%
airport pressure altitude .. · sea level
254. Because of the bulkiness of a cargo
outside air temperature .. · 68°F
shipment, a load of crates weighing
anti-skid . · operative
375 pounds is moved from the aft
center of gravity . AFT 14% MAC
cargo hold to the forward cargo
flaps . ......... 20°
hold, and a shipment weighing 1,245
AIC bleed . ......... ON
pounds is shifted from the forward
auto pack trip . · .. inoperative
cargo hold to the aft cargo hold.
engine fail warning light .. · .... operative
How far aft will the CG move after
engine anti-ice . ..... .....ON
the cargo transfer is completed?
6th stage bleed . ........ .. ON
1. 0.66% MAC 1. 185,900 pounds
2.1.54% MAC 2. 187,700 pounds
3. 2.20% MAC 3. 187,900 pounds
4. 2.78% MAC 4. 188,500 pounds
255. What is the primary difference
between visual and contact 258. What will the instrument indications be dur-
approaches? ing a prolonged descent if all sources of
ambient atmospheric pressure for the pitot-
1. Visual approaches may be static system become inoperative during
conducted in any controlled level flight due to icing at altitude?
airspace; a contact approach may
only be performed in control zones 1. Indicated airspeed will be higher than
2. A visual approach requires at least normal for attitude and power setting, the
VFR weather minimums within the VVI will not indicate a descent, and the
control zone; a contact approach altitude will appear to be unchanged.
requires the same minimum 2. Indicated airspeed, VVI, and altimeter
weather as does special VFR indications will be normal but will lag
3. Contact approaches retain the IFR behind the true airspeed, rate of descent,
clearance; an IFR clearance is and altitude.
canceled upon acceptance of a 3. All pitot-static instruments will work
visual approach clearance in reverse, indicating a climb.
4. Contact approaches are initiated by 4. Indicated airspeed will be lower than
either the pilot or controller; visual normal for attitude and power setting, the
approaches are requested by the VVI will not indicate a descent, the
pilot and must be approved by ATC altitude will appear to be unchanged.

A·16
 EXAMINATION

( TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE
AUTOPACK TRIP INQP
CUMB LIMIT RUNWAY LIMIT
-2700 LB -800 LB
AVERAGE TAKEOFF EPR Ale BLEED ON ENG FAIL WARN l T INOP o -2400 LB

';'.LH j--:.._.. 'r·' t.

PRESS ALT F ·67 TO -9 ·4 14 32 50 68 B6 104 122
FT C ·55 TO ·23 ·20 ·10 0 10 20 30 40 50
-,()()() 2.05 2.05 2.05 2.0 2.05 2.05 2.05 1.99 1.90
210
S.l. 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.1 2.10 2.10 2.09 1.99 1.90 i-_+_~_.: +~
'()()() 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.1 2.14 2.12 2.09 1.99 1.90 ..c.. j ... !...,... ; . Ii...
2000 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.20 2.15 2.14 2.09 1.99 1.90
I : I •
200
3000 2.27 2.27 2.26 2.20 2.15 2.14 2.09 1.99 1.90
3856 & ABOV 2.31 2.30 2.26 2.20 2.15 2.14 2.09 1.9fl 1.90

BASED ON 1 ANTI·SKID OPERATIVE (ANTI-SKID INOP see TEXT) 190

2 Ale BLEED ON -Ll':; .j
3 AUTOPACK TRIP OPERATIVE
4 ENGINE FAILURE WARNING LIGHT OPERATIVE
! \l +
··1·
NOTE: DETERMINE AVERAGE TAKEOFF EPR FROM TABLE.
WITH 6th STAGE BLEED ON AT lo<'C lSOoF) AND
WARMER, REDUCE CLIMB LIMIT WEIGHT BY 4400 LB
(2000 KGl & FIELD LIMIT WT BY 1800 LB {SOO KGI.
.:::.'.\::; ,\:
.:. -1·· +"'~.~~.~ ~~
FOR ENGINE All ON REDUCE AVERAGE EPR BY .01. w
STRUCTURAL WEIGHT LIMITS MUST BE OBSERVED
'"
«
, :
:·i:·~!:::J~I.~ ~~1-" . w
.....
w
~_.L

Ale BLEED OFF i·--j--! '"

w
INCREASE AVERAGE ;._-+-+ :.<:
EPR BY .02 I'·+···j ···i·'"~·- --:.~ 150
«
1'\; '"
llll
l-
.-'0<-

140 « •
5152025 I-
FLAP POSITION J:
( C>
w
3:

~lJ·
210
'"
'"0
,! ,I 1. _.L.
200
'"C>
X
190 co
«
..J :E
0
0
0 '"
w
.....
180
~

.....
!:: «
~ :E
..J
170 J: '"
w
"""z
W
'"
::J

j
..J
160 c
..J
W
ii:
150

",
·~"';".i:Il.io"';"l~140
o
,, 2 4
PRESSURE ALTITUDE
6 8 -.20 0 20 40°C

•
N

< r::'fSi;::.jS~~~~k:S:C:b.k;ti!l~:iJI~:4
•
'> ..
0 "
§:s
w
1000 FT
o 20 40 60 8~1&bOF
OAT
~
li..+.,;l.l....::..:.:..:.il.j..~. ....;:.......:::......~o.J.-2 ~ ~
i:.·
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
RUNWAY LENGTH AVAILABL-t' 1000 FT
Question 257

A-17
 (

Question 260

A·18
 EXAMINATION

( 259. The pilot of a turbojet has been instructed
to climb in a holding pattern from 13,000
feet to 17,000 feet. The maximum per-
missible airspeed for the climb is
1. 175 knots at all altitudes.
2. 210 knots up to 14,000 feet and 230
knots thereafter.
3. 250 knots to 15,000 feet and 310 knots
thereafter.
4. 310 knots at all altitudes.
260. According to the center of gravity
limits chart, the CG range at the
beginning of the takeoff' roll for an
aircraft weighing 150,840 pounds is
4. one of the single-engine and one
of the multi-engine airplanes since
the beginning of the twelfth
calendar month before operating
the airplanes.
263. One of the circumstances which
requires immediate notification of the
National Transportation Safety Board is
1. in-flight fire.
2. in-flight engine failure.
3. ground damage to propeller blades.
4. damage to landing gear.

1. 21.3 inches.
2. 36.1 inches. 264. Recent changes to procedures depicted on
3. 38.5 inches. NOS instrument charts can be obtained
4. 40.3 inches. by consulting the

261. Material which is classified as "fire 1. weekly NOS chart supplement.

resistant" must be able to 2. FDC NOTAMs in the Notices to Airmen.
3. FAA National Flight Data Center.
1. withstand heat at least as well 4. "Amendments to Instrument Approach
( as aluminum alloy. Procedures" section of AIM.
2. withstand heat at least as well
as steel.
3. withstand temperatures up to 800 340/ . 78 eLi MB
degrees.
4. resist direct flames for five FIELD ELEVATION
GROSS WT
minutes. -1000 LB S. L. 2000 FT 4000 FT 6000 FT
FUEL LB FUEL LB FUEL LB FUEL LB
262. An air taxi service certificated under FAR- 170 1030 1090 1150 1210
Part 135 uses three single-engine and two 165 970 1020 1080 1140
different types of multi-engine airplanes 160 920 980 1030 1090
that have similar handling characteris- 880 930 980 1030
155
tics. To qualify as pilot in command of
150 840 890 940 990
these five airplanes, a person must have
passed a flight check given by an autho- 145 800 840 8t.JO 940
rized check pilot in 140 770 810 !l50 900
135 740 780 820 870
1. each airplane during the period since 130 710 750 790 830
the beginning of the sixth calendar man th 690 720 760 800
125
before operating the airplanes.
120 660 690 730 770
2. one of the single-engine and in each of 640 670 700 740
115
the multi-engine airplanes since the begin-
110 620 650 6AO 710
ning of the twelfth calendar month
before operating the airplanes. 105 bOO 620 650 680
1('0 590 610 630 660
3. each airplane since the beginning of the
twelfth calendar month before operating
IT IME = APPROX 3 MINI

the airplanes. Question 267

A-19
 RESS. CLIM8 DEVIATION FROM I <A - O<GO . . . n
(
LT-FT DATA -15 -10 -5 -0 5 T 10 15 I 20 I 25

~ooo TtME M,M T I

FUEL LBS
OIST "M
AVTAS KTS
ENROUTE CLIMB
START CLIMB WT i-
3'9000 TINE M" 25 31
FUEL LBS
NAM
'5'67
111
6157
21B
150,000 LB
OIST
AVTAS KTS 'l' 429

38000 1I"4E M" 21 23 27 33

FUn LBS 0\74'9 5194 5781 6661
DIST NAM \45 161 191 243
AVTAS KTS 427 43B

37000 TINE MIN

'"IR 20
'31
23 26 31 39
FUEL LBS 43 c;7 4752 5190 5148 6506 1663
OIST NAM 12B 144 165 193 231 292
AvTAS KTS 421 .,b 431 431 4., '4B

36000 TIME MIN l7 IB 21 23 21 32 39 52

FUEl LBS 4145 4456 4830 51e9 5871 6647 1775 9742
OIST NAM lib 130 141 169 19T 236 294 401
AVTAS KTS 420 425 430 43b 441 441 453 459

35000 TIME MIN 15 11 10 21 24 2B 34 .,

FUEl LBS 3'957 4236 1,514 ltiQ83 5491 6144 7031 8354
OIST NAM 101 120 135 154 I1B 209 253 321
AVTAS K1S 420 425 430 435 440 446 451 45B

31,000 TI"4E M/M 14 lb I• 20 22 2b 30 31 41

FUel LBS H8R lt053 1,366 I, 140 519iQ 5177 6536 7592 9217
OIST NAM LOO 112 1" 142 163 /90 226 219 362
AVTAS KTS 419 424 429 434 439 445 450 456 463

24 2B 41
33000 TIME.
FUel
MIN
LBS
13
3640
15
388iQ
Ib
41 fll
lB
4579
21
4iQ52 5478 6153
201
"
7059
250
B360
314
OIST NAM 94 L04 111 112 151 115
AVYAS KTS 41B 423 42B 4" 43B 443 449 455 461

32000 TIME MIN 13 14 15 11 19 22 26 '0 31

FUFl LRS 3503 37~'9 4014 1t340 4734 5220 5831t 6639 7754
OIST NAM BB 9B 110 124 L41 163 190 22B 2BI
A~TAS KTS 411 422 426 432 431 442 44B 453 460

31000 T P"E MIN 12 13 /5 16 IB 21 24 2B 34

FUel LBS 3375 3598 3859 4167 1t537 4989 5555 6285 1210\
OIST NAM B3 92 !<" 116 132 152 I1T ZIO 256
AVTAS KTS 415 420 425 430 435 441 446 452 45B

30000 TT"'E MIN II 12 14 15 11 19 22 26 31

FUEl LBS 3253 3466 3113 4005 43!'i4 4778 5304 5976 6813
orST NAM T9 B1 01 109 124 142 165 195 n6
AVTAS KTS '14 419 424 429 434 439 444 450 456

2iQOOO T1'4E MIN II 12 13 14 16 IB 21 24 29

FUel LBS 3137 3340 .,516 3853 4184 45S., 5075 511)0 6527
DIST NAM 14 B2 92 103 111 134 155 IB2 219
AvTAS KTS 413 411 422 421 432 431 443 44B 454

28000 11"'E MIN 10 11 12 14 15 11 20 23 21

FUEL LBS 3025 3219 3lt44 3708 1t021 1t397 1t858 5lt41 6207
CfST NAM 10 1B B1 41 110 126 145 110 203
AVTAS KTS 411 41b 420 425 430 435 441 4'6 452

NOTE: 1. Enter chart at cruise flight level.

2. Subtract 150 lbs. fuel and ~ min. of time for each
1000 feet that departure airport is above sea level.

Questions 266 and 267

A-20
 EXAMINATION

( 265. VSl varies with flight and load 270. What minimum wet runway length is re-
conditions. What flight and/or load quired for landing a turbojet airplane with
condition will decrease this speed? an effective runway length of 6,000 feet?
1. Increased altitude
2. Increased load factor 1. 4,140 feet
3. Decreased weight 2. 4,550 feet
4. Decreased flap setting
3. 5,290 feet
266. Using the enroute climb chart and 4. 5,920 feet
assuming a calm wind and an ISA
+ 100 Celsius deviation, how far will 271. If reverted rubber Isteam)
the aircraft travel while climbing to
hydroplaning is encountered during a
FL 290 after takeoff from an airport
landing roll, the proper corrective
at sea level?
action is to
1. 78 nautical miles
2. 82 nautical miles 1. maintain dir<Bction control with
3. 126 nautical miles rudder and symmetrical power if
4. 134 nautical miles needed.
2. apply heavy braking to decelerate
267. The gross weight of the airplane at as rapidly as possible.
brake release is 150.840 pounds.
3. reduce reverse thrust to provide
Using the enroute climb chart and
better directional control.
the time and fuel from brake release
to climb speed chart, determine the 4. release the brakes to stop the
( gross weight of the airplane when it
reaches a cruising altitude of FL 290
wheel skid and then reapply them.

after a takeoff from an airport at

sea level luse ISA +10 0 Celsius 272. A service provided by air taxi and
deviation). commercial operators which is
regulated by FAR lPart 135 is
1. 145,417 pounds
2. 146.147 pounds
1. pipeline surveillance for oil companies.
3. 146,257 pounds
4. 146,660 pounds 2. the transportation of mail by aircraft
under a postal service contract.
268. The most current source of NOTAMS re- 3. agricultural aircraft operations.
garding the status of airport facilities is
4. aerial photography and surveying.
1. AIM.
2. Airport!Facility Directory. 273. What are the mlUlmum aircraft
3. surface aviation weather reports. equipment requirements for a
4. terminal forecasts. mlUlmum safe altitude warning
(MSAW) radar safety advisory?
269. A pilot filing an IFR flight plan can check
for preferred routes in which of the follow- 1. Operating transponder, altitude en-
ing publications? coder, and marker beacon.
2. Operating transponder, altitude en-
1. NOTAMs coder, and VOIl:.
3. Operating transponder, altitude en-
2. Airport!Facility Directory
coder, and DMK
3. low altitude enroute charts 4. Operating transponder and altitude
4. advisory circulars encoder.

A-21
274. What is the most hazardous aspect 278. The most important rule for (
of hypoxia when a pilot is actively overcoming spatial disorientation
engaged with in-flight duties? during instrument flight is to
1. The symptoms or effects of 1. maintain a shallow turn.
hypoxia may go unnoticed until it 2. rely on the instruments.
is too late. 3. avoid extreme head movements.
2. Close objects, such as flight 4. depend upon the sense of
instruments, will appear blurred. equilibrium.
3. Hypoxic individuals first experience
279. What regulation governs the
a lack of coordination and an
shipment of hazardous materials in
impairment of judgment.
civil aircraft?
4. Hypoxia quickly leads to
hyperventilation. 1. FAR Part 91
2. FAR Part 133
275. Suppose that an engine failure occurs 3. FAR Part 137
shortly after takeoff. To reduce the 4. HMR Part 175
airplane's weight for landing, how
much time is required for fuel 280. When a changeover point symbol is
dumping based on the following not indicated on a low altitude
data? enroute chart, the VOR navigation
gross weight of aircraft at receiver should be changed to the
beginning of fuel dump .... 148,000 lb. station ahead when
gross weight of aircraft
1. the navigation signal becomes
at end of fuel dump 137,500 lb.
unreliable.
fuel dump rate 2,300 lb. per minute 2. mid-way between the two stations.
fuel consumption
3. directed by ATC.
of operating engines .. 6,600 lb. per hour
4. the signal from the station ahead
1. 4 minutes 10 seconds of the aircraft becomes reliable.
2. 4 minutes 21 seconds
3. 4 minutes 34 seconds 281. What is the forecast temperature at
4. 5 minutes 13 seconds FL 270 over Prescott (PRC) at
1400Z?
276. What corrective action should be 1. -30°C
taken if clear air turbulence is 2. -35°C
encountered while crossing a jet 3. -45°C
stream and the outside air 4. -55°C
temperature begins rising?
282. Wha t is the forecast wind and
1. Climb telllperature at FL 390 over Dallas
2. Descend (DAL) at 1300Z?
3. Maintain altitude
4. Alter course to the north 1. 260° at 11 knots -57°C
2.260° at 111 knots-57°C
3. 076 ° at 11 knots -57°C
277. What is the minimum flight visibility for 4. 076° at 110 knots -57°C
a VFR operation conducted under FAR
Part 135 in uncontrolled airspace when
the ceiling is less than 1000 feet? 283. What is the forecast wind for Wink
(INK) at 6000 feet at 0800Z?
1. 1 mile 1. Light and variable
2. 2 miles 2. 090 ° at 90 knots
3. 3 miles 3. 000 ° at 09 knots
4. 5 miles 4. 000 ° at 99 knots

A-22
 EXAMINATION

(
FDUS1 KWBC 2205452
DATA BASED ON 2200002

VALID 2212002 FOR USE 0600-15002. TEMPS NEG ABV 2400fl

FT 3000 6000 9000 12000 18000 24000 300fl0 34000 39000

DAL 1216 1613+06 2116+02 2425-03 2648-15 2665-26 2684'+0 269849 751157

INK 9900+09 2416+04 2430-02 2458-15 2471-26 2585'+0 259348 259956

PRC 3213-02 3323-07 3439-16 3445-28 3455'+3 335951 315657

Questions 281,282 and 283

284. Large turbine powered airplanes require a 286. The regulations concerning minimum
third bank and pitch indicator which is safe altitudes over congested areas
powered from a source other than the air- state that, except for takeoff and
craft's electrical system. It must be capable landing, the flight altitude must be
of reliable operation, after total electrical at least
failure, for at least
1. 5 minutes. 1. 500 feet from the nearest person
2. 10 minutes. or obstruction.
( 3. 30 minutes. 2. 1,000 feet from the nearest person
4. 45 minutes. or obstruction.

285. According to the enroute chart excerpt, 3. 1,000 feet above obstacles within
what is the minimum altitude over Salad 2,000 feet horizontally and be high
Intersection (13 miles northeast of Oak- enough to make an emergency
land) for an eastbound flight along V6S? landing without undue hazard to
persons or prop"rty.
1. 2,000 feet 4. 1,500 feet above obstacles within
2. 4,000 fe"t 2,000 feet horizontally and high
3. 4,700 fe"t enough to gli'de to an uncongested
4. 5,000 feet area.

I ........ ,_. I".U\IJr

@
@AI(IANQ]
I!~"OUTI! FLIGHT ADVISORY
SE"VICI! OPI!RATI!S
,"- 1400·oe:OOZt g
.
~.

E
or
0
I
:;:
122.5 122.1R ~ ~
OAKLAND
OAK ~~-_-116.8 liiJ
Chan 115 •. J.

Question 285

A·23
 LIvingsTon Mun, (
/
151 l 34

.:.::.

'-"

I)~
122.1 R
VOTA~ /

(~~rorr'~
~t ~Houston
... ~~5
~
084 -
"?I ~o HUMBLE
o !:':~ ~ IAH :.'::. 116.6
" \ 0"!'t' <j. • J.-~C~ha~n~ll;3::::::J

~ ,
1 a.. d Wayo. '"
,Hooks Mem) ~ __~~_
, 150 l53
--"'""' , Y"
:--] <90 ...

~'·266 ~ r
{;;1 T,:-'-<>:"--~'=l6 '2'O:'!"!~==i.iiiiilDE!;~~~~~~~~~~~~
@"
'*,7
10~ ILT 1...
1~' 10 . "'of
f$ ,,11
,," 22
~ ~ /:; :=:.~~~~
~ CROSBY 13
(
(Collie~ Pvt '(.J. ~ .1 .\.}. ~

'
35
i

;~~I L
111

_ t,,0..
<> 901 36

MONUMENT.'"
/ ",~iI
~ ~

~
~ .....
! HOBB Y
HUB :';,.,.115.9
Chan 106

Questions 288 and 289

287. When should the altimeter be set to 289. Refer to the enroute chart excerpt
29.92 in. Hg for a flight cleared to and locate Daybo Intersection nine
FL290? miles southwest of Daisetta VORTAC
1. On the ramp on VI3E. The symbol-l I- denotes a
2. As soon as practical after change in
departure 1. MEA.
3. Passing through 18,000 feet 2. MaCA.
4. When reaching FL 290 3. MCA.
4.MRA.
288. According to the enroute chart
excerpt, advance information 290. Use the listed data and the Mach. 82 Cruise
concerning weather and instrument Planning chart to determine the gross weight
approaches in use at Houston at a descent point 802 nautical miles away.
Intercontinental Airport is obtained
by monitoring what frequency?
level off gross weight. 144,200 lbs.
1. 109.30 MHz cruise altitude FL 290
2. 116.60 MHz cruise speed Ind. Mach .82
3. 124.05 MHz outside air temperature ISA + 7° C (
4. 128.10 MHz average tailwind component +40 knots

A-24
 EXAMINATION

(
I:).
AL.L.
MACH.
PLANNING
ENGINES
82
CRUISE
2 AIRBL.EEDS
1SA -42.5° C 29,000 FT
GROSS .. C""T-OEG C -60
-" -'0 .... -'0 -]5 -'0 -2S -'0

165000
L8

160000
"&eH/lAS
TOTU f"

MACH/US
aUa/.6,.
9300

.120/U4
....
.110/469

.1101469
.IZO/4H
9516

.1IZ0/U4
.820/480
910a

.8Z0/UI
.820/485
'''0
.. 820/4'5
.8201490
,n2
.820/490
.. 806/486
9 756
1

.816/UZ
18 TOTAL FF 9120 '249 9381 '510 9642 9168 9195

155000
L8

150000
.. acHITAS
TaUl FF

"ACHIlAS
.BlO/464
89H

.820/464
.820/469
90n

.. • 201469
.. 820H 74
9189

.820/414
.120/480
9311

.'2CHIO
....
.820/48'

.82014'5
.UO/490
9570

.120/490
.820/49'
96CjJ6

.1120/495
.800/lo8e
9190

.811/lt95
L8 TOTAL Ff 8769 11195 9021 CU.7 'J270 9l'} 9519 9416

145000 .. "eH/US .820/464 .820/4U .lIZ0lto74 .820/480 .820/4'1 .[1201490 .820/495 .820/500
LO TOTU FF 8607 8710 8SS3 8916 9099 '2n 9HZ 9456

1100000 .UCH/TAS .8201464 .12014b9 .820/474 .820/480 .120/485 .8201490 .120/495 .820/500 .804/495
L8 TOTAL FF 8454 8574 8M7 8817 8937 9057 9114 9294 904'

135000
CO

130000
fUCH/TAS
TOUl FF

"ACH/lAS
.820/. .4
nOT

.BlO/. .4
.1201469
'4ll

.NO/46.
.. UOI4111t
854T

.aZO/llt74
....
.820/410

.820/~10
.. 12014.5
1181

.IZO/iIt85
.IZO/490
8901

.1!201490
.8Z0/1It95
4018

.8Z0/1It95
.. IZO/500
9U2

.. 8Z0/500
.. 8121500
9072

.8201505
L8 TOTAL FF 1161 nn llltOO 1514 1631 8He5 UU 8976 9090

125000 MACH/US .'20'''4 ••20/469 .. B20/HIlt • 820/IIt«O .810/485 .. '20/490 • 810/IIt'5 .120/500 .8Z0/'505

..
L8 TOTAL FF Ion .148 8262 U19 1493 8604 ana 113Z 1911tJ

12000G
L8
"ACM/US
TOTAL FF ,,
.. 820/4611t .120/4.9
'016
.8201474
1127
.. 820H80
IZ4\
.. IZO/IIt'5
1352
.1l0/ilt90
1466
.12.Q/495
8517
.fl20HOO
&bBl
.120/'i05
1I't9t,

115000 "UHITAS .820/464 • '20/469 .. 120/474 "'20/480 .1201485 .UO/ilt90 .82;0/495 .. '201500 •• 20/505
CO TOTAL FF nil 71. . '013 IlH un IJO 8,1It54 1562 8610

110000 "A~H/TAS .. 820/464 .. '20/469 ... 20/11t 711t ...20/4bO .120/U5 .. IZO/llt90 .. 12<0/4'5 .. IZO"OO .8201505

(
CO t(lf AL " 7617 1788 78-99
'00' 1118 1226 1334 .442 8541

105000 RACH/lAS .. 120/4611t • B20/1It69 • 120 liIt711t .'20/1It1L0 .. 120/485 .120/490 .. 12rO/ilt95 • '20/500 .. eZOHu5

..
La TOUl FF 15T1 7683 11'1 7199 .001 8115 'liO ')28 SoH]

100000 fIIACH/TAS .820/464 .'20/. .9 .. 120/4711t .. UO/48d .120/4115 .120/ilt90 .8210/495 .120/500 .120/505
TOTAl FF
14" 75114 7b89 un 190Z 1010 IllS 8220 1322

Question 290

1. 129,080 pounds down zone elevation when the altimeter

2. 129,600 pounds indicated DR would be approximately
3. 130,350 pounds 1. 110 feet.
4. 131,540 pounds 2. 191 feet.
3.209 feet.
291. What types of special use airspace 4.290 feet.
allow unrestricted civilian VFR flight
operations, even though they may
contain hazardous air traffic andior 293. A category "C" aircraft receives the follow-
activities? ing clearance from Tyler Approach Control.
"... cleared for straigh t-in ILS runway 13 ap-
1. Warning and restricted areas proach, circle to land runway 31. Contact
2. Restricted and alert areas Pounds Tower 1:20.1 passing the outer
3. Military operations areas and marker... " Until the pilot has identified the
warning areas approach threshold and the airplane is in a
4. Warning and prohibited areas position from which a normal approach can
be made, the minimum indicated altitude
during the circling maneuver is
292. During an 1LS approach to runway 13 at
Pounds Field, Tyler, Texas, an altimeter set- 1. 860 feet.
( ting of 30.10 is given by the tower. If the
altimeter were inadvertently set to 30.01,
2. 940 feet.
3. 960 feet.
the airplane's actual height above the touch- 4. 1,000 feet.

A-25
 (

Arndt 11
POUNDS FIELD
ILS RWY 13 Al-622 (FAA) TYlER, TEXAS
TYLER APP CON
12.4.1
POUNDS lOWER
120.1 257.8
GNDCON
121.9
2600

"" \
127"(13.7}

\,

/ GREGG COUNTY
\
112..4 GOO 55:
I Chon 71

\ Pl'O

\ ~.. t. ;:00 /

~
91A :~ (..

\ LOCALIZER 109.9
I . TYR ;;,,--;:::'
....,TROuP".')..9 ,,/
<1":'0"-'
\ 2000 to LOM
/~,.. ?&
307" WHOSE

"" (15.3)

/"
/

Remom LOM
---- ............... MIN SAFE All 25 NM 2200

ElfV 544 Rwy 17 Idg .4805'

127 .4.6 NM Rwy.4 Idg ..692'

-I
MISSED APPROACH from LOM
Wltt"n 10 NM ~ Climb 10 2000 on SE
~A-5.42
--",,"f,O COUl'$e of I-TYR LOC to
2000""""'- '1;:<-, 1826 Troup 1m and hold. T0Z:
---J27~1 M"-

,ioo ~.,.
...
os 2 51"
--I . . .~J, .,'*"'"
TCH 55
.... "'""...

•
73 - h
o

Knob 60 90 120 150 180

Min,s..: .4:36 3:0.4 2: 18 1:50 1,32

ILS RWY 13 TYlEll, TEXAS

POUNDS FIELD
2.4 fEB. 19

Questions 292 and 293

A-26
 EXAMINATION

( 294. Based on the actual flight time 1. 170 0 at 26 knots

shown, what is the maximum time 2. 340 0 at 20 knots
the pilot-in-command of a two-pilot 3. 350 0 at 25 knots
flight crew can be scheduled to fly 4. 355 0 at 30 knots
for a domestic air carrier on June 4?
Date Time Type of Flight 299. What power changes will be required to
May 28 · 6:10 Instruction maintain the glide slope if an aircraft on a
May 29 · 7:30 Charter stabilized ILS approach encounters a wind
May 30 ·._ 5:20 Charter shear that causes the headwind to cease?
June 2 ·._ 6: 00 Instruction
June 3 · 4:00 Pleasure 1. An initial power increase followed by a
decrease in the original amount
1. 0:00
2. An initial power decrease followed by an
2.5:10
increase to the original amount
3.8:00
3. An initial power increase followed by a
4. 11:10
decrease to a value slightly less than the
original amount
295. High lift devices installed on an 4. An initial power increase followed by a
airplane increase both lift and decrease to a value slightly more than the
1. induced drag. original amount
2. approach speed.
3. stall speed.
4. airplane range. 300. Assume that an aiJrcraft is nine miles to the
left of the desired course after flying 140
0
296. The most efficient power off glide miles on a magnetic heading of 342 • What
( speed is determined by the point
where
magnetic heading must be flown to arrive at
the destination if it is 194 miles from the
1. induced drag is least. present position of the aircraft?
2. parasite drag is least. 0
1. 324
3. total drag is least.
2.335 0
4. the coefficient of drag is least. 0
3.349
0
4.360
297. The fuel requirements for a night
VFR flight conducted under FAR
Part 135 states that enough fuel 301. If the floor in a cargo compartment is
must be carried to reach the first capable of withstanding 170 pounds per
point of intended landing and, square foot, how many pounds of cargo can
thereafter, to fly for at least be carried on a 60" by 75" pallet which
1. 15 minutes. weighs 80 pounds and requires tiedowns
2. 30 minutes. weighing 27 pounds?
3. 45 minutes. 1. 5205.5
4. 60 minutes. 2.5232.5
3.5312.5
4.6364.3
298. Determine the average in-flight
winds encountered under the
following circumstances: 302. Prior to arriving at Texico (TXO), Albuquer-
que Center requests a flight at FL290 to
TAS 150 knots reduce speed over Texico so as to arrive
Groundspeed 141 knots over the Turkey Intersection at 1305 Zulu.
(
0
Magnetic course. . . . . . . . .. . 287 Use the data below and determine the
0
Magnetic heading. . . . . . . .. 296 indicated airspeed that must be used during
0
Magnetic variation. . . . . . .. . 9 West the speed reduction.

A·27
 distance 92 n.m. 3.. Report identification and depress the
time over Texico VORTAC 1254 Zulu IDENT button on the transponder. (
tailwind component. . . . . . . . . .. 55 knots 4. Depress the IDENT button on the
outside air temperature _30° C transponder.
temperature rise 21°C
compressibility 55 knots 307. When 80 DME miles west of the
instrument and position error 2 knots Wichita Falls VORTAC, Fort Worth
magnetic course 086° Center issues the following ATC
variation 11° E clearance, "Celestial 509, at pilot's
discretion, descend and maintain
1. 270 knots
11,000. Cross Wichita Falls at or
2. 280 knots
below FL 190. " Based on the
3.290 knots
descent planning chart, how many
4. 300 knots
miles west of Wichita Falls ISPS)
303. In the previous problem, what is the should the descent from FL 290 be
actual wind at FL 290, if the initiated in order to cross SPS at
average magnetic heading from FL 190? (Assume a no-wind
Texico VORTAC to Turkey condition.)
Intersection is 083 ° and the average 1. 15 nautical miles
T AS is 446 knots? 2. 28 nautical miles
1. 244 °/60 knots 3. 52 nautical miles
2. 255 °/60 knots 4. 67 nautical miles
3. 288 °/60 knots DESCENT PLANNING .80/280
4. 299°/60 knots
PRESS TIME- FUEL- 01 ST-
304. If an aircraft is in a standard AL T - 1000 FT MIN LBS NAM
holding pattern on the 270° radial of 39 20 850 124
-
a VORTAC and a magnetic heading .--
29 15 600 80
of 080 ° is required on the inbound
leg, what heading should be 27 14 550 74
maintained on the outbound leg? 25 13 550 68
23 12 500 63
1. 250°
21 II 500 58
2. 260°
3. 280° 19 10 450 52
4. 290° 17 10 450 46
15 9 400 41
305. The function of the rudder during 10 6 300 26
turn entry is to 5 3 150 13
1. compensate for the yaw caused by Question 307
the lowered aileron 0 n the high wing.
2. compensate for the yaw caused by 308. At FL 290, the cabin pressure
the raised aileron on the high wing. altitude is 3,500 feet. If the cabin
3. compensate for the yaw caused by rate of descent is set for 400 feet
the raised aileron on the low wing. per minute, what would be the
4. change the direction of flight. maximum average rate of descent for
the airplane in order that the
306. When in radar contact, what airplane altitude and the cabin
procedure is used to contact a altitude would be the same upon
new ARTCC? landing at Dallas-Love Field?

1. Report identification, altitude, and 1. 3,260 feet per minute

depress the IDENT button on the 2. 3,320 feet per minute
transponder. 3. 3,800 feet per minute (
2. Report identification and altitude. 4. 3,860 feet per minute

A-28
 EXAMINATION

(
Arndt 21
DAlLAS-LQVE FIELQ
ILS RWY 13L Al-I06 (FAA) DAlLAS, TEXAS
REGIONAl APP CON
-............ 120(.5 372.1.
LOVE TOWER
::::::--.. "'.7 2'9.'
I 2400 I '" 12f~~~~
, "'51!:
10 NM
ILUE RI~,.)J" Ans 114.3

/~
t'\:;1~ \
\
/ \
I ,.,
lOCALJZE~

:=..
.!.J.SU.

~:&,:
" \
A
\ / MoM.
.
"
~572
".900
A. I
\ '\.t~~"\ ~
_ /
711'A-

,~. -~ME Choo

\ 79' 6 9' 118

/
~'t.f{
\ V'" GREATER SOUTHWEST
113.1 GSW n:.-..:
1l4.:h0e ;:-..:"
-'i;-
'. ~ ~
b<10 t.1q, /
Chon ~ I_~ v~;~
ACTON , ';. / SCURRY

for DA OM
""
CAUTION: Flower OM moy be received
and should not be mistaken
--- _ _ __ _
~.

____
/

MISSED APPROACH
Oimb to 2300 on SE c;oUM
Loe within 20 NM.

MM

GS 3.00·
TCH 48 "....~..,.. ,.""
CATEGORY
• c o
$oILS 13L

S-LOC 13L 840/24 840/40

355 (400)';) 3551400.:141
960-1 1000-1'h 1080-2
"""_....l~47"''-'I''''OO-''''',,I)'--'-....:c'''-''"''''''CJ..,,'.!.:l''-'I,,60'''O-'''-'
I',_ClRCL
__ '::,')CL-"",9"""6",oo-,,,,2L1 Rwy.18-36
TOZl RwY
M1Rl 13L and 31L I:t.. 507
V HIRI. Rwy 13L-31R f!) "J........
end 13R·31l
FAF to MAP ".1 NM
Knob 60 90 120 150 180
Min,s.c 4:06 2:4" 2,03 1:38 1:22
ILS RWY 13L D~.TEXAS
DAlLAS-LOVE FIELD
7 MM. 19

Questions 308,310,313,316, and 317

A-29
309. The major difference between an ILS
localizer approach and an SDF
3. Nonstandard IFR
minimums or departure
takeoff
procedures
(
approach is that the SDF course has apply.
a greater width and
4. Takeoff nummums apply only to
1. a steeper approach angle. transport category aircraft.
2. is more precise.
3. has no three-letter identifier.
313. By referring to the ILS runway 13L ap-
4. is seldom aligned with the runway.
proach chart on page A-29, no alternate is
required for a flag carrier flight to Dallas-
310. If the captain received the following
Love Field if the ceiling is forecast from
clearance, "Celestial 509, hold
one hour before until one hour after the
northwest of the Bridgeport
estimated time of arrival, to be at least
VORTAC on V-355, maintain 4,000,
expect approach clearance at 1350
Zulu," what time should he leave the 1. 1,513 feet.
holding pattern to execute a 2. 2,000 feet.
Dallas-Love Field 13L ILS approach
if he experienced a total 3. 2,513 feet.
communication failure while in the 4. 3,000 feet.
holding pattern? Assume a
groundspeed of 180 knots from 314. A domestic air carrier must carry
Bridgeport to the outer marker for sufficient fuel, considering wind,
this problem. weather and anticipated traffic
1. 1334 Zulu delays, to fly to its destination, then
2. 1337 Zulu to its most distant alternate, if
3. 1343 Zulu required. Sufficient additional fuel
4. 1350 Zulu must be carried to

311. A complete listing of lighting aids 1. make one approach and missed
associated with a Category II approach only.
approach is
2. make an approach and missed
1. approach, sequence flashing, high approach and thereafter to fly for
intensity runway, and touchdown 30 minutes at the optimum
zone lights. holding altitude.
2. approach, high intensity runway,
touchdown zone, and centerline 3. make one instrument approach and missed
lighting. approach and fly for 45 minutes at
3. sequence flashing, high intensity normal cruise.
runway, centerline, and touchdown 4. hold for 2 hours at the optimum
zone lights. holding altitude.
4. approach, centerline, sequence
flashing, touchdown zone, and high 315. For each flight, a supplemental air
intensity runway lights. carrier or commercial operator must
retain load manifests, flight releases,
312. What does the symbol V mean when it airworthiness releases, pilot route
appears in the information box on certification and flight plans for a
NOS instrument approach charts? period of
1. Standard IFR takeoff minimums 1. 7 days.
apply. 2.30 days.
2. The airport has a triangular 3. 3 months.
runway layout. 4. 6 months. (,

A-3D
 EXAMINATION

( ~ :..::: .!.... ···:··!:·:·!:::T· .

i. .::
.j
::; ::"::T··"·
••...•••.. :::': :1':"

1-'
11.:::"""
o.
~~.
I.
w,·
al
<, .
...I.
<7
>,
<."
;r .... 0': _ . : '•• ~ ••• : ••• :.:.;.._•. ~_ ~:.....• ...:_._••.; .

1-.
Cl"
~5"'···'"ck'''
...I

3'>-,. .
.<:, ....
. .... :;:.: ....
:~:~ 41L ';".! .::;: :·:··~.i:::t.:···j·· ; .
. . .........:.. . , •.
,j : L. , ,

--~ -.-.~,i"-
...... "..I~. '.. 0.0....::, 2p . . :,:.40 "'dOD ".120 .. , ,.. 140, ,., ... ,.. ,. 16G . >., ., 180 ,.. 00., .. ,,200 .. " ' ... ' .220" '
::: ," ,,~.::: :,":"':'I:HGTS . ,. :':" ,,,,_,,l,. \"~'" ,;,: FIEl.D
REPORTEOW1HO·: , ""', LENGTH
;.. : LIMn GROSS WEIGHT _ - 1000 LB _ _ .
IFiElo lENr.THWEIGHT CORRECTIONS!
( DtSPATCH'ANTI'; RUN. 'NOSE: ,WEICHT'"
.:

CONbiTI~ SKII)WAV BRAK~S CORRECTION

C.?.. 'tF j-.. 1b'T. ORY ON'

OFF 0 llr
°lB
MAC-AHD "WT' "C ·01-(",:.. "," ·.GH; ....... ~, 14000 l:!B""
"'BE:lO~' ,·.....~jt-· ...'..~Oir.F~Ft. -.+-·-";.2~2~OOO;;:;;:.r'LB::-·-",il
317. Runway 13L wiU be used for landing
'160000LB . ···O·FF ..,O:;;:R;..:Y;'i"r.. · r"'..·""·O:!:f$.F."' LJl
.....,... "'' ' -""'::54,=O""OO:-;,.,,, ''' fI
!c'' __
. ',. 'WET OFf -'75000,lB at Dallas·Love Field.. Based on the
' .... ON' . -' ~OO . lB landing performance charts and the
...,C:,' . ,-C; G;.... . :. ..., . . ·.OR Y.1-+"'7.~+----<="'''''''~-f1
tiORWA:ll' 0: . 0" OFf -' 120DO.l following data, determine the
,. ... ON; -' UODO lB .... maximum allowable landing gross
. '6~.104,.,~
WT ABDVE ... ~ . 1t-;..:::..:i=~. ;...;~;:r+."~"'::""Of'~~F~" :+::._;:::~28~OOO~~L~'B~""::jJ weight.
. "I'" . OFF' RY . ;.. OF.F: . . .; 61000 LB
60.000lB.. WET OFf -' 8300 LB
runway length available '" ......7,751 ft.
Question 317 reported wind 100° at 15 kts.
altimeter setting 30.12
316 . Since the pilot in command has had outside air temperature 49° F .
only 45 hours in this type airplane, maximum structural
in order to execute a full ILS landing weight 137,500 lb.
Runway 13L approach to Dallas·Love center of gravity aft 16% MAC
Field with a straight·in landing, he anti·skid OFF
must have a reported RVR of at runway condition wet
least nose brakes " OFF

1. 1,800 feet. 1. 120,000 pounds

2. 3,400 feet. 2. 137,500 pounds
3.. 4,200 feet . 3.. 148,000 pounds
4. 5,000 feet . 4.. 160,000 pounds

A·31
 MAXIMUM LANDING WEIGHT
CLIMB LIMITS
(
Pressure Altitude
041'
.~. 1000' 2000' a.: 4000' 5000' 6000' 7000' 8000' QOOO'

~ 160,000 160,000 160,000 160,000 160,000 160,000 160,000 160,000 160,000 l54,5OO
50 1 158,000 152,000

~ 160,000 15.5,500 149,500

~30 l58,5OO 1.52,500 147,000
~ZO 160,000 15.5,500 149,500 144,000
~1O l58,ooo 152,000 147,000 141,000
0 160,000 154,500 149,000 143,500 138,500
10 160,000 156,500 151,000 145,500 140,500 135,000
ZO 159,000 153,000 147,500 142,000 137,000 132,000
30 160,000 155,000 149,500 143,500 138,000 133,500 128,000
40 160,000 156,000 150,500 145,000 139,500 134,500 129,500 124,500
(
50 156,500 151,500 146.000 140,500 135,500 130,500 125,500 120,500
60 157.500 152,000 146,500 141,500 136,000 131,000 126,000 121.500 116,500
70 160,000 154,000 149,000 143,500 138,000 133,000 128,000 123,000 118,500 114,000
80 156.500 151,000 145,500 140,500 135,000 130,500 125,000 120,500 116.000 111.500
90 153.500 147.500 142.500 137,000 132.000 121.500 122.500 118.000 113.500 /fA

..00 148,000 142.500 138.000 133,000 128,000 123,500 118.500 116.000 109.500
110 143.000 138.000 133;000 128.500 123.500 119.000
"" IlA II"
120 138,000 133.500 128.000 /fA /fA /fA 1 .l
Question 317

318. Which of the wind conditions 3. 160°/50 knots

reported by the tower and listed 4. 240°/35 knots
below would exceed the 29-knot
maximum crosswind capability of the 319. All aircraft flight recorders must record
trijet used for this flight when information on aircraft heading, airspeed,
landing on runway 13L at altitude, elapsed time and
Dallas-Love Field?
1. flap control position.
2. engine thrust control position.
1. 060°/30 knots 3. vertical acceleration.
2. 090°/35 knots 4. pitch trim position.

A-32

( 320. What is the rrurumum altitude that
a pilot may fly an airplane with the
autopilot approach coupler engaged
during an ILS approach in VFR
conditions assuming there is a
30-foot altitude loss specified for the
autopilot during a system
malfunction?
1. 50 feet below the D H
2. 50 feet above the terrain
3. 60 feet above the terrain
4. 150 feet above the terrain
321. Under FAR Part 121, each passenger
carrying airplane must be equipped
with an emergency exit lighting
system that has an independent
power source. In addition, its
operation must be controlled
manually from the
1. flight deck only and operate for at
least 10 minutes.
2. flight deck and flight attendant
station and operate for at least
five minutes.
Questions 322 and 323
EXAMINATION
3. flight deck and flight attendant
station, automatically after arming
and operate for at least five
minutes.
4. flight deck and flight attendant
station, automatically after arming
and operate for at least 10
minutes.
322. Refer to the accompanying low-level
significant weather prognosis chart,
and determine the weather trend in
Washington and northwest Oregon.
1. Marginal VFR on Wednesday,
ceilings 1,000 to 3,000 feet, and/or
visibilities three to five miles
becoming VFR on Thursday
2. IFR on Wednesday, ceilings less
than 1,000 feet, and/or visibilities
less than three miles
3. VFR Wednesday and Thursday
4. Rain on Wednesday turning to
freezing rain and snow on
Thursday, with visibilities one to
three miles
A-33
323. The low-level significant weather prog- (
nosis chart on page A-33 indicates
that over Kansas, on both
Wednesday and Thursday, the pilot
can expect marginal VFR weather
and
1. freezing rain.
2. intermittent snow.
3. moderate turbulence.
4. rain and snow showers.

324. Assume that a pilot, while

approaching to land, finds it
necessary to request landing priority
due to an ill passenger. If A TC
gives the pilot priority over other
aircraft the pilot must
1. file a report wi th the chief of the
affected A TC facility within 48 Question 327
hours.
2. file a report with the chief of the
affected A TC facility within 48 327. According to the radar summary
hours only upon request. chart excerpt, the area of echoes
3. file a report with the over southern Texas is best
Administrator within 48 hours. described as
4. realize that a report is not 1. scattered thunderstorms and
necessary unless an accident isolated rain showers with cloud
occurs. bases at 8,000 feet MSL and cloud
tops to 24,000 feet MSL.
325. Assume that a pilot in command of
2. scattered clouds and rain or rain
a domestic or flag air carrier has
showers with cloud tops from
exercised emergency authority while
18,000 feet MSL to 24,000 feet
executing a precautionary landing. In
MSL.
this case, the pilot must send a
3. a line of severe thunderstorms
report to the Administrator through
with large hail and damaging
the air carrier's operations manager
winds moving northeast at 20
1. within 10 days after returning to knots.
his home base. 4. a large area of broken clouds and
2. wi thin 10 days after the isolated thundershower activity
precautionary landing. moving north-northeast at 30
3. only upon request from the knots.
Administrator.
4. only if the pilot was not in 328. The respective indicated airspeed
contact with ATC during the limits which apply to
emergency deviation. turbine-powered aircraft operating
within airport traffic areas and to
326. Omission of a visibility entry in a
other operations conducted below
terminal forecast implies the visibility
10,000 feet MSL are
is more than
1. 4 miles. 1. 200 knots and 250 knots.
2. 6 miles. 2. 200 knots and 230 knots.
3. 10 miles. 3. 275 knots and 156 knots.
4. 12 miles. 4. 300 knots and 250 knots.

A·34
 EXAMINATION

SA
TX 071310
ABI SP M7 avc 15 146/54/52/1207/999

FT
TX 071040
ABI 071111 C10 avc 7. 13Z C6 avc 3F VRBL C4 avc IF. 18Z C12 avc 7
CHC C5 avc 3R-F. 03Z C8 avc 5R- VRBL C4 avc lR-F. 05Z IFR CIG RF ..

\..
Question 329

329. A comparison of the Abilene (ABI) 1. No, the use of VASI lights is
1310Z surface aviation weather report optional.
and the terminal forecast for the
same period indicates that actual 2. Only during night VFR by
visibility is maintaining a visual signal of red
over white.
1. nearly the same as forecast.
2. less favorable than forecast. 3. Only in IFR conditions by
( 3.
4.
better than forecast.
forecast to become better.
maintaining a visual signal of red
over white.
4. Yes, by maintaining a position on
330. The mature stage of the or above the glide slope until a
thunderstorm is characterized by lower altitude is necessary for
1. predominant updrafts. landing.
2. stratiform appearance of lower
levels.
333. The approach procedure in which an
3. predominant downdrafts.
aircraft is cleared for an approach to
4. initiation of rain at the earth's
surface. one runway and a landing on an
adjacent parallel runway is called a
331. The schedule of SIGMET broadcasts
1. circling approaclh.
includes a transmission
2. parallel approach.
1. every 15 minutes the first hour.
3. simultaneous approach.
2. once every half-hour starting on
the hour. 4. side step maneuver.
3. once every hour on the hour.
4. once at 15 minutes past the hour.
334. Acceleration during the takeoff roll
will cause the horizon reference bar
332. Assume a runway at a on the attitude indiicator to move
tower-controlled airport is equipped
1. up, indicating a descent.
with VASI. Is a pilot on an
2. down, indicating: a climb.
( approach to this runway required to
3. down, indicating: a descent.
use the VASI and, if so, how should
itbeused? 4. up, indicating a e1imb.

A-35
335. What conditions are most conducive 337. At an indicated altitude of 7,500 (
to the formation of fog? feet, the current altimeter setting is
29.82 in. Hg, and the pressure
1. Temperature/dewpoint spread of 15 ° F
altitude is approximately
or less at dusk
2. Skies overcast, wind from the 1. 7,400 feet.
south, influx of low level moisture 2. 7,500 feet.
overriding a warm airmass 3. 7,600 feet.
3. Warm rain or drizzle falling 4. 7,700 feet.
through cool air
4. High pressure system over an 338. Compute specific range (NAM/1,000 pounds
industrial area and light winds of fuel) using the following data:
indicated airspeed 257 knots
pressure altitude _ 29,000 feet
.0 .~_
o indicated outside air temperature _25° C.
temperature correction 17° C.
------ ,0 instrument and position error 3 knots
compressibility .. _ _ 10 knots
fuel flow per hour 11,400 pounds

1. 35.3 NAM/1,000 pounds of fuel

2.37.4 NAM/1,000 pounds of fuel
3.38.3 NAM/1,000 pounds of fuel
4. 40.6 NAM/1,000 pounds of fuel
339. The critical Mach number of a
particular airplane can be defined as (
the
1. never-exceed speed stated in terms
of a Mach number.
2. highest speed at which the
airplane should be flown while
observing accepted safety
o procedures.
3. Mach number representing the
speed of that aircraft at which a
local air velocity reaches Mach 1.0.
4. beginning of transonic flow.
Question 336
340. When compared to a straight wing,
the significant aerodynamic feature of
336. According to the weather depiction the sweptback wing is that it has
chart excerpt, what weather trend
1. a lower critical Mach number.
can be expected during a flight from
2. a higher critical Mach number.
northwestern Arizona to southeastern
3. the same critical Mach number as
Colorado?
a straight wing.
1. Higher ceilings, increasing 4. a critical Mach number
visibilities aproximately 1.2 times that of a
2. Clear throughout the entire flight straight wing.
3. Marginal VFR conditions for the
entire flight 341. When making routine code changes (
4. Lowering ceilings, clouds topping on a transponder, what codes should
ridges, and reduced visibilities be avoided because of the possibility

A-36
 EXAMINATION

( of activating a false alarm at 2. increase fuel flow as the fuel

automated ground stations? weight decreases.
3. reduce thrust as the fuel weight
1. 1200,1400,1600
2.2100,3100,4100 decreases.
4. reduce thrust to compensate for
3.4096,5500,6600
reduced compressibility.
4. 7500,7600,7700

COOPER Questions 345 through 348 refer to a flight on a great

tNT/OM
MISSED APPROACH
Climb straight ahead 10
~ ·'.mo;,
within 10 NM
circle route from John F. Kennedy Airport (KJFK) to
560, Ihen climbing tef! Lisbon Airport in Lisbon, Portugal (LPPT).
lurn 10 2000, dire<;1 10 '<2 0
MCE VOR and hold.
193b ~
MM l.\ ' 302°-- 2000 345. As the flight approaches the North
'-·:r-----I
.. - • 2000
GS 3.00· American coast line, it should expect
TCH52

C.... TEGORY
-
0'
A C D
turbulence of
5-IlS 30 •• 403. 3/" 250 (JOO-~~I 1. moderate intensity from below
S·lOC 30 f 500- J/.. 347 (400. l/.'
500-1
347 (400-1)
24,000 to 34,000 feet.
CIRCLING 560-1
407 -/500.11
I 620-1
4677500.1)
I 640·]112
487 '1500-1 /1,) 567 (600-2)
720-2 2. moderate intensity above 34,000
feet.
When ATCl not in ope.ol'on allernate mIn, mum. not outho"led and the following
opplie. e~,ept lor operolo'! with approved weather reporting lervite: 1. Uoe 3. severe intensity above 34,000 feet.
Castle AFB, Calif altimeter .elling. 2. Col. A ,ircling MOA ,ncreoled 20 feet.
t Inoperoli"e table doe. nol apply 10 HIRL Rwy 30. Cat. A, B, ond C increase
4. severe intensity from 24,000 to
streight.in lotalize. visibility 1'~ mile with inoperotive MALSR.' "Inoperotive toble 34,000 feet.
does not apply. 3 step MALSR Rwy 30-121.0. VA

IlS RWY 30
13 JAN. 19
37"I7'N-120"31'W
346. According to the 400·70 MB
significant weather prognostic chart,
( Duestion 342
the second time the flight crosses 45 0 of
north latitude at FL 330, it can
342. Refer to the ILS runway 30 expect to be
approach chart excerpt and determine
1. just above layers of cirroform
the height of the glide slope at the clouds which cover six-eights of
final approach fix.
the sky.
1. 1,936 feet MSL
2. 2,000 feet MSL 2. just above six layers of cirroform
3. 1,936 feet AGL clouds.
4. 2,000 feet AGL 3. in moderate dear air turbulence in
343. Assume that on a particular day the advance of the cold front.
speed of sound at 28,000 feet is 572 4. just above the tops of cumuloform
knots. If an airplane is cruising at clouds which cover six·tenths of
that altitude at Mach .83, the true the sky.
airspeed would be approximately
1. 475 knots.
2. 478 knots.
3. 486 knots. 347. At what point on the flight from
4. 489 knots. KJFK to LPPT will an aircraft
maintaining FL 290 be at the
344. Assume a pilot is operating at a highest true altitude? Refer to the
"constant Mach cruise. To maintain II 300 MB prognostic chart.
a constant crUismg speed of .82
1. Immediately after departure
Mach a pilot should
( 2. 15 0 west longitude
1. increase airspeed as the fuel 3. 33 0 west longitude
weight decreases. 4. 64 0 west longitude

A-37
...
~
co

u.s.
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE UNl.U5 OTHERWISE NOICATEO "AND ce
NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION
400-70 IMPI.Y MOD TURIULfNCE AND ICING
SIG WX PROG
NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE MB

~
~.
~
'"
~
~
'"

r '\
 r
~ '"./

m
X
l>
i'i:
:;""
I
"'--"'~~
._•._ . -.. - ..0: ,._,
...
~ .-"
/~~
. 'Q~- - ' .
...- I{
~:::::::
-:
<!"_-

_.... -_ .. - .
o
'" .."
""
348. What is the forecast wind at FL 349. Referring to the approach chart (
300 where the flight crosses 30 ° profile view, determine the distance
west longitude according to the 300 from the final approach fix to the
MB chart? approach end of the runway.
1. 230°/50 knots 1. 1.8 n.m.
2. 260°/48 knots 2.3.2n.m.
3. 280° /46 knots 3.5.0n.m.
4. 300° /52 knots 4.8.0n.m.

MISSED APPROACH VAil 350. What is the altitude and temperature

~
(I ,nIb to 5000 Intercept S,AN~D I~T5600 of the tropopause at the point where
11:·260 TUS VORTAC' COPPEll:
di'ect Ryan NOB/DME and INT 1.0 ~ 5000 -I a flight crosses Edmonton, Canada
hold.· ! .v30 1- I RADAR
ICYEG)? (Refer to the tropopause
GRAVEL x""""---- I I AND ADF
I~T 14100 I I OR DME vertical wind shear chart)
I I I I REQUIRED
'" 13J80.
,-
I I
Colegory"E"min,mums holding BODO'
I 1. FL 390 -56°C
J 2 NM lNM _19"'" 2. FL 340 -64°C
3. FL 340 -53°C
Ouestion 349 4. FL 390 -64°C

Ouestion 350

A-40
 [EXAM ANSWER FORM]
(
Last Name First Name

Test Title or No. Date Test Grade

Instructions: Mark the correct choice by filling in the circle with a black lead pencil. Completely erase any changes.
Mark only one choice for each question. Note that the questions are arranged in vertical sequence as
indicated by the arrows.

SAMPLE: 0.00 2 is selected as the correct answer.

10@00 ~ 230@00 ~ 450@00! 670@00! 890@00!1110@00!1330@00

~ 20@00 240@00 460@00 680@00 900@00 1120@00 1340@00
30@00 250@00 470@00 690@00 910@00 1130@00 1350@00
40@00 260@00 480@00 700000 920@00 1140000 1360@00
50@00 270@00 490@00 710@00 930@00 1150@00 1370@00
60@00 280@00 500@00 720@00 940@00 1160000 1380@00
70@00 290@00 510@00 730@00 950@00 1170@00 1390@00
80@00 300@00 520@00 740@00 960@00 118000G 140000G
90@00 310000 530@00 750@00 970000 119000G 141000G
100@00 320@00 540@00 760@00 980@00 120000G 1420000
110@00 330@00 550@00 770@00 990@00 1210@0G 1430@00
120@00 340@00 560@00 780@0G 100000G 1220000 1440@0G
130@00 350@00 570000 790000 1010000 123000G 1450@00
140@00 360@00 580@00 800@00 1020@00 124000G 1460@00
150@00 370@00 590@00 810@00 1030@00 1250@00 1470@00
160@0>0 380@0>0 600@00 820@00 1040@00 1260@00 1480@00
170@0>8 390@08 610@00 830@00 1050@00 1270@00 1490@0G
180@0>8 400@0G 620@00 840@00 1060@00 1280@00 1500@00
190@0>G 410@0G 630@0G 850@00 1070000 1290000
200@0>8 420@00 640@00 860@00 1080@00 1300@00
210@0>G 430@0G 650@00 870@00 1090@00 1310@00
220@0G 440@00 660@0G 880@00 1100000 1320@00
(
(

~.#
ill~rn[~~~ TIrnill~~~rn~jTI ~~[rnTI
~mill~~~illTI~rn~ ~rn~TI~rn~~
APPENDIX B

INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the Critique is twofold: to provide answers to all the questions. together with an
explanation of the more difficult ones. and to point out the knowledge areas that should be reviewed
thoroughly if a missed exam question reveals a weakness in that area. If a comprehensive review of
the course is desired as final preparation for the FAA examination. every question can be reviewed.
For maximum results. each missed question and the entire knowledge area on which it is based
should be studied carefully.

The question numbering system follows the format used in the final examination. Therefore. the
question selection sheet must be used to score the answer sheet.

8-1
Question 201 - Choice 2
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
Question 208 - Choice 2
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
(
and FAR 121.439 and FAR 121.471

Question 202 - Choice 1 Question 209 - Choice 3

Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 121.401(b), 121.433(c), and 121.441(a). and FAR 121.483(c)

Question 203 - Choice 2 Question 210 - Choice 3

A first class medical is the lowest class of
certificate required, according to FAR Part
61.23. This type of certificate is valid for 6
calendar months and expires at midnight on the
last day of the sixth month aftJer the month of
the examination date shown on the certificate.
Therefore, the earliest date of issuance is
August 1 of the previous year.
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 61.23
NTSB Part 830.5 and 830.15 designate that,
when an aircraft accident occurs or is believed
to have occured, the NTSB must be notified
immediately and by the most expeditious
means available. In addition, a written report
must be filed within 10 days following an
accident or after seven days if an overdue
aircraft is still missing.
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
andNTSB830

Question 204 - Choice 2 Question 211 - Choice 2

Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 121.401(b) and FAR 121.440(a)
Question 205 - Choice 3
FAR Part 91.83 specifies the weather
minimums for naming an IFR alternate airport.
A ceiling and visibility of 800 feet and two miles
must be forecast at the ETA if only a
nonprecision approach procedure is published,
and 600 feet and two miles if a precision
approach is published.
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 91.83
FAR Part 91. 73 states that position lights must
be used during the period from sunset to
sunrise. Night flight time, as defined in FAR
Part 1.1, cannot be logged except during the
time between the end of evening civil twilight
and the beginning of morning civil twilight, as
published in the American Air Almanac.
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 1.1, 91.73
Question 212 - Choice 4
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 121.333(c)

Question 206 - Choice 2 Question 213 - Choice 2

Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 121.437 and FAR 121.333(b)

Question 207 - Choice 1

Question 214 - Choice I
A constant pressure chart depicts highs, lows,
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
troughs, and ridges aloft and resembles surface
and FAR 121.359 (al
charts in this respect. It is also a source of
observed temperature, temperature/dewpoint
spread, and winds aloft. Constant pressure Question 215 - Choice 1
charts are plotted for the following pressure According to FAR Part 91.169, the 100-hour
levels measured in millibars: 850, 700, 500, 300, limitation may be exceeded by 10 hours only if it
and 200. These levels are approximately equal is necessary in order to reach a place at which
to MSL pressure altitudes in feet of: 5,000, the 100-hour inspection can be accomplished.
10,000, 18,000, 30,000, and 39,000. Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations (
Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data andFAR91.169

8·2

( Question 216 - Choice 2
Terminal and area forecasts group ceiling and
visibility in the following categories in the
outlook portion of the forecasts.
LIFR (Low IFR) - Ceiling less than 500 feet
and/or visibility less than 1 mile.
IFR - Ceiling 500 to less than 1,000 feet and/or
visibility 1 to less than 3 miles.
MVFR (Marginal VFR) - Ceiling 1,000 to 3,000
feet and/or visibility 3 to 5 miles inclusive.
VFR - Ceiling greater than 3,000 feet and
visibility greater than 5 miles; includes clear
sky.
Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data
Question 217 - Choice 3
According to FAR Part 61.129, an applicant for
a commercial pilot certificate with an airplane
rating also must hold an instrument rating
(airplane), or the commercial certificate will be
endorsed with a limitation prohibiting the
carriage of passengers for hire in airplanes on
cross-country flights of more than 50 nautical
miles or at night.
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
( and FAR 61.129
Question 218 - Choice 4
Unless the VOR equipment on an aircraft is
maintained, checked, and inspected under an
approved procedure, FAR Part 91.25 states that
an operational check is required within the pre-
ceding 30 days before the flight.
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 91.25
Question 219 - Choice 4
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 121.343 (b)
Question 220 - Choice 3
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 91.25 (c)
Question 221 - Choice 2
The VOT transmits signals in all directions
similar to the zero degree radial from a VOR.
Regardless of the aircraft heading or location,
the VOR indicator will display an indication as
if the aircraft were north of the transmitter.
( This will be displayed on an RMI as a magnetic
bearing of 180 0 to the station.
EXAMINATION CRITIQUE
Suggested
Navigation
Review--Chapter 9, Radio
Question 222 - Choice 4
According to FAR Part 91.107 the following
restrictions apply to operations conducted
under special VFR clearances.
"(b) No person may operate an aircraft in a
control zone under VFR except clear of
clouds.
(c) No person may operate an aircraft (other
than a helicopter) in a control zone under
VFR unless flight visibility is at least one
statute mile.
(d) No person may takeoff or land an aircraft
(other than a helicopter) at any airport in a
control zone under VFR-
(1) Unless ground visibility at that airport
is at least 1 statute mile; or
(2) If ground visibility is not reported at
that airport, unless flight visibility
during landing or takeoff is at least 1
statute mile.
(e) No person may operate an aircraft (other
than a helicopter) in a control zone under
the special weather minimums of this
section, between sunset and sunrise (or in
Alaska, when the sun is more than 6
degrees below the horizon) unless:
(1)That person meets the applicable
requirements for instrument flight
under Part 61 of this chapter; and
(2)The aircraft is equipped as required in
91.33 (d)."
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 91.107
Question 223 - Choice 4
In controlled airspace under VFR, the pilot
must remain at least 1.000 feet above. 500 feet
below, and 2,000 feet horizontally from any
cloud formation and maintain three miles
visibility, as stated in FAR Part 91.105.
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 91.105
Question 224 - Choice 4
All altitudes in an area forecast are stated as
MSL except for cloud heights listed as ceilings
or where specifically noted. The freezing level is
7,000 feet MSL over southern Nevada and
slopes upward to an altitude of 10,000 feet MSL
along the coast and Mexico border.
Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data
B-3
Question 225 - Choice 2
Encoded windspeeds 100 to 199 knots have 50
added to the direction code and 100 subtracted
from the speed. For example, "7545" would
decode to be 250° (75 - 50 = 25) at 145 knots (45
+ 100 = 145)
Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data
Question 226 - Choice 3
If winds or gusts of 25 knots or greater are
forecast for the outlook period, the word
"WIND" appears. In this case, the outlook
period extends from OIOOZ to 1300Z Tuesday.
Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data
Question 227 - Choice 1
Ice will form on an aircraft only if moisture is
present in the air in some visible form and the
temperature is within a rew degrees of freezing
or below freezing.
Suggested Review-Chapter 2, Meteorology
for Jet Aircraft
Question 22S - Choice 2
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations;
Chapter 7, Terminal Procedures; and FAR
121.617
Question 229 - Choice 3
The chart is used to relate the actual outside air
temperature (OATI at a given pressure altitude
to the value in international standard
atmosphere (ISA). In this problem, FL ISO is a
pressure altitude of lS,OOO feet. Therefore, at
lS,OOO feet pressure altitude, an OAT of -13 °
Celsius is ISA +S °C. This means the OAT is So
C greater, or warmer, than the standard value.
On many performance charts this is referred to
as an ISA deviation.
Suggested Review-Chapter 12, Jet
Performance
Question 230 - Choice 1
Follow the plotted example on the chart
beginning with trip distance. Use the same
sequence applying the data given in the
problem. The ISA deviation of +soC is correct
in this problem.
Suggested Review-Chapter 12, Jet
Performance
8-4
Question 231 - Choice 3
FAR Part 91.129 specifies that equipment
(
malfunctions which must be reported
immediately to ATC include loss of:
1. VOR, TACAN, ADF, or L/F navigation
capability,
2. complete or partial loss of ILS receiver
capability, and
3. impairment of air/ground
communications capability.
Suggested Review -Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 91.129
Question 232 - Choice 2
Cumulonimbus mamma clouds frequently
occur in connection with violent thunderstorms
and tornadoes. The cloud displays rounded,
irregular pockets from its base and indicates
extreme instability and violent turbulence.
Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data
Question 233 - Choice 1
The rapid change in wind direction and speed
which occurs near the surface just before a
thunderstorm passes can be extremely
hazardous, particularly to airplanes taking off
or landing. The wind shear can be sufficient to
cause loss of control.
Suggested Review-Chapter 2, Meteorology
for Jet Aircraft
Question 234- Choice 2
The total fuel required by the F ARs is based on
the following data:
Enroute fuel 21,000 lb.
Alternate Fuel 4,200 lb.
Reserve (45 minutesI 6,900 lb.
Total 32,100 lb.
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations,
FAR 121.639, and Chapter 12, Jet Performance
Question 235 - Choice 2
Stage III service (TRSA) provides traffic
sequencing and separation between
participating VFR and IFR traffic. Traffic
separation may be maintained using either
altitude assignments or radar distance criteria
until the pilot establishes visual contact with
other observed traffic. A TRSA clearance does
not relieve the pilot of his responsibility to see
and avoid other aircraft when operating in VFR
weather conditions.
Suggested Review-Chapter 7, Terminal
(
Procedures

( Question 236 - Choice 1
The holding lines shown in the illustration are
CAT II instrument approach holding lines (A)
and normal holding lines (BI. When a CAT II
instrument approach is being performed,
taxiing aircraft must hold short of the CAT II
holding lines.
Suggested Review -Chapter 10, Air Traffic
Control
Question 237 - Choice 2
The takeoff distance includes the runway and
clearway. However, the length of the clearway
used in takeoff computations cannot exceed
one-half the available runway length.
Suggested Review-Chapter 12, Jet
Performance and FAR 121.189
Question 238 - Choice 2
With an altimeter setting of 30.05 and an
airport elevation of 126 feet, the field pressure
would be approximately sea level. Therefore, at
49° Fahrenheit, the EPR setting would be 2.11.
The "engine anti-ice ON" correction from the
lower left inset table reduces the EPR to 2.08.
( Suggested Review-Chapter 12, Jet
Performance
Question 239 - Choice 2
To the right of the pressure altitude "-1 to 1"
bracket, the temperature value of 49°F is found
in the first column (-65 to 991. Moving vertically
down to the 15° FLAPS grouping, a VI = VR
value of 127 knots is found opposite the gross
weight value of 150,000 pounds, and 141 knots
is the V 2 speed.
Suggested Review-Chapter 12, Jet
Performance
Qustion 240 - Choice 1
When turning to or from a heading of 360°, the
airplane's bank attitude causes the compass to
be deflected downward toward the Magenetic
North Pole. This results in a temporary reverse
reading and a lag during the early part of the
turn. The amount of lag is approximately equal
to the number of degrees of latitude at the
particular location. The turning error decreases
to zero on an east or west heading and changes
to a lead error when turning to or from a
southerly heading.
l Suggested Review-Chapter 1, Flight
Instruments
EXAMINATION CRITIQUE
Question 241 - Choice 2
In the given example, the pilot is slightly above
the downwind glide slope and slightly below the
upwind glide slope. The downwind glide slope,
or lower glide slope, is the same as the standard
two-bar VASI. The up.wind glide slope is about
one-fourth degree higiher than the lower glide
slope and is designed for long-bodied airplanes.
Suggested Review--Chapter 7, Terminal
Procedures
Question 242 - Choice 2
For any airplane seating capacity between 10
and 50, inclusive, one flight attendant is
required. For each 50 additional seats or
portions thereof, an additional flight attendant
is required. However, if the emergency
evacuation demonstration required the use of
any additional flight attendants, that number
is still required. If the airline reduces the
seating capacity by blocking or removing the
seats, the basic flight attendant requirements
can be reduced accordingly. However, the
number of additional flight attendants needed
to meet the emergency evacuation
demonstration requirements cannot be
reduced.
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 121.391 (al (b)
Question 243 - Choice 2
With all tri-color visual approach indications,
the below glide path indication is red, the above
glide path indication is amber, and the on glide
path indication is green.
Suggested Review-·Chapter 7, Terminal
Procedures
Question 244 - Choice 3
According to FAR 121.309, an airplane with a
capacity of more than 30 persons must have two
hand fire extinguishers in the passenger
compartment and one hand fire extinguisher in
the cockpit.
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 121.309 (c)
Question 245 - Choice 4
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 121.221 (e)
8-5
Question 246 - Choice 2
"Category," as defined in FAR Part I, has two
meanings:
1. As used with respect to the certification,
ratings, privileges, and limitations of
airmen, means a broad classification of
aircraft. Examples include airplane;
rotorcraft; glider; and lighter-than-air;
and
2. As used with respect to the certification of
aircraft, means a grouping of aircraft
based upon intended use or operating
limitations. Examples include: transport;
normal; utility; acrobatic; limited;
restricted; and provisional.
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 1.1
Question 247 - Choice 3
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 121.221Id) (2)
Question 248 - Choice 1
As on all IFR flights, the transponder should be
operated as specified by ATC. A VFR-on-top
clearance allows the pilot to select a VFR
altitude of his choice which is at least 1,000 feet
above any cloud, smoke, haze, or fog layer.
Suggested Review - Chapter 10, Air Traffic
Control
Question 249 - Choice I (
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR I21.285Ib)
Question 250 - Choice 3
The load manifest must contain
(1) weight of airplane, fuel and oil, cargo, and
passengers,
(2) maximum allowable weight for the flight,
(31 total weight computed under approved
procedures, and
(41 evidence that the CG is within limits.
(5) names of passengers, if not on file with
air carrier.
Suggested Review - Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR I21.693(a)
Question 251 - Choice 3
A control tower reports wind direction and
runway number with reference to magnetic
north. In this case, the angle between the
runway or flight path and wind direction is 40°.
The headwind and crosswind components can
be determined by locating the point where the
wind velocity (circular lines) and the angle
between wind direction and flight path
(diagonal lines) intersect. The headwind
component is read horizontally, while the
crosswind component is read vertically.
Suggested Review-Chapter 6, Computer
Question 252 - Choice 3
To compute the CG, the following data is used.
Suggested Review-Chapter 11, Weight and
Balance

WEIGHT ARM MOMENT

Basic operating weight 88,900 lb. 922.7 82,028,030 lb.-in.
Passengers (1st class) 4,080 lb. 480.0 1,958,400 lb.-in.
Passengers (tourist) 11,050 lb. 899.0 9,933,950Ib.·in.
Cargo (forward hold) 5,110 lb. 581.0 2,968,910 lb.-in.
Cargo (aft hold) 5,700 lb. 1066.0 6,076,200Ih.-in.
Fuel (tanks 1 & 3) 24,000 lb. 901.0 21,624,000 lb.-in.
Fuel (tank 2) 13,000 lb. 815.0 10,595,000 lb.-in.
Gross Weight 151,840 lb. 135,184,490 lb.-in.
135,184,490
151,840 = 890.31 (CG body station number)

To determine the arm for the basic operating weight, multiply the BOW CG (34.6%)
times the MAC (180.7) to find the CG location 62.5 inches aft of LEMAC (860.2). Add
860.2 and 62.5 to find the BOW station number at BS 922.7.

890.31 CG station 30.11

- 860.20 LEMAC
30.11 in. aft of LEMAC
180.7 (MAC)
= 16.6% MAC
(

8-6
 EXAMINATION CRITIQUE

( Question 253 - Choice 2 Question 257 - Choice 1

The zero fuel weight can be obtained by adding The gross weight at brake release is determined
the basic operating weight (BOW), passenger by either runway or climb limitations. Follow
weight, and cargo weight. Check that the zero the plotted example on the chart beginning
fuel weight for this flight does not exceed with the runway length available. Use the same
118,000 pounds (the maximum certified zero sequence applying the data given in the
fuel weight for the aircraft). problem. The takeoff EPR is reduced with
Suggested Review-Chapter 11, Weight and anti-ice on. The plotted values must be reduced
Balance for inoperative components, as well as for
sixth-stage bleed on at temperatures above 50°
Question 254 - Choice 2
F. Note, in this problem, the aircraft is runway
The weight to shift problem can be solved by
limited.
using the following equation:
Suggested Review-Chapter 12 , Jet
weight shifted x distance of weight shift _ distance the Performance
gross weight CG moves
The weight shifted is 870pounds (1245 - 375). The
distance between cargo compartments is 485 inches Question 258 - Choice 1
(BS 1066 - BS 581). By substituting the above values, When all static sources freeze at altitude, the
the formula looks like this: ambient atmospheric pressure is trapped in the
870 x 485 pitot-static system. The airspeed indicator will
151,840 2.78 inches
erroneously show thalt airspeed is increasing
2.78 inches equals 1.54% MAC
during the descent. This results because ram air
Suggested Review-Chapter 11, Weight and to the airspeed indicator has less than normal
Balance static pressure opposing it; thus, a higher than
normal airspeed is indicated. Since the
Question 255 - Choice 2
altimeter and VVI use only static air pressure
Basic differences between contact and visual
( approaches are as follows:
for operation, these instruments would be
"frozen" as if they were still at altitude.
CONTACT VISUAL However, if the VV1 were indicating a climb or
Initiated by pilot with ATe descent at the time of static system blockage, it
approval
x would gradually revert to a "0" indication.
Suggested Review - Chapter 4, Publications
Initiated bV A TC X
Question 259 - Choice 2
Special VFR weather
minimums
X The maximum permissible airspeed for a civil
turbojet in a holding pattern is 200 knots up to
Basic VFR weather
X 6,000 feet, 210 knots up to 14,000 feet, and 230
minimums
knots thereafter.
IFA clearance retained
Suggested Review - Chapter 10, Air Traffic
X X
Control
Suggested ReView-Chapter 7, Termmal Question 260 - Choice 3
Procedures With the gross weight of 150,840 pounds at the
beginning of the takeoff roll, the CG range is
Question 256 - Choice 4 from 14% MAC to 35.3% MAC, which is a
If a complete loss of two-way radio distance of 21.3% MAC. By multiplying 21.3%
communications is experienced, a pilot should times 180.7 (MAC), the CG range in inches is
adjust the transponder to reply on Mode Al3, computed to be 38.5.
Code 7700 for a period of one minute and then Suggested Review-Chapter 11, Weight and
change to Code 7600 for a period of 15 minutes. Balance
These steps should be repeated, as needed, until
communications is restored or a landing is
( accomplished.
Suggested Review-Chapter 10, Air Traffic
Question 261 - Choice 1
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
Control and FAR 1

8-7
Question 262 - Choice 4
FAR Part 135.293 prescribes that a competency
check within the preceding 12 calendar months
in one single-engine land airplane, other than
a turbojet, qualifies the person as pilot in com-
mand for all airplanes of the single-engine
land class, provided the pilot has satisfactorily
passed testing pertaining to each make and
model of airplane he plans to use. The same
procedure is true for multi-engine airplanes as
long as the two airplanes have the same oper-
ating and handling characteristics. If one air-
plane is more complex, then a flight test is
required by make and model.
Suggested Review - Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 135.293
Question 263 - Choice 1
The operator of an aircraft shall immediately,
and by the most expeditious means available,
notify the nearest National Transportation
Safety Board, Bureau of Aviation Safety Field
Office in the following situations:
1. An aircraft accident or any of the
following listed incidents occurs.
a. Flight control system malfunction or
failure
b. Inability of any required crewmember
to perform his normal flight duties as a
result of injury or illness
c. Turbine engine rotor failure excluding
compressor blades and turbine buckets
d. In-flight fire
e. Aircraft collision in flight
2. An aircraft is overdue and is believed to
have been involved in an accident.
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
andNTSB830
Question 264 - Choice 2
FDC NOTAMs contain changes in flight data,
particularly of a regulatory nature, that affect
standard instrument approach procedures, aero-
nautical charts and selected flight restrictions,
prior to their normal publication cycle. FDC
NOTAMs are published in the Notices to Air-
men publication which is available at all FAA
flight service stations.
Suggested Review - Chapter 4, Publications
Question 265 - Choice 3
Weight, altitude, and aircraft configuration
affect the stall speed. Decreases in weight
B-8
decrease stall speed, since stall speed is directly (
proportional to the square root of the weight.
The same is true of the load factor. An increase
in altitude produces a higher true airspeed
during a stall because density decreases with
altitude. In this case, true airspeed changes, not
indicated airspeed. Finally, stall speed also
decreases when flaps are lowered.
Suggested Review-Chapter 12, Jet
Performance
Question 266 - Choice 4
With an ISA +10° Celsius deviation, a climb to
FL 290 under a calm wind condition will require
134 nautical miles.
Suggested Review-Chapter 12, Jet
Performance
Question 267 - Choice 1
Using the time and fuel from brake release to
climb speed chart, fuel bum from brake relase
to climb speed is 840 pounds. Therefore, start of
climb weight is 150,000 pounds. Fuel bum to FL
290 at an ISA + 10° Celsius deviation is 4,583
pounds, resulting in a gross weight at FL 290 of
145,417 pounds.
Suggested Review-Chapter 12, Jet
Performance
Question 268 - Choice 3
NOTAMs related to airport facilities are coded
at the end of surface aviation weather reports
and are tabulated directly below the reports.
These NOTAMs are usually more current than
the NOTAMs in the Notices to Airmen.
Suggested Review - Chapter 4, Publications
Question 269 - Choice 2
The Airport!Facility Directory lists the pre-
ferred routes for both high and low altitude
operations.
Suggested Review - Chapter 4, Publications
Question 270 - Choice 1
Turbojets must be able to stop within 60 per-
cent ofthe available dry runway. However, wet
runways require 15 percent more length. (6,000
x .60 x 1.15 + 4,140)
Suggested Review - Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 121.195 (b)(d)
Question 271 - Choice 4
Reverted rubber hydroplaning, sometimes
called steam hydroplaning, is caused by Jocked
(
wheels and skidding tires trapping water in the

( tire footprint area. The heat generated by the
skid turns the water to steam, which supports
the tire. To correct, release the brakes to
reestablish wheel rotation.
Suggested Review-Chapter 4, Publications
Question 272 - Choice 2
FAR Part 135 governs the following
operations:
1. Air taxi operations
2. Transportation of mail by aircraft con-
ducted under a postal service contract
3. The carrying in air commerce in small
aircraft by any person, other than an air
carrier, of persons or property for
compensation or hire
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
Question 273 - Choice 4
Airman's Information Manual states that air-
craft must have an operating transponder and
an altitude encoder in order to receive MSAW.
Aircraft operating on IFR flight plans with the
required equipment receive the service auto-
matically. Any VFR aircraft with the proper
( equipment can receive the service if a request is
made toATC.
Suggested Review - Chapter 4, Publications
Question 274 - Choice I
Hypoxia symptoms vary between individuals.
The greatest danger, however, is that the
effects or symptoms may go unnoticed.
Suggested Review-Chapter 2, Meteorology
for Jet Aircraft
Question 275 - Choice 2
A fuel weight reduction of 10,500 pounds is
required. An average fuel consumption of 6,600
pounds per hour for the operating engines
converts to 110 pounds per minute. This 110
pounds per minute added to the average fuel
dump rate of 2,300 pounds per minute equals
2,410 pounds per minute. Therefore, a fuel
weight reduction of 10,500 pounds at a rate of
2,410 pounds per minute will require 4 minutes
and 21 seconds.
Suggested Review-Chapter 6, Computer
Question 276 - Choice 1
( If jet stream turbulence is encountered with a
crosswind and the outside air temperature is
rising, a climb will clear the area more quickly.
EXAMINATION CRITIOUE
If the temperature begins falling, a descent is
the best action.
Suggested Review-Chapter 2, Meteorology
for Jet Aircraft
Question 277 - Choice 2
FAR Part 135.205 specifies that VFR flights
may be conducted in uncontrolled airspace with
less than a 1,000-foot ceiling, if the flight vis-
ibility is at least two statute miles.
Suggested Review - Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 135.205
Question 278 - Choice 2
To suppress spatial disorientation, pilots must
learn to control the airplane by relying on the
sense of sight and the flight instruments while
ignoring false sensations perceived from the
supporting senses.
Suggested Review-Chapter 2, Meteorology
for Jet Aircraft
Question 279 - Choice 4
General guidelines for the air shipment of
dangerous articles and magnetized materials
are contained in HMIt 175, regulations issued
by the Hazardous Materials Bureau,
Department of Transportation.
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
Question 280 - Choice 2
The Airman's Information Manual recom-
mends that, when a changeover point (COP) is
not indicated on the enroute chart, the change
be initiated midway between the two stations.
This means the navigation receiver should be
changed from the station frequency behind the
aircraft to the station frequency ahead of the
aircraft, halfway between the two navigation
facilities.
Suggested Review - Chapter 4, Publications
Question 281 - Choice 2
Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data
Question 282 - Choice 2
The windspeeds 100 to 198 knots have 50 added
to the direction code and 100 subtracted from
the speed. For example, 761157 is decoded as a
wind from 260° at 111 knots and -57°C. Winds
of 199 knots or more are reflected by 99
following the wind direct;ion code.
Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data
8-9
Question 283 - Choice 1 Gross Weight Fuel Burn Fuel Flow Time Interval
(
When the forecast wind speed is less than five
144,200)_ 5000 9,219 0+32.5
knots, the coded group 9900 is used to indicate 139,200 _ 5'000
"light and variable." 1 _ 4'070
134,200)_
9,057 0+33
8,901 0+26.5
Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data 130,130 '
1 + 32

Question 284 - Choice 3

Suggested Review - Chapter 5, Regulations Suggested Review-Chapter 12, Jet
and FAR 121.305 Performance

Question 285 - Choice 3 Question 291 - Choice 3

The flag with the ux" at Salad Intersection
indicates a minimum crossing altitude (MCA)
is designated. Beneath the intersection name,
an MCA of 4,700 feet is specified for flights
crossing in an easterly direction.
Suggested Review - Chapter 8, Enroute Charts
Question 286 - Choice 3
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 91.79
Question 287 - Choice 3
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 91.81
Question 288 - Choice 3
ATIS is the best source of information about
terminal weather, instrument approaches, and
landing runways in use. The ATIS frequency
at Houston Intercontinental Airport is 124.05
MHz. This information is listed on the enroute
chart, approach chart, and in the Airport!Fa-
cility Directory.
Suggested Review - Chapter 8, Enroute Charts
Question 289 - Choice 2
This symbol denotes a change in MEA, MAA,
andlor MOCA at other than radio aids to
navigation facilities. In this case, only the
MOCA changes from 1,400 to 1,600 feet.
Suggested Review-Chapter 8, Enroute Charts
Question 290 - Choice 3
With a 40-knot tailwind component, the
groundspeed becomes 530 knots. Therefore, the
time required is 1 hour and 32 minutes. Using
the indicated Mach .82 cruise planning chart,
locate the first gross weight bracket between
145,000 pounds and 140,000 pounds at -35 0
Celsius. The starting fuel flow between these
two weights is 9,219 pounds per hour. The
following table outlines the solution:
VFR operations in MOAs and warning areas
are unrestricted and permission from a
controlling agency is not required. However,
pilots should exercise extreme caution while
flying in these areas because of the nature of
flight hazards which may exist.
Suggested Review-Chapter 8, Enroute Charts
Question 292 - Choice 4
The aircraft is, in effect, flying from a low
pressure area to a high pressure area without
resetting the altimeter. When the pilot levels
off at 738 feet MSL (the DH), the airplane's true
altitude is 828 feet, or 290 feet above the
touchdown zone elevation.
Suggested Review-Chapter I, Flight
Instruments
Question 293 - Choice 4
On a circling approach, the pilot must maintain
the MDA until the approach threshold of the
landing runway, approach lights, or other
markings identifiable with the approach end
have been identified and until the aircraft is in a
position from which a normal approach to the
landing runway can be made.
Suggested Review-Chapter 7, Terminal
Procedures
Question 294 - Choice 3
No domestic air carrier flight crew member can
be scheduled for more than 30 hours of
scheduled air transport and other co=ercial
flights in any seven consecutive days. In this
question, the six pevious days began on May 29
and, excluding the six hours of pleasure flying,
included a total of 18 hours and 50 minutes.
Although eleven hours and 50 minutes remain,
the pilot cannot be scheduled for more than
eight.
Suggested Review - Chapter 5, Regulations
(
and FAR 121.471

B-l0

( Question 295 - Choice 1
When high lift devices are used on an airplane,
they increase both lift and induced drag. The
increased lift coefficient decreases the stalling
speed, while the increased drag reduces the
airplane's range.
Suggested Review- Chapter 12, Jet
Performance
Question 296 - Choice 3
Parasite drag increases with airspeed, while
induced drag decreases. The airspeed where the
sum of these two forces (total drag) is at its
smallest value provides the greatest forward
distance for the amount of altitude lost.
Suggested Review-Chapter 12, Jet
Performance
Question 297 - Choice 3
FAR Part 135.209 specifies that at least 30
minutes fuel reserve is required for day VFR
and 45 minutes for night VFR flight.
Suggested Review - Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 135.209
Question 298 - Choice 3
( A flight computer and the following steps are
required to calculate the winds.
1. Determine the wind correction angle (9 °
right).
2. Align the magnetic course opposite the
variation of 9 ° west to the right of the true
index on the computer wind face and note
the true course of 278°.
3. Position the groundspeed (141 knots)
directly under the grommet on the wind
face.
4. Plot a wind dot at the intersection of the 9 °
right WCA radial and the 150-knot TAS
arc.
5. Rotate the transparent disc so that the
wind dot aligns with the center reference
line directly above the grommet.
6. Read the wind direction of 350 ° under the
true index and the wind speed of 25 knots
as the number of units between the
grommet and wind dot.
Suggested Review-Chapter 6, Computer
Question 299 - Choice 3
Since the wind shear will cause an initial loss of
l airspeed, power must be added. After the
airspeed is reestablished, a reduction in power
must be made. Since groundspeed will be faster,
EXAMINATION CRITIQUE
the greater rate of descent will necessitate a
final power setting slightly less than the
original amount.
Suggested Review-Chapter 4, Publications
Question 300 - Choice 3
Most computer instruction manuals present
the method of solution in two steps. The first
step concerns calculating the number of
degrees of turn to parallel the desired course
which, in this particular case, is 4 ° right. In the
second step, one computes the number of
degrees of turn from thee parallel heading to the
intercept heading which, in this case, is 3° of
additional right turn. Thus, for this problem,
the pilot must add a total of 7 ° to the original
heading, which gives a final intercept heading
of 349°.
Suggested Review-Chapter 6, Computer
Question 301 - Choice 1
The pallet size of 4,500 square inches is divided
by 144 to obtain 31.25 square feet. This value is
multiplied by 170 lb.lsq. ft. to find the total floor
weight of 5,312.5 pounds. Finally, the pallet and
tiedown weights are subtracted to obtain a
cargo weight of 5,205.5 pounds.
Suggested Review-Chapter 11, Weight and
Balance
Question 302 - Choice 2
The factors used in computing the indicated
airspeed are as follows:
Groundspeed _ 501 knots
True airspeed _ 446 knots
Cruising altitude _ _ - FL 290
Indicated outside
air temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .. _9° C.
Equivalent airspeed. _ _ 272 knots
Calibrated airspeed .. _ 282 knots
Suggested Review-ChalPter 6. Computer
Question 303 - Choice 4
An average magnetic heading (MH) of 083 °
indicates the wind correction angle is 3°L.
When the MC is converted to true course (TC),
the variation of 11 °E must be added to obtain a
TCof097°.
Suggested Review-Chapter 6, Computer
B-ll
Question 304 - Choice 4
To compensate for the effects of the crosswind
during holding pattern turns, the WCA is
doubled when on the outbound leg. Therefore, a
10 ° left WCA inbound would result in a 20 °
right WCA when outbound, or a heading of 290 o.
Suggested Review-Chapter 10, Air Traffic
Control
Question 305 - Choice 1
The rudder is used to compensate for the
yawing moment of the lowered aileron on the
high wing. The lowered aileron produces more
drag than the raised aileron on the low wing.
This creates a yawing moment toward the high
wing.
Suggested Review-Chapter 12, Jet
Performance
Question 306 - Choice 2
On initial contact with an ARTCC, the pilot
should report the identification and altitude,
but the IDENT button should be depressed
only on specific request from the controller.
Suggested Review-Chapter 10, Air Traffic
Control
Question 307 - Choice 2
According to the descent planning chart, a
distance of 80 n.m. is required to descend from
FL 290 to sea level. From FL 190, a distance of
52 n.m. is necessary; therefore,
80 n.m. (FL 290 to SL)
-52 n.m. (FL 190 to SL)
28 n.m. is required for a descent from
FL 290 to FL 190
Suggested Review-Chapter 12, Jet
Performance
Question 308 - Choice 3
Since the field elevation at Dallas is
approximately 500 feet, the cabin will descend
3,000 feet and the airplane will descend 28,500
feet from the cruising altitude of FL 290. At 400
f.p.m., the cabin will take 7.5 minutes to
descend to 500 feet. Using the 7.5 minutes to
lose 28,500 feet for the aircraft, the maximum
average descent rate will be 3,800 f.p.m.
Suggested Review-Chapter 6, Computer
B·12
Question 309 - Choice 4 (
The SDF final approach seldom is aligned with
the runway and the course usually is wider,
resulting in less precise gnidance. The SDF
course signal is transmitted at either 6 ° or 12 o.
It is important to realize that SDF signals
provide no glide slope information.
Suggested Review-Chapter 9, Radio
Navigation
Question 310 - Choice 4
If a pilot receives an expect approach clearance
time, he should leave the holding fix in order to
arrive over the fix from which the approach
begins as close as possible to the expected
approach clearance time. Since the Bridgeport
VORTAC is an initial approach fix, the
approach begins at Bridgeport, and the pilot is
expected to leave at the approach clearance
time.
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations;
Chapter 7, Terminal Procedures; and FAR
91.127
Question 311 - Choice 2
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 91.6
Question 312 - Choice 3
The symbol V alerts users to the fact that
other than standard takeoff minimums or
departure procedures apply and that a separate
NOS listing entitled "IFR Take-off Minimums
and Departure Procedures" should be
consulted.
Suggested Review-Chapter 7, Terminal
Procedures
Question 313 - Choice 2
An alternate airport is not required if weather
forecasts from one hour before until one hour
after the ETA at the first destination airport
indicate the following: ceiling of at least 1,500
feet above the lowest landing minimum or
2,000 feet above the airport, whichever is
greater. The visibility must be at least three
miles, or two miles greater than the lowest
landing visibility, whichever is greater.
When 1,500 feet is added to 200 feet (DHl, 1,700
feet is the result. Therefore, a 2,000 foot ceiling
is required. The visibility must be three miles,
since this is the greater figure between two and
one-half and three.
Suggested Review - Chapter 3, Weather Data
(
and Chapter 7, Terminal Procedures
 EXAMINATION CRITIQUE

( Question 314 - Choice 3 Question 322 - Choice 1

Suggested Review - Chapter 5, Regulations The scalloped lines on the low-level significant
and FAR 121.647. weather prognostic chart indicate marginal
VFR (ceilings 1,000 to 3,000 feet and/or
visibilities three to five miles). On Wednesday,
Question 315 - Choice 3 these lines can be found in the area of
These records, copies of which must be carried Washington and northwest Oregon. For
aboard the aircraft during the flight, must be Thursday, however, these lines are not evident.
retained for at least three months. Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data
Suggested Review - Chapter 5, Regulations
Question 323 - Choice 3
and FAR 121.697(e)(2)
The symbol ~ . indicates moderate
turbulence.
Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data
Question 316 - Choice 3
The RVR minimum is 1,800 feet for a fully Question 324 - Choice 2
qualified pilot in command. By adding one-half Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
mile visibility (or RVR equivalent of 2,400 feet), and FAR 91.75(d)
the low-time pilot in command needs an RVR of
4,200 feet. Question 325 - Choice 1
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 121.652(a) and FAR 121.557(c)
Question 326 - Choice 2
Absence of a visibility entry in a terminal
Question 317 - Choice 2 forecast specifically implies that visibility is
Both the field length limit gross weight and the forecast to be more than six miles.
approach-landing climb limit gross weight Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data
exceed the maximum structural landing weight
of 137,500 pounds. Therefore, the maximum Question 327 - Choice 2
allowable landing gross weight is 137,500 The radar summary chart indicates there is a
pounds. large area of echoes (clouds containing enough
Suggested Review-Chapter 12, Jet precipitation to "paint" an image on a radar
Performance scope) over southern Texas. This area of echoes
contains scattered clouds, rain or rain showers,
with cloud tops from 18,000 feet MSL to 24,000
feet MSL.
Question 318 - Choice 4 Suggested Review-Chaper 3, Weather Data
Suggested Review-Chapter 6, Computer
Question 328 - Choice 1
FAR Part 91. 70 states that the maximum speed
Question 319 - Choice 3 within an airport traffic area is limited to 200
Suggested Review - Chapter 5, Regulations knots for turbine-powered aircraft. Any
and FAR 121.343 aircraft operating below 10,000 feet MSL may
not exceed 250 knots indicated airspeed.
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
and FAR 91.70
Question 320 - Choice 2
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations Question 329 - Choice 3
and FAR 121.579(b) The ABI forecast for 1300Z predicts a variable
visibility from one to three miles in fog. The
1310Z surface aviation weather report for ABI
Question 321 - Choice 4 specifies the visibility as 15 miles; much better
( Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations than forecast.
and FAR 121.310 Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data

B-13
Question 330 - Choice 4
The mature stage of a thunderstorm (second of
three stages) contains up- and down-drafts.
During this stage, rain begins to fall since the
raindrops have grown to the extent they can no
longer be supported by the updrafts.
Suggested Review-Chapter 2, Meteorology
for Jet Aircraft
Question 331 - Choice 1
Flight service stations broadcast valid SIG-
MET advisories at 15-minute intervals the first
hour; then a summarized alert notice at 15 and
45 minutes past the hour until the end of the
valid period of the advisories.
Suggested Review - Chapter 3, Weather Data
Question 332 - Choice 4
FAR Part 91.87 states that "an airplane
approaching to land on a runway served by a
visual approach slope indicator, shall maintain
an altitude at or above the glide slope until a
lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing."
Suggested Review-Chapter 5, Regulations
andFAR91.87
Question 333 - Choice 4
Sidestep maneuver minimums usually are
higher than required for the primary approach
procedure, but less than needed for a circling
approach.
Suggested Review-Chapter 7, Terminal
Procedures
Question 334 - Choice 2
During acceleration, the horizon bar moves
down, indicating a climb. Control applied to
correct this indication will result in a pitch
attitude lower than the instrument shows. The
opposite error results from deceleration.
Suggested Review-Chapter I, Flight
Instruments
Question 335 - Choice 3
When relatively warm rain or drizzle falls
through cool air, evaporation from the
precipitation saturates the cool air and forms
fog. This kind of fog usually is associated with
warm fronts, but it can occur with slow moving
cold fronts and even stationary fronts.
Suggested Review-Chapter 2, Meteorology
for Jet Aircraft
8-14
Questioll336 - Choice 4
A flight" originating in northwestern Arizona
(
would begin in relatively clear skies and would
remain that way for approximately half of the
route. Over southwestern Colorado, the flight
would encounter lowering ceilings and clouds
obscuring the mountain ridges, with marginal
VFR (ceilings 1,000 to 3,000 feet and visibility
three to five miles) for the remainder of the
flight.
Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data
Question 337 - Choice 3
The difference between the correct altimeter
setting and the standard altimeter setting is .10
inches of mercury. The atmospheric pressure
change averages one inch of mercury per
thousand vertical feet. The difference between
the two altimeter settings translates to 100 feet
of altitude. Since the correct altimeter setting is
lower than standard, 100 feet must be added to
the indicated altitude to determine pressure
altitude.
Suggested Review-Chapter I, Flight
Instruments
Question 338 - Choice 1
This question is a combination of two problems.
The true airspeed first must be computed to
determine the NAMl1,OOO pounds of fuel.
If your computer is not designed to compensate
for friction and compressibility, the following
method should be used:
1. Apply the airspeed position and
instrument correction to the indicated
airspeed. This results in a calibrated
airspeed of 260 knots.
2. Since compressibility causes an
erroneously high airspeed indication,
subtract the 10 knots compressibility
correction from the calibrated airspeed to
arrive at an equivalent airspeed of 250
knots.
3. Since friction causes the indicated outside
air temperature indicator to read
erroneously high, the 17 ° temperature
correction would have to be algebraically
added to the indicated temperature,
resulting in a true OAT of -42°C.
4. Utilize the values: 29,OOO-foot pressure
altitude, -42°C, and 250 knots EAS to
solve a normal TAS problem. The
resultant TAS is 402 knots.

If your computer is designed to correct for
friction and compressibility, utilize the values:
260 knots CAS, 29,OOO-foot pressure altitude,
and the indicated OAT of -25' to solve for 402
knots TAS using the "modern method."
Divide the TAS 402 knots by 11.4 (thousands of
pounds) for the answer of 35.3 NAM/1,OOO
pounds of fuel.
Suggested Review-Chapter 6, Computer
Question 339 - Choice 3
The critical Mach number of a particular
aircraft can be defined as the Mach number
representing the speed of that aircraft at which
a local velocity reaches Mach 1.0.
Suggested Review-Chapter 12, Jet
Performance
Question 340 - Choice 2
When compared to a straight wing, a
sweptback wing offers the advantages of a
higher critical Mach number and, thus, the
( delay of compressibility effects to a higher
speed.
Suggested Review-Chapter 12, Jet
Performance
Question 341 - Choice 4
The hijack, communications loss, and
emergency codes (7500, 7600, and 77001 should
be avoided when routinely switching codes. For
example, when switching from code 2700 to
code 7200, it is possible to switch to 7700 and
then to 7200. This must be avoided because
7700 is an emergency code. It is just as easy to
switch to 2200 from 2700 and then to 7200, thus
avoiding the emergency code.
Suggested Review-Chapter 10, Air Traffic
Control
Question 342 - Choice 1
The maltese cross symbol identifies the final
approach fix. The small number above the FAF
(1,936 feet in this case) denotes MSL glide slope
height at that fix. On this approach, the glide
( slope interception altitude is 2,000 feet MSL.
Suggested Review-Chapter 7, Terminal
Procedures
EXAMINATION CRlTIllUE
Question 343 - Choice Jl
This problem can be solved by use of the
following formula:
True Airspeed
Mach Number =
Speed of sound at flight temperature
After the problem values are inserted, the formula
would appear as follows:
True ,Airspeed k
.83 = =475 ~~
572 knots
Suggested Review-Chapter 6, Computer
Question 344 - Choice 3:
When anyone of the four forces (in this problem
- weight) acting on an aircraft in flight changes
and, if the controls are not changed, the speed
or altitude will change. To maintain a constant
cruising speed, the thrust must be reduced as
the gross weight decreases.
Suggested Review-Chapter 12, Jet
Performance
Question 345 - Choice 1
Turbulence of moderate intensity is expected.
Since no base level is shown, it extends from
below the forecast level of coverage (24,000 feet)
up to the designated top of 34,000 feet.
Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data
Question 346 - Choice 1
Cloud cover is reportE,d in octas (eighths) of
coverage on high altitude charts. Cirroform
layers extend from 26,000 to 32,000 feet in the
area selected.
Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data
Question 347 - Choice 3
The 300 MB level is approximatey 950 meters
above sea level where the flight crosses 33' west
longitude. At 64' west longitude, the flight is at
the lowest true altitude. Since the altimeter is
set to 29.92 when operating above 18,000 feet,
the true altitude will increase and decrease with
changes in pressure and temperature. In this
problem, temperature is not a factor since the
temperatures along the flight are close to the
same value.
Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data
8-15
Question 348 - Choice 3
The wind flows parallel to the contour levels
depicted by the solid lines. Remember, the wind
direction is measured as an angle to the lines of
longitude, not to the bottom of the page. The
wind velocity is indicted by the isotachs
depicted by dashed lines.
Suggested Review- Chapter 3, Weather Data
Question 349 - Choice 3
The final approach fix is identified by the
maltese cross symbol. The distance from
8-16
Copper Intersection to Gravel Intersection (3.2 (
n.m.) must be added to the distance from Gravel
Intersection to the runway end (1.8 n.m.).
Suggested Review-Chapter 7, Terminal
Procedures
Question 350 - Choice 3
The altitude of the tropopause immediately
north of Edmonton, Canada (CYEG) is FL 340
and the temperature, as shown in the square
box, is -53 cC.
Suggested Review-Chapter 3, Weather Data