Design of a Cost Effective Micro Hydro Power

Generation System Using the Discharge Water of

the Central Steam Power Plant

A thesis submitted to
the department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering of
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
in partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

By

Nipu Kumar Das

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
2012
The thesis entitled “Design of a Cost Effective Micro Hydro Power Generation System Using
the Discharge Water of the Central Steam Power Plant” submitted by Nipu Kumar Das, Roll
No: 0409062113, Session April 2009 has been accepted as satisfactory in partial fulfillment of
the requirement for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING on December 29, 2012.

BOARD OF EXAMINORS

1. -------------------------------------------------------- Chairman
Dr. Enamul Basher (Supervisor)
Professor,
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
BUET, DHAKA-1000, Bangladesh

2. ----------------------------------------------------
Dr. Pran Kanai Saha
Member
Professor,
(Ex-Officio)
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
BUET, DHAKA-1000, Bangladesh

3. ------------------------------------------------------
Dr. Mohammad Jahangir Alam Member
Professor,
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
BUET, DHAKA-1000, Bangladesh

4. ------------------------------------------------------------
Dr. Md. Tazul Islam Member
Professor, (External)
Dean, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
CUET, Chittagong-4349

i
 Declaration

It is hereby declared that this thesis or any part of it has not been submitted elsewhere for
the award of any degree or diploma.

Signature of the candidate

________________________
(Nipu Kumar Das)

ii
 Dedication

To my family
for their continuous support

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At first, I greatly praise almighty God for giving me patience, ability, energy and knowledge for
successful completion of my Master of Science in engineering Degree thesis work.

I express my hearty complements and indebted to my honorable supervisor professor Dr. Enamul
Basher for his continuous encouragement, constructive consultancy, who always answered my
questions and shared a part of his great knowledge with me which helped me to perform this
research work properly.

I am also grateful to my department and DAERS office for financial support for the research
work. I would like to thank all the people working at the Electrical and Electronic Engineering
and Mechanical Engineering Department. Special gratitude to the Bangladesh machine tools
factory limited who assisted me for preparing cross flow turbine rotor rim.

Thanks to all of others whose names are not mentioned here.

December, 2012 Author

iv
 ABSTRACT
Electric energy plays an important role in accelerating economic growth of a country.
Sustainable human development, which means economic growth through equitable distribution
of benefits, can only be ensured through the fulfillment of the energy needs of the nation.
Reliable electricity supplies have a great positive impact on our gross domestic product (GDP).
Bangladesh is one of the developing and most densely populated countries in the world besides it
has very limited indigenous natural energy resources like natural gas, coal and oil. So the present
electric energy crisis has made the necessity to the exploitation of non conventional and
renewable energy sources. This research work presents the prospects of micro hydro potential in
Bangladesh by using discharge cooling water of Central Stream Power Plant (CSPP) as an
alternative source for Micro Hydro Electric Power Generation System (MHPS). In this research
suitable type of turbine and generator set has been proposed for various CSPP according to their
site condition. Moreover a cost effective MHPS has been designed, fabricated and implemented
according to the measured discharge and net head available in Chittagong Thermal Power Plant
(CTPP). Here a Cross-Flow Hydro Turbine (CFHT) is used as prime mover and induction motor
available in local market used as Self-Excited Induction Generator (SEIG). The parameters of the
CFHT are calculated by soft program where some optimum design parameters were used that
amplify the efficiency of CFHT. This soft program also helps, to calculate and identify the best
design parameters for the site under consideration. In an electric power system, consumers
require uninterrupted power at rated frequency and voltage. To maintain these parameters within
the prescribed limits, suitable control strategy has been developed for the system. Voltage is
maintained by the control of excitation of the generator and frequency is maintained by
eliminating the mismatch between generation and load demand. In this research work this task
has been suitably done by a microcontroller based Electronic Load Controller (ELC). Here the
ELC is used to control the excitation of induction generator (IG) as well as to maintain balanced
load on IG terminal. To improve the dynamic performance of the system, battery energy storing
facility and a ballast load bank is also included in the designed ELC. Preliminary test of the
design system has been performed in the fluid mechanic laboratory, BUET to predict
performance of the system. In the preliminary test the MHPS generated 384 watt electric power
and the overall efficiency of the system was found 43 percent. This project is technologically and
economically sustainable because of that it is developed by indigenous technology and the
materials used in this project are available in the local market.

v
 LIST OF CONTENTS

Topics Page No.

Board of examiners i
Declaration ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Abstract v
List of contents vi
List of tables xii
List of figures xiii
Nomenclature xvi
List of abbreviations xix

CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background 1
2
1.2 Scope of MHPS using the discharge water of CSPP in Bangladesh
1.3 Objectives 2
1.4 Methodology 3

1.5 Thesis layout 4

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Literature survey 5
CHAPTER 3: ELECTRIC ENERGY SCENARIO OF BANGLADESH
3.1 Introduction 10
3.2 Energy policy 10
3.2.1 Strategic goals of NEP 11
3.3 Structure of electric power sector 11
3.3.1 Generation capacity 12
3.3.2 Projected demand for electricity 14
3.3.3 Perspective energy plan 15

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3.4 Role of indigenous fuel in power generation 16
3.4.1 State of Natural Gas 16
3.4.2 State of coal 17
3.4.3 State of hydro-power 17
3.4.3.1 Small hydro potential sites 18
3.4.3.1.1 Sites selected by BPDB/ BWDB joint study. 18
3.4.3.1.2 Sites selected by flood action plan (FAP) 19
3.4.3.1.3 Sites in Teesta barrage project. 20
3.4.3.1.4 Feasibility study on R&D of renewable energy by IFRD 21
3.4.3.2 Activities for the development of small hydropower plant 21
3.4.3.2.1 Projects by government organizations 21
3.4.3.2.2 Micro hydropower plant at Barkal by BPDB 22
3.4.3.2.3 Sites in Chittagong hill tracks 22
3.4.3.3 Tidal energy resource potential 22
3.4.4 State of nuclear power program in Bangladesh 23
3.4.5 State of renewable energy sources 23
3.4.5.1 Biomass resource 23
3.4.5.2 Solar energy 23
3.4.5.3 Wind energy 24
3.4.5.4 Achievement in renewable energy development in Bangladesh 24

CHAPTER FOUR: PROSPECTS OF MICRO-HYDRO POTENTIAL

IN CENTRAL STEAM POWER PLANT
4.1 Introduction 25
4.2 Measuring available head and flow rate in CSPP 25
4.2.1 Flow measurement 25
4.2.2 Measurement of head 28

4.3 Power calculation 28

4.4 Selection of electrical and mechanical equipment 29

4.4.1 Turbine selection 29

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4.4.1 Selection of generators 32

CHAPTER FIVE: CROSS-FLOW TURBINES

5.1 Introduction 34
5.2 General classification of turbines 34
5. 3 Rotodynamic machines 35
5.3.1 Basic equation of energy transfer in rotodynamic machines 35
5. 3.2 Energy transfer in axial flow machines 38
5. 3. 3 Radially outward and inward flow machines 38
5.4 Cross flow turbine 40
5. 4. 1 Path of jet through turbine 40
5. 4. 2 Optimization of CFHT in respect of flow angle 41
5.4.3 Construction details of the cross-flow turbine 46
5.4.3.1 Design of Blade angle 46
5.4.3.2 Design of radial rim width 47
5.4.3.3 Design of wheel diameter and axial wheel breadth 50
5.4.3.4 Design of the curvature of blade 51
5.4.4 Performance characteristics of the cross-flow turbine. 52
CHAPTER SIX : ANALYSIS OF FATIGUE STRENGTH OF CROSS
FLOW TURBINE RUNNER BLADES
6.1 Introduction 53
6.2 Developing the strength product concept 53
6.3 Functional relations 54
6.4 Derivation of the expressions 55
6.4.1 Mass flow through a blade channel 55
6.4.2 Torque transmitted by a blade channel 57
6.4.3 Point of application of the hydraulic forces 58
6.4.4 Distributed load on a blade 59
6.4.5 Area moment of inertia of the blade 60
6.4.6 Bending stress on blade section 61
6.4.7 Strength product 62

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CHAPTER SEVEN: DESGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF
LABORATORY TURBINE
7.1 Introduction 63
7.2 Selected site condition for micro hydro power generation 63
7.3 Soft program for cross flow turbine design 64
7.4 Implementation of cross flow turbine 67
7.4.1 CFHT rotor 67
7.4.2 Assemble CFHT turbine 69
7.4.3 Turbine nozzle and dam 70
7.4.4 Frame 71
7.4.5 Power transmission 72
7.4.5 .1 Types of belts 72
7.4.5.2 Calculation for number of belts, belt length and belt tension 72
7.4.5.3 Calculation of belt tension 73
7.4.6 Design of penstock diameter 74
CHAPTER EIGHT: INDUCTION GENERATOR
8.1 Introduction 75
8.2 Robustness of the induction generator 75
8.3 Operation of IG 76
8.4 Classical steady state representation of the induction generator 77
8.5 Generated power 80
8.6 Torque speed characteristics of the induction generator 81
8.7 Measurement of induction generator parameters 83
8.7.1 No-load test 84
8.7.2 The DC test for stator resistance 84
8.7.3 Blocked rotor test 85
8.7.4 Model Parameter of the test machine 86
8.7.5 Efficiency of the induction generator used in MHPS 86
8.8 Power versus current characteristics 87
CHAPTER NINE: SELF- EXCITED INDUCTION GENERATOR
9.1 Introduction 89

ix
9.2 Magnetizing curves and self-excitation of induction generator 89
9.3 Mathematical description of the self-excitation process 91
9.4 Connection of self-excitation capacitor 95
9.5 Single-phase output from a three-phase machine 95
9.6 Selection of capacitors 97
9.7 Calculation of excitation capacitance 97
9.7.1 Steady-state laboratory experiments 97
9.7.2 Calculation of required self-excitation capacitance for IG 98
9.8 Operating voltage and frequency 99
9.8.1 Operating voltage 99
9.8.2 Operating frequency 100
9.9 The effect of load upon generator output 101
9.9.1 Resistive load 101
9.9.2 Inductive load 102
9.9.3 Capacitive load 102
CHAPTER TEN: DESIGN OF ELECTRONIC LOAD CONTROLLER
10.1 Introduction 103
10.2 Voltage and frequency control in general 103
10.3 The island operated induction generator 104
10.4 Design of electronic load controller 104
10.4.1 Function of the designed ELC 105
10.4.2 Micro controller power circuit 106
10.4.3 Micro controller signaling circuit 107
10.4.4 Switch capacitor and dump load control circuit 108
10.4.5 Design of battery bank charging circuit 109
CHAPTER ELEVEN: EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
11.1 Introduction 111
11.2 Laboratory test 111
11.3 Financial aspects of the design MHPS in CTPP2 113
11.3.1 Cost analysis of the MHPS in CTPP2: 114
11.3.2 Cost analysis of the proto type MHPS model 116
11.4 Technical achievements of the project 117

x
11.5 Comparison with other non-conventional energy sources 117
11.5.1 Site Selection: 117
11.5.2 Grid Connection Problems: 117
11.5.3 Economic Consideration 118
11.5.4 Operation, Maintenance and Control Problems: 118
11.5.5 Impact on Environment: 119

CHAPTER TWELVE: CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

12.1 Conclusion 120
12.2 Future work of the research 121

REFERENCES 122

APPENDIX A: PROGRAMMING CODE FOR CFHT 127

APPENDIX B: DIMENSIONAL PARAMETER OF THE 134
DESIGNED MHPS
APPENDIX C: CALCULATION OF EXCITATION CAPACITOR 137
APPENDIX D: PROGRAMMING CODE FOR ELC 139

xi
 LIST OF TABLES
No. of TITLE OF THE TABLE Page
Table No.

3.1 Growth of install capacity and maximum generation from FY 1990-91 to 13

FY 2011-2012

3.2 Present generation authority 14

3.3 Projected demand for electricity (consider both base case and high case) 14

3.4 Energy mix of the perspective plan 2010 – 2025 for power generation 15

3.5 Probable power generation primary sources by 2030 15

3.6 Gas scenario snapshot 16

3.7 Current coal reserve and extractable quantity 17

3.8 Potential site selected by of BPDB/BWDB joint study and flood action 19
plan

3.9 Hydropower potential in Meghalaya rivers of northeast region 20

3.10 Potential sites in the TEESTA barrage for small hydro power generation 20

3.11 Potential sites of micro hydro power project in hilly districts 21

3.12 Present renewable energy development in Bangladesh 24

4.1 Estimated discharge in ASPCL and GPP 27

4.2 Estimated small hydro potential of several CSPP Bangladesh 28

4.3 Head and specific speed ranges for various types of turbine runners 31

4.4 Range of head and load variation for different turbine 31

7.1 Measured data on discharge rate and net head available in CTPP2 63

7.2 Main parameters of the designed cross flow turbine 66

8.1 Data collected in no load test of induction motor 84

8.2 Data collected in dc test to determine the stator resistance 85

xii
 8.3 Data collected in blocked rotor test of induction generator 86

8.4 Name plate data of the test machine 86

8.5 Model parameter of the test induction generator 86

9.1 Data collected in no load test of induction motor 98

11.1 Experimental test data 112

11.2 Efficiency consideration for MHPS in CTPP2 113

11.3 Total investment required for making 3.07 kW MHPP in CTPP2 113
11.4 Depreciation charges on MHPS components in CTPP2 114
11.5 Annual operating cost 114
11.6 Estimated per unit cost of MHPS in CTPP2 114
11.7 Estimated per kW installation cost of MHPS in CTPP2 114
11.8 Efficiency consideration of the proto type model 116
11.9 Depreciation charges of Proto type MHPS components 116
11.10 Estimation of per unit and per kW installation cost of the proto type MHPS 116
11.11 Comparison of relative cost among energy alternatives 118

C1 No-load test data 137

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. No. TITLE OF THE FIGURES Page No.

1.1 Methodology in flow chart 3

3.1 Structure of Bangladesh power sector 12
3.2 Growth of install capacity and generation capacity in fiscal year 1991- 13
2012
3.3 Percentage Primary Energy mixes in Electricity generation in July, 2012 14
3.4 Road map for coal power development 15
3.5 Regional power exchange possibilities 16
4.1 Discharge water of CTPP in Location-1 (besides Kathal PuriMazar) 26
4.2 Discharge water of CTPP in Location-2 (besides CUET Gate) 26
4. 3 Discharge water of CTPP in Location-3 (behind of CTPP) 26

xiii
 4. 4 Discharge water of ASPCL is drain to Meghna River 26
4. 5 Schematic diagram of Float method 27
4. 6 Cooling water feed pump used in ASPCL 27
4.7 Cooling water feed pump used in GPP 27
4.8 Daily flow duration curve in CTPP-2 29
4. 9 Chart for determining the selection of medium and large hydro turbine 30
4. 10 Head-flow ranges of small hydro turbines 31
5. 1 General Classification of Turbines 34
5. 2 Components of flow velocity in a generalized fluid machine 36
5.3 Velocity triangles for a generalized rotor vane and centrifugal effect in a 37
flow of fluid with rotation
5.4 (a) Paddle wheel as an example of impulse turbine 39
(b) Lawn sprinkler as an example of reaction turbine
5.5 Path of water through turbine and corresponding velocity triangle at 41
different point
5. 6 Velocity triangle of cross-flow turbine 42
5.7 Blade spacing 46
5.8 Velocity triangles 46
5.9 Composite velocity diagram 47
5. 10 Path of jet inside wheel 50
5.11 Curvature of the blade 51
5. 12 Relative efficiencies of the different turbine with the change of design 52
flow
6. 1 Banki runner dimensions 56
6.2 Velocity triangle at runner entrance 57
6.3 Point of application of hydraulic forces. 58
6.4 Forces on a blade 61
6.5 Blade cross-section 62
6.6 Blade section as a rigidly fixed beam 62
7.1 Flow duration curve of cooling water in CTPP2 64
7.2 Flow chart of the soft program 65

xiv
 7. 3 Side view of the CFHT 67
7.4 Turbine runner is faced by lath machine 68
7.5 Process of scribing radius of curvature in rotor disc 68
7.6 Cutting of blade profile on runner disk by Jig boring machine 68
7.9 Rotor blades are placed on the rotor end piece 68
7.10 Picture of Designed CFHT 69
7.11 Nozzle end piece bent to desire angle and flatted uneven edge by 70
hammer
7.12 End piece of nozzle is adjusted to rectangular inlet section 70
7.13 End pieces of nozzle are jointed together and spot welded. 70
7.14 Micro-hydro dam block is joined together 70
7.15 Angles of iron are cut into desire size by power hack saw 71
7.16 Angles of iron are flatten for making turbine generator base 71
7.17 Angles of iron are marked and punch for drilling and slotting 71
7.20 Iron angle are joint together for adjusting the turbine generator frame 71
work
7.21 Frame work of turbine generator base 72
7.22 Uneven edges and joints are grinded by small portable hand grinder 72
8.1 The Transformer model of induction generator, with rotor and stator 77
connected by an ideal transformer of turns ratio aeff
8.2 The rotor circuit model with all the frequency effects concentrated in 79
resistor .
8.3 The per phase equivalent circuit of an induction generator. 79
8.4 (a) Motoring operation of the IM 82
8.4 (b) Generating operation of Induction machine 83
8.5 Test setup for measuring no-load and locked rotor test data 86
8.6 Mechanical power versus load current of the induction generator 88
9.1 Approximate equivalent circuit for a self-excited induction generator 90
9.2 Process of voltage build-up in a self-excited induction generator 91
9.3 Equivalent circuit of the self-excited induction generator 92
9.4 Star and delta connection of excitation capacitance 95

xv
9.5 Connection diagram of 3φ IG into a 1φ IG using the “C-2C” connection 96
9.6 Phasor diagram for the single phase connection 96
9.7 No-load Magnetizing characteristics of the test induction generator 99
9.8 No load excitation characteristics for an IG operated at two different 100
frequencies
9.9 Typical voltage against load current for an induction generator with fixed 101
excitation capacitance operated at constant speed
9.10 A typical turbine power speed characteristic. 102
10.1 Operating Block diagram of the design MHP control system 105
10.2 Flow chart of the ELC 106
10.3 Pin diagram of ATmega 16 microcontroller 106
10.4 Power circuit of the microcontroller 107
10.5 Microcontroller signaling circuit 107
10.6 Switching circuit was tested in bread board 108
10.7 Switched capacitor and dump load control circuit. 109
10.8 Battery bank charging circuit 110
10.9 PCB layout of the designed ELC 110
11.1 Laboratory test of IG excitation 111
11.2 the design MHPS under test 112
11.3 Load characteristics of the SEIG 113
B1 Side view of the designed nozzle 136

NOMENCLATURE
Q Flow rate in m3/sec
d Average stream depth in m
b Stream width in m
t Time for float to drift 100 feet in sec
g Gravitational acceleration in m/s2
ho Overall efficiencies of MHPS

xvi
Ho Net head available in m

P0 Power developed by a water turbine in kW

T Torque exerted by the rotor on the moving fluid N-m

m Mass flow rate of fluid through the rotor Kg/sec
ns Specific speed of turbine in revolutions per minute
N Rated speed of turbine in revolutions per minute
Va Axial component of velocity m/s
Vf Radial component m/s
Vw Tangential component m/s
Angular velocity of the rotor rad/s
U Which represents the linear velocity of the rotor m/s
Vr Relative velocity of fluid m/s
R Degree of reaction
Cv Coefficient of velocity dependent upon the nozzle
Ph Water power stored in selected site is
α Angle of water jet entry to runner
β Blade angle Beta in degree
D1 Runner Outer diameter
L Runner breadth
A Area of the Jet
So Original Jet thickness the Jet
S1 Thickness of jet at entrance
t Blade spacing between two neighbour blade
n Number of blade in the wheel is
D1 Runner Outer diameter
L Runner breadth
A Area of the Jet
So Original Jet thickness the Jet
S1 Thickness of jet at entrance
t Blade spacing between two neighbour blade

xvii
 n Number of blade in the wheel is
(r2/r1) Ration of inner and outer circle radius
r1 Radius of outer circle
r2 Radius of inner circle
R Pitch circle radius
a Radial rim width
ρ Radius of curvature of Blade
δ The angle of pipe section forming the blade profile
V1 Velocity of Jet at entrance
v2 Relative Velocity of Jet at exit
u1 Tangential Velocity of Vane of wheel at outer part
u2 Tangential Velocity of Vane of wheel at inner part
Y Thickness in the inner part of the wheel is
Y1 Distance of Jet from the centre of shaft
Y2 Distance of Jet from the inner periphery of wheel
F Hydraulic force
W Distributed load on Blade
e Extreme fibre distance
M Bending moment
σ Flexural stress
ψ Is an empirical coefficient
n Synchronous speed of the field
P Number of the pole in the machine
f System frequency in hertz
n Slip speed of the machine
n Mechanical shaft speed of the motor
E Induced voltage on rotor at any speed
E Blocked rotor emf.
fr Rotor frequency,
a Effective turn’s ratio of an induction generator
I2 Rotor current

xviii
 X Blocked rotor reactance
P Mechanical power input
P Mechanical power converted to electrical power
τ Applied torque to IG
τ Induced torque in IG
P Stator copper loss of IG
Prcl Rotor copper loss of IG
P Core loss of IG
P Power transfer from the rotor to the stator through the air-gap
Rc Core loss component
Xm Magnetizing component
X1 Self inductance of stator
X2 Self inductance of rotor
R1 Stator resistance
R2 Rotor resistance
P Electric power output
C Effective value of self-exciting capacitance
CΔ Required excitation capacitance in delta connected mode
Cs Required excitation capacitance in star connected mode

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
MHPS Micro-hydro power system
IG Induction generator
SEIG Self excited Induction generator
ELC Electronic load controller
CSPP Central steam power plant
CHFT cross-flow hydro turbine
CTPP Chittagong Thermal power plant ,
CTPP1 Location-1 is besides Kathal Puri Mazar
CTPP2 Location-2 is in front CUET gate

xix
CTPP3 Location 3 is behind of the CTPP.
GPP Ghorasal power plant
ASPCL Ashuganj power station company ltd.
MPP Meghnaghat Power Plant
GDP Gross domestic product
NEP National Energy Policy
BWDB Bangladesh water development board
BPDB Bangladesh power development board
FAP Flood action plan
IFRD International foundation for research and development

xx
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND
Average electric energy consumption per person is a good indicator for sustainable
technological development and socio-economic growth of a nation. Bangladesh is a
developing country whose industrialization growth relies on adequate supply of electricity.
Nowadays this country is facing severe electric power capacity crisis with power demand
shooting up to 6500 MW since early March, 2012 against a generation capacity of 5100 MW
[1]. Only, 50% of the total population has access to electricity and per capita electricity
generation is 252 kWH, which is very low compared to other developing countries [2].
Nearly 31.5% of the population live below the national poverty line. The rural areas of
Bangladesh, where 50% of the population live are seriously deprive of electricity. Moreover
the demand of electricity is also increasing at about 8% per year. Almost 76 % of this
generated power primarily depends on natural gas and the rest is from liquid fuel, coal and
hydropower. The present share of renewable energy is only 0.4%. Reserve of fossil sources in
Bangladesh other than natural gas is considered negligible. Due to lack of other indigenous
energy resources, Bangladesh has become a gas dependent mono energy based country. But
the reserve of natural gas is limited and assumed to be exhausted within limited times [3, 4].
Major causes of present power crisis include shortage of gas supply, high transmission and
distribution system loss (around13%) and unprecedented delay in finalizing coal policy etc.

Now this crisis has opened the door for scientists and researchers to exploitation of
alternative energy resources and effective technologies to overcome power crisis of this
country. In Bangladesh there is a big potential for micro hydro power generation especially in
the northeast and southeast parts of the country [5-7]. There are lots of canals, tributaries of
main river as well as tiny waterfalls having potentials for setting up mini/micro/Pico
hydropower unit in those regions. But there are huge variations of water flow, during the
monsoon season they carry high discharges and very small during in the dry season. Besides
that the man made sources like discharge water of CSPP, sewerage water in city area,
factories and agricultural water way can be used as alternative sources of micro hydro power
plant.

1
In this research work the discharge water of CSPP is used as the primary energy source for
micro hydro power plant. Typically the discharge water of CSPP either drains to river or it is
utilized in irrigation. The discharges water of CSPP remains constant throughout the year in
comparison to other hydro sources in the country. So this source of water can be utilized as
an effective and reliable source for micro-hydro power generation. Moreover it is clean,
pollution free, eco-friendly energy sources and would increase the efficiency in energy use.
Here only the water current is utilized to drive the turbines, so that large dam is not required.
Micro hydro has an output of less than 100kW. They are usually installed to supply electricity
to small communities. CSPP based MHPS is always situated near the load center so it is easy
to be connected with local grid or it can easily act as an autonomous power system.

In this research work Self excited induction generator [8-11] is used rather than synchronous
generator because of its simple construction and inherent robustness and self availability in
the local market. CFHT is the most widely used turbine for the low head micro-hydro power
plants throughout the world because of its simple construction and cost is much cheaper than
Kaplan turbine of the same size. By using our local technology and local manufacturer the
CFHT can be easily developed with optimum efficiency. This will introduce a revolution in
micro hydro power generation system.

1.2 SCOPE OF MHPS USING THE DISCHARGE WATER OF CSPP IN

BANGLADESH
The potential of CSPP based hydro power generation is large since most of the power plants
in our country are driven by steam turbine moreover the trend of its in electric energy
production is increasing day by day [3]. The cooling water utilized in these plants remains
steady throughout year. The head ranges of various CSPP are limited to 2 to 8m only which is
suitable for mini/micro hydro power generation. In field survey the feasibility of maximum
amount of hydro power generation nears about 1 MW as estimated in Ashuganj Power
Station Company Ltd (APSCL) and Ghorasal Power Plant (GPP). On the other hand micro-
hydro potential is good in both Chittagong Thermal Power Plant (CTPP) and Meghnaghat
Power Plant (MPP).

1.3 OBJECTIVES
Objectives of this thesis are:

2
(i) To study the prospects of Micro-Hydro Potential by using the discharge cooling water of
CSPP as an alternative source of electricity generation.
(ii) Selection of suitable turbine and generator set for a various CSPP.
(iii) To develop a soft-program for calculating parameters of CFHT.

(iv) Design, fabrication and implementation of CFHT turbine for a particular site.
(v) Required excitation capacitance calculation for the self-excitation of the IG.
(vi) Design and implementation of microcontroller based electronic load controller.
(vii) Cost analysis of the designed MHPS
(viii) Compare the design micro-hydro system with renewable energy conversion systems on
the ground of economical and technical achievements.

1.4 METHODOLOGY
The flow chart of methodology is given below:

Figure1.1: Methodology in flow chart.

3
1.5 THESIS LAYOUT
This thesis consists of twelve chapters:
Chapter 1: Describes the necessity of CSPP based MHPS as an alternative source of
electrical energy which includes introduction, scope of CSPP based MHPS in Bangladesh, its
objectives and methodology.
Chapter 2: Describes the literature review on SEIG, ELC, and CFHT.
Chapter 3: Describes present electric energy scenario of Bangladesh and the role of
indigenous fuel in power generation in details.
Chapter 4: Describes prospects of micro-hydro potential in various CSPP in Bangladesh.
Chapter 5: Briefly describes the basic hydro mechanical principle governing the energy
transfer in a hydro machine and also discuss about CHFT design and construction proportion
and its performances.
Chapter 6: Clearly describes design, fabrication and implementation process of CFHT in
laboratory.
Chapter 7: Describes analysis of fatigue strength of Cross flow turbine runner blades.
Chapter 8: Briefly describes the operation of induction generator, power generation, torque
speed characteristics and robustness of the induction generator.
Chapter 9: Discusses about the performance characteristics of an induction machine
operating as a SEIG in stand-alone mode, mathematical description of self excitation process
and calculation of excitation capacitor requirements briefly.
Chapter 10: Firstly describes a general voltage and frequency control and then the control of
an island operated induction generator. Finally the design principle of a simple, reliable and
cost effective electronic load controller is described briefly.
Chapter 11: Describes the experimental result of the designed micro-hydro power system
has been presented firstly. After that this research work is compared with other non-
traditional and renewable energy conversion systems on the ground of economical and
technical achievements.
Chapter 12: Contains the conclusion and future work of the research.

And the last portion of the thesis consists of references, and appendix.

4
 CHAPTER 3

ELECTRIC ENERGY SCENARIO OF BANGLADESH

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The supply of electricity has a great impact on the national economy. Reliable electricity supplies have a
great positive impact on our gross domestic product (GDP). GDP is one of the key indicators to understand
the economic status of a country. In the last decade Bangladesh has been successfully maintaining
sustained economic growth of least 6%. In order to maintain this economic growth rate, electricity
generation growth rate need to be increased by 8% each year. However, the demand could never been met
due to inadequate generation addition in the past. Moreover, outstripping electricity demand-supply gap
has been constraining further economic progress as required to move ahead middle class economy. In this
chapter the present electric energy scenario of Bangladesh and status of indigenous energy sources and
renewable energy resources has been described briefly.

3.2 ENERGY POLICY

Energy development appears to be a major constraint for continued development of our country. The
major stumbling block is lack in terms of capital investment since energy development programs are
highly capital intensive. Traditionally these programs have been implemented with support from the
donors and/or multilateral banks. Since independence the government has given adequate priority and
about 20% of total public sector investment has been allocated for the development of energy sector. Even
then the achievements made in this sector have not been able to cope with the growing demand for energy
services, in terms of both quality and quantity.

The National Energy Policy (NEP) [4, 5] was formulated and approved by the government in 1996. With
the rapid changes in global as well as domestic conditions Energy & Mineral Resources Division (EMRD)
has undertaken a comprehensive programme for updating the NEP. The proposed updated policy will
describe the role that the energy sector must play its role in order to meet its obligations for sustainable
development of the country. This policy will also focus on implementation mechanisms and procedures for
tracking results to ensure that the policies are reflected in practice.

o Massive investment is required to meet the growing energy demand.

o Power supply shortages are to be addressed by establishing new power plants, and proper
maintenance and rehabilitation of existing power plants.
o Public-private partnership and/or joint ventures and private sector participation are to be further
encouraged
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 o Priority will be given on diversification of available indigenous commercial energy resources with
coal assuming a much expanded role in providing the country’s future energy needs.
o The recoverable reserves of four coalfields could range from 250 million to 900 million tons
depending on the mining methods applied.
o Due attention will be given for implementation of Nuclear Power Plant to cater to the future energy
needs of the country. At the same time opportunity for regional energy trade will be explored to
enhance energy security of the country. Considering the present reserves of gas and coal, and
future energy demand scenario government is keen to give due attention to developing nuclear
energy.

3.2.1 STRATEGIC GOALS OF NEP

The overall objectives, of the energy sector are to:

o Provide adequate and secure energy resources for all.

o Support socio-economic development.
o Reduce poverty and ensure social equity.
o Provide sustainable energy mix.
o Promote rational use of energy.
o Improve sector management and performance.
o Increase private sector investment.
o Ensure balanced growth of east and west zone of the country.
o Promote regional energy markets.

3.3 STRUCTURE OF ELECTRIC POWER SECTOR

The utilities of electric power sector are divided into three major groups according to their services that
they provide and these are generation, transmission and distribution. Previously, Bangladesh Power
Development Board (BPDB) under the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (MOEMR) was
responsible for all activities related to planning, generation, transmission, distribution and marketing of
electricity. The MOEMR has overall responsibility for the country's energy sector, with policy formulation
and investment decisions under its control.

The first shift in policy had taken place through the formation of the Rural Electricity Board (REB) in
1977, which was given the mandate to bring the rural areas of the country under electricity supply through
the establishment of Consumers societies. The second milestone was the formation of the Dhaka
Electricity Supply Authority (DESA) during the mid-nineties.

11
The involvement of the independent power producers in electricity generation is gradually replacing the
concept of public sector monopoly in the development on the energy sector of the country and within the
MOEMR, the “Power Cell” acts as a single point of contact to facilitate the electricity reform and
restructuring process, such as the development of Independent Power Producers (IPP). For system loss
reduction in power sector, the government envisages special measures in the transmission and distribution
network and retrofitting of plants with move on improved devices for technical losses and good
management through administrative measures. In the meanwhile, a separate corporation, namely the
Power Grid Company of Bangladesh Limited was formed to gradually take the responsibility of the
electricity transmission network. In figure 3.1 the structure of power sector is shown.

Figure 3.1: Structure of Bangladesh power sector

3.3.1 GENERATION CAPACITY

The responsible authorities for generation of electricity in Bangladesh are: Bangladesh Power
Development Board (BPDB), Rural Power Company (RPC) and Independent Power Producers (IPPs). The
installed electric generation capacity was only 2350MW in FY 1990-91, and the maximum generation was
1640 MW both the installed capacity and maximum generation have been increased slowly over the time
to 7550 MW and 6230 MW respectively in FY 2012-2013 as shown in table 3.1. In figure 3.2 it is
observed that the maximum generation is always lower than that of the installed capacity because of the
poorer productivities of older power plants and the shortage of gas supply, some power plants are unable
to utilize their generation capacity. The growth of install capacity and maximum generation from 1991 to
2012 is shown in figure 3.2. The total installed capacities of the all responsible authorities in July,
2012[32] are shown in table 3.2. In figure 3.3 Total electricity generation by types of fuels was as follows:
hydro (2.92%), natural gas (75.9%), liquid fuel (17.9%) and coal (3.26%) are shown.

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 Table 3.1

Growth of install capacity and maximum generation from FY 1990-91 to FY 2011-2012

Fiscal year Installed Growth Rate Maximum Growth

Capacity (%) Generation (MW) Rate (%)
(MW)
1990-1991 2350 - 1640 -
1991-1992 2398 2.04 1672 1.95
1992-1993 2608 8.76 1823 9.03
1993-1994 2608 0.00 1875 2.85
1994-1995 2908 11.50 1970 5.07
1995-1996 2908 0.00 2087 5.94
1996-1997 2908 0.00 2114 1.29
1997-1998 3091 6.29 2136 1.04
1998-1999 3603 16.56 2449 14.65
1999-2000 3711 3.00 2665 8.82
2000-2001 4005 7.92 3033 13.81
2001-2002 4230 5.62 3218 6.10
2002-2003 4710 11.35 3458 7.46
2003-2004 4710 0.00 3622 4.74
2004-2005 5025 6.69 3751 3.56
2005-2006 5275 4.98 3812 1.63
2006-2007 5262 -0.25 3718 -2.47
2007-2008 5262 0.00 4130 11.08
2008-2009 5803 10.28 4162 0.77
2009-2010 5978 3.016 4606 10.67
2010-2011 6912 15.62 4722 2.52
2011-2012 7551 9.244 5511 16.71
2012-(July 7551 -- 6279 13.93
2013)

8000

7000

6000
Capacity in MW

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000 Install capacity

Generation capacity
0
1991 1996 2001 2006 2011

Fiscal Year 1991 to 2012

Figure 3.2: Growth of install capacity and generation capacity in fiscal year 1991-2012

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 Table 3.2
Present generation authority
Primary energy mix
SL. Public Sector Generation Capacity
(MW) hydro
1 BPDB 3209 liquid coal
2.92%
2 ASPCL 662 fuel 3.26%
3 EGCB 210 17.91%
4 SUB,PDB 223
Sub total 4304 (53%)
Private Sector
Gas
1 IPP 1260
75.90%
2 SIPPs(BPDB) 110
3 SIPPs(REB) 215
4 15YR. Rental 168
5 3/5 YR Rental 1494
Subtotal 3247 (47%) Figure 3.3: Percentage Primary Energy mixes in
Total 7551
Electricity generation in July, 2012.

3.3.2 PROJECTED DEMAND FOR ELECTRICITY

Considering the growth of the individual end-user sectors the projection of demand for energy should
ideally be made. The demand forecast is based on the excellent historical correlation of electricity demand
with GDP and three forecasts of GDP growth through 2025. The Base case uses GDP figures whose
compound average annual growth rate is 5.2%. The low case GDP figures average annual rate is 4.5%.
The high case is based on a GOB forecast with an annual average rate of 8.0%. These GDP growth rates
produce net energy demand growth rates to 2025 of 7.9% for the base case, 6.7% for the low case and
12.0% for the high case [4]. In these three scenarios, it is also assumed that transmission and distribution
losses continue to fall. For transmission, they drop to 3.0% by 2018. Distribution losses drop to 10% by
2019[3].

Table 3.3
Projected demand for electricity (consider both base case and high case)
Base Case High Case
Target Period 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
GDP (T BDT) 2.63 3.52 4.61 5.88 7.33 2.63 3.52 4.61 5.88 7.33
Growth Rate (%) 5.3 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 6.5 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5
21.96 33.81 50.31 72.22 100.0 22.34 37.65 68.92 126.17 217.14
Total TWh
8
Net Peak Load 4.31 6.61 9.79 13.99 19.31 4.38 7.35 13.41 24.44 41.90
(GW)

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3.3.3 PERSPECTIVE ENERGY PLAN
The Perspective Plan of the Planning Commission of the government of Bangladesh for the period 2010 –
2021 has recommended an energy mix to achieve the generation of 20,000 MW by 2021. Targets of
electricity production by 2013 and 2015 are 7,000 MW and 8000 MW, respectively [33]. According to the
Perspective Plan, the energy mix for power generation is shown in table 3.4 and Probable Power
Generation Primary Fuel Sources by 2030 is presented table 3.5. Road map for coal power development
and regional electric power exchange possibilities are also shown respectively in figure 3.4 and 3.5.
Table 3.4
Energy mix of the perspective plan 2010 – 2025 for power generation
Energy Target Period
Sources Current 2021 2030
Gas 88% 30% 28%
Coal 3.7% 53% 38%
Oil 6% 3% 5%
Hydro 2.7% 1% 4%
Nuclear 0% 10% 19%
Renewable 0% 3% 6%

Figure 3.4: Road map for coal power development

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 Table 3.5
Probable power generation primary sources by 2030
Description Capacity Probable Location (s)
(MW)
Domestic Coal 11,250 Nort west region at mine mouth
Imported coal 8400 Chittagong and Khulna
Domestic Gas/LNG 8850 Near load centers
Nuclear 4000 Ruppur
Regional Grid 3500 Bahrampur -Bheramara, Agartola-Comilla, Silchar -
Fenchuganj, Purnia-Bogra, Myanmar-Chittagong
Oil, Hydro, 2,700 Near Load Centers
Renewable
Total 38,700

Figure 3.5: Regional power exchange possibilities

3.4 ROLE OF INDIGENOUS FUEL IN POWER GENERATION

3.4.1 State of Natural Gas
Bangladesh gas sector started its journey in the 60s, but its rapid expansion and integration started to
accelerate in the early 70s spurred by the rising oil prices. The cumulative efforts of exploration for oil and
gas resources in Bangladesh has resulted in the discovery of 23 gas fields of various sizes, having a total
gas initially in place (GIIP) of 29.235 TCF out of which estimated proven recoverable reserve (P1) was
estimated as 15.584 Tcf. up to June 2009 as much as 8.376 Tcf has already been produced, leaving only
7.208 Tcf of recoverable gas. Moreover, 23 gas fields have reserves of 5.471 Tcf under ‘Probable’ (P2)
and 7.691 Tcf under ‘Possible’ P3 categories. Presently, 79 wells located in 17 gas fields are in production.
In Bangladesh, natural gas accounts for about 73% of commercial energy. In table 3.6 the present natural
gas scenario of Bangladesh is shown. The Demand for gas has been growing rapidly during the last few
years; the demand is growing by around 7% each year. The gas demand in the country is projected to reach
a level of 913.9 and 1,036.33 BCF in the year of 2010-11 and 2011-2012 [3]. In fact, more than three-

16
quarters of the nation’s commercial energy demand is being met by natural gas. This influential sector
caters for around 40% of the power plant feedstock, 17% of industries, 15% captive power, 11% for
domestic and household usage, another 11% for fertilizers, 5% in compressed natural gas (CNG) activities
and 1% for commercial and agricultural uses. PDB's present requirement of gas is 994.414 mmcfd to
generate around 4,000MW power, but it is getting 802.11mmcfd leaving a shortfall of 192.3 million cubic
feet [32]. Thus power plants having the additional generation capacity of around 700 MW, almost 20% of
the country's total generation, remains idle. It is to note that no new gas field has been discovered in the
last 5 years.

Table 3.6
Gas scenario snapshot
Total number of gas fields 23
fields Number of producing gas fields 17 (79 wells)
Extractable gas reserves (proven and probable) 20.5 TCF
Total consumption of gas up to April 2010 8.5 TCF
Total reserve remaining 12 TCF
Daily gas production 2000 mmcfd

3.4.2 STATE OF COAL

Bangladesh has 3.3 million ton (MT) estimated coal in 5 fields and ‘extractable Coal’ amounts to 1062.5
MT [3]. Coal exploration program in Bangladesh is still going on. Mathematically, 1 Tcf gas is equivalent
to 38 MT Coal (heating value). Thus, 1062.5 MT is equivalent to 28 Tcf gas. But, even for the 1062.50
MT proven reserve of coal, it is not certain that this amount of coal will be available for the power
generation since the extraction of coal depends hugely on the extraction process. Commercial coal
production at Barapukuria Coal Mine started in April 2003 with the expectation to produce 1 million short
tons of coal/year (Mmst/y), primarily for electricity generation that began in January 2006 and is
generating a trivial 3.26% of total generation, only 250 MW. In table 3.7 status of reserve coal in different
coal mine shown.
Table 3.7
Current coal reserve and extractable quantity
Depth Area in Estimated Extractable Amount
Location & Year of Discovery
(m) (Sq.km) coal (MT) (MT)
Barapukuria, Dinajpur; 1985 118 6.68 390 370.50 (95%)
Khalashpir, Rangpur;1995 327 12 685 28.6 (20%)
Phulbari, Dinajpur; 1997 150 30 572 543.40 (95%)
Jamalganj, Joypurhat; 1965 900 16 1053 Extraction method
undecided
Dighipara, Dinajpur; 1995 372 Not Available 600 120
Total 3300 1062.50

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3.4.3 STATE OF HYDRO-POWER
Hydropower generation is an eco-friendly clean power generation method. However the scope of
hydropower generation is very limited in Bangladesh because of its plain lands, except in some hilly
region in the northeast and southeast parts of the country. Bangladesh is a reverie country with three main
rivers: Padma, Brahmaputra and Meghna. 1.35 trillion m3 of water flows through the country in an average
water year. Numerous rivers flow across the country, which are mostly tributaries of these main rivers. Out
of these, 57 rivers are Tran boundary, which originate from India and Myanmar. Apart from the south-
eastern region, other parts of the country are mostly flat in nature. Major rivers of the country have high
flow rate for about 5–6 months during monsoon season, which is substantially reduced during winter.
At present the lone hydropower plant of the country with an installed capacity of 230 MW is located in
Karnafuli hydro station, which the only hydroelectric power plant operated by BPDB. BPDB is
considering extension of Karnafuli hydro station to add another 100MW capacity. The additional energy
will be generated during the rainy season when most of the year water is spilled. Apart from Kaptai, two
other prospective sites for hydropower generation at Sangu and Matamuhuri River are identified by
BPDB.

SANGU PROJECT: This would be a new project with an annual energy of about 300GWh per year. For
an installed capacity of 140MW, the annual plant factor is 23%, and it is estimated that the plant would
operate in peaking mode. However, this project needs a detailed environmental, social and economic study
in the present context.

MATAMUHURI PROJECT: The Matamuhuri development would be a new project of capacity 75MW
and an approximate average annual energy 200GWh per year.

3.4.3.1 SMALL HYDRO POTENTIAL SITES

Several attempts have been made in the past to find out the potential of small hydro power generation,
which is believed to be more environment or ecology friendly in comparison to large hydro with dams.
Sites selected by some of the previous studies at different parts of the country are described in the
following headings.

3.4.3.1.1 SITES SELECTED BY BPDB/BANGLADESH WATER DEVELOPMENT

BOARD (BWDB) JOINT STUDY.
To explore the possibility of hydropower from small hilly rivers/streams in the country, a working
committee was constituted on February 1981 with officers from BWDB and BPDB. The committee
explored 19 prospective sites for possible installation of small hydropower plants. The findings of the
committee are summarized in table 3.8. In April 1984 a group of Chinese experts visited Bangladesh and
18
identified 12 prospective sites in the hilly areas of Bangladesh. Out of those 12 sites, Mahamaya Chara,
near Mirersharai, close to Dhaka–Chittagong highway was identified as the best site for development of
small hydro. Accordingly BWDB is considered to develop a multipurpose project at Mahamaya Chara. It
has been found out from the feasibility study that generation of electricity is possible throughout the year
except in the month of April and May and a small hydropower plant shall be installed at the downstream
foot of the proposed dam for the generation of electricity.
Table 3.8
Potential site selected by of BPDB/BWDB joint study and flood action plan [5]
Findings of BPDB/BWDB study Findings of Flood Action Plan
Name of River Potential Name of river and site Average year
/Chara/ Stream energy (kW) Min Mean Max
Chittagong
Fiaz lake 4
Chota Kumira 15 Meghalaya Group
Hinguli Chara 12
Sealock 81 Kangsha at Jariajanjail 16.7 274.3 738.5
Lungi Chara 10
Liragaon 20 Sari-gowain at Sarighat 6.4 128.2 381.9
Nunchari 5
Chang-oo-Para, 30 Barak Group
Bangchari 10
Kamal chari. 10 Surma at Sylhet 7.8 545 1470.1
Thang khrue chara 30 Kushiyara at Sheola 80.8 660 1610
Sylhet
Nikhari Chara 26 Sylhet Sonai-Bardal at 7.2 138.8 331.6
Madhb Chara1 78 Jaldhup
Ranga pani Gung 616 Surma at Kanairghat 6.4 524.4 1429.3
Jamalpur
Bhugai-Kongsa 65.5 Tripura Group
Marisi 32.5
Dinajpur Manu at Manu River 10.4 83.7 182.2
Dahuk 24 Barage
Chawai 32 Brahmaputra Group
Talam 24
Pathraj 32 Old Brahmaputra at 19.4 704.9 2055.5
Tangon 48 Mymansingh
Punarbhaba 11 Lakhya at Demra 38.8 692.3 1750.9
Rangpur
Chikli 32 Old Brahmaputra at 4.3 123.3 452.5
Fulkumar 48 Bhairab Bazar

3.4.3.1.2 SITES SELECTED BY FLOOD ACTION PLAN (FAP)

In 1992, under the FAP, Northeast Regional Water Management Project (FAP-6) conducted a preliminary
assessment of selected rivers in the Northeast Region. The finding for the most promising rivers and sites
shows that they are suitable for development of run-off-river low head schemes. However, to obtain the
required head for generating power a weir or barrage need to be constructed across the river channel. The
identified site, along with the flow data, is listed in table 3.9. Based on mean monthly discharges and an
assumed 5m head the hydro potential of the 10 major and medium perennial rivers of the Northeast Region
19
is estimated as 161MW, with an annual energy production of about 1410 GWh. These are perennial rivers
with sufficient flow for power generation throughout the year. There are also rivers which carry high
discharges during the monsoon season and very small during the dry season. They have relatively high
longitudinal slope across alluvial fans close to the Indian border. Most of the rivers have little flow in the
winter months and sometimes they dry out completely. The suitable scheme would include diversion
structure across the river channel, diversion channel along the bridge and the powerhouse at a suitable
offers sufficient head
Table 3.9
Hydropower potential in Meghalaya Rivers of northeast region [6]
River Site Catchments Estimated annual output
area (km2 ) (MW) (GWh)
Someswari Dugapur 2134 5 43
Jadukata Saktiakhola 2513 13 115
Jhalukhali Dalura 448 5 45
Sarigoyain Lalakhal TG 802 3 30
Lubha Mugulgul 724 3 27
Dhalai Khalasadaq 342 2 15
Umium Chalelhnapur 518 2 20
Bhugai Hatipagar 453 1 6
Darang Ghosegaon 381 1 6
Total 35 307

3.4.3.1.3 SITES IN TEESTA BARRAGE PROJECT.

Teesta barrage is located in the North-Western part of the country. It is the largest irrigation project of the
country. There are at least 19 potential sites of hydropower generation in the Teesta barrage project having
10 sites with more than 2m head. The constructions of these regulating structures have been completed and
most of them are in operation. These sites can be investigated for development of small hydro projects.
The prospective sites at Teesta barrage is shown in table 3.10.
Table 3.10
Potential sites in the Teesta barrage for small hydro power generation [6]
Regulating Discharge Water level Potential
structure (number) (m3/s) Upstream (m) Downstream (m) Head (m) Energy (kW)
Teesta Canal
R3T 154.6 47.9 45.8 2.1 3184
Rangpur Canal
R2R 73.1 43.1 40.9 2.2 1577
R4R 53.5 38.9 36.8 2.1 1102
R5R 45.2 36.2 34.1 2.1 931
Bogra Canal
S1B (L) 1.4 43.3 40.5 2.7 37
R1S2B 0.7 41.9 39.3 2.6 18
R1S3B 4 41.6 38.6 3 118
R1S4B 1 41.5 38.3 3.3 32
R1S5B 2.1 41.5 37.5 4.1 84
R3B 73.6 41.3 38.7 2.6 1877

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3.4.3.1.4 FEASIBILITY STUDY ON R&D OF RENEWABLE ENERGY BY IFRD
Feasibility study on R&D of Renewable Energy (Solar, Wind, Micro-Mini Hydro)’’ of IFRD has collected
data through the related instruments regarding the micro-mini hydro study at two selected places of
Shailopropat in Banderban and Madhobkundu in Moulibhibazar. The collected data and information are
analyzed on various aspects at RET laboratory of IFRD. On the basis of analysis of collected data up to
June 2001, it is expected that 5–10kW and 10–20kW capacity micro-hydropower plant can be installed for
electricity generation at Shailopropat and Madhobkundu sites, respectively. Summary of different
measurements and calculations for small hydropower generation are shown in table 3.11.
Table 3.11
Potential sites of micro hydro power project in hilly districts
Name of Average Available Output Electric
Water Falls Discharge (l/s) Head (m) Power (kW)
Sailopropat 100 6 5
Madhobkundu 150 10 15

3.4.3.2 ACTIVITIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL HYDROPOWER

PLANT
Summary of the several attempts have been taken up by some of the government organizations and
international organizations for the development of the small hydropower are presented in the following
sections.
3.4.3.2.1 PROJECTS BY GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS
Bamerchaasra irrigation project is the first demonstration of micro hydropower unit in Bangladesh by
LGED. LGED has been exploring the potential of mini and micro hydropower as eco-friendly sources of
energy in the hilly region to meet the different energy needs of the remote inaccessible, underdeveloped
and sparsely populated mountain areas. Several studies carried out in Bangladesh recommended that mini
and micro-hydro alone might not be a feasible option in this country. However its integration with
irrigation and flood control projects can be made economically viable. In this regard, LGED has
implemented Bamer-chara irrigation project in Banskhali Thana under Chittagong district with an
intention to provide irrigation facilities to 355 ha land. A large reservoir has been built in this project for
dry season irrigation. Water enters the project area through a gated spill way and flow is controlled at the
downstream by a conventional regulator. This unit has helped to get insight knowledge and practical
experience in harnessing micro-hydropower. It has enabled the local farmers to use the electricity from
that unit for daytime irrigation, so a considerable amount of power is saved. Considering water head of 11
meters and flow rate of 150 L/s, it was estimated that maximum 10kW hydropower could be generated
from Bamerchara site. But when irrigation starts, water head falls rapidly. Consequently full power
generation was not possible.
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3.4.3.2.2 MICRO HYDRO POWER PLANT AT BARKAL BY BPDB:
Barkal is one of the remote and off-grid Upazila (sub-district) in the Chittagong Hill Tracts region. The
area is covered with hills ranging 300–500m in height. Due to the geological structure, the area is remote
in terms of building the infrastructure. Therefore, the extension of grid electricity will be very difficult and
expensive. Engineers of BPDB have conducted reconnaissance survey in the Upazila and identified
availability of water sources for micro hydropower plant. Based on the electrical load demand of the
adjacent area, 20kW micro hydropower plant have been designed with the help of RETScreen, developed
by CANMET Energy Diversification Research Laboratory of Canada (CEDRL).The project will be funded
by the Ministry of Chittagong Hill Tracts Affairs.

3.4.3.2.3 SITES IN CHITTAGONG HILL TRACKS

There is lot of canals, tributaries of main river Karnafuli, Shangu, Matamuhuri as well as tiny waterfalls.
The opportunities that exist in the CHT areas include the potential for the utilization of hydropower along
with indigenous technical knowledge systems to operate local institutions. This study being carried out to
harness of micro-hydro resources and find the potentials of setting up decentralized micro-hydropower
unit with local implementation and management, thereby making remote tribal rural development possible
through self-reliance and the use of local natural resources. Mr. Aung Thui Khoin innovated indigenous
micro hydropower unit constructed with wooden turbine and making an earthen dam on the flowing Hara
Khal at remote hilly region of Monjaipara, Bandarban. As observation, about 10kW electricity is being
generated by this indigenous micro hydropower unit that illuminated 40 households of that village.
Focusing on that innovation, it is encouraging that such water micro-hydro unit may be undertaken to set
up on potential sites in the off grid CHT region to bring up sustainability in socioeconomic upliftment of
the local backward tribal community.

3.4.3.3 TIDAL ENERGY RESOURCE POTENTIAL

Tidal power utilizes the twice-daily variation in sea level caused primarily by the gravitational effect of the
Moon and, to a lesser extent the Sun on the world’s oceans. The Earth’s rotation is also a factor in the
production of tides. The normal tidal head rise and fall in the coastal region of Bangladesh is between 2
and 8m [6]. This tidal range can easily be converted to pollution free clean renewable energy by using the
simple low-cost technology of a ‘‘tidal wheel’’ in the sluice gates. The real benefits of this technology can
be applied in a way that simultaneously enables the development of local infrastructure various resource
producing activities such as agriculture and aquaculture along with improved living conditions for the
local people. A demonstration tidal power project is being planned in Sandwip, by ISTP of Murdoch
University, Australia. ISTP has developed a feasibility plan for rebuilding a recently damaged sluice gate

22
with a trial paddle wheel [34]. If become successful, the tidal project of Sandwip can be replicated in the
other coastal areas and which will usher new light in the region.

3.4.4 STATE OF NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAM IN BANGLADESH

The nuclear power generation has become an inevitable option for Bangladesh which has already been
reflected in the government policy documents. The updating National Energy Policy made projected
nuclear power as an important option of meeting the ever-growing energy demand. The policy outlined the
program to be taken to implement two units of nuclear power plants by 2020 in order to improve the
supply situation of electricity in the country. Additional two or three more units of larger size above 1000
MW by 2025 will contribute about 10% of the total energy mix for power generation. However, continued
efforts will be made to achieve 25% of total electricity generation from nuclear power beyond 2025 [4].

3.4.5 STATE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Globally renewable energy generates 3.47% of total electricity demand; while in Bangladesh, it is only
about 0.45%. The renewable energy policy approved in December 2008 aims at exploring the country's
electricity generating potential from renewable energy resources to meeting the nagging electricity crisis
across the country [34]. The policy encourages the private and public sectors to develop alternative sources
of energy to meet up to 10 % of total electricity demand through renewable energy such as solar, wind,
biomass and hydropower by 2020. Development of renewable energy is one of the important strategies
adopted as part of fuel diversification program. Under the existing generation scenario renewable energy
has a very small share to the total generation. Renewable Energy sources in Bangladesh are biomass, solar
energy, hydro resources and wind energy. The renewable could reach electricity to the rural people and
help in poverty reduction. However, it cannot meet the ever growing demand for more power by the
industries.

3.4.5.1 BIOMASS RESOURCE

Bangladesh has strong potential for biomass gasification based electricity. Approximately 60% of total
energy demand of the country is supplied by indigenous biomass based fuels [5]. More common biomass
resources available in the country are rice husk, crop residue, wood, jute stick, animal waste, municipal
waste, sugarcane bagasse etc. Exploration of these resources for electricity generation is still at preliminary
stage. Potentials for utilizing biogas technologies derived mainly from animal, kitchen and municipal
wastes may be one of the promising renewable energy resources for Bangladesh.

3.4.5.2 SOLAR ENERGY

Bangladesh is situated between 20034΄–26038΄ degrees north latitude and 88001΄–92041΄ degrees east,
which are an ideal location for solar energy utilization. Daily average solar radiation varies between 4 to
23
6.5kWh/m2. Maximum amount of radiation is available on the month of March–April and minimum on
December–January [5]. According to a survey, there is an existing market size of 1 million households for
Solar Home Systems (SHS) on a fee-for-service basis in the off-grid areas of Bangladesh.
3.4.5.3 WIND ENERGY
The Bangladesh Meteorological Department has wind speed measuring stations in towns and cities. Data
from earlier measurements and analysis of upper air data by CWET India show that wind energy resource
of Bangladesh is not good enough (>7 m/s) for grid connected wind parks [35]. Bangladesh Center for
Advanced Studies (BCAS) obtained and reviewed Bangladesh Meteorological Department’s wind data
with a view to establishing the prospects for wind energy. The following information about the wind
climate in Bangladesh had been found:
o Wind speeds of 1–2 m/s, at heights between 5 and 10m above ground level.
o Wind speeds appear to be higher in the eastern part of the country than the western part.
o Wind speeds in the coastal areas appear to be higher than inland.
o Wind speed exhibits a strong seasonal cycle, lowest in the winter and higher in the summer.
o Wind speed exhibits a diurnal cycle, generally peaking at noon and weakest at night

3.4.5.4 ACHIEVEMENT IN RENEWABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT IN

BANGLADESH
Government utilities are involved in large scale grid connected renewable energy based power project
development. On the other hand, private sector is involved with off-grid home-based renewable energy
solutions.The first significant PV-based rural electrification programmed was the Norshingdi project
initiated with financial support from France. Since the introduction of SHS in 1996 it has become now the
biggest renewable energy program in Bangladesh so far installed 900,000 units and ever increasing due to
an integrated program undertaken by the government through its financial institution, IDCOL. IDCOL's
program is considered as a successful model for installation of SHSs in the world. Till now, national
capacity of renewable energy based power is approx. 50 MW as shown table 3.12.
Table 3.12
Present renewable energy development in Bangladesh [36]
Category Achievement
SHS 45 MW
Other Solar PV Applications 1 MW
including Solar Irrigation
Wind Energy 2 MW
Biomass based electricity <1 MW
Biogas based electricity 1 MW
Total 50 MW

24
 CHAPTER 4

PROSPECTS OF MICRO-HYDRO POTENTIAL IN

CENTRAL STEAM POWER PLANT
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The present energy crisis throughout the world has made the necessity to the exploitation of
non conventional and renewable energy sources. Water has been used as an energy source for
thousands of years with ancient civilizations using water to drive mills through the use of
water wheels. Most of the micro/mini/pico hydro power plant throughout the world utilized
only natural sources of water. Besides that the man made sources like waste water of power
plants, Sewerage water, factories and agricultural water way can be used as effective sources
of micro hydro power plant. In this chapter the prospect of micro/mini/pico hydro power
generation in Bangladesh by using discharge water of central stream power plant (CSPP) as
an alternative source for hydro electric power generation has been described. Output power
has been estimated by the measured discharge rate and available heads in different CSPP of
this country. Suitable types turbine-generator set for different CSPP depending on their site
condition have been proposed for reliable operation of the micro/mini hydro power system.
4.2 MEASURING AVAILABLE HEAD AND FLOW RATE IN CSPP
4.2.1 FLOW MEASUREMENT
The cooling discharge water of Chittagong Thermal power plant (CTPP), Ashuganj power
station company ltd. (ASPCL), Ghorasal power plant (GPP) was measured in field survey. In
CTPP there are three locations where the micro hydro power generation is feasible. The
discharge cooling water of CTPP flows through a narrow channel to a canal at Pahartoli.
Through surveying the channel of CTPP, there are three suitable locations have been selected
where micro-hydro power can be generated. Location-1 is besides Kathal Puri Mazar and
Location-2 is in front of Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology (CUET) gate
and location 3 is behind of the CTPP. In figure 4.1-4.3 the locations of the selected sites are
shown. In ASPCL there are there channel, where two channels are used to drain the discharge
cooling water to Meghna River and other one is drained to irrigation channel. The discharge
of the cooling water of the ASPCL is shown in figure 4.4. In GPP the discharge cooling water
is drain to Meghna River. The flow rate of discharge cooling water in CTPP is measured by
float method because it is simple and easy to conduct and will yield satisfactory data, except
in cases where a stream is shallow or rocky and impedes the movements of a weighted float.

25
In figure 4.5 the process of flow measurement by float method is shown. Here a stretch of
stream with the straightest channel, and the most uniform depth and width had selected and
then width of the stream at the narrowest point was measured. The depth of the water stream
across the selected point has been measured by holding the yardstick vertically. Finally a
point is marked to upstream 100 ft away from the same point where streams width is
measured. Release the weighted-float in the middle of the stream and record the time it takes
for the float to travel to original point and then flow rate is calculated by the formula [37].
æ bd öæ100 ö
Q = 0.83ç ÷ç ÷ (4.1)
è144 øè t ø

Where, Q = flow rate (cubic feet per second),

b = stream width (inches),
d = average stream depth (inches)
t = time for float to drift 100 feet (seconds)
In ASPCL and GPP the discharge cooling water has been calculated by collecting the
discharge capacity data of water pump used in both power plants. The water pump used in
ASPCL and GPP used for pumping raw water is shown in figure 4.6 and 4.7 respectively. In
table 4.1 the capacity of water pump used in ASPCL and GPP is presented.

Figure 4.1: Discharge water of CTPP in Figure 4.2: Discharge water of CTPP in
location-1 (beside Kathal Puri Mazar) location-2 (beside CUET gate)

Figure 4.3: Discharge water of CTPP in Figure 4.4: Discharge water of ASPCL is
location-3 (Behind of CTPP) drain to Meghna River. 26
 Figure 4. 5: Schematic diagram of float method

Table 4.1
Estimated discharge in ASPCL and GPP
Estimated discharge in Ashuganj power station company ltd. (ASPCL)
Uint No of pump Electrical Discharge On Effective Estimated
Input(MW) capacity operation Head discharge
Q (l/sec) Ho (m) Qm (l/sec)
ASPCL_Unit 1 1 2.5 10539 1 9,485
ASPCL_Unit 2 2 2.5 10539 2 3~5 18,970
ASPCL_Unit3 3 0.67 2820 2 5,076
Estimated total discharge cooling water in ASPCL considering 90% of pump discharge 33,531
capacity
Estimated discharge in Ghorasal power plant (GPP)
Uint No of pump Electrical Discharge On Effectiv Estimated
Input(MW) capacity operation e Head discharge
Q (l/sec) Ho (m) Qm (l/sec)
GPP_Unit 1 3 .6 2,525 2 4,545
3.5~7
GPP_Unit 2 9 2.5 1,894 7 11,932
Estimated total discharge cooling water in GPP considering 90% of pump discharge 16,477
capacity

Figure 4. 6: Cooling water feed pump Figure 4.7: Cooling water feed pump used
used in ASPCL in GPP

27
4.2.2 MEASUREMENT OF HEAD
The head of water available at any one site can be determined by measuring the height
difference between the water surface at the proposed intake and the river level at the point
where the water will be returned. After the height of the water behind the proposed dam or
diversion has been decided, it is necessary to measure the head of water that will result. To
determine the difference in level between two points, set a surveyor’s level about midway
between the points. Have an assistant hold a surveyor’s rod at one point, sight through the
level and record the height reading on the rod. Move the rod to the second point and read.
The difference of the readings is the difference in elevation of the two points. Often it is
impossible to see the two points from a single setting of the level so rods must be read at
intermediate or turning points. The differences in readings between each pair of points can be
added together to calculate the total elevation drop from the dam or diversion.

4.3 POWER CALCULATION

The power developed by a water turbine is depend on the volumetric rate of water flow
through it and the head of water this can be calculated by equation (4.2).
P0 = hoQH o g kW (4.2)
Where, Q is the flow rate in m3/sec, Ho is the net head available in m, g is the gravitational
acceleration, and ηo is the overall efficiency of the system. Typically overall efficiencies for
generating systems can vary from 50 to 70 % [13]. Considered the overall efficiency of
system 50% the expected hydro electric power that can be generated in several CSPP with
their measured head and discharged are shown in table 4.2. In table 4.2, the subscript D and R
are used to designate dry and rainy season.
Table 4.2
Estimated small hydro potential of several CSPP Bangladesh

Site average Head Head Output Output

discharge HO-D (m) HO-D (m) PO-D kW PO-R kW
Q (l/s)
CTPP1 267 2 2 2.8 --
CTPP2 267 1.8 1.8 2.4 --
CTPP3 75 7 7 2.58 --
APSCL 33,531 6 3 1266 805
GPP 16,477 7.3 4.5 792 335
MPP[38] 1,611 5 2 39.5 15.8

In table 4.2, it is observed that in case CTPP there are three sites where the micro hydro
power can be produced. Again in and Meghnaghat Power Plant (MPP) net head is varied
28
during dry and rainy seasons but the flow rate is steady through out the year. The discharge
water of CTPP and MPP is very low in comparison to APSCL and Ghorasal power plants
(GPP) because of the cooling system in both power plants are closed loop. In APSCL and
GPP the discharges are huge but the net head is varied as shown in table 4.2. Maximum
amount of mini hydro power can be produced from ASPCL and GPP. On the other hand
micro hydro power can be produced in three locations of CTPP and MPP. The daily average
flow rate curve of CTPP2 is shown in figure 4. 8.

450
400
350
Discharge Q (l/sec)

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Time in hour 7am to 8 pm

Figure 4.8: Daily flow duration curve of discharge water in CTPP2

4.4 SELECTION OF ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT

4.4.1 TURBINE SELECTION

All hydro turbines convert the energy from falling water into rotating shaft power, but the
water power designer has to make a choice on the type of turbine that can be adopted for a
particular project. After the range of head to be handled by a turbine has been evaluated by
stream flow analysis and the installed capacity determined from the analysis of the power-
generating capacity of the proposed plant, the task of the designer is to choose an optimum
turbine type and series, the number of power generating units, the runner diameter, rotational
speed, and runner axis elevation. Knowing the total installation at the power station, the
number of units can be decided.

While selecting turbine for a specific location one of the important parameters of a turbine is
the specific speed denoted as ns to be considered. It is defined as the speed in r.p.m. at which
a turbine of homologous design would operate, if the runner were to reduce to a size which

29
would develop one metric horse power under one meter head. It is given by the following
relation:

N P ´1.358
ns = (4.3)
H 5/ 4
Where,
ns= Specific speed of turbine in revolutions per minute (r.p.m.),
N = Rated speed of turbine in revolutions per minute,
P = turbine output in kW, and
H = Rated head in m.

Once the specific speed (ns) is determined, the chart given in figure 4.9 may be used to
determine the type of medium and large size of turbine that may be adopted for the particular
project.

Figure 4.9: Chart for determining the selection of medium and large hydro turbine [39]

Again the type, geometry and dimensions of the turbine for a particular project depend on the
net head available, range of discharge through the turbine, rotational speed and techno-
economic considerations of the generating equipment, power plant cost and relative benefits
of power generation. The head is the first criterion for the selection of the type of turbine. In
table 4.3 specifies the range of head for different types of turbine with their specific speed
ranges [37]. In figure 10 the head and flow ranges of small hydro turbines are shown. Once
the net head available and discharge rates of a specific site is determined, the chart given in
figure 10 may be used to determine the type of small size of turbine that may be adopted for
the particular project.

30
 Table 4.3
Head and specific speed ranges for various types of turbine runners [40]
Turbine type Head range Specific
in (m) speed range
Kaplan 2-40 200-1000
Bulb turbine 0-10 260-360
Cross-flow 1.5-150 20-200
Francis 10-350 30-400
Pelton 400-2000 10-30
Turgo 50-250 20-70

Figure 4.10 Head-flow ranges of small hydro turbines [41]

In practice, the factors given in the following table 4.4 determine the type of turbine to be
used depending upon site conditions.
Table 4.4
Range of head and load variation for different turbine [39]
Type of Head variation Load variation Peak
Turbine percent of Percent of Efficiency in
rated head (m) rated output percent
Pelton 120 to 80 50 to 100 90
Francis 125 to 65 50 to 100 93
Deriaz 125 to 65 50 to 100 92
Kaplan 125 to 65 40 to 100 92
Propeller 110 to 90 90 to 100 92
Bulb 125 to 65 40 to 100 92

31
While in selecting suitable turbine for a particular site the following points may additionally
be considered.
(i) The performance of a turbine is ideal at the design head. Fall of efficiency in case of
Pelton, Kaplan and Bulb turbines is much less in comparison to Francis-and Propeller types.
Therefore in overlapping head ranges selection of type of turbine should consider the head
variation existing at site.
(ii) Turbine efficiency varies with load. Fall of efficiency at part load for Francis and
Propeller is much steeper in comparison to that for Kaplan and Pelton turbines. Therefore,
necessity of operating turbines at part loads for longer time influences the choice of turbines
in the overlapping head ranges. Thus in the head ranges both the Kaplan and Francis are
suitable. The requirement of large pressure head and electrical load variation dictates, Kaplan
turbine to be superior to Francis turbine from considerations of higher power generation on
account of better overall efficiency. Similarly, in the overlapping head ranges where both
Francis and Pelton could be used, Pelton has advantages over Francis in overall performance
level when variation of load and head is higher.
(iii) Highest specific speed of turbine resulting in higher speed of rotation for generator with
consequent reduction in cost of generator. This criterion is very important for selecting-type
of turbine from cost consideration in the overlapping head ranges.

From table 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 the choice of suitable type of turbines for CTPP and MPP are
limited to either Kaplan or Cross-flow types according to their site condition. In this work the
Cross flow turbine is selected for MHPS in CTPP and MPP because of its simple
construction, cost is much cheaper than Kaplan turbine of the same size and easy to
manufacture by using indigenous technology of our country. Again in the case of APSCL and
GPP the choice of turbines are limited either bulb or Kaplan types, since they shows better
performance over other turbines while the rated head varying at existing site condition. In this
research work Bulb turbine is proposed for the mini hydro power systems in APSCL and
GPP.

4.5 SELECTION OF GENERATORS

In the design of MHPS self excited induction generator is used because it offers the
following advantages over synchronous generator. These are higher output to weight ratio,
higher efficiency, self availability in market, absence of separate excitation system, easy
maintenance and finally it has self protection against severe over loads and short circuits. In

32
the case of large capacity induction generator such as more than 750 kW, is very difficult
since it required an advanced controller to maintain the voltage and frequency. So extra cost
is added regarding static condenser for self-excitation and advanced voltage and frequency
control equipment has offset the advantages of using induction generator in such case. On the
other hand low-speed asynchronous generators are generally expensive. So In this research
work synchronous generator is proposed for the mini hydro power generation in ASPCL and
GPP.

33
 CHAPTER 5

CROSS-FLOW TURBINES
5.1 INTRODUCTION

Hydraulic turbines are the machines which converts the energy stored by water into
mechanical energy or vice versa. The energy stored by water mass appears in the form of
potential and kinetic energy. The mechanical energy, on the other hand, is usually transmitted
by a rotating shaft. The mechanical energy developed by a turbine is used in running an
electric generator which is directly coupled to the shaft of the turbine. The electric generator
thus develops electric power, which is known as hydro-electric power. In this chapter, the
basic hydro mechanical principle governing the energy transfer in a hydro machine and also a
brief description of cross-flow hydro turbine (CHFT), design of construction proportion and
its performances have discussed.

5.2 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF TURBINES

The device in which the kinetic or potential energy held by the fluid is converted in the form
of mechanical energy of a rotating member is known as a turbine. Originally developed from
the water wheels, hydraulic turbines are the prime movers of importance in modern water
power development. According to their hydraulic action, turbines are broadly divided into
two classes these are Impulse turbine and Reaction turbine. The general classification of
hydraulic turbines is illustrated in figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: General classification of turbines

34
5. 3 ROTODYNAMIC MACHINES
The important element of a rotodynamic machine, in general, is a rotor consisting of a
number of vanes or blades. There always exists a relative motion between the rotor vanes and
the fluid. The fluid has a component of velocity and hence of momentum in a direction
tangential to the rotor. While flowing through the rotor, tangential velocity and hence the
momentum changes. The rate at which, this tangential momentum changes corresponds to a
tangential force on the rotor. In a turbine, the tangential momentum of the fluid is reduced
and therefore work is done by the fluid to the moving rotor. But in case of pumps and
compressors there is an increase in the tangential momentum of the fluid and therefore work
is absorbed by the fluid from the moving rotor.

5.3.1 BASIC EQUATION OF ENERGY TRANSFER IN ROTODYNAMI-

C MACHINES
The basic equation of fluid dynamics relating to energy transfer is same for all rotodynamic
machines and is a simple form of “Newton’s Laws of Motion” applied to a fluid element
traversing a rotor. Here the momentum theorem is applied to a fluid element while flowing
through fixed and moving vanes. In figure 5.2 represents diagrammatically a rotor of a
generalized fluid machine, with 0-0 the axis of rotation and the angular velocity. Fluid
enters the rotor at 1, passes through the rotor by any path and is discharged at 2. The points 1
and 2 are at radii r1 and r2 from the centre of the rotor, and the directions of fluid velocities at
1 and 2 may be at any arbitrary angles. For the analysis of energy transfer due to fluid flow in
this situation, assume the following conditions; (i) the flow is steady, that is, the mass flow
rate is constant across any section, (ii) The heat and work interactions between the rotor and
its surroundings take place at a constant rate, (iii) Velocity is uniform over any area normal to
the flow. This means that the velocity vector at any point is representative of the total flow
over a finite area. This condition also implies that there is no leakage loss and the entire fluid
is undergoing the same process.

The velocity at any point may be resolved into three mutually perpendicular components as
shown in figure 5.2. The axial component of velocity Va is directed parallel to the axis of
rotation, the radial component Vf is directed radially through the axis to rotation, while the
tangential component Vw is directed at right angles to the radial direction and along the
tangent to the rotor at that part. The change in magnitude of the axial velocity components

35
through the rotor causes a change in the axial momentum. This change gives rise to an axial
force, which must be taken by a thrust bearing to the stationary rotor casing. The change in
magnitude of radial velocity causes a change in momentum in radial direction.

Figure 5.2: Components of flow velocity in a generalized fluid machine

However, for an axisymmetric flow, this does not result in any net radial force on the rotor. In
case of a non uniform flow distribution over the periphery of the rotor in practice, a change in
momentum in radial direction may result in a net radial force which is carried as a journal
load. The tangential component Vw only has an effect on the angular motion of the rotor. In
consideration of the entire fluid body within the rotor as a control volume, we can write from
the moment of momentum theorem

= ( − ) (5.1)

Where, T is the torque exerted by the rotor on the moving fluid, m is the mass flow rate of
fluid through the rotor. The subscripts 1 and 2 denote values at inlet and outlet of the rotor
respectively. The rate of energy transfer to the fluid is then given by

= = (( − )= ( − ) (5.2)

Where, is the angular velocity of the rotor and U= r which represents the linear velocity
of the rotor. Therefore U2 and U1 are the linear velocities of the rotor at points 2 (outlet) and 1
(inlet) respectively in figure 5.2. The equation, 5.2 is known as Euler's equation in relation to
fluid machines. The equation (5.2) can be written in terms of head H gained by the fluid as
[42]

36
 ( − )
= (5.3)
In usual convention relating to fluid machines, the head delivered by the fluid to the rotor is
considered to be positive and vice-versa. Therefore equation (5.3) written with a change in
the sign of the right hand side in accordance with the sign convention as
( − )
= (5.4)

Components of energy transfer it is worth mentioning in this context that either of the
equations (5.2) and (5.4) is applicable regardless of changes in density or components of
velocity in other directions. Moreover, the shape of the path taken by the fluid in moving
from inlet to outlet is of no consequence. The expression involves only the inlet and outlet
conditions. A rotor, the moving part of a fluid machine, usually consists of a number of vanes
or blades mounted on a circular disc. In figure 5.3 shows the velocity triangles at the inlet and
outlet of a rotor. The inlet and outlet portions of a rotor vane are only shown as a
representative of the whole rotor.

Figure 5.3: Velocity triangles for a generalized rotor vane and centrifugal effect in a flow of
fluid with rotation

Vector diagrams of velocities at inlet and outlet correspond to two velocity triangles, where
Vr is the velocity of fluid relative to the rotor and α1, α2 are the angles made by the directions
of the absolute velocities at the inlet and outlet respectively with the tangential direction,
while β1, and β2 are the angles made by the relative velocities with the tangential direction.
The angles β1and β2 should match with vane or blade angles at inlet and outlet respectively
for a smooth, shock less entry and exit of the fluid to avoid undesirable losses. Now apply a
simple geometrical relation as follows:

37
From the inlet velocity triangle,

= + −2 = + −2

1
= ( + − ) (5.5)
2

Similarly from the outlet velocity triangle;

= + −2 = + −2
1
= ( + − ) (5.6)
2
Invoking the expressions of and in equation (5.4), then the effective head H
(work head) for per unit weight of fluid, transferred between the fluid and the rotor found as:
1
= [( − )+( − )+( − )] (5.7)
2
The equation (5.7) is an important form of the Euler's equation relating to fluid machines
since it gives the three distinct components of energy transfer as shown by the pair of terms
in the round brackets. These components throw light on the nature of the energy transfer. The
first term of equation (5.7) is readily seen to be the change in absolute kinetic energy or
dynamic head of the fluid while flowing through the rotor. The second term of equation (5.7)
represents a change in fluid energy due to the movement of the rotating fluid from one radius
of rotation to another.

5. 3.2 ENERGY TRANSFER IN AXIAL FLOW MACHINES

For an axial flow machine, the main direction of flow is parallel to the axis of the rotor, and
hence the inlet and outlet points of the flow do not vary in their radial locations from the axis
of rotation. Therefore, U1=U2 and the equation of energy transfer equation (5.7) can be
written, under this situation, as:
1
= [( − )+( − )] (5.8)
2
Hence, change in the static head in the rotor of an axial flow machine is only due to the flow
of fluid through the variable area passage in the rotor.

5. 3. 3 RADIALLY OUTWARD AND INWARD FLOW MACHINES

For radially outward flow turbines, U2> U1, and hence the fluid gains in static head.
Therefore, in radial flow turbine it is directed radially inward. The relative proportion of
energy transfer obtained by the change in static head and by the change in dynamic head is

38
one of the important factors for classifying hydro turbines. The machine for which the change
in static head in the rotor is zero is known as impulse turbine. In this turbine, the energy
transfer in the rotor takes place only by the change in dynamic head of the water. The
parameter characterizing the proportions of changes in the dynamic and static head in the
rotor of a hydro turbine is known as degree of reaction and is defined as the ratio of energy
transfer by the change in static head to the total energy transfer in the rotor. Therefore, the
degree of reaction,
1
[( − )+( − )]
2
= (5.9)

For an impulse machine R = 0, because there is no change in static pressure in the rotor. It is
difficult to obtain a radial flow impulse machine, since the change in centrifugal head is
obvious there. Nevertheless, an impulse machine of radial flow type can be conceived by
having a change in static head in one direction contributed by the centrifugal effect and an
equal change in the other direction contributed by the change in relative velocity. However,
this has not been established in practice. Thus for an axial flow impulse machine U1=U2,
Vr1=Vr2. For an impulse machine, the rotor can be made open, that is, the velocity V1 can
represent an open jet of fluid flowing through the rotor, which needs no casing. A very simple
example of an impulse machine is a paddle wheel rotated by the impingement of water from a
stationary nozzle as shown in figure 5.4 (a).

Figure 5.4: (a) Paddle wheel as an example of impulse turbine, (b) Lawn sprinkler as an
example of reaction turbine

A turbine with any degree of reaction must have an enclosed rotor so that the fluid cannot
expand freely in all direction. A simple example of a reaction turbine can be shown by the
familiar lawn sprinkler, in which water comes out Figure 5.4 (b), at a high velocity from the
rotor in a tangential direction. The essential feature of the rotor is that water enters at high

39
pressure and this pressure energy is transformed into kinetic energy by a nozzle which is a
part of the rotor itself.

5.4 CROSS FLOW TURBINE

The cross-flow hydro turbine (CFHT) provides shaft power by extracting energy from
moving water. The CFHT consist of two parts, a nozzle and turbine runner. The runner is
build up of two parallel circular disks joined together at the rim with a series of curved
blades. Water is guided into the rotor by rectangular shaped nozzle and discharges the jet full
width of the wheel and enters the wheel at an angle α. The shape of the jet is rectangular,
wide and not very deep tangent to the periphery of the wheel. The water then strikes the
blades on the rim of the wheel, flows through the rotor blade, through the interior, through
the outer rim, through the exit the machine at ambient pressure. The wheel is therefore an
inward jet wheel and because the flow is essentially radial, the diameter of the wheel is
practically independent of the amount of water impact, and the desired wheel breadth can be
given independent of the quantity of water. Due to the change in angular momentum of the
water across the turbine rotor, a torque is applied to the output power shaft. The output power
shaft can be used to drive generator.

5. 4. 1 PATH OF JET THROUGH TURBINE:

Assume the center of the jet enters the runner at point A, at an angle α with the tangent to the
periphery, the velocity of the water before entering turbine rim is given by;
= 2 (5.10)
Where, Cv is the coefficient of velocity dependent upon the nozzle, V1 absolute velocity of
water and H head at the point.

The path of water through turbine is shown in figure 5.5. The relative velocity of the water at
entrance, v1, can be found if u1, the peripheral velocity of the wheel at that point, is known. β1
be the angle between the forward direction of the v1and u1. For maximum efficiency, the
angle of the blade should equal β1. If ‘AB’ represent the blade, the relative velocity at exit v2'
forms β2' with the peripheral velocity of the wheel at that point. The absolute velocity of
water at exit to the blade, V2', can be determined by means of v2', β2' and u2'. The angle
between the absolute velocity and the velocity of the wheel at this point is α1'. The absolute
path of the water while flowing over the blade ‘AB’ can be determined as well as the actual

40
point at which, the water leaves the blade. Assuming no change in absolute velocity V2', the
point C, where the water again enters the rim. V2' at this point becomes V1' and the absolute
path of the water over the blade CD from point C to point D at discharge can be ascertained.
Accordingly α1'= α2'
β1'= β2'
β1= β2
Since they are corresponding angles of the same blade.

Figure 5.5: Path of water through turbine and corresponding velocity triangle at different
point.

5. 4. 2 OPTIMIZATION OF CFHT IN RESPECT OF FLOW ANGLE

The design optimization consists of establishing the best geometrical shape of the machine
with some geometric and hydrodynamic imposed restrictions. So for cross-flow hydro
turbine design optimization the following restrictions at the runner are:
i) To be a cylindrical annulus,
ii) With meridional radial entrance and outlet and

41
iii) With double interaction between the water flow and the runner.
The supply nozzle geometry must be adapted for these conditions together with the
possibility to control the rate of flow through the machine. The ring-shaped runner shown in
figure 5.5 with velocities triangles of the flow like figure 5.6 introduces the following
relations:

Figure 5.6: Velocity triangle of cross-flow turbine

= (5.11)

Where, u1 and u2 represents the tangential velocity of wheel. If, in the runner motion, the
point A reaches the point B then v1 reaches v2 and the directions of these relatives velocities
are the same but their orientation is opposite. Since it is a small distance between points B
and C as shown in figure 5.6, it can be accepted that

΄ ΄
= (5.12)

And from the above mention conditions

΄ ΄
= (5.13)
΄ ΄
= (5.14)
΄ ΄
= (5.15)
And for the same reasons,
΄ ΄
+ = (5.16)
Combining relations (5.15) and (5.16)

΄ ΄
= = (5.17)
2
Applying the equation of continuity between the sections A and D as shown in figure 5.4.

= (5.18)

Where, b1 is hydrodynamic runner width at inlet point A, b2 is hydrodynamic runner width at

inlet point C. v1 and v2 relative velocity of the runner, S1 and S2 distance between two
neighbor runner blades. But the imposed restrictions introduce
= (5.19)

42
 = (5.20)
And it results

= (5.21)

Now mass flow rate through nozzle in is

= (5.22)

Where, m mass of water enter the nozzle per sec and w weight of water flow through nozzle
and g is gravity. Force acting on the vane in the direction of motion is defined as Fx. The
velocity triangle is shown in figure 5.6. Where Vw1, and Vw2 are the component of absolute
velocity in the direction of vane at inlet and outlet respectively.
ℎ
= × ℎ ℎ

= ( − )

= { − (− }

= ( + ) (5.23)
Now net work done per second on vane

= ×
= ×
= ( + )× (5.24)

Part of the formula (5.22), can be reduced by plotting all the velocity triangles as shown in
figure 5.5.

= = + (− )
= − (5.25)

Neglecting the increase in velocity of water due to the fall h2, this is small in most cases as
shown in figure 5.4.
= (5.26)
Where, ψ is an empirical coefficient less than unity (about 0.98) from the velocity shown in
figure 5.5.
= −
−
= (5.27)

Substituting the value of V2cosα2, v1 and v2 in equation (5.14)

= ( + − )

43
 = ( − +ψ )

−
= − +ψ

= ( − )(1 + ψ ) (5.28)

The hydro power supplied to cross-flow turbine rotor due to head H is define as

= × ℎ
=
= ×
2
= (5.29)
2
The efficiency ηh is defined as ratio of the mechanical energy delivered by the rotor of the
cross-flow turbine to the available hydro energy supplied to cross-flow turbine.

( − ) 1+ψ
=
2

=2 − 1+ψ (5.30)

When, β1=β2, then efficiency.

=2 (1 + ψ) − (5.31)

Now consider all variables as constant except efficiency and u1/V1. The optimum efficiency
in respect of the velocities ratio is;

=0 (5.32)

=2 ( 1 + ψ) − −

0=2 ( 1 + ψ) −2

=2

44
 1
= (5.33)
2
And

= −4 (1 + ) is always negative.

This optimum is a maximum. The maximum efficiency is;

1
= (1 + ψ) (5.34)
2

It is noticeable that the direction of v2 when u1=1/2 × (V1cosα1), does not become radial. The
outflow would be radial with

= ( ) (5.35)
(1 + )

Only when ψ, and Cv , are unity, that is, assuming no loss of head due to friction in nozzle or
on the blades. To obtain the highest mechanical efficiency, the entrance angle α1 should be as
small as possible.
1
= ( 1 + ψ)
2
=k (5.36)
1
[k =( 1 + ψ) ]
2
From equation (5.36), if the flow is inviscous then k = (1 + ψ) = 1, and for tangential

entrance = 0. It is result the maximum efficiency = 1. These theoretical

approaches are impossible because the real flow in the nozzle is with hydraulic losses and the
tangential entrance implies zero rate of flow through the runner. The real entrance angles α1
limited in the range of 100 to 200, depending on specific speed and it is associated with
central angles extension of the nozzle exit reflected at the CFHT axis. In literature the values
mostly met are α1=160 for getting the highest mechanical efficiency [43]. For this value cosα1
= 0.96, cos2 α1 at = 0.92. Substituting in equation (5.36), C = 0.98 and ψ=0.98, the maximum
efficiency would be 87.8 per cent. Since the efficiency of the nozzle varies as the square of
the coefficient, the greatest care should be taken to avoid loss here. There are hydraulic losses
due to water striking the outer and inner periphery. the original thickness of the jet s0, as
shown in figure 5.8, is increases to 1.90, which means that about 72 per cent of the whole
energy was given up by the water striking the blade from the outside and 28 per cent was left
in the water prior to striking the inside periphery. If the number of blades is correct and they
are as thin and smooth as possible the coefficient ψ may be obtained as high as 0.98.

45
 Figure 5.7: Blade spacing

5.4.3 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF THE CROSS-FLOW TURBINE

5.4.3.1 DESIGN OF BLADE ANGLE: The blade angle β1, can be determined from
α1, V1, and u1 in figure 5.7.

Figure 5.8: velocity triangle

If
1
=
2
From Δ ABC shown in figure 5.8

tan =

=
+
= since = and =
2
1
tan = = tan
2 2

= tan 2 tan (5.37)

46
If angle of attack or entrance angle is given or considered then the blade angle can be
determined from the equation (5.37).

5.4.3.2 DESIGN OF RADIAL RIM WIDTH

Neglecting the blade thickness, the thickness s1 of figure 5.6, of the jet entrance, measured at
right angles to the relative velocity, is given by the blade spacing t.
= (5.38)
Assuming β1 = 90°, the inner exit blade spacing is known for every rim width, a,

= (5.39)

Here, r1, and r2, are the radius of the inner and outer circle of the rim. As long as a, is small
the space between the blades will not be filled by the jet. As a, increase s2 decrease so will be
limited by
΄
= (5.40)

It is not advisable to increase the rim width a, over this limit because the amount of water
striking it could not flow through so small a cross-section and back pressure would result.
Moreover, a rim width which would be under this limit would be inefficient since separated
jets would flow out 'of the spacing between the blades at the inner periphery.

΄
In order to determine the width a, it is necessary to know the velocity , which is affected by
the centrifugal force from figure 5.9.

Figure 5.9: Composite velocity diagram

47
 − ΄ = − ΄
΄ = ΄ − − (5.41)
But
΄
= = (5.42)

΄ = (5.43)

Let, =
Then equation (5.31) becomes,
− ΄ − + ΄ =0

− − + =0

− − + =0

− 1− − =0 (5.44)

If the ideal velocity of the wheel = then,

1
− −2
= =

= (5.45)
2
Again,
2
= ×
2
1
= (5.46)

v1
Put the value of in equation (5.44)
u1
1
− 1− − =0

− {1 − }− =0 (5.47)
Solution of the equation
− +√ −4
=
2
− −√ −4
=
2
where, = 1, = −{1 − } =−
Consider real and positive root of the equation (5.47) is . then

48
 2
√ = = 1 (5.48)
1
2 = (5.49)
Therefore the radial rim width
= −
1
= × 1− (5.50)
2
Where, D1 is the outside diameter of the wheel.
The central angle bOC, shown in figure 5.9, can be determined as:

΄ = (5.51)
2
= (5.52)
΄ = × ×
΄
΄ = ΄ =
΄
Then

× ×
΄ =

΄ = tan × (5.53)

Now the thickness of the jet y, in the inner part of the wheel can be computed from the
continuity equation of flow as shown in figure 5.9.
= ΄ (5.54)
And

΄ = ΄ ΄ =

1
΄ = ΄ ΄ = (5.55)
2

Therefore,
2 ΄
= = (5.56)
΄ ×
The distance between the inside edge of the inside jet as it passes through the wheel and the
shaft of the wheel, y1 in figure 5.10, can be defined

= (90 − ΄ ) − − (5.57)
2
Where, , is the diameter of the shaft.

49
 Figure 5.10: Path of jet inside wheel
In a similar manner the distance y2, is the distance between the outer edge of the jet and the
inner periphery, can be determined.
= (0.1314 − 0.945 ) (5.58)
5.4.3.3 DESIGN OF WHEEL DIAMETER AND AXIAL WHEEL
BREADTH
The wheel diameter can be determined from the following equation,

= (5.59)
12 × 60
1
2 =
2 12 × 60
2
= 360 × (5.60)
Where, D1 is the diameter of the wheel in inches.

The thickness so of the jet in the nozzle is dependent upon a compromise of two conditions. A
large value for so would be advantageous because the loss caused by the filling and emptying
of the wheel would be small. However, it would not be satisfactory because the angle of
attack of the outer filaments of the jet would vary considerably from α1 = 16°, thereby
increasing these losses as the thickness increased. The thickness should be determined by
experiment.

50
In finding the breadth of the wheel L, the following equations are true:

= = × 2 (5.61)
144

= = × 2
144
144
= (5.62)
2

5.4.3.4 DESIGN OF THE CURVATURE OF BLADE

The curve of the blade can be chosen from a circle whose center lies at the intersection of two
perpendiculars, one to the direction of relative velocity v1 at (A) and the other to the tangent
to the inner periphery intersecting at (B) as shown in figure 5.11.
From triangles AOC and BOC, , is common line, then
+ = + −2
Here, = , = = = then,
+ = + −2
−
=
2

= 1− (5.63)
2
Where, is defined as the curvature of the blade.

Figure 5.11: Curvature of the blade

51
Central angle:
1
180 − 2
=
1
90 − (2 + )

= 2 tan (5.64)
+

5.4.4 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CROSS-FLOW

TURBINE
In order to predict the behavior of turbines, it is essential to study the performance of turbines
under the varying conditions other than design conditions. The varying conditions include
head, speed, output and gate opening. A significant factor in the comparison of different
turbine types is their relative efficiencies both at their design point and at reduced flows.
Typical efficiency curves are shown in figure 5.11. An important point to note is that the
Pelton and Kaplan turbines retain very high efficiencies when running below design flow; in
contrast the efficiency of the Cross-flow and Francis turbines falls away more sharply if run
at below half their normal flow. Most fixed-pitch propeller turbines perform poorly except
above 80% of full flow.

100

90

80

70
Efficiency (100%)

60

50
Pelton
40
crossflow
30
Fixed Propeller
20
Francis
10
Full Kaplan
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Q/Qo

Figure 5.11: Relative efficiencies of the different turbine with the change of design flow

52
 CHAPTER 6
ANALYSIS OF FATIGUE STRENGTH OF CROSS
FLOW TURBINE RUNNER BLADES
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The total effective blade length L is the length of the runner minus the total thickness of the
supporting flanges. It is the length of blade that actually deflects the water jet and as such it
cannot be represented properly in the drawing. The number of supporting disks can be chosen
such that the bending stress due to hydraulic forces on the blade can be kept at a safe value.
The number of blades (n) is also a compromise. From a fluid dynamics point of view a large
number of blades are desirable but in practice only a limited number can be accommodated
due to manufacturing constraints. The pitch circle radius (R) is a purely manufacturing
parameter. It needs to be known in order to be able to scribe the slots for the blades on the
supporting disks. The inner radius (r2) is another constructive dimension. It fixes the position
of the inner ends of the blades on the supporting disks. It is good practice to cut slots for
blade on the runner disk equal to the blade thickness (t) to obtain well defined end positions
for the blade slots. The width of the channel (s1) formed by two successive blades is a very
important dimension determining the distributed load on the blades. The blade thickness t not
only has its influence on the bending strength of the blade, it also decreases the theoretical
channel width between blades. In order to admit a certain volume flow of water the real
runner has a slightly greater length than the theoretical one where no allowance was made for
blade thickness. The radius of curvature of the inside of the blade (ρ) is needed to scribe the
blade slot outlines on the supporting disks.
6.2 DEVELOPING THE STRENGTH PRODUCT CONCEPT
The strength product concept enables one to do the fatigue strength calculation for the blade
beforehand as it were. When the outer diameter and the wall thickness of the runner blade are
known, the strength product can be calculated. This enables the turbine manufacturer to
specify the maximum head of water for which his turbine is suited. Conversely it also gives
the safe length of blades between supports if the head of water under which the turbine is
going to be used is specified. As steel sheet can be bent to desire curvature to form blade for
the runner of CFHT it is also possible to give a turbine builder a list of standard sizes with the
associated strength product for each curvature of the blade profile. To determine the strength
product for blade of a turbine the following assumption is considered.

53
a) The blades are treated as uniform beams of constant cross section, fixed at both ends.
b) The hydraulic force of the water jet is treated as a uniformly distributed centric load along
the length of the blades.
6.3 FUNCTIONAL RELATIONS
The well known relation between the uniformly distributed load and the maximum bending
moment states that it is directly proportional to the magnitude of the distributed load and to
the square of the length of the beam.
Wl 2
M = (6.1)
12
Where,
M is the bending moment Nm
W is the distributed load N/m
l is the length of the beam between supports m
A further relation exists between the bending moment and the flexural stress:
Me
s = (6.2)
I
Where,
σ is the flexural stress N/m2
e is the maximum fibre distance from the neutral plane in the blade cross section m
I is the area moment of inertia of the blade cross section m4
The distributed load W from equation (6.1) with fixed runner geometry is equal to the force
on the concave side of a blade divided by its length. The force on the concave side of the
blade is a result of the change in moment of momentum of the part of the water jet that enters
a blade channel. As the moment of momentum can be expressed in the square of the relative
velocity of the water on entering the blade channel the distributed load can be
Written in the following form
W = Aw 2 = A( B ( 2 gZ ) ) 2 (6.3)
Where,
W is the distributed force along the blade N/m
A is a constant dependent on the geometry and number of blades
w is the relative velocity in blade channel m/s
B is the geometry dependent proportionality constant between absolute and relative velocity
g is the acceleration of gravity m/s2

54
H is the head of water m
Equating equation (6.1) and (6.3) we get a relation between the bending moment and the head
where the bending moment M is directly proportional to the product of the head H and the
section length l to the second power.
M = CHl 2 (6.4)
Where,
C is a constant of proportionality
Equating equation (6.4) with (6.2) we obtain an expression for the bending stress a in terms
of the blade geometry quantities (I, e and l) and the head H e.g.
CMl 2 e
s = (6.5)
I
The expression can be rearranged as follows:
sI
Hl 2 = (6.6)
Ce
a safe value for the bending stress σ can be found from literature or experiment and
substituted in the expression (6.6), it will produce a maximum value for the head times the
square of the blade section length when the blade quantities e and I are substituted. In this
way the safe section length for given blade dimensions and a given head can be calculated.
The term Hl 2 is called “Strength product”.
6.4 DERIVATION OF THE EXPRESSIONS
6.4.1 MASS FLOW THROUGH A BLADE CHANNEL
From inspection of figure 6.1 the mass flow per blade channel is seen to be:
Qmc = rw ls1 w (6.7)
Where,
Qmc is the mass flow kg/s
ρw is the density of water kg/m3
In order to find an expression in known quantities for s1 considered figure 6.1. Here the
channel width s1 is the projection of the chord of the arc between two successive intersections
of blade skeleton lines with the runner perimeter.
The arc length la is equal to the circumference divided by the number of blades.
pD
la =
n

55
 Figure 6.1: Banki runner dimensions
Where, n is the number of blades
Now in practice the number of blades is always above 20. When the chord length is
substituted for the arc length a very small error is made. The angle between the tangent to the
concave blade surface at its intersection with the runner periphery and the tangent to the
runner periphery at that same spot is β. From the figure 6.1;
pD sin b
s1 =
n
This is without taking into account the blade thickness t. When blade thickness is taken into
account the expression changes into:
pD sin b
s1 = -t (8)
n
The channel width s1 is only one of the two dimensions of the cross section of the blade
channel. The other is the length of the blade section 1. The cross sectional area is the product:
A = s1l (9)
The relative velocity can be found from the velocity triangle from the velocity triangle as
shown in figure 6. 2.
From the figure 6.2 and using the cosine rule:
2 2
v1 = u 2 + V1 - 2uV1 cos a
Under design conditions:
u = 0.484V1

56
a = 0.2792 rad

Figure 6.2: Velocity triangle at runner entrance

So that, substituting these values in the cosine expression and working it out, we obtain:
2
v1 = 0.3038c 2
or
v1 = 0.5511c
Expressing the relative velocity w in the head we obtain:
v1 = 0.7794 ( gH ) (6.10)

Combining equations (8), (9) and (10) the expression for the volume flow QVC through a
blade channel of width s1 and length 1as follows
pD sin b
Qvc = 0.7794( - t )l ( gH ) (6.10)
n
Where, QVC is the volume flow per blade channel m3 /s
To obtain the mass flow Qmc per blade channel the volume flow is multiplied by the density
of water ρw. Expressing the mass flow per channel section in known quantities and ratios we
obtain:
9.6189 r
Qmc = 2439.94( - t )l H (11)
n
6.4.2 TORQUE TRANSMITTED BY A BLADE CHANNEL
The torque transmitted by a blade channel is the change in moment of momentum of the mass
flow passing through a blade channel. At the entrance the circumferential component c of the
absolute velocity is;
Vu = V cos a
While the distance from the centre of rotation is r 1 = D/2. At the exit of the blade channel the
relative velocity has a radial direction and thus the circumferential component is equal to the
local runner velocity u2:
ru
u2 = 2 1
r1

57
Where r2 is the inner circle radius of runner
Expressing u2 in V1 we get;
0.484 r2V1
u2 =
r1
The moment transmitted by a blade channel then becomes;

0.484r22
Tc = QmcV1 (r1 cos a - )
r1
equating equation (6.11) for Qmc and the current values for the proportions, expressing the
radii in ρ we get;
9.619 r
Tc = 24842.1( - t ) rHl (6.12)
n
6.4.3 POINT OF APPLICATION OF THE HYDRAULIC FORCES
In figure 6.3 we see that the tangential component of the hydraulic force is assumed to have
its point of application at the centre of the blade arc.

Figure 6.3 Point of application of hydraulic forces.

From the figure 6and with the cosine rule we get:

r 2 = r22 + y 2 - 2r2 y cos(p - d 4)

where:
y = 2 r sin(d / 4)
Substituting the values of y in the expression gives the result:
r / r = 2.6236 (6.13)
The position of the blade in relation to the tangential force F can be seen from figure 6.4. In
the triangle formed by r, R and ρ the centric force Fc works along ρ while the hydraulic force

58
F is perpendicular to r. Thus the angle γ is the complement of the included angle ψ between r
and ρ.

Figure 6.4 Forces on a blade

Using the cosine rule

R 2 = r 2 + r 2 - 2rr cosy
Or;
(r 2 + r 2 - R 2 )
y = arccos
2r r
Using the current values we obtain:
y = 1.0049 rad
The angle γ is then:
g = p / 2 - 1.0049 = 0.5659 rad

6.4.4 DISTRIBUTED LOAD ON A BLADE

In Figure 6.4 the relation between F and Fc is clearly seen. As the blade can only transmit
forces resulting from pressure (and thus normal to the blade surface) the centric force must
apply at the centre of the arc. If the pressure is not constant along the arc a torsional moment
is superimposed. This latter is not here taken into account. The force F is therefore the
projection of the centric force Fc;
Fc cos g = F

59
Or;
F F
Fc = = = 1.1847 F (6.14)
cos g 0.8443
The force F can be found from equation (6.12) dividing the torque Tc by r:
Tc
F=
r
9.619
F = 9468.7( - t ) Hl
n
And for the centric force normal to the blade Fc:
9.619
Fc = 11217.4( - t ) Hl N
n
Finally, dividing Fc by the section length l the value of distributed load W as:
9.619 r
W = 11217.4( - t )H (6.15)
n
Where, W is the distributed load N/m
In equation (6.15) we have an expression for the distributed load on a blade expressed in
properties of the blade (thickness and inside radius of curvature), in a property of the runner
(the number of blades) and in a condition of employment (the head).
6.4.5 AREA MOMENT OF INERTIA OF THE BLADE
In figure 6.5 the simplified shape of the blade cross-section is shown. The area moment of
inertia in respect to the neutral plane X-X as a direct evaluation appears to be a rather
complicated operation, the indirect method is employed using Steiner's theorem [44].
I X = I y - Ay 2 (6.16

Where
IX is the area moment of inertia with respect to the X-axis m4
Iy is the area moment of inertia with respect to the Y-axis m4
A is the cross sectional area of the blade profile m2
y is the distance of the centre of gravity of the section from the Y-axis
From figure 6.5 the terms in (16) can be derived;

60
 Figure 6.5 Blade cross-section
dt ( 2 r + t )
A=
2
4{( r + t ) 3 - r 3 } sin(d / 2)
y=
dt ( 2 r + t )
{( r + t ) 4 - r 4 }(d + sin d )
Iy =
8
The extreme fiber distance from the neutral plane “e” is found to be:
e = y - r cos(d / 2)
Substituting the current values into the above equations we obtain the following:
A = 0.6414( 2 r + t )t
0.6219{( r + t ) 3 - r 3 }
y=
( 2 r + t )t
I y = 0.2231{( r + t ) 4 - r 4 }
The extreme fiber distance e is;
10 -4 ( 2631r 2 + 10644 rt + 6219t 2 }
e=
(2 r + t )
The area moment of inertia can be written out as follows:
10 -4 (91r 4 t + 181r 3t 2 + 2019 r 2 t 3 + 1928rt 4 + 321t 5 }
IX =
(2 r + t )
6.4.6 BENDING STRESS ON BLADE SECTION
In this analysis the blade is treated as a beam of constant cross section, rigidly fixed at both
ends as shown in figure 6.6. Adapting the well known equation from applied mechanics we
can write for the bending moment for this case;
W {6 X (l - x ) - l 2 }
M =- Nm
12

61
 Figure 6.6 Blade section as a rigidly fixed beam.
Where, X varies from zero to 1. The maximum values are found for X=0 and for X=1 when:
Wl 2
M =- (6.17)
12
This means that the highest values for the bending moment occur near the ends of the blade
sections. The negative sign means that the topside of the beam near the supports as shown in
figure 6.6 is subjected to tensional stress. The tensional stress that occurs in the beam can be
expressed in known quantities;
Me Wl 2 e
s = =
I X 12 I X
Substituting W from equation (6.15) and rearranging the following expression emerges;
9.619 Hl 2 e Wl 2 e
s = 934.78( - t) = (6.18)
n IX 12 I X

6.4.7 STRENGTH PRODUCT

The tensional stress σ occurs in each runner blade once per revolution. In order to make a
safe runner construction the value for σ has to be chosen according to fatigue strength
criteria. As the alternating load takes place in the presence of water a low fatigue strength
results. A value of flexural stress for mild steel is s £ 22 N/mm2 for mild steel seems in the
correct order of magnitude [26]. When this value is substituted for σ in equation (18), the
expression can be rewritten as follows:
Hl 2 = 23534.95 I X /{(9.619 r / n - t )e} (6.19)
This expression gives the safe value of the product of the net head H (in m) and the square of
the length l (in m) of a runner blade section between supporting discs which will keep the
alternating tensional stress in the blade below the value of 22 N/mm2 (if the fatigue stress of
22 N/mm2 is considered safe).

62
 CHAPTER 7
DESIGN, FABRICATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF
LABORATORY TURBINE
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Micro hydroelectric power schemes with outputs of less than 100 kW can provide cost effective power to
remote rural communities with water resources. Through the study of micro-hydro resource in Bangladesh
have founded that, most of sites have low heads (2 to 10m). Besides this man made sources are like waste
water of power plants, water plant (water works and Sewerage), factories and agricultural water way can
be used as effective sources of micro hydro power plant since the discharges of these plants remain
constant throughout the year. Due to the lack of appropriate turbine designs skill in our country micro-
hydro power plant has been installed in only two sites. In this chapter provides a general design procedure
and implementation process of Cross-Flow Hydraulic Turbines (CFHT) has been described. The
dimensional parameter of the CFHT has determined by a soft program where some optimum design
parameters were used that amplify the efficiency of CFHT. This soft program also helps, to calculate and
identify the best design parameters for the site under consideration. This program is intended to be used by
turbine design engineers and small manufacturers who want a low head turbine design suitable for rural
electrification.
7.2 SELECTED SITE CONDITION FOR MICRO HYDRO POWER GENERATION
In this research work the CFHT has been design for Chittagong thermal power plant (CTPP2). The
discharge water of CTPP passes through a channel to a cannel in Pahartoli. The discharge of the channel
was measured by float method. The measured head and discharge is shown in table 7.1 and the average
discharge rate of cooling water curve is shown in figure 7.1 respectively.
Table 7.1
Measured data on discharge rate and net head available in CTPP2
No Time Duration Average stream Head Stream Discharges Expected Electric
of t depth H Width Q power
Obs. (second) d (feet) (feet) b (feet) l/sec. P kW
1 7 am 18.23 0.63 7 4.03 329 3.44
2 8 am 17.70 0.64 7 4.03 340 3.56
3 9 am 19.30 0.65 7 4.03 320 3.35
4 10 am 19.60 0.50 7 4.03 241 2.53
5 11 am 19.50 0.52 7 4.03 250 2.62
6 12 pm 19.63 0.53 7 4.03 256 2.68
7 1 pm 17.61 0.62 7 4.03 330 3.46
8 2 pm 17.10 0.70 7 4.03 387 4.06
9 3 pm 17.20 0.68 7 4.03 374 3.91
10 4 pm 18.30 0.63 7 4.03 324 3.39
11 5 pm 18.60 0.59 7 4.03 300 3.14
12 6 pm 22.30 0.47 7 4.03 200 2.10
13 7 pm 22.45 0.46 7 4.03 195 2.04
14 8 pm 23.00 0.45 7 4.03 185 1.94

63
 450
400
350

Discharge Q (l/sec)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Time in hour 7am to 8 pm

Figure 7.1: Flow duration curve of cooling water in CTPP2

7.3 SOFT PROGRAM FOR CROSS FLOW TURBINE DESIGN

By means of all the extensive literature research that has been conducted throughout the course of the
project, some optimum design parameters have identified that help to amplify the efficiency of CFHTs. An
interactive soft-program has been developed that incorporates these optimal design values and helps to
calculate and identify the best design parameters for the site under consideration. This soft-program has
been developed by C programming language and the programming code is given in appendix A. The
design procedure follows a series of logical steps. The calculations for each step have been put into the
soft-program. The key design parameters for a turbine are head H, volume flow, or discharge Q and
rotational speed N. Starting from the site data the turbine speed should be chosen to give a specific speed
which fits with the CFHT range. This number gives an indication of the geometry of the turbine and it is
the starting point for detailed design. There are many different forms of the specific speed. For this design
procedure the following equation is used;

N Q
ns = (7.1)
H 0.75
Where, N is in rev/min, Q in m3/s and H in m. So, the starting point for the turbine design is to decide the
values of Q, N and H. The choice of the speed, N, depends on the speed of the generator and the type of
drive used. In this work a double stage belt drive is used which allows the possibility of changing the
turbine operating speed. This gives more flexibility in the turbine design and in matching to site
conditions. After that choosing water jet entering angle α to the runner and then calculates the dimensions
of the runner length L, runner of diameter D, and finally the curvature of blade to give the correct swirl
velocity at runner inlet and outlet. The dimensions of the runner may need to be adjusted through several
iterations to avoid large twist in the blades. In addition the Distributed load on Blade W, Bending moment

64
Figure 7.2: Flow chart of the soft program

65
M, Flexural stress σ on the blade also calculated by this soft-program. Choice of materials and
manufacturing methods are left to the knowledge of the designer. The flow chart of the soft-program is
shown in figure 7.2 that outlines the stages in the design procedure.
In the design of micro-hydro CFHT for CTPP 2, average discharge 120 l/sec and net head available has
been considered 2m. The parameter of the designed turbine has been determined by the soft program.
These parameters are shown in table 7. 2.
Table 7.2
Main parameters of the designed cross flow turbine
Parameter Value
Water power stored in selected site is Ph 2.35 kW
Angle of water jet entry to runner α 160
Blade angle Beta in degree β 29.830
Desire rotational speed N 120 rpm
Specific speed of CFHT ns 24.717
Runner Outer diameter D1 47cm
Runner Breadth L 47cm
Area of the Jet A 195.47 cm2
Original Jet thickness the Jet So 4.09 cm
Thickness of jet at entrance S1 4.08 cm
Blade spacing between two neighbour blade t 8.21 cm
Number of blade in the wheel is n 18
Ration of inner and outer circle radius (r 2/r1) 0.66
Radius of outer circle r1 23.48 cm
Radius of inner circle r2 15.44 cm
Pitch circle radius R 17.29cm
Radial rim width a 8.04 cm
Radius of curvature of Blade ρ 7.68 cm
The angle of pipe section forming the blade profile δ 73.82 0
Velocity of Jet at entrance V1 6.14 m/sec
Relative Velocity of Jet at exit v2 2.57 m/sec
Tangential Velocity of Vane of wheel at outer part u1 2.95 m/sec
Tangential Velocity of Vane of wheel at inner part u2 1.94 m/sec
Thickness in the inner part of the wheel is Y 7.78 cm
Distance of Jet from the centre of shaft Y1 5.40 cm
Distance of Jet from the inner periphery of wheel Y2 2.84 cm
Hydraulic force F 420.77 N
Distributed load on Blade W 1037.65 N/m
Extreme fibre distance e 1.16 cm
Bending moment M 19.80 N-m
Flexural stress σ 33.26 N/mm2

66
7.4 IMPLEMENTATION OF CROSS FLOW TURBINE
The manufacturing process under which the turbine is to be made has been the most dominant parameters
in the mechanical design. The general arrangement drawing, scheme of the nozzle and rotor combination
is shown in figure 7.3. In appendix B the dimension of turbine, nozzle, frame work and dam are given. The
designed turbine has been developed in BUET mechanical workshop. Different parts of the CFHT are
briefly described as follows.

Figure 7.3: Side view of the CFHT

7.4.1 ROTOR
The turbine has a squirrel cage shaped rotor, whose rotor diameter and breadth are 47cm respectively. The
optimum speed under the design head of 2m is 120 rpm. It has 18 blades, each blade simply a circular
segment. Here the turbine runner disks were prepared by mild steel plates, whose dimension is 7mm x
51cm x 51cm. Firstly these plates has been faced and then rounded to desire thickness and diameter as
shown in figure 7.4 by lathe machine. After that trace inner circle and pitch circle, has drawn on the rotor
plate. The pitch circle is divided in to 18 sections and points each section. To form blade profile a
curvature has drawn from each points on the pitch circle whose radius is 7.68 cm as shown in figure 7.5.
Finally the traced blade profile has been cut by Jig boring machine in Bangladesh Machine Tools Factory
Ltd. In figure 7.6 process of cutting blade profile slot on the rotor disk is shown. The rotor blades have
been rolled out of 3mm mild steel sheet to desire curvature by rolling machine as shown in figure 7.7.
These blades are placed between the disks in grooves spaced and arc welded to the disk as shown in figure
7.8 – 7.8 respectively. In figure 7.9 complete assembling of turbine runner is shown. The runner end wheel

67
was mounted on a 30mm steel shaft with the help of flange and keyed. Stepwise assembling process of
CFHT is described below.

Figure 7.5: Process of scribing radius of

Figure 7.4: Turbine runner is faced by lath
curvature in rotor disc
machine

Figure 7.6: Cutting of blade profile on Figure 7.7: Process of turbine runner blade
runner disk by Jig boring machine making by Rolling Machine

Figure 7.8: Runner end pieces are Figure 7.9: Rotor blades are placed on the
attached on shaft rotor end piece

68
 Figure 7.10: Picture of fabricated CFHT

7.4.2 ASSEMBLE THE TURBINE

o Cut a shaft from 30 mm diameter steel rod. The total length of the shaft 101cm. Place the metal hubs on
the center of each end piece matching the hole of the hub with the hole of the end piece. Drill two 30.1
mm holes through the hub and end piece
o Attach a hub to each end piece
o Slide shaft through the hubs and space the end pieces to fit the blades
o Maintain 47 cm distance between both end piece when insert in turbine shaft
o Insert a blade and align the end pieces so that the blade runs perfectly parallel with the center shaft
o Spot weld the blade in place from the outside of the end piece
o Turn the turbine on the shaft half a revolution and insert another blade making sure it is aligned with the
center shaft using13mm diameter and 3cm long bolts and nuts
o Spot weld the second blade to the end pieces. Once these blades are placed, it is easier to make sure that
all the buckets will be aligned parallel to the center shaft
o The hubs are connected to the shaft by using13mm diameter and 3cm long bolts and nuts
o Weld the remaining blade to the end pieces
o Finally mount the turbine rotor on its bearings. Clamp each bearing to the workbench so that the whole
thing can be slowly rotated. Small portable hand grinder is allowed to slide along turbine rotor blade
and grind away any uneven edges or joints. Rotate the turbine slowly so that the high part of each blade
comes into contact with the grinder. Low parts will not quite touch. This process takes several hours and
must be done carefully. Make sure the blades are ground so that the edges are flush with the outside of
the end pieces. Balance the turbine so it will turn evenly. It may be necessary to weld a couple of small
metal washers on the top of either end of the turbine. The turbine is balanced when it can be rotated in
any position without rolling.

69
7.4.3 TURBINE NOZZLE AND DAM
Nozzle size has been determined by using the following formula [46].

210 * Flow(cubic feet / sec ond )

Nozzle length =
runner outside diameter (in) * head ( ft )

The nozzle and dam has been built up of 0.3mm mild steel plate. Cut side sections and flat front and back
sections of the nozzle. Width of the front and back pieces equal to width of the turbine wheel width but in
practical case the nozzle length should be 1.5cm to 3cm less than the inside of the turbine. The left and
right side plate has been cut to the desire design size and weld all sections together as shown in figure 7.
11 to 7.13. The dam is built of 6 blocks of angle iron and mild steel sheet as shown in figure 7. 14. Each
block is attached together by nut bolts, so that it can be installed easily in different potential micro-hydro
site. The dimension of each block is 431.8mm and 736mm. A slide gate opening has placed parallel to the
dam axis. The width of the jet and flow rate can be controlled by the slide gate. In this research work the
function of the designed dam to provide desire head and also create a small reservoir whose capacity is
1,12,500 litter.

Figure 7.11: Nozzle end piece bent to desire Figure7.12: end piece of nozzle is adjusted to
angle and flatted uneven edge by hammer rectangular inlet section

Figure 7.13: end pieces of nozzle are jointed Figure 7.14: Micro-hydro dam block is
together and spot welded. joined together

70
7.4.4 FRAME
The frame is totally made of angles, and bolted together to the turbine, nozzle and generator. In figure 7.15
to 7.22 step wise the process of making frame work and positioning turbine and rotor is shown. The
generator mounted on the top of the frame work and its based has made such manner that different types of
generator can be attached to the frame work. The system is simple and it can be decouple easily and allows
for easy access to the turbine and nozzle for repair and maintenance.

Figure 7.15: Angles of iron are cut into Figure 7.16: Angles of iron are flatten for
desire size by power hack saw making turbine generator base

Figure 7.17: Angles of iron are marked and

punch for drilling and slotting Figure 7.18: Drill the angle of iron in drill
machine

Figure 7.19: Slots are cut into iron angle by Figure 7.20: Iron angle are joint together for
vertical milling machine adjusting the turbine generator frame work

71
 Figure 7.21: Frame work of turbine generator Figure 7.22: Uneven edges and joints are
base grinded by small portable hand grinder

7.4.5 POWER TRANSMISSION

There are two possible solutions for power transmission from the turbine shaft to the generator shaft, these
are: Gears, Belts & Pulleys. Gears are usually avoided in micro-hydro schemes due to their high cost and
high maintenance. Belts and pulley mechanism, if properly designed, can well serve the purpose with
efficiencies of about 98% [47]. In this work the shaft power of the CFHT is transmitted to induction
generator in two stages. The speed ration in first stage and second stage are 4.66 and 2.88 respectively.
7.4.5.1 TYPES OF BELTS
Flat Belts, Vee-Belts (Wedge Belts is a type of Vee belt that is usually used for micro-hydro applications)
Types of Wedge Belts: SPZ, SPA, SPB, SPC (on basis of cross-sectional area)
7.4.5.2 CALCULATION FOR NUMBER OF BELTS, BELT LENGTH AND BELT
TENSION

Speed Ratio
First stage 4.66 : 1
Second stage 2.88 : 1
Design Power = Power to be transmitte d * Factors
Design Power = (2.35) * (1.25) * (1.2) (Where, Service Factor = 1.25 and Duty Factor = 1.2)
= 3.525 kW

Belt type selected: SPA Wedge Belt [48]

Minimum Pulley Diameter (d) for first stage and second stage has been selected 76mm and 127mm
respectively.
The larger pulley diameter (D) has been selected 354mm for both stages.
Calculation of approximate center distance
For first stage:
(D + d )
Approximate Center Distance C = = 215 mm
2
72
 p (D - d ) (D - d )2
Belt Length = 2C + + = 857.4 mm
2 4C
Rated Power/Belt =1.16kW / Belt [48]
Design Power
Number of Belts N1 = = 2.12 @ 2
Rated Power per Belt
For second stage:
(D + d )
Approximate Center Distance C = = 240mm
2
p (D - d ) (D - d )2
Belt Length = 2C + + = 912mm
2 4C
Rated Power/Belt = 4.10kW / Belt [48]
Design Power
Number of Belts N1 = = 0.6 @ 1
Rated Power per Belt

7.4.5.3 CALCULATION BELT TENSION

The force required to deflect a given span length by a given amount is related to the tension in the belt.
Span length (t) in mm can be determined by following equation:
2
æD - d ö
2
t = C -ç ÷ = 164mm
è 2 ø

Where:
t = span length, in mm
C = center distance, in mm
D = large pulley pitch diameter, in mm
d = small pulley pitch diameter, in mm

The static strand tension (Ts) per belt is determined by the following formula:
Design HP * K
Ts = + TC
Q*S
Where:
D -d
K = 29.23 (Value is determined from factor table [49] which is depending on value of )
2
Q = 2 (Number of belts/ribs on drive)
S = 0.82 (Belt speed, feet per minute / 1000)
TC = 0.34 (From add-on tension allowance for centrifugal force table [49])

Then static strand tension (Ts) per belt is Ts = 56.38 Ibs

Calculation of the recommended minimum and maximum deflection forces (P), in pounds:
T +Y
Pmin = s = 3.875 Ibs
16
1.5 *Ts + Y
Pmax = = 5.625 Ibs
16
Where:
Ts = Static strand tension, Y = Constant from Table [49]

73
7.4.6 DESIGN OF PENSTOCK SIZE
The water is carried from micro hydro dam to CFHT nozzle by a pipe or channel which is known as
penstock. Here the size of penstock is designed considering the average flow through it is 120 l/sec under a
head of 2m. The cross-section area of the penstock is determined by following formula [50]:

1/ 5
æ flQ 2 ö
d =ç ÷
(7.2)
ç 3h ÷
è f ø
Where d is the penstock diameter in m
f is the Darcy’s coefficient or friction coefficient
l length of the penstock in m
hf head difference on both end of the penstock in m
Q flow through the penstock in m3/s

74
 CHAPTER 8

INDUCTION GENERATOR

8.1 Introduction
Induction generators have the same basic construction as squirrel-cage induction motors. In fact, all
induction motors can be operated very effectively as induction generators by driving them at a speed
greater than at a speed greater than synchronous speed. Induction generators are generally designed with
lower resistance values to provide a lower slip and a higher efficiency at rated load. Typically, small
renewable energy power plants rely mostly on induction generators, because they widely commercially
available and very inexpensive. Induction generators are suitable for operation by wind turbines, hydraulic
turbines, steam turbines, and gas engines powered by natural gas or biogas. They can range in size from a
few kilowatts to 10 MW. It is also very easy to operate them in parallel with large power system, because
the utility grid controls voltage and frequency while static and reactive compensating capacitors can be
used for correction of the power factor and harmonics reduction. Induction generators have outstanding
operation as either motors or generators; they have very robust construction features, providing natural
protection against short circuits, and have the lowest cost among generators. Abrupt speed changes due to
load or primary source changes, usually expected in small power plants, are easily accepted by its solid
rotor, and any current surge is damped by the magnetization path of its core without fear of
demagnetization, as opposed to permanent magnet based generators. In this chapter the operation of
induction generator, power generation, torque speed characteristics and robustness of the induction
generator describe briefly.

8.2 ROBUSTNESS OF THE INDUCTION GENERATOR

The one great advantages of an induction generator is its simplicity. An induction generator does not need
a separate field circuit and does not have to be driven continuously at a fixed speed. As long as the
machine’s speed is some value greater than nsync for the power system to which it is connected, it will
function as a generator. The greater the torque applied to its shaft (up to pushover torque), the greater its
resulting power. The fact that no fancy regulator is required makes this generator a good choice for wind
mills, micro-hydro schemes and heat recovery systems. From the discussion above it is clear that the
induction generator accepts constant and variable loads, starts either loaded or without load, is capable of
continuous or intermittent operation. It has natural protection against short circuit and over-currents
through its terminals. That is, when working in stand-alone mode and load current goes above the certain
limits, the residual magnetism falls to zero and the machine is de-excited. When this happens, there are
four methods available for its remagnetization: i) maintaining a spare capacitor always charged and, when
necessary, discharge it across one of the generator phases; ii) using a charge battery; (3) using rectifier fed
75
by the distribution net work; and (4) keeping it running without load until the minute residual magnetism
available is able to build itself up again.

8.3 OPERATION
The induction generator has the very same construction as induction motor with some possible
improvements in efficiency [51-53]. There is an important operating difference; the rotor speed is
advanced with respect to the stator magnetic field rotation. In order to understand the operation of an
Induction generator in both stand-alone and grid connected mode it is easiest to take motor operation of an
induction generator as a starting point. When a three-phase set of ac voltage has been supplied to the
stator, and a three phase set of stator current is following. These currents produce a magnetic field Bs,
which is rotating in a counter clockwise direction. The speed of the magnetic field’s rotation is given by
120
= (8.1)

Where = synchronous speed of the field

P = Number of the pole in the machine
= System frequency in hertz
The rotating field cuts the short-circuited rotor bars, inducing voltage in rotor bar and currents are
following in the short-circuited rotor bar which in turn produce a torque. This torque drags the rotor round
with the field. The voltage induced in a rotor bar of an induction motor depends on the speed of the rotor
relative to the magnetic fields. Since the behavior of an induction motor depends on the rotor’s voltage and
current, it is more logical to talk about this relative speed. Two terms are commonly used to define the
relative motion of the rotor and the magnetic fields. One is slip speed; define as the difference between
synchronous speed and rotor speed.
= − (8.2)

Where
= slip speed of the machine
= Speed of the magnetic ield
= mechanical shaft speed of the motor
The other term is used to describe the relative motion is slip, which is the relative speed expressed on a
per-unit or a percentage basis. That is, Slip is defined as

−
= (8.3)

76
8.4 CLASSICAL STEADY STATE REPRESENTATION OF THE
INDUCTION GENERATOR.

An induction generator relies for its operation on the induction of voltages and currents in rotor circuit
from the stator circuit. Because the induction of voltage and currents in the rotor of an induction generator
is essentially a transformer operation, the equivalent circuit of an induction generator will turn out to be
very similar to the equivalent circuit of a transformer. An induction generator is called a single excited
machine. However, it should be observed that in spite of the fact that the magnetizing curves of both
machines are similar in form, in the characteristics BxH (or ΦxNI or VxI) of these machines, the slope and
the saturation area of the mmf curve in the induction generator is much less accentuated than that of a
good quality transformer. This is due to the air gap in the induction generator that reduces the coupling
between the stator and rotor windings. This means that the high reluctance caused by the air gap increases
the magnetizing current required to obtain the same level of magnetic flux in the core, and Xm will be
much smaller than it would in a transformer. The transformer model of the induction machine, with rotor
and stator connected by an ideal transformer of turn’s ratio, , is represented in figure 8.1. In this
figure R1 and X1 are the resistance and leakage reactance respectively of the stator; Rm and Xm are the loss
resistance and magnetizing resistance; Rr and Xr are the resistance of the rotor.

Figure 8.1: The Transformer model of induction generator, with rotor and stator connected by an ideal
transformer of turn’s ratio aeff.

The internal primary voltage of the stator, E1, and the secondary voltage of the rotor, Er, is coupled by an
ideal transformer with an effective transformation ratio, arms. This arms value is easy to determine for a
wound-rotor generator; it is basically the ratio of the conductors per phase on the stator to the conductors
per phase on the rotor, modified by any pitch and distribution factor differences. On the other hand it is
extremely difficult to determine arms in the squirrel cage rotor generator because there are no distinct
windings on the cage rotor. In any situation, the voltage induced in the rotor, Er, generates a current that
circulates through the short-circuited rotor. The equivalent circuits of the induction generator and of the

77
transformer differ fundamentally, in the effects of varying rotor frequency on the rotor voltage Er and the
rotor impedances Rr and Xr.

To understand the induction phenomenon in asynchronous generator, it should first be understood what
happens to the voltage across the stator windings when the machine rotation goes from zero to rotation
above synchronous speed, . This can be summarized by saying that the larger the difference of speed or
slip factor the larger the induced voltage on the rotor. The smallest of this voltage happens when there is
no relative rotation between rotor and stator, = . The induced voltage on the rotor is directly
proportional to the slip factor, s, and from this definition the induced voltage on the rotor for any speed
[51].
= (8.4)
Where

= Induced voltage on rotor at any speed.

= blocked rotor emf.

The rotor frequency, fr, is also related to the electric frequency, = , through the expression:

= (8.5)

The circulating current in the rotor will depend on its impedance, the resistance and inductance of which
alter slightly due to skin effect for the usual values. However, only the inductance is affected in a more
complex way by the slip factor, depending on the self inductance on the rotor and on the frequency of the
induced voltage and current. The reactance is usually presented as the following function of the slip factor:

=2
=2
= (8.6)
Where

= Blocked rotor reactance.

The resulting equivalent circuit is shown in figure 8.2. The rotor current flow can be found as

=
+
= (8.7)
+
= (8.8)
/ +
= (8.9)

78
Where

=( / + ) = the eqivalent resistance of rotor

For small slip factor ( → 0) the rotor impedance becomes predominantly resistive and the rotor current
can be considered to vary linearly with s. with very large slip factors, the rotor impedance plus skin effect
will impose a non-linear relationship.

The rotor equivalent circuit is shown in figure 8.2. In the equivalent circuit the rotor voltage is a constant
V and the rotor impedance contains all the effects of varying rotor slip.

Figure 8.2: The rotor circuit model with all the frequency effects concentrated in resistor .

To produce the final per-phase equivalent circuit for an induction generator, it is necessary to refer the
rotor part of the model over to stator side. If the effective turn’s ratio of an induction generator is ,
then the transformed rotor voltage becomes

= = (8.10)
The rotor current becomes
= (8.11)
And the rotor impedance becomes
= ( / + ) (8.12)
= (8.13)
= (8.14)
Then the final per-phase equivalent circuit of the induction generator is shown in figure 8.3.

Figure 8.3: The per phase equivalent circuit of an induction generator.

79
8.5 GENERATED POWER
An induction generator is an induction machine used as generator. It converts mechanical power to three
phase electrical power. Not all the mechanical power going into an induction generator becomes electrical
power out of the machine. The difference between input power and output power represents the losses of
the machine.

The input mechanical power is the shaft power in the generator

= (8.15)
While the power converted from mechanical to electrical from internally is given by
= (8.16)
The power balance in an induction generator can be expressed as
= − (8.17)
When voltage Vp, appears across the terminal of the induction generator for a given constant rotation,
represented by the equivalent circuit of figure 8.3. Then the output current to a phase of the induction
generator can be found by dividing the per phase terminal voltage to the total equivalent impedance:

= (8.18)
Where,
1
= + + (8.19)
1 1 1
+ +
+
The output power , , can be given in the form of three balanced voltages and three balanced currents,
each one shifted by 120° and expression in the line values as:

= √3 (8.20)

Like any other electric machine, an induction generator has inherent losses that can be combined in the
following expression:

= + + & + + (8.21)

Therefore, the stator copper losses, the core losses and the rotor copper losses can be found. The stator
copper losses in the three phases are given by

=3 (8.22)

The core loss are given by

=3 (8.23)

The three phase power transfer from the rotor to the stator through the air-gap can be obtained by
80
 = √3 +3 +3 (8.24)

On the other hand, from figure 8.2, the only possible dissipation of the total power for the three phases
corresponding to the secondary part of the circuit is through the rotor resistance as

=3 (8.25)

However, from the rotor equivalent circuit shown in figure 4, the resistive losses are given by

=3 (8.26)

In any ideal lossless transformer, the rotor power would remain unchanged when referred to the stator and,
therefore,

=3 = (8.27)

The mechanical power converted into electricity, or the power developed in the shaft for a negative s, is
the difference between the power going through the air-gap and that dissipated in the rotor.

= −

=3 − 3
( )

=3 − 3
(1 − )
=3 = (1 − ) (8.29)
The induced torque in this generator can be found by equating equation (8.16) and (8.29), as

(1 − )
= (8.30)

8.6 TORQUE SPEED CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDUCTION GENERATOR.

Neglecting the resistance Rc, Torque speed characteristics of the induction generator can be derived from
equation (8.25), (8.29) and (8.30).

3 3 /
= =
( + / ) +( + )
= (1 − )
= −
(
= 1− ) −

81
 1
=−3 − 3 −3 − & − (8.31)

(1 − )
=

1−1+
= ∗ ℎ = 1−

3 /
= (8.32)
( + / ) +( + )

Equation (8.31) and (8.32) are plotted in figure 8.4. It can be observed that, i) there is no torque at the
synchronous speed; ii) Both the torque speed and the power-speed curves are almost linear since from no
load to full load the machines rotor resistance is much larger than its reactance; iii) As resistance is
predominant in this range, current and rotor field as well as the induced torque increase almost linearly
with increase of the slip factor s; iv) The rotor torque varies as the square of the voltage across the
terminals of the generator; v) if the speed slow down close to the synchronous speed, the generator
motorizes, that is it works as a motor; vi) The generated power has a maximum value for a given current
drained from the generator. Here it can be said that, for 0<s<1, the machine absorbs electric power in the
rotor to convert it to positive mechanical torque. If s=0, there is no electromotive force induced in the
rotor, and there is no mechanical torque. If s<0, the mechanical power is converted into electric power by
the external application of the torque in the shaft to turn the rotor, and the machine works as a generator. If
s>1 the machine works as a brake, absorbing mechanical power which acts negatively on its shaft (Pmec
<0).

Figure 8.4 (a) Motoring operation of the IM

82
 Figure 8.4 (b) Generating operation of Induction machine.

As observed the torque-speed characteristics curve in figure 8.4 (a) and (b) shows that if an induction
motor is driven at a speed greater than by an external prime mover, the direction of its inducted torque
will reverse and it will act as a generator. As the torque applied to its shaft by the prime mover increases,
the amount of power produced by the induction generator also increases. There is a maximum possible
induced torque in the generator mode of operation. This torque is known as the pushover torque of the
generator. If a prime mover applies a torque greater than the pushover torque to the shaft of an induction
generator, the generator will over-speed. In spite of the same rotation, the frequency of the induction
generator varies with the load variation. But as the torque speed characteristics is very accentuated in the
normal range of operation, the total frequency variation should be limited to not much more than 5% .
Such variation is acceptable for most of the loads in stand-alone power plant [54].

As a generator, an induction machine has severe limitations. Because it lacks a separate field circuit, an
induction generator cannot produce reactive power. In fact, it consumes reactive power, and an external
source of reactive power must be connected to it at all times to maintain its stator magnetic field. This
external source of reactive power must also control the terminal voltage of the generator. With no filed
current, an induction generator cannot control its own output voltage.

8.7 MEASUREMENT OF INDUCTION GENERATOR PARAMETERS

The equivalent circuit of an induction generator is a very useful tool for determining the generator’s
response to changes in load. So, the equivalent circuit model parameter’s of the induction generator is
approximated by performing series of tests, that are a No-load test, a DC test, and a blocked rotor test [54].
These tests were performed in BUET machine lab and these tests data are utilized to determine the model
parameter ( , , , , , X and ) of the induction generator.

83
8.7.1 NO-LOAD TEST
The no-load test begins by making the machine work as induction motor, freely rotating under the rated
voltage without any load on the shaft. The purpose of the test to measures the rotational losses of the
generator and provides information about its magnetization current. The test circuit is shown in figure 8.5.

Figure 8.5: Test setup for measuring no-load and locked rotor test data
Here the terminal of the stator are connected to variable power supply and gradually increased the supply
voltage up to rated and two clamp power meter, three voltmeter, three ammeters are connected to the
induction generator for measuring the no-load losses, per-phase voltage and current of the generator. No-
load test data are presented in table 8.1.
The stator copper losses are given by

_ =3 =3 (8.33)
Input power supplied to the generator:

= + + & + (8.34)
=3 +
Where Prot, is the rotational losses of generator.

= + & +
Approximate equivalent input impedance is at no load condition is

_
_ = = + (8.35)

Table 8.1
Data collected in no-load test of Induction Motor.

(volt) (volt) (volt) (volt) watt watt watt (A) (A) (A) (A) rpm
448 445 446 446.33 317 -96 221 1.14 1.16 1.15 1.15 1500

8.7.2 THE DC TEST FOR STATOR RESISTANCE

The rotor resistance plays an extremely critical role in the operation of an induction motor. Among
other things, determines the shape of the torque-speed curve, determine the speed at which the pullout
84
torque occurs. To determine the rotor resistance accurately, it is necessary to know so that it can be
subtracted from the total. A variable dc power is supplied to two of the three terminals of a Y-connected
induction generator. The current in the stator windings is adjusted to the rated value, and the voltage
between the terminals is measured. The total resistance in the current path is 2 . Therefore,
V
2R =
I
V
R = (8.36)
2I

Table 8.2
Data collected in DC test of the stator resistance.
Terminal ( ( ))
=
AB 35 3.5 5
BC 35.5 3.5 5.07
CA 35.6 3.56 5

8.7.3 BLOCKED ROTOR TEST

The blocked rotor test is corresponds to the short-circuited test on a transformer. In this test, the rotor is
locked or blocked so that it cannot move, an ac voltage is applied to the stator, and the current is adjusted
to be approximately full-load value. When the current is full-load value, the voltage, current, and power
flowing into the motor are measured. The purpose of this test is to determine , , , . The locked
rotor test data is shown in table 8.3.

The input power received in blocked rotor is given by

= √3 (8.37)

So the locked-rotor power factor can be found as

= =
√3
The magnitude of the total impedance in the generator circuit at this time is

| |= = (8.38)
√3
= + ′
=| | + | |
The locked-rotor resistance is equal to
= + (8.39)
The locked-rotor reactance ′ is equal to
85
 = + (8.40)
Where ′ and ′ are the stator and rotor reactances at the test frequency respectively.
The rotor resistance can now be found as
= −
Since the reactance is directly proportional to the frequency, the total equivalent reactance at the normal
operating frequency can be found as
= = + (8.41)
Table 8.3
Data collected in blocked rotor test of Induction Generator
P1 P2 Ptot Ia Ib Ic Iavg
218 223 219 220 800 40 840 6.9 7.1 7.1 7.03

Table 8.4
Name plate data of the test machine
BG 3φ induction motor
Type JO2-41-4 4kw 5.5HP
380~440V CONN Y/Δ
7.57 amps Ins.cl B
50Hz IP44 1440RPM

8.7.4 MODEL PARAMETER OF THE TEST MACHINE.

The per-phase model parameter of the test machine is determined and the value of each parameter is
shown in table 8.5.
Table 8.5
Model parameter of the test Induction Generator
Resistance Reactance Magnetizing Reactance
R (Ω) R (Ω) X (Ω) X (Ω) X (Ω)
5 0.38 8.61 8.61 231

8.7.5 EFFICIENCY OF THE INDUCTION GENERATOR USED IN MHPS

The efficiency of the induction generator is calculated from its model parameter. Consider the rotor speed
is 1530 rpm.
ns - nr 1500 - 1530
s= = = - 0.02
ns 1500

R2 0.41
Z2 = + jX 2 = + j8.61 = -20 .5 + j18 .61 = 22 .23 Ð 157 0
s - 0.02
904 ´ 231Ð 900 208824Ð 900
Z0 = = 0
= 223.8Ð 760 = 53.94 + j 216
904 + j 231 933.04Ð 14

86
 Z 2 ´ jZ 0 223.8 ´ 22.23Ð 1570 + 76 223.8 ´ 22.23Ð 1570 + 76
Zp = = = = 21.92Ð 152 = -18.47 + j 9.82
Z 2 + jZ 0 - 20.5 + 53.94 + j8.61 + j 216 227Ð 81

Z in = Z1 + Z p = -18.47 + 5 + j8.34 + j9.82 = 22.61Ð 126.56

E2 = I1 ´ Z p = 164.4 volt

164.4
I2 = = 7.39Ð - 157 0 Amp
22.23Ð 157

2(1 - s ) 2 E 22
I R22 + I 2 ( R1 + R2 ) + ( ) + Prot
s Rc
Eficiency off IG h =
(1 - s )
I 22 R2
s
- 1142 + 298.6 + 29.89 + 56 - 757.5
Efficiency off IG h = ´100 = ´100 = 66 %
- 1142 - 1142

8.8 POWER VERSUS CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS

It is important to know the characteristics of mechanical power versus load current (PxI). This relationship
may be obtained by definition of mechanical power in rotor. The powers dissipate in the rotor is expressed
by equation (8.29) as:

=3 −
Equation (8.29) has to make independent of slip s and only a function of the rotor current. To do this, I2
may be given as:
= (8.42)
+ +( + )

= −( + ) − (8.43)

Substituting value of R2/s into equation (8.29) , then

=3 −( + ) −( + ) (8.44)

To optimize this equation, consider

≥( + )
Or

≤ (8.45)
( + )
Maximum power is obtained by substituting the inequality equation (8.44) in (8.45) to give.
( ) = −3 ( + ) (8.46)

87
Notice that I2=I1 when we neglect the excitation admittance. The negative sign in equation (8.46) is due to
reversion of the power flow through the terminals of the induction machine. Using the model parameter of
the test induction generator the mechanical power versus load current characteristics is plotted in figure 8.6

Figure 8.6 Mechanical power versus load current of the induction generator

Here assuming a constant output voltage is maintained by an electronic load controller. In this figure we
see that when the load current of the induction generator increases, two limiting values of current stand out
for which the power is null: when there is no load across its terminals (I2min=0.0) and when there is an
excess of current over the maximum defined by Pmec=0.0 in equation (8.44). Therefore

= (8.47)
( + ) + ( + )
On the other hand, there is also a value for generator current at which generated power is maximized. This
value is obtained by the theorem of the average of maximum and minima of equation (8.44), which is

Vp ( R1 + R2 )
I p max = [1 - ] (8.48)
2 ( X 1 + R2 ) ( R1 + R2 ) 2 - ( X 1 + X 2 ) 2

88
 CHAPTER 9

SELF- EXCITED INDUCTION GENERATOR

9.1 INTRODUCTION
It is possible for an induction generator to function as an isolated generator, independent of any power
system, as long as the external source of reactive power are available to supply the reactive power required
by the generator and by any attached loads. The Induction generator needs a reasonable amount of reactive
power which must be fed externally to establish the magnetic field necessary to convert the mechanical
power from its shaft into electrical power. In interconnected applications, the synchronous network
supplies such reactive power. In stand-alone applications, the reactive power must be supplied by the load
itself, by a bank of capacitors connected across its terminals, or by an electric inverter. For this reason, the
external reactive source must remain permanently connected to the stator windings responsible for the
output voltage control. When the capacitors are connected to the induction generators, the system is
usually called a SEIG (self-excited induction generator). Economically, self-excitation of the induction
generator is usually recommended only for small power plants. In this chapter the performance
characteristics of an induction machine operating as a SEIG in stand-alone mode, mathematical description
of self excitation process and calculation of excitation capacitor requirements are describe briefly.

9.2 MAGNETIZING CURVES AND SELF-EXCITATION OF INDUCTION

GENERATOR

Unlike the synchronous generator, an induction generator does not have an internal magnetization source.
However, a voltage may build up in an induction generator as the result of a physical process known as
self-excitation. This permits the utilization of an induction generator as a standalone unit operating in
island without connection to any other voltage source. It may take place if a sufficient amount of
capacitors is connected at the generator terminals as shown in figure 9.1. The capacitors provide the
magnetizing current that is necessary for the buildup of a rotating magnetic field. When the shaft is rotated
externally to a certain speed, the residual flux will induce a voltage in the stator, resulting in a current in
the parallel circuit, which in turn, reinforces the magnetic field and the system builds up an increasing
excitation. Under these conditions, the induction generator behaves much like a synchronous generator
with permanent magnet rotor. In practical schemes it is advisable to connect each excitation bank of
capacitors directly across each motor winding phase in either Δ-Δ or Y-Y connections [53, 55-57]. Each
induction machine will require a certain capacitance bank that will depend on the primary energy, the
magnetization curve of the core, and the instantaneous load. So interaction among the operational state of
the primary source of energy, the induction generator, the self-excitation parameters, and the load will

89
define the overall performance of the power plant. The performance is greatly affected by the variance of
many of the parameters related to the availability of primary energy and load variations.

Figure 9.1: Approximate equivalent circuit for a self-excited induction generator

The theory of the voltage buildup is explained with the aid of the approximate equivalent-circuit diagram
in figure 9.1, which shows a capacitor connected across the output terminals. Resistance Rc, shown with
the dotted lines, is relatively high compared to XM, and can be ignored, since it has little effect on voltage
buildup. Furthermore, with no load on the machine, the slip is zero, causing R2/s to be infinite, and no
current appears in the branch formed by R1, jX1, R2/s, and jX2, so this branch is also drawn with dotted
lines and ignored. When the prime mover is started, the residual magnetism in the revolving rotor
generates a low voltage V0 in magnetizing reactance XM. This low voltage V0 appears across the capacitor
and causing a small current I0, in the circuit formed by XM and the capacitor. The current I0 in XM causes
voltage I0XM that appears at the terminals as output voltage V1 this voltage is higher than the residual
voltage V0, causing a higher capacitor current I1, which also appears in XM causing a further voltage V2,
buildup, and so forth. This voltage build up process comes to a halt when the capacitor voltage curve
intersects the no-load curve of the induction generator as shown in figure 9.1. This point is a stable
operating point and it is the steady-state operating point of the self-excited induction generator running at
no-load with the shunt-connected capacitors. At this point, the capacitors supply exactly the reactive power
needed by the induction generator at no-load. The no-load steady-state operating point is determined by
the no-load curve of the induction generator, by the value of the capacitors and by the Generator speed.
The process of voltage buildup is illustrated in figure 9.2 which shows the magnetization curve and
capacitance line for a representative induction generator. The magnetization curve is a plot of voltage vs.
current for magnetizing reactance XM, and is obtain by running the induction generator as a motor with no
load and plotting applied voltage vs. current as the voltage is raised in steps from zero voltage to rated
voltage. The nonlinearity of the magnetization curve is caused by magnetic saturation effects in the stator
and rotor iron. The capacitance line is an Ohm’s law plot of voltage vs. current for the capacitor when
measured alone. The point of intersection of the magnetizing curve and the capacitance line is the no-load
operating point of the induction generator.

90
 Figure 9.2: Process of voltage build-up in a self-excited induction generator

Adjustment of the no-load voltage is accomplished by changing the slope of the capacitance line.
Increasing the value of the capacitors has the effect of shifting the no-load steady-state point towards
higher voltages. Increasing the generator speed, i.e. the frequency of the induced voltage, shifts the no-load
curve of the generator upwards, while the slope of the capacitor voltage curve decreases. The net result is
still an increase in the no-load steady-state voltage. Since Xc is the slope of capacitance line, and
Xc=1/(2πfc), increasing the capacitance decreasing the slope and therefore increases the voltage. The
operating points for several values of capacitances are shown in figure 9.2. The value of the capacitance
that causes the capacitance line to the tangent to the magnetization curve is called the critical capacitance.
Values of the capacitance less than the critical capacitance C0, will prevent the buildup of voltage. The
frequency of an induction generator when operating self-excited may be determined from the capacitive
reactance at the operating point. Thus figure 9.2 and ohm’s law,

= (9.1)

1
= ⇒ =
2

1
= ∗ (9.2)
2

The principle disadvantage of self-excited induction generator is the rapid falloff in voltage when load is
applied, requiring significantly higher capacitance with higher and more lagging power-factor loads.

9.3 MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE SELF-EXCITATION PROCESS.

A mathematical description of the self-excitation process is based on the Doxey model, which is derived
from the steady-state model presented in figure 9.3. Since the excitation impedance is much larger than the
winding impedance, it is usual to represent the induction generator model with a separate resistance for
losses; an RL branch is included to present a typical load connected across the generator’s terminals. In
91
figure 9.3, Rc represent the core losses, it can be determine by making the machine rotate experimentally
at no-load and measuring the active power per phase P0, the average voltage per-phase V0, and the average
current per-phase I0. When the generator driven at no-load, the generated power dissipated, the losses by
hysteresis, parasitic currents in the core, friction, air resistance, and other spurious losses. Then the losses
by hysteresis and parasites current in the core are represented by:

= +

= (9.3)
−

Figure 9.3: Equivalent circuit of the self-excited induction generator

Taking into consideration any load impedance magnitude Z can be transformed from a series to parallel
configuration based on the classical concepts of circuit:

+
= + = = (9.4)
+ +

Where
2 2
R s2 + X s2 Zs R s2 + X s2 Z
Rp = = and Xp = = s
Rs Rs Xs Xs

The frequency effect on the reactance should be considered if it is used at different frequency from the
base frequency fb, in Hz, at which the parameters of the machine were measured. For this purpose if F is
the p.u frequency a relationship can be defined between the self-excitation frequency fexc and the base
frequency fb;

= = (9.5)

Inductive reactance

= (9.6)

So for

92
 = + = (9.7)
+

And load power angle as

= tan = tan (9.8)

In figure 9.3, it is observed that the inductive load will decrease the effective value of self-exciting
capacitance because some of the reactive power will be deviated to the load branch. Equation 10 quantifies
the effective capacitance due to such an effect:

= − (9.9)
+( )

Equation (9.9) leads to the conclusion that for small values of L, the inductive reactance of the load does
not have much influence on Ceff. However, for high values of L, this inductance can be decisive to the
output voltage because it approximates the straight line of the capacitive reactance slope to the almost
linear portion of the excitation curve slope, drastically reducing the terminal voltage until total collapse.
The beneficial side is that for too small load resistance, the discharge of the self-excitation capacitor is
very quick and establishes a natural protection against high currents and short-circuits. On the other hand,
high values of the self-excitation capacitance are imitated by the iron saturation. For heavy saturation, the
intersection point on the straight line of the capacitive reactance matches very high current values for the
generator, causing the winding to carry high circulation current and possible permanent damage in the
insulation and in the magnetic properties of the iron.

By applying the basic principle of power balance, the active and reactive power can be represents
respectively:

1−
+ (( + )+ + = =0 (9.10)

+ + + = =0 (9.11)

Equation (9.10) take into account that only power entering the circuit is that from the primary machine
under the form of active power. The reactive power should also be balanced as in equation (9.11). The first
term of the equation (9.10) is the energy supplied to the generator from mechanical shaft. Dividing
equation (9.10), by I22:

1 1
+ + + =0 (9.12)

93
 = + +( + ) (9.13)

V p2
Put the value of , in equation (9.13).
I 22

+ + + + ( + ) =0 (9.14)

Equation (9.14) is of second order and the slip can be calculated with equation:

2
= (9.15)
−2 − ± −4 ( + )

The roots of the denominator in equation (9.15) will always be negative to satisfy the practical condition
that if X1+X2 is very small, the load Rcl would have almost no influence on s, a constraint not true. So it
may be convenient to approximate equation by the following expression:

+
≅− =− (9.16)
+ + +

An iterative method may be used when using equation (9.15), instead of equation (9.16), because the
computation depends on ωs which in turn depends on s, which again is dependent on F. the efficiency can
be estimated by

−
= = (9.17)

(1 − )
= − = 3 +3 ( + )+3 (9.18)

I 22 R2 (1 - s )
Where Pin = 3 Therefore, using these values in equation after simplification we get
s

(1 − )
+ ( + )+
= (9.19)
(1 − )

2
F2
2
ì
ïæ R2 R1 ö ü
2ï
Put the value of I = 2
2 íç + ÷ + ( X 1 + X 2 ) ý , then:
Vp îè Fs F ø
ï ï
þ

1
+1+ + + +( + )
= (9.20)
(1 − )

94
The performance of the induction generator depends on the self-excitation capacitance C, on the angular
mechanic frequency of the rotor ωr, and on the load impedance.

9.4 CONNECTION OF SELF-EXCITATION CAPACITOR

For a three phase generating system, the capacitors can be either star or delta connected, as shown in figure
9.4. In the case of the star connected system, the star point of the capacitors should not be connected to the
generator and system neutral as waveform distortion and increased losses will occur.

Ics IcΔ
Vcs
VcΔ

Figure 9.4: Star and delta connection of excitation capacitance

The star and delta connection are related as follows:

= √3 (9.22)

= (9.23)
√3

√3
= = =3 = 3.
√3

= 3. Since Xc = 1/ω. C

= (9.24)
3
If the capacitor are connected in star, then three times as much capacitance is required than for delta
connection, through lower voltage and therefore cheaper capacitors may be used.

9.5 SINGLE-PHASE OUTPUT FROM A THREE-PHASE MACHINE

Single-phase induction motors can be used as generators, but problems can be experienced in achieving
excitation and in determining the size and arrangement of the capacitors required. In addition, single-phase
induction motors are more expensive than three-phase induction motors and are only available for small
power outputs. Fortunately, it is possible to use a 3-phase generator can be converted into a single- phase
generator which produces approximately 80% of machine rating by connecting 2 capacitors as shown in
Figure 9.5.

95
In order to analyze the circuit of figure 9.5, assume that the load connected which is the consumer load
plus resistive ballast load [8].
= + (9.25)

= −( + ) (9.26)

Figure 9.5 Connection diagram of 3φ IG into a 1φ IG using the “C-2C” connection

Using equations (9.24) and (9.25) and assuming that the machine is operating as a balanced three-phase
machine, the phasor diagram can be constructed as shown in figure 9.6. As capacitor C2 is connected
across phase’s b and c, ic is perpendicular to the voltage vector Vbc. In order to obtain balanced operation
the following two conditions should be satisfied:
= 60 | |=| | (9.27)
The conditions for balanced operation can be expressed in terms of the currents as in equations (9.28) and
(9.28).
| |=2∗ (9.28)
| | = √3 (9.29)

Figure 9.6 Phasor diagram for the single phase connection

That is, in order to obtain balanced operation of the 3-phase IG, capacitor C1 should be selected such that
equation (9.29) is true, and also from equation (9.28) capacitor C2 should be equal to 2C1 [9-10]. When an
induction generator is used in this way, particular care must be taken over the connection of the capacitor
C2. If capacitor C2 is connected between phases a and c instead of c and b then the generator will run as an

96
unbalanced system. It can be seen that the current through one of the windings of the induction generator
becomes twice that of the other winding currents. Under this condition, the generator winding will
overheat. Therefore, correct connection of the capacitor C2 is important.

9.6 SELECTION OF CAPACITORS

Generally the most suitable type of capacitor to use is the 'motor run' type, used with some single-phase
induction motors. They are widely available in sizes up to and sometimes above 40 micro-Farads (uF).
Their voltage rating is usually 380-415 V, though sometimes 220-240 V types are also available. Capacitor
prices are approximately proportional to their voltage rating. Hence, higher voltage capacitors are
generally better value, since the volt-amp capacity increases as the square of the voltage. 'Motor run' type
capacitors are generally quite cheap and, even for a star connection, should be less than 30% of the
generator cost. 'Motor start' capacitors must be avoided, since they are not designed for continuous use.
Capacitors designed for power factor correcting fluorescent lamps can be used with induction generators.
However, they are rarely available in sizes above 10 uF. Capacitor life is governed by quality of
manufacture and operating voltage, frequency and temperature. The lifetime is very dependent upon
voltage. For example, a capacitor that lasts a year at its rated voltage may last for thirty years at half rated
voltage. Therefore, it is recommended that 415V capacitors are used even for star connected arrangements,
and that 415V operation is avoided unless the capacitors are rated for more than 415 V. Capacitor life is
also dependent upon frequency. An increase in frequency will increase capacitor current, adding to the
losses and thereby raising the temperature of the insulation. Capacitor life is also highly dependent upon
ambient temperature. The capacitors should be placed in a box that has ventilation holes or slots to help
cool the capacitors, and this should be placed in a cool place away from direct sunlight. Capacitors are
only available in standard sizes and are generally specified with a tolerance of ± 10%. Hence, without
measuring individual capacitors it is difficult to obtain the precise capacitance required.

9.7 CALCULATION OF EXCITATION CAPACITANCE

9.7.1 STEADY-STATE LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS

A precise calculation of the capacitance required to generate a given voltage under specific load conditions
is only possible with an accurate knowledge of the electrical parameters of the induction machine,
including the variation of the parameters with voltage. The induction generator no-load curve is
experimentally determined by connecting the generator to the grid via a variable transformer and reading
the current at different voltages. In this test the maximum supply voltage was 446.3 volt at this stage the
IG still unsaturated so Lagrange third order polynomials are used for extrapolation of the experimental
data and finally no-load curve of a 230 V, 4 kW squirrel cage induction machine with parameters
according to table 9.1 is ploted in figure 9.7 with a continuous line. The required capacitance connected
97
across the induction generator terminals can be determined by the intersection of the magnetizing curve
Vg=f(Im) of the machine and the straight line represented by the capacitive reactance given by 1/ωC of the
self-exciting bank, as depicted in figure 9.7. This intersection point gives the terminal voltage Vt and It at
no load conditions. At this point, the magnetizing current is lagging with respect to the terminal voltage
(about 900), depending on the losses of the motor at no-load conditions, while the current through the
capacitor is advanced by approximately 900. This means that the intersection of these two lines is the point
on which the necessary reactive power of the generator is supplied only by the capacitors and can be
understood as the resonant conditions for the reactive power flow. Location of this point should be in
between the rated current of the machine and the end of the straightest portion of the air-gap line.
Table 9.1
Data Collected in No Load test of Induction Motor.
No of
Obs. (volt) (volt) (volt) (volt) watt watt watt (A) (A) (A) (A) rpm
1 110 115 111 112.00 64 -24 40 0.524 0.521 0.47 0.51 1455
2 143 145 144 144.00 80 -14 66 0.423 0.5 0.43 0.45 1468
3 186 184 185 185.00 98 -4 94 0.456 0.524 0.46 0.48 1468
4 250 250 250 250.00 123 -10 113 0.6 0.616 0.60 0.61 1477
5 287 291 289 289.00 155 -31 124 0.62 0.698 0.70 0.67 1481
6 319 315 316 317.00 176 -42 134 0.69 0.71 0.75 0.72 1493
7 367 365 366 366.00 223 -71 152 0.88 0.8 0.85 0.84 1497
8 408 402 405 405.00 260 -75 185 0.94 0.95 0.94 0.94 1500
9 444 434 440 439.33 314 -96 218 1.08 1.11 1.10 1.10 1500
10 448 445 446 446.33 317 -96 221 1.14 1.16 1.15 1.15 1500

9.7.2 CALCULATION OF REQUIRED SELF-EXCITATION CAPACITANCE FOR

IG
Required excitation capacitance per phase to be connected for self-excitation for the induction generator is
determined here by graphically from no-load magnetizing characteristics and by using the model
parameter of the induction generator.
In graphical method,

= (29)
∗

Where Vop (269V) is the operating voltage and Iop (2.39 A) is operating magnetizing current of the
machine then, the required approximate capacitance to be connected per-phase is C (28µF). In this
research the required approximate capacitance also, had determined by using the model parameter of the
induction generator considering the no-load and the loaded condition of the induction generator. While
Considering both case, the design induction generator is excited by .889 kvar fixed capacitors and a 375var
98
switched capacitors per phase. The fixed capacitor are selected to generate the no-load reactive power to
the generator and the switched capacitors per phase is used to compensate for the extra reactive power
required when the load is increased and also, if necessary, supply reactive power to the load. The value of
fixed capacitance is 5µF per-phase. This capacitor is connected in Δ mode. The value of switched
capacitance bank per phase is 18µF. This capacitor bank is switched automatically in 3 steps according to
the load condition on the generator. Each capacitor step corresponds to a generated reactive power of 125
var at 257 volt. Detail calculation of the design excitation capacitors are given in appendix C.

Figure 9.7: No-load Magnetizing characteristics of the test induction generator

9.8 OPERATING VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY

The operating voltage and frequency of the generator will depend upon the turbine power output, the
excitation capacitance and the load connected, including its power factor. There is some flexibility as to
the choice of operating voltage and frequency which can be used to advantage to improve the efficiency of
the system.

9.8.1 OPERATING VOLTAGE

As explained in article 9.2, an IG can be operated over a range of voltages. Figure 9.3 showed how, for
constant speed operation, the voltage is determined by the amount of capacitance connected. For operation
at synchronous speed, the highest voltage that can be achieved is typically 125% of the motor rating and
the lowest voltage approximately 65% of the motor rating. The upper limit is set by the voltage at which
the excitation current equals the rated current of the machine and the lower limit is the voltage at which the
machine is sufficiently saturated to operate stably.
Operation at close to the upper voltage limit is not recommended. Since the large amount of current
flowing into the generator from the excitation capacitors, this increases winding temperature. For stable

99
operation of induction generator the load that can be connected to the generator should be reduced and
finally this will reduces the efficiency of the generator. Operation at close to the lower voltage limit is not
recommended for two reasons. Firstly the reduced excitation capacitance makes the generator very
sensitive to reactive loads, which could cause significant variations in frequency and possibly loss of
excitation. Secondly the efficiency will be below the optimum efficiency, particularly when the generator
is heavily loaded. This is because, in order to achieve the same power output at reduced voltage, the load
current must be increased. For example, a 33% reduction in voltage will require a 50% increase in load
current in order to maintain output power. This increases stator and rotor heating and reduces efficiency.
To achieve optimum efficiency the induction machine should be operated as a generator at 90-95% of the
motor rating [ref: motor as generator]. In addition to improving efficiency, this cuts capacitor costs and
improves insulation life. When selecting the operating voltage for the generator, transmission line voltage
drop must also be considered.

9.8.2 OPERATING FREQUENCY

Increasing the operating frequency will reduce the excitation current required to achieve rated voltage, as
shown in figure 9.8 This results in improvements in efficiency and maximum power output.

Figure 9.8 No load excitation characteristics for an IG operated at two different frequencies

The effects of supply frequency on motor performance, depends on the type of motor used. Only two types
of motor are commonly used in a.c. supplies; these are universal motors and induction motors. The
universal motor is so called because it gives comparable performance on both d.c. and a.c. supplies.
Conversely, induction motor performance is greatly affected by the supply frequency and as a result these
machines provide the main limits to its value. The magnetizing current of an induction generator increase
with the falls of supply frequency. This increases the power dissipation in the stator windings and can
cause them to overheat. This same effect occurs with transformers. Small transformers, which are often
used in electrical appliances, are very susceptible to damage from such under frequency operation. For
these reasons, operation at below rated frequency should be avoided.

100
Increasing the operating frequency has the opposite effect. It reduces the magnetizing current and therefore
induction motors and transformers run cooler. The main constraint occurs if motor loads, such as pumps
and fans, with a power requirement that increases significantly with speed are used on the supply. The
effect of such loads can be appreciable since, for induction motors, shaft speed increases approximately
linearly with frequency, and the power requirement of fans increases at nearly the cube of the speed. A
10% increase in frequency is generally acceptable; even with such highly speed dependent loads. The
reasons for this are as follows; firstly, Because of over sizing, most motors run at only 60 - 80% of their
rated output when operated at rated frequency. Hence, there is some spare capacity. Secondly, As
previously explained, higher frequency operation reduces the magnetizing current, thereby offsetting some
of the increase in load current, and finally Increased shaft speed increases the cooling of the machine.

If no highly speed dependent motors are used then the upper frequency limit can be increased to 20%
above rated frequency. If only resistive loads are used then there is no frequency limit imposed by the
load. The upper limit will then be determined by the limit of stable operation of the generator, i.e. the
frequency at which the machine is no longer saturated for the required voltage output.

9.9 THE EFFECT OF LOAD UPON GENERATOR OUTPUT

9.9.1 RESISTIVE LOAD

In a stand-alone micro-hydro system, consider that the induction generator is operated at constant speed
and with fixed excitation capacitance. When the resistive load on the generator is increased the voltage
will drop immediately by an amount determined by the characteristic of IG as shown in Figure 9.9. The
full load current is the current at which the generator current equals the rated current. Excessive load on
the generator will cause excitation to collapse. Figure 9.9 does not provide a full representation of what
occurs when the generator is used on a micro hydro scheme, since it takes no account of frequency
variation due to the power-speed characteristic of the turbine.

Figure 9.9: Typical voltage against load current for an induction generator with fixed excitation
capacitance operated at constant speed

101
A typical turbine power speed characteristic is shown in figure 9.10. The increased load on the turbine will
cause the turbine speed to drop, resulting in a corresponding reduction in operating frequency. This drop in
frequency causes a further drop in voltage, due to reduced excitation. The turbine speed and generated
voltage will fall until a speed is reached at which the power output of the turbine equals the load on the
turbine.

Figure 9.10: A typical turbine power speed characteristic.

Conversely, if the resistive load on the generator is reduced the generated voltage will rise and the turbine
speed will increase. If the entire load on the generator is disconnected the voltage and turbine speed will
increase until the losses in the generator equal the power output from the turbine. It is clear from the above
that the resistive load must be controlled in order to regulate the voltage and frequency.

9.9.2 INDUCTIVE LOAD

If an inductive load is connected across the output of the generator the current into the inductor will be
supplied by the capacitors connected to the generator. This will reduce the amount of excitation
capacitance available, and as a result the voltage will fall sharply. The drop in voltage will reduce the
power dissipated in the other loads and therefore the turbine speed will increase. The voltage will increase
as the speed increases until equilibrium is reached at a speed where the power output of the turbine equals
the load on the turbine. Hence, inductive loads result in an increase in operating frequency. The new
operating voltage will depend largely upon the power-speed characteristic of the turbine. If the turbine
power output does not vary appreciably between the initial and final speeds there will be no significant
change in voltage. If too large an inductive load is connected the excitation of the generator will collapse.

9.9.3 CAPACITIVE LOAD

In the same way that an inductive load will increase the operating frequency, a capacitive load will reduce
it. This could be damaging to the generator and other loads. Fortunately, leading power factor loads are
very rare.

102
 CHAPTER 10

DESIGN OF ELECTRONIC LOAD CONTROLLER

10.1 INTRODUCTION
In an electric power system, consumers require uninterrupted power at rated frequency and voltage. To
maintain these parameters within the prescribed limits, suitable control strategy has to be developed for the
system. Efficient electric generation and viable and effective load control for alternative or renewable
sources usually requires heavy investment and is generally accompanied by an ambiguous decision
making analysis that takes into consideration the intermittence of input power and demand. In this chapter
firstly a general voltage and frequency control of an island operated induction generator is described and
finally the design principle of a simple, reliable and cost effective electronic load controller is described
briefly.

10.2 VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY CONTROL IN GENERAL

The frequency in a power system is closely related to the generator speed. In synchronous generators the
speed is directly tied to the frequency through the number of poles divided by two. In induction generators
the frequency also differs from the mechanical speed by the number of poles divided by two, but also by
the slip which is in order of a percent. The torque balance in the system given by equation (10.1) directly
affects the system frequency.
dw
J = Tmec - Tel (10.1)
dt

A difference between driving mechanical torque, e.g. water in a turbine, and electrical load torque results
in a change in frequency. Equation (10.1) could be expressed with power as well.
dw
Jw = Pmec - Pel (10.2)
dt

If the input mechanical power is higher than the electrical power consumption then the frequency of the
system increases. On other hand when the consumption is higher than the input power the frequency of the
system decreases. The rate of change in frequency is proportional to the inverse of the inertia, J. In a big
power system J is the total inertia of all connected generators and their turbines. With more generators
connected a disturbance has less influence on the frequency. It is thus more difficult to regulate frequency
in an island grid with only one or a few generators. The same load changes will have greater impact on
frequency than at interconnected operation. The influence between power and frequency is utilized in the
turbine control.

103
10.3 THE ISLAND OPERATED INDUCTION GENERATOR
As mentioned in chapter 8 there is a strong connection between frequency and voltage in an induction
generator. This does not cause much problem when the generator is connected to a strong grid due to the
fixed frequency. In island operation on the other hand there is no fixed frequency, the generator sets both
voltage and frequency by itself and the connection between voltage and frequency become obvious. For an
induction generator reactive power absorption is necessary in order to magnetize the generator and thereby
generate power. Induction generators are normally grid connected and then absorb the reactive power from
the grid. For island operation connecting capacitors to the generator terminals is necessary for the
magnetization. The reactive power for excitation is then generated by the capacitors. When the generator
loading increases the reactive power to the generator has to increase in order to keep the voltage constant.
This may be achieved by means of connecting more capacitors or by installing a variable reactive power
source. Switched capacitors are the most cost efficient alternative but the drawback is the discrete steps
resulting in voltage and frequency fluctuations

10.4 DESIGN OF ELECTRONIC LOAD CONTROLLER

In this research work a microcontroller based electronic controller has been designed and implemented.
The ELC is designed to operate on a Y connected three phase induction generator rated at 4kW, 440V,
7.57 A, 4-pole, 50 Hz with a fixed operating power of 1 kW for feeding three phase load. In this system
when the load on the generator is increased then the voltage will drop immediately by an amount
determined by the characteristics of the generator. The increased load on the turbine will cause the turbine
speed to drop, resulting in a corresponding reduction in operating frequency. The drop in frequency causes
a further drop in voltage, because of reduction in excitation. Conversely, if the load on the generator is
reduced the generated voltage will rise and the turbine speed will increase. If the entire load on the
generator is disconnected the voltage and turbine speed will increase until the losses in the generator equal
the power output from the turbine. The generated voltage of the SEIG is used as a feedback signal for the
control circuit after proper isolation and attenuation. The control action of the switch is carried out by
means of a microcontroller, according to the measured voltage. The operating block diagram of MHPS is
shown in figure 10.1.

104
 Figure 10.1: Operating Block diagram of the design MHP control system

10.4.1 FUNCTION OF THE DESIGNED ELC

The electronic load controller is developed for induction generator (IG) based stand alone micro-hydro
schemes. Here the designed ELC maintain the balanced load on the IG terminal as well as maintain the
self-excitation. When the system is initiated the ELC measures the per phase voltage of the system. If the
rotor speed of IG is greater than the critical value and per phase voltage is in the range of 200 to 230 volt
then the ELC supplies only the consumer load. If voltage is greater than 230 volt then it supplies consumer
demand as well as charges a battery bank by PWM signal and also monitors the status of the battery bank
charge. The duty ratio of PWM is changed 0 to 100% depending on the stored charge in battery bank.
When the battery is full charged then the extra energy produced by the MHPS is diverted to the dump load
to maintain the balanced load on the SEIG terminals.

In excitation control circuit of the SEIG, fixed capacitor and switched capacitor are used. The value of
fixed capacitor is selected to generate the no-load reactive power to the generator and to maintain desired
no-load voltage per-phase is 5µF. This capacitor is connected in Δ mode across the SEIG terminal. The
value of switched capacitor bank per phase is 18µF. This capacitor bank is switched automatically by the
microcontroller in 3 steps according to the load condition on the generator. Each capacitor step
corresponds to a generated reactive power of 125 var at 257 volt. When the voltage is less than 200 volts
in any phase of the SEIG then the ELC will activate the switched capacitor bank sequentially in that phase
to maintain the desired operating voltage. Conversely, if the per-phase voltage is greater than 240 volt in
any phase the ELC will deactivate the switched capacitor in that phase. In this work ATmega 16A,
microcontroller is used to perform these tasks. Flow chat of the designed ELC is shown in figure 10.2.
Operating language for microcontroller is written in mikro C pro for AVR v 4.60.0.0 and program for
micro controller is given in appendix D. The ELC is designed and simulated by Proteus 7.7 SP2 Pro
software and finally tested in machine lab.

105
 Figure 10.2 Flow chart of the ELC

10.4.2 MICRO CONTROLLER POWER CIRCUIT

In figure 10.3 and 10.4 ATmega 16 microcontroller pin diagram [59] and its power supply circuit shown
respectively. This circuit is capable to operate both ac and dc. Here voltage regulator IC LM7805 is used
to maintain 5 volt fixed dc voltage at its output terminal for supplying biasing power to ATmega 16
microcontroller.

Figure 10.3: Pin diagram of ATmega 16 microcontroller

106
 To ATmega 16 pin (10, 30, 32)
D2 1N4007

3
2
1
12 volt ac/dc supply

3
U1

Switch
-++
2 7805
1 1 3
VI VO

GND
D3
1N4007
C1 C2 R1

1
2
3
1uF 330

2
1000uF
D1

Power Indicating LED

Figure 10.4: Power circuit of the microcontroller

10.4.3 MICRO CONTROLLER SIGNALING CIRCUIT

The terminal voltage of the IG is step-down to desired signaling level by three simple 220/6 volt steps
down transformer and is clamped to a voltage proportional to the SEIG output with a DC offset. Further
this step down voltage is rectified to dc with bridge rectifier. An electrolytic capacitor is connected across
the diode bridge rectifier to filter out the ripples. Finally this analog voltage is fed to a ATmega16
microcontroller which converts the input signal to a digital value using the on-the-chip ADC. A
mathematical relation is developed to get an analog equivalent of the digital value given by the ADC is
given in equation 10.3.

Micro controller signaling circuit.

Phase (R) 220/6 volt X-F

TR1
R1
To Micro Controller (ATmega 16A ADC PIN 39, 38, 37)

D2 D4 10k
1N4007 1N4007

RV1
D1 D3 10K
1N4007 1N4007 C1
100uF D5
1N4733A

TR2
R2
Phase (Y) 220/6 volt X-F

D7 D9 10k
1N4007 1N4007

RV2
D6 D8 10K
1N4007 1N4007 C2
100uF D10
1N4733A

TR3
R3
Phase (B) 220/6 volt X-F

D12 D14 10k

1N4007 1N4007

RV3
D11 D13 10K
1N4007 1N4007 C3
100uF D15
1N4733A

Figure 10.5: Microcontroller signaling circuit

107
The software code the ATmega 16 is running only uses the 10 bit ADC conversion result. The resolution
of the ADC using 10 bits is 5 volts / 1024 = 0.00488 volts/bit. The microcontroller is programmed in such
a way that the feedback voltage is compared with a reference value of 230 V for every 20 milliseconds and
makes decision accordingly. Microcontroller signaling circuit is shown in figure 10.5.

(vin ) ´ 73.33 ´1024

ADC (volt ) = (10.3)
VREF

10.4.4 SWITCH CAPACITOR AND DUMP LOAD CONTROL CIRCUIT

In figure 10.7 the circuit diagram of the controlling switched capacitor and dump load control is shown.
Here a simple transistor is used to switch the capacitor and dump load by 12volt relay. These relays were
tested in machine lab and series of resistive, inductive and capacitive load applied sequentially. When 250
ac voltages were applied across the load these relays were suitably carried 3 amp load current without
difficulty. Here the transistors are driven by microcontroller signal according to the measured voltage of
the IG. When the measured voltage of the IG in any phase is less than 200 volt than error signal is
generated by microcontroller which connected a switched capacitor on that phase and again check the
voltage if is steel less than 200 volt than another capacitor will be connected and this process will be
continued until the voltage is greater 200 volt, conversely if the measured voltage is greater than 240 volt
than reverse process will be take place. When the voltage is more than 230 volt and the battery banks are
fully charged then it diverted the extra power produced by the MHPS through dump load. The switching
circuit was tested by connecting the entire component in a bread board. In figure 10.6 the test circuit is
shown.

Figure 10.6: switching circuit was tested in bread board

108
 Switch capacitor and Dump load control circuit
+ 12 volt DC
J1

From IG P h ase R
1
2
3
4
RL7 RL8 RL9 RL10 RL11 RL12 5
6
D1 D3 D5 D7 D9 D11
in pu t sign al from AT m ega 1 6

T o S w itch capcitor
J2 D2 Q6 D4 Q7 D6 Q8 D8 Q9 D10 Q10 D12 Q11 J4

/D u m p load
1 6
2 5
3 4
4 3
5 2
6 1

+ 12 volt DC
J3

From IG P h ase Y
1
2
3
4
RL1 RL2 RL3 RL4 RL5 RL6 5
6
D13 D15 D17 D19 D21 D23
in pu t sig nal from AT m ega 16

J6 D14 Q1 D16 Q2 D18 Q3 D20 Q4 D22 Q5 D24 Q12 J5

T o S w itch capcito r
/D um p load
1 6
2 5
3 4
4 3
5 2
6 1

+ 12 volt DC

T o Sw itch capcitor
J7

/D u m p lo ad
1
2
3
4
RL13 RL14 RL15 RL16 RL17 RL18 5
6
D25 D27 D29 D31 D33 D35
inpu t sig nal from AT m ega 16

T o S w itch capcitor
J9 D26 Q13 D28 Q14 D30 Q15 D32 Q16 D34 Q17 D36 Q18 J8

/D um p load
1 6
2 5
3 4
4 3
5 2
6 1

Figure 10.7: Switched capacitor and dump load control circuit.

10.4.5 DESIGN OF BATTERY BANK CHARGING CIRCUIT

Battery bank charging circuit is shown in figure 10.8. A Voltage divider is used across the battery bank
terminal to monitor the status of the stored charge in battery bank. Here when the voltage of the IG is
greater than 230 volt then it generated PWM signal whose duty ratio is varied 0 to 100% depending on the
stored charge in battery bank. Here PWM1 is used as phase correct mode and choose prescaler value N (8)
and non inverted mode is chosen. If the battery charge is low then duty ratio is set to near 100% and
gradually decrease when stored charge on the battery bank is increased until the full charge. This circuit is
developed to charge a 12 volt rechargeable battery maximum allowable charging current is 30A per phase.
In figure 10.9 the PCB layout of the designed ELC is shown.

109
 TR1

12 volt DC To Battery bank

220/14 volt X-F U1

Input from IG
D1 D3

- +
D2 D4
R1
4.7k R2
PWM signal from Bbridge rectifier 20k
ATmega 16 1 U2 6

Monitor Battery bank charge RV1

20K
2 4

D5 C1
100uF

Input to ATmega 16 pin (40)

Figure 10.8: Battery bank charging circuit

Figure 10.9: PCB layout of the designed ELC

110
 CHAPTER 11

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
11.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter the experimental result of the design micro-hydro power system has been
presented firstly. Secondly the per unit generation cost and per kW installation cost has been
estimated for designed MHPS system and for the implemented proto type model. Finally this
research work is compared with other non-traditional and renewable energy conversion
systems on the ground of economical and technical achievements.

11.2 LABORATORY TEST

In the laboratory setup the excitation system of a 230V, Y connected 4.5kW induction
generator has been tested. Here the turbines are replaced by shunt DC motors and this motor
controlled to have the same steady state and dynamic behavior as the hydro turbines. The
generator is excited by 2.5 kvar fixed capacitors. The fixed capacitors are selected to generate
the no-load reactive power to the generator and the extra reactive power required when the
load is increased and also, if necessary, supply reactive power to the load. The test setup is
shown in figure 11.1. No load voltage per phase of the IG has found 275 volt at 1530 rpm in
this test. A combination of resistive and inductive load has applied to the system for
observing the load characteristics of the system. The response of the system has found linear
while supplying load current 1 amp and the terminal voltage has fallen to 220 volt.

Induction
generator

Shunt DC
motor as PM

Electric
load

Figure11.1: Laboratory test of IG excitation

111
After developing of cross flow turbine, the designed MHPS is tested in fluid mechanics lab.
The turbine directly connected to the centrifugal pump, the pump flow controlled by gate
valve fixed just after the pump. The test system of MHPS is shown in figure 11.2. Here
centrifugal pump was used to supply water in the inlet tank from the underground water wells
through a 6 inches pipe. The discharge capacity of the test system is limited to 65 l/s. In
laboratory test the flow rate and pump head were maintained to 65 l/sec and 1.4 m
respectively. Under this condition the no-load voltage of the IG was build up to 230 volt at
1250 rpm. When three 100 watt and 60 watt incandescent lamp were used as electric load on
IG terminal then the voltage was fallen to 190 volt and rotor speed decreases to 1215 rpm. At
this time 0.75A per-phase load current was delivered by IG. The experimental data is shown
in table 11.1. From this test result overall efficiency of the system has been calculated
respectively to 17.4 percent and 43.34 percent respectively. In this laboratory test the speed
of the IG could not be increased further due to the limitation of experimental test setup.
Because of this limitation the induction generator was operated at near the unstable region of
its stability curve for that any further increase in load causes a huge drop in terminal voltage.
The load characteristic of the IG is shown in figure 11.3.

Figure 11.2: The designed MHPS under test

Table 11.1
Experimental test data
Load Current Voltage IG rotor Discharge Effective head
condition /phase /phase speed Q H (m)
IL (A) Vp (volt) Nr (rpm) (l/sec)
No load 0 230 1250 50 1.4
With load 0.3 223 1236 55 1.4
With load 0.5 210 1224 60 1.4
With load 0.75 190 1215 65 1.4

Hydro power supplied to cross-flow turbine rotor Pin = 9.81QH kW (11.1)

112
 65
Pin = 9.81 * *1.4 = 892 W
1000
Electrical power output Po = 3 *VL I L cosq = 384.75 W (11.2)

VL = 3 *V p = 329 volt
Po = 329 * 0.75 * 0.9 = 384.74 W
Po 384.75
Overall efficiency h 0 = *100 = *100 = 43.1%
Pin 892
V - VFL 230 - 190
Voltage regulation Vr = o *100 = * 100 = 17.4%
Vo 100

250

200
Vp of the IG/phase (V)

150

100

50 load
characteristics

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
load current IL/ phase (A)

Figure 11.3: Load characteristics of the SEIG

11.3 FINANCIAL ASPECTS OF THE DESIGN MHPS IN CTPP2

The total cost of Project comprises of various components which are civil works, Plant and
machineries, project management etc. The major cost of a micro hydro scheme is for site
preparation and the capital cost of equipment. Detail calculation of the per-unit electric
energy generating cost and per kW installation cost is shown in table 11.2 to table 11.7
respectively. In this figure the cost of lighting equipment used for households and also other
end-users has been excluded. The total cost of CFHT, SEIG, cost of ELC and transmission
line is respectively 45,000 BDT, 35,000 BDT, 15,000BDT, and 15,000BDT. Here the
maintenance charge [60] is considered 2% on total capital. Assume the life time of CFHT,
IG, micro hydro dam, ELC and Transmission lines respectively 5, 20, 20, 10 and 10 year the
depreciation charge[61] on each component of MHPS is accounted. Since the size of the

113
project is small and chances of disturbances are low so one operating person is sufficient to
maintain it and the labor cost is considering 5,000 BDT per month. Since this project increase
the efficiency in energy use and have no adverse effect on the environment so the
government incentive is required to encourage such type of project. Here interest on capital is
consider 13.24 % and estimated per unit cost of electricity generation is 3.59 BDT which is
much cheaper in compare to other renewable and conventional sources of energy. The per
unit electricity generation cost of the proto type MHPS is around 4.09 BDT and the per kW
installation cost is 52,581 BDT/kW.

11.3.1 COST ANALYSIS OF THE MHPS IN CTPP2:

While calculating per-unit cost electricity generation cost of MHPS for CTPP2 the following
constrain are considered. These constrain are given below in a table 11.2
Table 11.2
Efficiency consideration for MHPS in CTPP2
Average Effective Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Average
discharge Head of IG of CFHT of Belt Electric power
(l/s) (m) (%) (%) (%) (kW)
250 2.13 87 75 95 3.07

Table 11.3
Total investment required for making 3.07 kW MHPP in CTPP2
Equipment Name Cost in BDT
Cost of 5kW Induction generator 35,000.00
Cost making CFHT for CTPP2 turbine 45,000.00
Cost of making ELC for CTPP2 15,000.00
Transmission line 15,000.00
(a) Total Cost of Electrical and Mechanical Component 110,000.00
(b) Civil work (Micro hydro dam and penstock) 60,000.00
Total installation investment cost of 2.5 kW MHPS in 1,70,000.00
CTPP2 (a+b)

Depreciation of equipment takes place as time proceeds. Here sinking-fund method is applied
to account depreciation on equipments. The sinking-fund method can be defined as:

= 11.3
(1 + ) − 1

114
Where, A is the annual depreciation charged against annual income, BDT.
S is the capital funds that must be accumulated, BDT.
i interest that investment of A will yield.
n is the expected life of capital equipments, year.

Table 11.4
Depreciation charges on MHPS components in CTPP2
Equipments Name Investment Life time Depreciation Annual
(BDT) (years) charge (A/S) Depreciation
Induction Generator 35,000.00 20 1.20 % 420 BDT
CFHT 45,000.00 5 15.35 % 6911 BDT
ELC 15,000.00 10 5.36 % 805 BDT
Transmission line 15,000.00 10 5.36 % 805 BDT
Civil work 60,000.00 20 1.20 % 721 BDT
Total annual depreciation on equipments 9662 BDT

Table 11.5
Annual operating cost of MHPS in CTPP2
Cost Item Amount in BDT
Operating labor cost 5,000x12 60,000.00
Maintenance at 2% of total capital .02x1,70,000 3,400.00
Annual depreciation - 9,662.00
Interest @ 13.24 % of capital 0.1324x1,70,000 22,508.00
Total fixed charges 95,570.00

Table 11.6
Estimated per unit cost of MHPS in CTPP2
Parameters CTPP2(2.5kW)
(a) Total fixed charges 95,570.00 BDT
(b) Energy generation per year 26,873 kWH
(c) Transmission loss 1% 269 kWH
(d) Total energy generation 26604 kWH
Cost of generation (a/d) 3.59 Tk/unit

Table 11.7
Estimated per kW installation cost of MHPS in CTPP2
Parameters
(a) Total installation cost 1,70,000.00 BDT
(b) Total capacity 3.07 kW
Cost of installation (a/b) 55,416 BDT/kW

115
11.3.2 COST ANALYSIS OF THE PROTO TYPE MHPS MODEL
In calculating per-unit cost electricity generation cost of the designed proto type MHPS the
following constrain are considered. These constrain are given below in a table 11.8
Table 11.8
Efficiency consideration of the proto type model
Average Effective Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Average
discharge Head of IG of CFHT of Belt Electric power
(l/s) (m) (%) (%) (%) (kW)
120 2.13 66 75 95 1.18

Table 11.9
Depreciation charges of Proto type MHPS components
Equipments Name Investment Life Depreciation Annual
(BDT) time charge (A/S) Depreciation
(years)
Induction Generator 12,000.00 20 1.20 % 144 BDT
CFHT 15,000.00 3 29.28 % 4393 BDT
ELC 10,000.00 10 5.36 % 537 BDT
Transmission line 5,000.00 10 5.36 % 268 BDT
Civil work 20,000.00 5 15.35 % 3071BDT
Total Investment 62,000.00 - -
Total annual depreciation on equipments 8413 BDT

Table 11.10
Estimation of per unit and per kW installation cost of the proto type MHPS
Cost Item Amount in BDT
Operating labor cost 2,000x12 24,000.00
Maintenance at 2% of total capital .02x62,000 1,240.00
Annual depreciation - 8413.00
Interest @ 13.24% of capital 0.1324x62,000 8208.00
(a) Total fixed charges 41,862.00
(b) Total Investment 62,000.00

c) Energy generation per year 10329 kWH

d) Transmission loss 1% 103kWH
e) Total energy generation 10226 kWH
f) Cost of generation (a/d) 4.09 BDT/unit
f) Cost of installation (a/b) 52581 BDT/kW

116
11.4 TECHNICAL ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE PROJECT
This research work concentrated in the design and development of the micro-hydro power
system which has been implemented by using our indigenous technology at low cost. The
research gives clear ideas on design and fabrication of a cross flow hydro turbine and an
electronic load controller after organizing the information from different sources. Therefore
these provide simplified procedures on design and manufacturing steps. The cross flow hydro
turbine and its electronic load controller are successfully designed and a physical prototype
model has been fabricated at the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology in
machine lab and mechanical workshop. Preliminary tests carried out in fluid mechanic
laboratory aimed at observing performance characteristics of the design MHPS. The results
from the preliminary tests carried out in the laboratory are promising. This is therefore a step
forward in alternative source of non conventional energy of our county. From the design it
can be concluded that, the project is technologically feasible and economically viable since it
can be easily developed locally even by small workshops in our country.

11.5 COMPARISON WITH OTHER NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY

SOURCES
The design MHPS are compared with other non-conventional energy sources based on
following criteria:
11.5.1 Site Selection: The design MHPS are suitable for discharge water of central steam
power plant, municipal waste water, waste water of factories and agricultural water way and
also hilly areas with natural water falls on the dam toe or canal drops. Since the dimensions
of the plant are little so long range studies are not required for such site selection. Wind
turbine power plants are situated in such an area where the wind is strong and persistent all
over the year. Sites for biomass plants are usually located by taking into consideration the
availability of water, raw materials for biogas generation, free open space, total space
required, minimum gradient, water table, distance from wells, and grid. Suitable locations for
solar power plants are areas consisting of flat terrain with no high raised buildings and trees
nearby.

11.5.2 Grid Connection Problems: The output of MHPS is almost constant. Operation of
grid connected mini/micro hydro station is smooth, but for other energy conversion systems,

117
operation in grid connected mode faces many problems like production of harmonics,
abnormalities in voltage and frequency etc.

11.5.3 Economic Consideration: In table 11.10 a comparison regarding installation cost,

fuel cost and per unit cost of electricity generation of the designed MHPS among the other
energy alternatives has shown.

Table 11.11
Comparison of relative cost among energy alternatives
Name of Plant Investment Fuel cost Power cost
Cost BDT per BDT per BDT per
kW kW kWh
Designed MHPS 55,416 None 3.59

Prototype Model 52581 None 4.09

Micro Hydro 1,20,000 None 4.25

(existing)
Diesel 64,000 8.8 10.56

Steam coal fired 80,000 2.16 4.16

Steam oil fired 64,000 4.4 6

Steam wood fired 1,20,000 5 8

Wind energy 4,00,000 None 7.744

Solar PV 16,00,000 Non 12.552

11.5.4 Operation, Maintenance and Control Problems: Operation of MHPS is smooth and
easy to operate and is relatively required little maintenance in only the bearings and belt drive
system which may have to be replaced from time to time. Whereas for wind power station
there is problem of noise pollution, teething troubles, poor performance due to operation and
maintenance problems. Problems related to biogas are handling of effluent slurry, gas
forming methanogenic bacteria, accumulation of volatile fatty acids and drop in Ph and
failure of digester, leakage of gas from gas holder.

118
11.5.5 Impact on Environment:
CSPP based MHPS has minimum environmental impact, since it only used the discharge
cooling water of the plant. Moreover this plant is clean, pollution free and environment
friendly like renewable source.

119
 CHAPTER 12

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

12.1 CONCLUSION
The aim of this research is to utilize the discharge water of CSPP as an effective and alternative
source of energy for mini/micro hydro power generation system and to design and developed a
cost effective MHPS especially for the developing country. In field survey the feasibility of
maximum amount of hydro power generation near about 1 MW estimated in Ashuganj Power
Station Company Ltd (APSCL) and Ghorasal power plant (GPP). On the other hand micro-hydro
potential is good in both Chittagong thermal power plant and Meghnaghat power plant (MPP).
Suitable types of turbine and generator sets are proposed for various CSPP for reliable operation
of the micro hydro power system according to their existing site condition. A low cost MHPS is
successfully design and a physical prototype model has been fabricated in Bangladesh University
of Engineering and Technology (BUET) mechanical workshop. An advance microcontroller
based ELC has been designed and simulated by Proteus 7.7 SP2 Pro software for the MHPS. In
this work the function of ELC is to regulate the voltage by switching excitation capacitor as well
as maintain the per phase balance load depending on measured voltage at IG terminal. Again to
improve the efficiency in energy use a PWM battery energy storage system is accommodated in
the ELC which store excess power during low demand. Preliminary tests carried out in fluid
mechanic laboratory are aimed at observing performance characteristics of the designed MHPS.
The test has performed by maintaining 65 l/s discharge rate and an effective head of 1.4m which
are small compared to the design discharge and head. The maximum power developed by the
design MHPS Under this condition generated electric power was 384 watt at 190 volt at 1210
rpm and the system efficiency and voltage regulation have found 17 percent and 43% percent
respectively. The efficiency of the system is lower than the anticipated maximum efficiency of
the system due to losses in bearings, belt drive system and finally the system was driven at
reduce effective head and discharge. Material used to develop the project available in the local
market so the cost of the total system is much cheaper than the other renewable and conventional
sources of energy conversion system. The designed MHPS is flexible and portable so it can
effectively be used in remote areas of our country. Moreover it is a clean power generation

120
system since it only used the discharge water of CSPP to drive the turbine so this project will not
imposed any additional adverse effect on the environment. The results from the preliminary tests
carried out in the laboratory are promising. This is therefore a step forward in field of alternative
source of non conventional energy for MHPS of our county. From the design it can be concluded
that, the project is technologically feasible, environmentally sustainable and economically viable
since it can be easily developed locally even by small workshops in our country by which
efficiency in energy use can be increased but also it will introduce a new revolution for
electrification of rural area where MHPS is suitable.

12.2 FUTURE WORK OF THE RESEARCH

The scope of the CSPP and natural source based micro hydro power generation in Bangladesh is
large. For further increase overall system efficiency as well as reduce the operation and
maintenance cost of the MHPS direct driven induction generator is required. The rotational speed
of the turbine is mainly depends on the working head. The net head available in most of the
potential micro hydro sites vary from 2 m to 10 m. Because of that it is very difficult to increase
the speed of the turbine for direct driving the induction generator. So it is necessary to design a
low speed generator especially suitable for the low head micro hydro system of our country.

121
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126
 APPENDIX A
PROGRAMMING CODE FOR CFHT DESIGN

In appendix A “C” programming code for determining the CFHT parameter is given below.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define pi 3.14159265
int main (void)
{
clrscr();
int n,n_b,y_12;
float Pin, P_w, e, e1, e_h, Q, H, LD1, C_v, k, g, x_11, i, z, z1, L, D1, D0, N, Ns, V1,V2,
A, A_1, So, S1, S2, S3, Si, sigma, t, t1, Tc, a1, a12, b1, b12, c1, c12, d1, d12, r1, r2, r_21,
r_pc, R_pc, x1, x2, a_rw, R_cv, R_w, v1, v2, u1, u12, u2, a_pa2, boc, y, y1, y2, y_11, y_13,
y_14, Y, n_i, n_h, P_h, f1, f2, f3, f4, f5, F, Fc, W, M, Q_mc, Ix, Iy;

double a_pa, z2, B_ta, d_ta, fi, g_ma;

char ch;

printf("\n Enter the value of Head in<m> H: ");

scanf("%f",&H);
printf("\n Enter the value ofFlow rate in<m3/sec> Q: ");
scanf("%f",&Q);

P_w=9.8*Q*H;
printf("\n Water Power in your selected site is P_w=%4.2f kW",P_w);
printf("\n\n\n wellcome in Cross Flow Turbine Design");

start:
printf("\n\n Enter the value of angle of water entry to runnerin degree alpha=");
scanf("%lf",&a_pa);
if(a_pa>9 && a_pa<= 30)
{
goto label2;
}
else
{
printf("\n\n Note:- You should enter the value of angle of attack");
printf("\n alpha in between 10 t0 30 degree to maximize efficiency");
printf("\n\n want to change entered value of alpha: y/n?: ");
ch=getche();
if(ch=='y')
{
goto start;
}
else
{
goto label2;

127
}
}
label2:
B_ta=(atan(2*tan(a_pa*pi/180))*180/pi);
printf(" \n Blade angle Beta in degree B_ta=%3.2lf",B_ta);

label3:
printf("\n\n Enter the desire rotational speed N: ");
scanf("%f",&N);
Ns=N*sqrt(Q)/(pow(H,0.75));
printf("\n\n Ns=%f",Ns);
if(Ns>=20 && N<=201)
{
goto label1;
}
if(Ns<19)
{
printf("\n\n Increase your desire speed N: y/n?");
ch=getche();
if(ch=='y')
{
goto label3;
}
}
else if(Ns>201)
{
printf("\n\n Decrees your desire speed: y\n?");
ch=getche();
if(ch=='y')
{
goto label3;
}
}
label1:

printf("\n\n Determination of Breadth and Diameter of Wheel:");

C_v= 0.98; //C_v coefficent of flow
k=0.087; // k empherical coefficientand value
// is varied between 0.075 ~0.1.
g=9.81; //g gravitional acceleration 9.8 m/sec2.

LD1=(Q*10000)/(C_v*k*sqrt(2*g*H)); // LD1 product of L and D1.

D1=((30*C_v*sqrt(2*g*H)*cos(a_pa*pi/180))/(pi*N/100));
printf("\n\n Runner Outer diameter D1=%5.2f",D1);
L=LD1/D1;
printf("Runner Breadth L=%5.2f",L);
D0=sqrt(LD1);
i=(D0-10*D0/100);
if(D1<i)
{

128
printf(" Reduced your speed since your runner diameter");
printf("\n is less than your Bradth of your runner");
goto label3;
}
printf("\n\n Want to change your Diameter and Breadth: y/n?");
ch=getche();
if(ch=='y')
{
printf("\n\n You have to change your desired speed!!");
printf("\n\n Want to change your Desired speed: y/n?");
ch=getche();
if(ch=='y')
{
goto label3;
}
else
{
goto label5;
}

}
else
{
goto label5;
}
label5:

printf("\n\nDetermination of Area of the Jet:(y/n?)");

ch=getche();
if(ch=='y')
{
V1=C_v*sqrt(2*g*H); // V1 Absolute velocity of water at inlet
A=(Q/V1)*10000; // A Area of jet.
So=(A/L); // thickness of the Jet.
printf("\n\n Velocity of the Jet V1=%3.2f in m/sec", V1);
printf("\n Area of the Jet A=%3.2f in cm2",A);
printf("\n Original Jet thicknessthe Jet 'So'= %3.2fin cm",So);
}
else
{
goto label;
}

printf("\n\n Spacing of the Blades in Wheel:");

{
S1=(k*D1); //k=0.087; used here. // S1=So Thickness of jet at entrance
t=((S1)/(sin((B_ta*pi)/180))); // t Spacing of Blade.
n_i=((pi* D1)/t); // n_b number of blades in wheel.
printf("\n\n Thickness of jet at entrance S1=%2.3f in cm",S1);

129
printf("\n Blade spacing between two neighbour blade t=%2.2fcm",t);
printf("\n\n Note:-if only one blade at a time be assumed as cuting jet\n");
printf("\n\nNumber of blade in the wheel is n=%f",n_i);

printf("\n\nDetermination of Radial Rim width of Wheel:y/n?");

ch=getche();
if(ch=='y')
{ // a1,b12,c12,c1,d12,d1,x11,x12, float
a1=1; // type variable used to slove couadratic equqtion
b12=cos(B_ta*pi/180);
b1=-(1-(1/(b12*b12)));
c12=(tan(B_ta*pi/180));
c1=-c12*c12;
d12=(b1*b1-4*a1*c1);
d1=sqrt(d12);
{
if(d1>0)
{x1=((-b1+d1)/(2*a1));
r_21=sqrt(x1); // r_21 Ration of inner and outer circle radious (r2/r1).
r1=(D1/2); // r1 Radious ofouter circle.
r2=r1*r_21; // r2 Radious ofinner circle.
a_rw=(r1-r2); // a_rw Radial rim width
// R_cv Radious ofcurvature of Blade
R_cv=((r1*(1-r_21*r_21)/2)/(cos(B_ta*pi/180)));
S2=t*(r2/r1);
printf("\n\n x1=%1.3f \t b12=%1.3f \t b1=%1.3f",x1,b12,b1);
printf(" \t c1=%1.3f\t d1=%1.2f",c1,d1);
printf("\n\nThickness of jet at entrance S2=%3.2f in cm",S2);
printf("\n Ration of inner and outer circle radious (r2/r1)=%1.2f", r_21);
printf("\n Radius of outer circle r1=%3.2f in cm", r1);
printf("\n Radius of inner circle r2=%3.2f in cm", r2);
printf("\n Radial rim width a=%3.2f in cm", a_rw);
printf("\n Radius of curvature of Blade=%3.2f in cm", R_cv);
}
else if (d1<0)
{
printf("\n\nyou enter wrong data!!\n Please check");
}
}
}
else
{
goto label;
}
printf("\n\n Central angle calculation:");

{ //u1 Tangential velocity of Vane of wheel at outer

part

130
u1=((V1*cos(a_pa*pi/180))/2); //u2Tangential velocity of Vane of wheel at inner
part
v1=(u1/(cos(B_ta*pi/180))); // v1 relative velocity of jet at inlet
v2=(v1*(1/r_21)*sin(B_ta*pi/180)); // relative velocity of jet denote v
// tangential velocity of vane denote u
u2=u1*r_21; // v2 relative velocity of jet at outlet
a_pa2=(atan(v2/u2)*180/pi); // a_pa angle between u and V1 at inlet
boc=(2*a_pa2); // a_pa2 angle between u and V1 at outlet
V2=((r_21*u1)/cos(a_pa2*pi/180)); // boc Central angle
z1=(sin(B_ta*pi/180)+r_21);
z2=(atan((cos(B_ta*pi/180))/z1)*180/pi);
d_ta=2*z2;
printf("\n\nCentral angle is %4.2f degree",boc); // B_ta angle between u and v1 at inlet
printf("\n Central angle delta=%4.2lf degree",d_ta);
printf("\nVelocity of Jet at entrance V1=%3.2f m/sec",V1);
printf("\nRelative Velocity of Jet at exit v2=%3.2f m/sec",v2);
printf("\nTangential Velocity of Vane of wheel at outer part u1=%3.2f m/sec",u1);
printf("\nTangential Velocity of Vane of wheel at inner part u2=%3.2f m/sec",u2);
}
printf("\n\n Thickness of the jet:");
//printf("\n\n Calculate Thickness of the Jet at");
printf(" the inner part of the circle:(y/n)?");
ch=getche();
if(ch=='y')
{
y=((V1*So)/V2);
y1=(r2*cos(a_pa2*pi/180)-y/2);
y2=(r1*sin(B_ta*pi/180)-y/2);
printf("\n\n Thickness in the inner part of the wheel is y=%3.2f cm",y);
printf("\n Distane of Jet from the center of shaft y1=%3.2f cm",y1);
printf("\n Distane of Jet from the inner periphery of wheel y2=%3.2f cm",y2);
}
else
{
goto label;
}
printf("\n\n efficiency calculation:");
{
Si=0.98;
a12=(cos(a_pa*pi/180)-u1/V1);
n_h=(((100*2*C_v*C_v*u1*(1+Si)*a12)/V1));
printf("\n\nEfficiency of your design turbine is n_h=%3.2f %",n_h);
}
{
Si=0.98; // empherical constant.
P_h=(9.8*H*Q*n_h)/100;
printf("\n\nHydro Power Generated by your turbine P_h=%f5 kW",P_h);
}
printf( "\n\n\n Design efficiency is satisfactory: y/n?");
ch=getche();

131
if(ch=='y')
{
goto label4;
}
else
{
printf("\n\nDo you wish to design for another value of a_pa: y/n?");
ch=getche();
if(ch=='y')
{
goto start;
}
else
{
printf("\n Exit from program");
}
}
// Bending Stress calculation:
//Mass flow through a Blade channel=Q_mc

label4:

{
printf("\n\n Calculation of Bending Stress");
R_w=1000; //density of water
printf("\n \n Enter thickness of the blade in cm:");
scanf("%f",&t1);
printf("\n Choose desire blade number: ");
scanf(" %d",&n_b);
f1=pi*D1*sin(B_ta*pi/180); // f1 used for calculating S3.
S3=(f1/n_b)-t1; // t1 thickness of the blade.
printf("\n\nf1=%f S3=%fcm",f1,S3);
Q_mc=R_w*(L/100)*(S3/100)*v1;
printf("\n Massflow through a Blade channel Q_mc=%6.2f Kg/sec",Q_mc);
}
// The moment transmitted by a Blade channel:
{
Tc=Q_mc*(r1*V1*cos(a_pa*pi/180)+r2*(Si-1)*u1)/100;
printf("\n\n The moment transmitted by a Blade channelTc=%6.2f N-m /sec",Tc);
}
{
// Point of application of Hydraulic Forces:
// point of force applied radius =r_pc
y_13=2*R_cv*sin((d_ta/4)*pi/180); // y_12,y_13 for calculation here.
y_14=(r2*r2+y_13*y_13-2*r2*y_13*cos((180-d_ta/4)*pi/180));
r_pc=sqrt(y_14);
printf("\n\n y_13=%4.2f, y_14=%4.2f, r_pc=%f4.2 in cm", y_13,y_14,r_pc);
}
// inclind angle: fi and g_ma
{

132
 // pitch circle radius
R_pc=2.2516*R_cv;
f2=(r_pc*r_pc+R_cv*R_cv-R_pc*R_pc);
f3=2*r_pc*R_cv;
fi=acos(f2/f3)*180/pi;
g_ma=90-fi;
printf("\n\nf2=%f,f3=%f\nR_pc=%f\t fi=%lf\t\t g_ma=%lf",f2,f3,R_pc,fi,g_ma);
}
{
// Distributed load on a Blade:
F=Tc/(r_pc/100);
Fc=F/(cos(g_ma*pi/180));
W=Fc/(L/100);
printf("\n\n Hydraulic force F=%6.2f in N", F);
printf("\n Centric force along point of application");
printf("\n of Hydraulic force Fc=%6.2f in N",Fc);
printf("\n Distributed load on Blade W=%6.2fin N/m", W);
// Area moment of inertia of the Blade:
A_1=(d_ta*pi/180)*((t1)*(2*R_cv+t1))/2;
Y=(2*(pow((R_cv+t1),3)-pow(R_cv,3))*sin((d_ta/2)*pi/180))/(3*A_1);
Iy=(pow((R_cv+t1),4)-pow(R_cv,4))*((d_ta*pi/180)+sin(d_ta*pi/180))/8;
Ix=Iy-A_1*Y*Y;
printf("\n Cross section area of Blade profile A_1=%6.2f in cm2",A_1);
printf("\n Distance of the center of gravity Y=%6.2f in cm", Y);
printf("\n Area moment of inertia W. R. T y axis Iy=%6.2f in cm4", Iy);
printf("\n Area moment of inertia W. R. T x axis Ix=%6.2f in cm4", Ix);
}
{
e=Y-R_cv*cos(d_ta*pi/(180*2)); // e= Extreem fiber distance
e1=e/100; //Extreem fiber distance in m
printf("\n\nExtreem fiber distance e=%6.2f in cm", e);
M=W*(L/100)*(L/100)/12;
sigma=(100*M*e1)/Ix;
printf("\n\n Bending moment M=%6.2f in N-m ", M);
printf("\n Flexural stress sigma=%6.2f N/mm2",sigma);
}
printf( "\n\n\n Is Flexural stress satisfactory: y/n?");
ch=getche();
if(ch=='y')
{
printf(" \n\nPrint result");
}
else
{
goto label4;
}
label:
getch();
return 0;
}

133
 APPENDIX B
DIMENSIONAL PARAMETER OF THE DESIGNED MHPS
“Turbine Generator leg”
TG_L1_left, TG_L2_right, TG_L3_right, TG_L4_left,
Total Length=40"
Drill point from right end: 0.8425", 8.96", 22.658", 39.1526", or 21.39, 227.58, 510.7, 994.5mm

TG_L1_front, TG_L2_front
Total Length=40"
Drill point from right end: 1", 17", 36", 39", 25.4 , 431.8mm ,914.4,990.6mm from bottom

TG_L3_back, TG_L4_back
Drill point from right end: 1", 12", 17", 28", 39" or 25.4, 305mm, 431.8mm, 711, 990.6mm from bottom

“Nozzle and tank leg”

N_L1_left, N_L2_right, N_L3_right, N_L4_left
Total Length=62"
Drill point from right end: 1", 24", 36", 61.25", or 25.4,622, 914.4, 1505mm

N_L1_front, N_L2_front
Total Length=62"
Drill point from right end: 1", 12", 17", 24.5", 28", 36", 39", 45.5", 61" ,or
25.4, 304.8, 431.8, 622.3, 711, 914, 909.6, 11555.7, 1549.4mm

N_L3_back, N_L4_back
Total Length=62"
Drill point from right end: 1", 24.5", 36", 45.5", 61”, or 25.4, 622.3, 914, 11555.7, 1549.4mm

Turbine Generator left right horizontal arm (N_H12 means "H =horizontal,

1st Num"1=left, 3=right" && 2nd Num=represent bottom, middle and top");

TG_H12_middle_left, TG_H32_middle_right
Total Length=34.6"
Drill point from right end, .84", 33.84", 14.84", 19.84" or 21.43mm, 859.5mm, 377mm, 504mm
“Turbine base"

TG_H12_middle_Left_topside, TG_H32_middle_right_topside
Total Length=34.6"
Drill point from left end: 6.84", 11.34" or 174mm, & 288mm

“Generator base"
TG_H13_Top_Left
Total Length=35"
Drill point from right end, 1", 34" ,or 25.4mm, & 836.6mm

TG_H13_top_Left_topside, TG_H33_top_right_topside
Total Length=35"
Drill point from right end: 4", 8.5" , 20", 30" or 101.6mm, 216mm, 508mm,762mm,

TG_H1_top_front, TG_H2_top_front
Total Length=30"
Drill point from right end: 1", 3", 12", 29"

Turbine Generator left right horizontal arm (N_H12 means "H =horizontal,
1st Num"1=left, 3=right" && 2nd Num=represent bottom, middle and top");

“Turbine Generator Horizontal arm"

134
TG_H41_Bottom_Back, TG_H22_middle_Front, gb TG_H42_middle_Back,
TG_H43_middle_Back
total Length=29.60"
Drill point from right end, .844", 16.844" ,

TG_Cross Arm 1, TG_Cross Arm 2

total Length=23"
1.5"x1.5" angle.
Drill point from right end: 1.6", 21.4",

TGN_h1_bottom_front, TGN_h1_bottom_back

Total Length=60"
Drill point from right end:1", 15", 29", 31" 44", 59"

TGN_H1_bottom_left, TGN_H1_bottom_left
Total Length=53"
Drill point from right end: 1", 34", 36", 52",

TG_h12_middle_front, Total Length=29.68"

Drill point from right end, .84", 28.844",

G_h13_top_front, Total Length=29.68", 753mm

Drill point from right end, .84", 28.844",
TG_h23_middle_front
Total Length=29.6" =753mm
Drill point from right end: .84", 28.844",

Nozzle left right horizontal arm (N_H12 means "H =horizontal,

1st Num"1=left, 3=right" && 2nd Num=represent bottom, middle and top");

“Nozzle Horizontal arm"

N_H12_middle_Left, N_H32_middle_rignt, N_H13_middle_Left, N_H33_middle_right
total Length=17.60"
1.5"x1.5" angle.
Drill point from right end: .844", 16.844"

N_H14_Top_Left, N_H34_Top_right
Total Length=18"
1.5"x1.5" angle.
Drill point from right end: .844", 16.844" ,

Nozzle Horizontal arm"

N_H22_middle_front, N_H24_middle_back
total Length=29.60"
1dimension, 1.5"x1.5" angle.
Drill point from right end: .844", 28.844" ,

Nozzle Tank left right horizontal arm

(N_H12 means "H =horizontal,1st Num"1=left, 3=right" && 2nd Num=represent bottom, middle and top");

NNT_H11_Top_left, N_H12_Bottom_left, N_H31_Top_right, N_H32_Bottom_right

total Length=22"
Drill point from right end, 1", 21”,

Nozzle Tank Front Back horizontal arm

Nozzle Tank base
NT_H21_Bottom_front, NT_H22_Top_front, NT_H41_Bottom_Back, NT_H42_Top_Back,
Total Length=30"
Drill point from right end: 1", 7", 24", 29"

135
 Generator house leg."
GHL_L11_left, GHL_L13_right
Total Length=22"
Drill point from right end,
1", 4”, 10", 15", 20", 26.25"

HL_H11_left, GHL_H13_right
Total Length=22"
Drill point from right end,
1", 3”, 7", 11", 14",

Figure B1: Side view of the designed nozzle

136
 APPENDIX C
REQUIRED EXCITATION CAPACITANCE CALCULATION

In appendix C detail calculation for required self-excitation capacitor is given below. In table
C.1 No-load test data of the IG is shown. In appendix C firstly the calculations for no-load
excitation capacitor is calculated and finally consider its loaded condition.

Table C.1
No-load test data
No-load voltage VL (V) No-load current IL (A) No-load loss PO (Watt)
446.3 1.15 221

The total apparent power at no load

= √3 ∗ ∗

= √3 ∗ 446.3 ∗ 1.15 = 888.9

Reactive power per-phase

888.9
= = = 296.3 .
3 3
FOR STAR CONNECTED CAPACITOR BANK

446.3
_ = = 257.67( ), _ = I = 1.15 A
√3
1
X _ = =
2πfc

1.15
c= = = 14.2µF ≌ 14µF.
2πf 2 ∗ 3.14 ∗ 50 ∗ 257.67

FOR DELTA CONNECTED BANK

296.3
_∆ = = 446.3( ), _ = = = 0.663A
_ 446.3

1
X _ = =
2πfc

. 663
c= = = 4.73µF ≌ 5µF.
2πf 2 ∗ 3.14 ∗ 50 ∗ 446.3

137
DESIGNING NO OF STEPS FOR SWITCHED EXCITATION CAPACITORS BANK

The design micro-hydro system is capable to give 1.13 kW electric powers (consider the
efficiency of the system is 46%)

= √3 = √3 ∗ 440 ∗ 2.12

= 1615

= = 1615 ∗ 0.7 = 1.13

Reactive power to be supplied to the induction generator

= − = 1615 + 1130 = 1153

Hence the reactive power per phase under loaded condition is

1153
= = = 384 .
3 3
REQUIRED SWITCH CAPACITOR FOR DELTA CONNECTED BANK

384
_∆ = = 440 , _∆ = = = 0.87A
_∆ 440

1
X _ = =
2πfc

0.874
c∆ = = = 6.32µF ≌ 6µF
2πf 2 ∗ 3.14 ∗ 50 ∗ 440

REQUIRED SWITCH CAPACITOR FOR STAR CONNECTED BANK

= 3 ∗ c = 3 ∗ 6 = 18 µF

The value of fixed capacitor are selected to generate the no-load reactive power to the
generator and to maintain Desired voltage = 5µF per-phase. This capacitor is connected in Δ
mode. The value of switched capacitor bank per phase is 18µF. This capacitor bank is
switched automatically in 3 steps according to the load condition on the generator. Each
capacitor step corresponds to a generated reactive power of 125 var at 257 volt.

138
 APPENDIX D
PROGRAMMING CODE FOR MICROCONTROLLER

In appendix D the programming code used for ATmega16 micro controller is given below.
The program is written in mikroC PRO for AVR.

void main()
{
double voltage_R, voltage_Y, voltage_B, V_DC_bank;
char current_duty;
DDB3_bit = 1; // Set PORTB pin 3 as output pin for the PWM1 (OC0)
DDA0_bit = 0;
DDA1_bit = 0;
DDA2_bit = 0;
DDA3_bit = 0;

PWM1_Init (_PWM1_PHASE_CORRECT_MODE, _PWM1_PRESCALER_8,

_PWM1_NON_INVERTED, current_duty);

//Initializes PWM1
DDRC=0xFF;
DDRD=0xFF;

while(1) // infinite loop.

{
V_DC_bank=ADC_Read(0);
voltage_R = ADC_Read(1);
voltage_Y = ADC_Read(2);
voltage_B = ADC_Read(3);
voltage_R = (voltage_R*5*73.33/1024.0);
voltage_Y = (voltage_Y*5*73.33/1024.0);
voltage_B = (voltage_B*5*73.33/1024.0);
V_DC_bank=(V_DC_bank*5*6/1024.0);

if(voltage_R >250) // Dump load control of phase Red

{
PORTC=((PORTC& 0b11111110)|0b00000001); // Dump load Port C pin 0
activated.
//delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_R>240 && PINC0_bit ==1)
{ PORTC=((PORTC& 0b11111101)|0b00000010); // Dump load Port C pin 0,1
activated.
delay_ms(10);
}
if (voltage_R=<240)

139
 {
PORTC=(PORTC& 0b11111101); // Dump load pin 1 deactivated.
delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_R=<240 && PINC1_bit==0) // Dump load pin 0,1 deactivated.
{
PORTC=(PORTC& 0b11111100);
delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_y >250) // Dump load control of phase
Yellow
{
PORTC=((PORTC& 0b11111011)|0b00000100); // Dump load PORTC pin 2
activated.
delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_y>240 && PINC2_bit ==1)
{ PORTC=((PORTC& 0b11110111)|0b00001000); // Dump load PORTC pin 2,3
activated.
delay_ms(10);
}
if (voltage_y=<240)
{
PORTC=(PORTC& 0b11110111); // Dump load pin 3 deactivated.
delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_y=<240 && PINC3_bit==0)
{
PORTC=(PORTC& 0b11110011); // Dump load pin 3,2 deactivated.
delay_ms(10);
}

if(voltage_B >250) // Dump load control of phase Blue

{
PORTC= ((PORTC& 0b11101111)|0b00010000); // Dump load pin 4 activated.
delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_B>240 && PINC4_bit ==1)
{ PORTC=((PORTC& 0b11011111)|0b00100000); // Dump load pin 4,5 activated.
delay_ms(10);
}
if (voltage_B<240)
{
PORTC=(PORTC& 0b11011111); // Dump load pin 5 deactivated.
delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_y=<260 && PINC5_bit==0)
{
PORTC=(PORTC& 0b11001111); // Dump load pin 5,4 deactivated.
delay_ms(10);

140
 }
// Excitation controll//

if(voltage_R <200) // control of excitation of phase

Red
{
PORTC=((PORTC& 0b10111111)|0b01000000); // Switched capacitor pin 6
activated.
delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_R<200 && PINC6_bit ==1)
{ PORTC=((PORTC& 0b01111111)|0b10000000); // Switched capacitor pin 6,7
activated.
delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_R<200 && PINC6_bit ==1 && PINC7_bit ==1 )
{ PORTD=((PORTD& 0b11111110)|0b00000001); // Switched capacitor pinC 6,7,
PinD0 activated.
delay_ms(10);
}
if (voltage_R>240)
{
PORTD=(PORTD& 0b11111110); // Switched capacitor pinD 0 deactivated.
delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_R>240 && PIND0_bit==0) // Switched capacitor pin D0,C7
deactivated.
{
PORTD=(PORTD& 0b11111110);
PORTC=(PORTC& 0b01111111);
delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_R>240 && PIND0_bit==0 && PINC7_bit==0) // Switched capacitor pin
D0,C7,6 deactivated.
{
PORTD=(PORTD& 0b11111110);
PORTC=(PORTC& 0b00111111);
delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_Y <200) // Switched capacitor control of excitation for phase
Yellow.
{
PORTD=((PORTD& 0b11111101)|0b00000010); //Switched capacitor pin
D1activated.
delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_Y<200 && PIND1_bit ==1)
{ PORTD=((PORTD& 0b11111011)|0b00000100);
// Switched capacitor pin D1,D2
activated.

141
 delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_Y<200 && PIND1_bit ==1 && PIND2_bit ==1 )
{ PORTD=((PORTD& 0b11110111)|0b00001000);
// Switched capacitor pinD3,2,1 activated.
delay_ms(10);
}
if (voltage_Y>=240)
{
PORTD=(PORTD& 0b11110111); // Switched capacitor pinD3 deactivated.
delay_ms(10);
}

if(voltage_Y>=240 && PIND3_bit==0) // Switched capacitor pin D3,2

deactivated.
{
PORTD=(PORTD& 0b11110011);
delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_Y>=240 && PIND3_bit==0 && PIND2_bit==0) // Switched capacitor
pin D3,2,1 deactivated.
{
PORTD=(PORTD& 0b11110000);
delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_B <200) // control of excitation for phase Blue.
{
PORTD=((PORTD& 0b11101111)|0b00010000); // Switched capacitor pin D4
activated.
delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_B<200 && PIND4_bit ==1)
{ PORTD=((PORTD& 0b11011111)|0b00100000); // Switched capacitor pin D4,D5
activated.
delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_B<200 && PIND4_bit ==1 && PIND5_bit ==1 )
{ PORTD=((PORTD& 0b10111111)|0b01000000); // Switched capacitor pinD6, 5, 4
activated.
delay_ms(10);
}
if (voltage_B>=240)
{
PORTD=(PORTD& 0b10111111); // Switched capacitor pinD6 deactivated.
delay_ms(100);
}

if(voltage_B>=240 && PIND6_bit==0) // Switched capacitor pin D3,2

deactivated.
{

142
 PORTD=(PORTD& 0b10011111);

delay_ms(10);
}
if(voltage_B>=240 && PIND6_bit==0 && PIND5_bit==0) // Switched capacitor
pin D6, 5, 4 deactivated.
{
PORTD=(PORTD& 0b10001111);
delay_ms(10);
}
// Battery Bank charge Controll by PWM.

if(voltage_R>=220 && voltage_R<=240)

{
PWM1_Start();
{ if(V_DC_bank>= 11 && V_DC_bank<=12)
{PWM1_Set_Duty(current_duty);
current_duty = 250;
Delay_ms(10);
}
if(V_DC_bank>= 13 && V_DC_bank<=12.25)
{PWM1_Set_Duty(current_duty);
current_duty = 225;
Delay_ms(10);
}
if(V_DC_bank>= 15 && V_DC_bank<=12.50)
{PWM1_Set_Duty(current_duty);
current_duty = 175;
Delay_ms(10);
}
if(V_DC_bank>= 17 && V_DC_bank<=12.75)
{PWM1_Set_Duty(current_duty);
current_duty = 100;
Delay_ms(10);
}
else
{PWM1_Set_Duty(current_duty);
current_duty = 25;
Delay_ms(10);
}
}
}
else
{
PWM1_Stop();
}

}
}

143