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A Structured Approach to the Design of Shoe Lasts

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DOI: 10.1080/09544829508907910

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A Structured Approach to the Design of Shoe Lasts
S. R. Mitchell a; R. Jones a; S. T. Newman a
a
Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University of
Technology, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK.

Online Publication Date: 01 January 1995

To cite this Article: Mitchell, S. R., Jones, R. and Newman, S. T. (1995) 'A
Structured Approach to the Design of Shoe Lasts', Journal of Engineering Design,
6:2, 149 - 166
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Journal of Engineering Design, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1995

A Structured Approach to the Design of Shoe Lasts

S. R. MITCHELL, R. JONES & S. T. NEWMAN

SUMMARYThe foundation for sculptured feature-based shoe last design, using extended form
(EF) feature method, is presented. The E F approach is particularly suited to sculptured
surface products that exhibit parameoic variation throughout a set or family, such as shoe
lasts. Some underlying principles and issues relevent to shoe lasts and common m sculptured
products that can be usefully modelled by the E F feature approach are also discussed. A n initial
feature anatomy for a common shoe style is proposed to support the need for localized shape
control for current and future design requirements. The following conclusions are reached: it is
possible to decompose a shoe last into a feature anatomy for EF feature-based design; there are
issues common to sculptured products, including shoe lasts, that are specifically addressed and
dealt with effectively within the E F method; an EF jeature-based approach shows significant
potential to benefit lasr design eficiency, enhance size grading, and improve manufacturing
processes; more work need to be done to evaluate the eficacy of a system based on the EF
feature methods and the proposed last anatomy.

1. Introduction

1.1 Shoe Lasts

People have been making shoes for thousands of years. During this period, most
manufacturing techniques, manual or otherwise, have involved the use of a forming tool
or internal support for the material used (usually leather), at some stage in the process.
With few exceptions, modem shoes are manufactured using form tooling known as a
'last'. Lasts were first introduced in 1818 and were originally made of solid metal. In
the late 19th century, wood (usually maple) became more popular. Now, only the
initial lasr model is made from wood. Modem production lasts are mostly made of
plastic-generally high density polyethylene.
A shoe last is similar in shape and size to the foot intended to wear the shoe, but it
is not identical. During the shoe 'upper"(usually stitched leather) and insole assembly
process (known as 'lasting'), the upper is stretched over the lasr and attached to the
insole. This stretching and subsequent recovery of the upper ('fall in') once the last is
removed, result in the desired shape of the shoe. Thus, the last must be shaped to give
the intended fit to the upper material (such as allowing room for the toes to flex but
gripping the heel), as well as any variation from the shape of the foot required by
fashion (such as an extended pointed toe). Modem production lasts also have a large

S. R. Mitchell, R. Jones and S. T. Newman, Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough

University of Technology, Loughborough, Leicestershire LEI1 3TU, UK.
0954-48281951020149-18 01995 Journals Oxford Ltd
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150 S. R. Mitchell et al.

transverse 'v' groove and a sprung hinge roughly in the middle, to allow easy removal
from the finished shoe.
During the upper, sole and heel assembly process (known as 'attaching'), the last
supports the insole from inside the shoe, to provide the clamping pressure distribution
necessary for the adhesion of the sole to the insole, and that of the heel to the sole. T o
achieve this, the sole of the last is flatter and more uniform than the human foot, and
also has a sharper profile to distribute the load to the edges of the insole.
T o make a shoe style available to a variety of people, it must be made in a range of
sizes. This requires production sets of last pairs manufactured to form the different shoe
sizes. Initially, the last is designed by a craftsman modelling a wooden last for a single
size, typically to produce a size 4 (women's) or 7 (men's) shoe. The designer seldom
starts from scratch. Usually, helshe will start with at least a pan-machined block that
has a standard heel already copy turned from a previous design, or will start by adapting
a previous last model. The customer's design specification is usually a combination of
drawings, key measurements and often a sample shoe. Sometimes a cast from the inside
of the shoe will form the basis for the last shape. Once the initial model is accepted,
intermediate size variations are produced by 'grading' and subsequent 'coordination'.
The grading process progressively enlarges or reduces the last dimensions, and
commonly involves a combination of copy turning with a magnification factor and
manual adjustment. There are three approaches to grading I:1]:
Arithmetic: the increment for a specific dimension between sizes is specified as a
constant value.
Geometric the increment for a specific dimension between sizes is specified as a
constant percentage of that dimension.
Proponional: the increment for all dimensions between sizes is specified as the same
percentage applied to each dimension.
Proportional grading is little used today, even though it maintains the proportions of
the last, and so its shape and style, through the size range. Figure 1 shows that there
is little practical difference between the last dimensions produced by geometric or
arithmetic grading. Both approaches allow for the length of the last to increase or
decrease proportionately more than the width or girth. This produces a better fit.
T o maintain acceptable comfort levels for all shoe sizes, or to reduce the cost by
sharing 'heel units', for example, it is often necessary manually to alter the different
lasts, so that all sizes share key dimensions ('coordinating'). Typical adjustments
i
involve making transverse cuts and inserting wedges to keep the 'toe spring' and 'heel
pitch' constant through a coordinated set of lasts (Fig.2).
With any approach to grading, if a size 5; women's last is modelled, for example, then
the size 4 and 7 'submodel' lasts will be copy turned from the size 5; and then
coordinated. The size 8 last will then be copied from the coordinated 7. The smaller
coordination errors produced by grading submodels are usually tolerated. All other
intermediate sizes are produced in a similar manner, as necessary. As well as the normal
range of last sizes, there may also be special sizes produced for wide and narrow feet.
Additional grading rules are used to generate lasts for these fits.
Apart from a small number of developments in grading systems [l-31, there have
been few advances in last design methods over recent years. Although computer-aided
design (CAD) methods have been applied to many aspects of shoe design, the last still
tends to be made by traditional methods, with a model-maker developing the design
model by hand. For CAD of the shoe, the last is digitized to produce a CAD model on
which to design the upper. The last designs captured for CAD systems have generally
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Structured Approach to Shoe Last Design 15 1

(a) Length Dlrnenslon Cornparlson

(b) Width Dlmenslon Cornparlcon

(c) Glrlh Dlrnenslon Cornparlson

FIG. 1 . Arithmetic and geometric last grading sample comparison: (a) length dimension
comparison; (b) width dimension comparison; (c) girth dimension comparison.
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152 S. R. Mitchell et al.

ull Cmdhalion Oily)

FIG.2. Shoe last coordination.

been in the form of individual single-surface models. These models are difficult to
manipulate if changes to the last are required. Shoe design tends to be a process of
product variation rather than design from scratch, so the opportunity exists to use
standard lasts and vary only those features that require modification. Typically, the heel
section will have a standard shape, whereas the toe will be varied much more, subject
to the whims of fashion.

1.2 Sculptured Feature-based Design

Feature-based design is a form of CAD that allows users to describe their product as
an assembly of feature instances. Broadly speaking, features are product elements that
might contribute to the shape, material, tolerance, or manufacturing process
specification, for example. Shape design features generally have parametrically defined
geometries associated with them. T h e shape feature instances are established by
identifying the feature's presence; its relationship with other features in the product;
and assigning values ro its associated parameters. Using this approach, the user is
spared the struggle to describe hislher product by directly using abstract mathematics
and three-dimensional geometry.
Much work has been carried out to identify and categorize prismatic features for
general engineering products, with the aim of providing feature-based design, manufac-
ture, process planning and engineering analysis tools [4]. Unfortunately, feature-based
design of sculptured products is more difficult and the application of feature-based
techniques within this context has not been addressed until recently.
An extended form (EF) feature methodology for the design of sculptured products
was identified at Loughborough University in 1992 [5]. T h e approach was initially
developed using golf clubs as an example product [ 6 ] . A sculptured feature is defined
within the methodology as follows (51:
a generic element of a product for which specific instances are defined by a set of
characteristics, so that together with other features, it meets the aesthetic and or
design requirements.
This definition implies the concept of a product anatomy. It is assumed that, for
sculptured products, there is no universal set of design features common to all. Instead,
groups of similar products are identified as having similar feature anatomies, and often
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Structured Approach to Shoe Last Design 153

common product-specific shape elements and behaviours. This provides the foundation
for a generic approach to a product family's shape definition and control.
A specific product's anatomy is established by identifying three classes of sculptured
feature:
0 primary EF features;
0 secondary blend features;
tertiary ornamental marking features.
A sculptured product's shape is normally governed by a number of dominant elements,
and these can be extrapolated as the basis for primary E F features. An E F feature's
shape contribution within a product is limited to the boundary defined by its relation-
ships with neighbouring features. Typically, the boundary will comprise intersections
with other features andlor the tangency curves defined by secondary blend features to
other parts of the product. The secondary blend features generally do more to control
the aesthetic quality of the product, whereas the primary E F features define its
underlying shape.
The EF feature method is particularly suited to sculptured surface products that
exhibit parametric variation throughout a set or family. The following sections describe
in more detail its application to shoe last design, and identify some underlying
principles and issues common to sculptured products that can be usefully dealt with by
the E F feature approach.

2. EF Feature-based Shoe Last Design

2.1 System Developtnent

An EF feature-based CAD system relies on a geometry evaluation 'engine' capable of
generating the shapes and boundaries associated with anatomy or feature instances.
The engine previously used for golf club design 1:6]in its generic form is suitable for this
purpose. Given the geometry engine, to produce an EF feature-based CAD system
tailored to shoe last design requires attention to four main activities:
0 feature type identification and grouping;
0 interfeature relationship identification and specification within the anatomy;
0 geometry algorithm and parameter specifications for the feature types;
0 custom user interface development for anatomy and feature manipulation.
The following sections discuss initial work in these areas based on a common last
design suitable for a popular woman's shoe style. However, initial observations indicate
the feature anatomy would be appropriate for a corresponding man's shoe.

2.2 Feature Identificarion and Grouping

An attempt has been made to identify features which are appropriate to the shoe
industry, both in terms of the localized shape control they support and in terms of the
terminology associated with the features. This reduces training and learning require-
ments, and reduces the 'culture shock' associated with using CAD. The results are
illustrated in Figs 3 and 4. The feature types and groups necessary to establish the
bounding relationships for the last are shown schematically in a hierarchical diagram in
Fig. 5. The E F features are shown trimmed in relation to their application context (i.e.
limited to their boundary).
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Structured Approach to Shoe Last Design 157

At present, there are no objective methods for extracting or helping to identify

candidate features for an existing product. T o a certain extent, this is to be expected,
because shape interpretation is subjective in nature and shape control requirements will
vary within any given product indusuy. However, the features and groups of features
are identified using the methodology by balancing several considerations:

the EFs and aesthetic blends indicated by the variation of highlights on the last
surface;
the parametric control complexity for individual features;
the total number of features;
the potential for shoe industry specification parameters to be used for feature
shape control;
the suggestion that a feature or group exists from industry terminology, such as
'heel', 'sole' or 'toe';
the potential requirement for localized conrrol of the last design.

This requires experience, consultation with existing and prospective designers, and
several iterations.
Where possible, the features are given names that relate to industry terminology.
Where suitable terms are unavailable or inappropriate, names have been formulated to
make as much sense as possible. For example, we have the following.

'Out-step' is used to describe the corresponding feature on the opposite side to the
'in-step'.
0 The 'tongue' feature might have been termed the 'front cone' by the shoe industry
but this would establish shape preconceptions; because the feature is seldom truly
conical.
The 'shank' region (roughly corresponding to the sloping region of the sole
between the ball of the foot and heel) has not been identified as a separate feature.
At present, this is considered to be an unnecessary complication of the sole group,
although it could be included if necessary.
T o establish feature bounding relationships, it is not necessary to have a 'vamp'
feature or group for this particular last type. However, a suitable group could be
included if this aids last manipulation, such as when interchanging whole vamps
between lasts. This is also true for heel, toe and waist regions. The result would
be an alternative view of feature groupings for design manipulation, as shown in
Fig. 6. It is useful to note that there is some overlap between the additional groups.

Obviously, there is the potential for feature synonyms; for example, the sole-heel and
sole-toe could be called the sole-forepart and -backpart respectively. There is no reason
why particular users cannot adapt or implement particular terms to suit their own
preferences.
Some features have been omitted from the initial anatomy. In particular, the 'v' cut
and hinge details have been omitted at this stage. This is because they are usually
produced by a dedicated machining process with little variation. They are generally
purely functional, so contribute little to the style of the last or of the shoe. However, it
is a simple matter to add a suitable feature to the last upper anatomy, should this be
needed.
Shoe lasts are mostly free from tertiary ornamental marking features, except for the
raised 'pips' used to indicate the position for key dimensions, such as the last girth
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158
S. R. Mitchell et al.
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Structured Approach to Shoe Last Design 159

-b slick Length I

FIG. 7. Important last measurements.

(Fig. 7). Because these markings are both simple in shape and easily added to the
model, they have also been omitted, to concentrate initially on successful general shape
design.
Current last designers may consider the proposed anatomy overly complex and might
argue that blended heel, waist and toe features would be sufficient. Certainly, these
groups can be treated as single entities for the purpose of combining whole sections
from different last designs using the E F method. However, experience suggests that
shape control for the toe, for example, is best achieved by further subdividing the
region. This gives localized shape control rather than an excessively complex set of
shape control parameters or routines. Such complexity generally makes it almost
impossible to eliminate or control the side effects of making design changes to one
portion of a complex feature. For example, producing a square toe and smoothly
varying the severity of the internal blend regions in three dimensions using a single
feature would be parricularly difficult. Considering the more extreme case, these are
precisely the reasons why a decomposed last feature anatomy approach is recom-
mended instead of single-surface manipulation.
It could be further argued that, because the heel design changes little between last
types, it is unnecessary to subdivide it. Certainly, a standard heel group can be
introduced as one entity using the proposed features and, in most instances, this will
require no Further change. However, it is still possible that there will be a requirement
for change in the future, possibly to suit a new heel style or a new customer or
population group. In this case, the arguments for subdividing the toe will apply. This
highlights the need to determine carefully a product's features, to allow for both future
and current design requirement or activity levels.

2.3 Anatomy Relationships Specification

The proposed last feature bounding anatomy in Fig. 5 comprises the following:
six groups;
twelve EFs;
seven primary binary blends (only between E F features);
six secondary binary blends (between groups containing primary blends);
three secondary ternary blends (between binary blends).
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160 S. R. Mitchell et al.

fi n Ternaly Blend

FIG.8. Shoe last anatomy.

Figures 8 and 9 indicate the relationships necessary between the identified features to
establish the bounded geometry. E F features are shown by a single-border 'cloud' and
feature groups are shown with a double-border cloud. Binary and ternary blends are
also suitably represented. It is interesting to note that the anatomy for the last upper is
symmetrical, as might be expected.
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Structured Approach to Shoe Last Design

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162 S. R. Mitchell et al.

2.4 System Implementation

Feature shape algorithms are generally developed to approximate closely digitized
samples. These may be considered confidential to a particular company, so are not
presented in detail.
A basic E F feature-based design system interface needs to support the following:

0 anatomy specification and manipulation elements, to cater for more than one last
style;
0 feature, anatomy and actual design library access;
0 suitable parameter specification means, and sensible limits and increments;
0 geometry engine initiation and three-dimensional model viewing;
0 set parameter variation specification;
0 derived characteristic measurement and shape optimization functions for girth,
length, etc.

This final point is particularly important, because the shoe industry currently uses
several measurements to quantlfy last specifications that can only be derived from the
E F design model (Fig. 7 shows some important examples). It is not practical, in terms
of computing time and complexity, to attempt to control the last's basic shape directly
from these dimensions. However, it is possible to automate optimization for selected
feature shape and position parameters, to achieve the desired result.
These optimization facilities will play an important role in achieving automatic set
grading based on the 'set parameter variation specification'. Where possible, set grading
will be achieved by direct control over feature (such as heel elevation or
pitch, toe spring, stick length or bottom width). For the derived characteristics (such as
joint, waist, instep and long heel girths), an optimization goal will be specified through
the set, together with feature parameters that can be refined to achieve the desired
dimension.
A customized version of the interface previously used for golf club design [6] (based
on Delcam .International's D U C T surface modelling software), that supports the above
facilities, is suitable. Further details for a shoe-last-specific system implementation will
be the subject of a future publication.

3. Discussion
3.1 General
Determining the optimum feature anatomy for a given product is fundamental to
developing a successful EF feature-based CAD system. The anatomy proposed in
Section 2 is the first attempt to achieve the subjective criteria balance described in
Section 2.2 and, as such, may need future modification in response to implementation
trial results, or even to suit a particular organization. Obviously, variations of this
anatomy will be required for markedly different last styles and a variety of feature
shapes will need to be available for each feature type in the anatomy. However, the
proposed anatomy is considered to be a good basis for further research.

3.2 Common Issues

In general, shoe lasts exhibit tharacteristics, in line with the fundamental assumptions
that underlie the E F feature method , p i s &&forces
. the assumptions and indicates that
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Structured Approach to Shoe Last Design 163

the method shows some promise as a generic approach to sculptured product feature-
based design, as well as significant potential for application to shoe last design.
In particular, shoe lasts share the following characteristics with other sculptured
products (such as golf club heads, consumer electronics casings, ceramic tableware or
sanitary ware) considered suitable for E F feature-based design.

0 The shoe last is a fully sculptured product. The design prototype is usually
produced manually by craftsmen and the designs exhibit virtually no prismatic
engineering features.
Different lasts have similar anatomies and terminology. However, a typical last's
sole or heel feature is not equivalent in shape to those of a golf club or steam iron,
for example. This confirms the need for product-specific anatomies and features
to support efficient sculptured product CAD.
0 There are accepted parameters, properties and notional data used to specify the
last design characteristics. These are common to most manufacturers in the shoe
industry and show some promise as control parameters for individual last features
and size variation.
0 The notional data are often vague and open to interpretation. (For example, the
girth is measured in three positions. These locations are determined by each
craftsmen and are difficult to reproduce independently.) This causes some cultural
and implementation conflicts when applying CAD techniques, because a more
rigorous design specification is necessary.
0 Shoe lasts require typical design processes (such as hybrid design based on
previous lasts that require localized feature editing and swapping; automatic
anisotropic set generation; and optimization to achieve derived properties such as
the girth). This confirms the need for a generic sculptured feature architecture to
manipulate the product-specific anatomies and features.
0 Design characteristic optimization and set grading are partly based on properties
that are more easily derived or measured from the design rather than used to
manipulate directly the shape. (For example, the girth property is more easily
treated as a measured characteristic than as a feature control parameter, as are the
mass of a golf club head or a teacup's capacity.)
0 The main design goals are difficult to quantify (i.e. the last's effect on 'shoe fit' and
the golf club 'feel' are similarly enigmatic), so physical prototypes are required for
performance assessment (a last needs leather stretching trials and a golf club needs
play testing).
0 There is an equivalent abundance of previous last designs, all cross-referenced by
the design guru, and used as the basis for current designs. This creates a common
design capture, storage, classification and retrieval problem. Current research
indicates that approximating coordinate measuring machine (CMM) digitized
data with suitable E F fearures and blends produces acceptable CAD model
replicas for existing designs.
0 Design activity levels are high to keep pace with fashion changes. Thus, the
investment required to develop anatomies and features is warranted. The need for
economic limited-volume last customization for orthopaedic purposes also sup-
ports the need for feature-based CAD.
0 The current designers and craftsmen exhibit low computer literacy levels.

Shoe lasts also exhibit some idiosyncrasies that raise uncommon issues.

(1) The shoe last is a manufacturing process form tool. It is not the final commercial
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164 S. R. Mitchell et al.

product, so may be overlooked for CAD. There is some discrepancy between

shoe size measurements and last size grading parameters [7]. It may be expedient
to rationalize these when developing CAD-based grading routines. r
(2) Last design specifications are more dependent on derived parameters than are
most other sculptured products. This places a greater emphasis on dimension
optimization facilities-for both base model design and automatic set gener-
ation--once the general shape has been established. This will increase the time
taken to achieve a finished design, depending on the tolerance band for accepting
these dimensions.
(3) Existing sets are partly generated by anisotropic scaling using a copy machining
process (grading) and partly by one of three levels of manual adjustment
required to eliminate some of the undesirable effects of scaling (full, semi- and
no coordination). Exactly reproducing this process is complex and probably
unnecessary. Instead, given the increased flexibility in shape control provided by
the EF feature approach, the grading and coordination goals are more directly
achievable. Ultimately, this technology may enable an enhancement to current
grading systems; for example, by allowing controlled non-uniform girth variation
along the last length, that will result in subtle improvements to shoe fit.
(4) Shoe upper CAD tools generally require the last geometry to ,be specified in a
different format to that produced directly from E F feature modelling. This
introduces an additional model conversion process.
(5) The last design is wholly concerned with shape and ultimately shoe fit. The
mechanical strength and load response requirements are unlikely to warrant
analysis, so there is little need for analysis mesh generation (model discretisa-
tion), except when finite element analysis packages become capable of estimating
upper 'fall in' to predict the resulting shoe's fit.
(6) The last machining accuracy is relatively low, indicating less critical precision
requirements. This gives some scope for approximating existing designs and
conversion to a single-surface representation for upper design.
(7) Future generations of last designers may be more CAD literate, as a result of the
spread of computer-aided upper and unit design systems.

Finally, using CAD tools for last designs has some implications for last manufacture.
Once the base model has been graded by the CAD system, it is relatively easy to
produce computer numerical control (CNC) machine code to manufacture a pair of
lasts for each size in the set. Production last sets for each size can then be copy turned
from these masters.
Alternatively, automatic C N C code generation may make it cost effective to pro-
duce low production volume injection-mould tooling for each last size. This approach
would remove much of the manual work in finishing the last heel and toe profiles.
Currently, these are used as holding points and the final shape is produced by manual
grinding and shaping the residual lugs. The 'v' groove and hinge recess could also be
cast at the same time, for further reduction of manual operations. Furthermore, it may
be possible for shoes to share the same heel moulds, where they use a standard heel
shape, and even for shoe manufacturers to use one set of heels (foreparts) with several
alternative sets of toes (backparts).

3.3 Benefits of EF Fearure-based CAD

Apart from the potential improvements to grading and manufacturing processes, more
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Structured Approach to Shoe Last Design 165

general benefits may be expected from applying E F feature-based CAD techniques.

Current research into the use of E F feature-based techniques for golf club head design
indicates significant improvements in the following.

0 Training times: Existing designers require as little as 1 day of training for them to
use the system to develop valid designs. Normally, it would take a training course
lasting 2 weeks and a month's subsequent use to gain enough experience to
produce useful designs with normal surface modelling software.
0 Base model design: It is possible to produce the base design for a new set in a matter
of minutes, depending on the level of variation from an existing design. Usually,
this would take the best part of a day to do manually using normal surface
modelling software, and at least a day to craft by hand.
0 Base model refinement: A design can be modified in a matter of minutes, depending
on the degree of change. For a major alteration, it would normally be necessaty to
rebuild completely a regular CAD model, so it may take up to another day to do
so without feature-based tools.
0 Set generation: Because developing individual designs is faster, producing the
designs in a set is proportionally faster-except that the designer can do something
else while the 'donkey work' is done for him. For example, a full set of 11 golf
irons can be developed automatically within 1 h using E F feature methods,
whereas it takes 2 weeks using standard CAD software.
Design quality: Because the design process is faster, more effort can be spent
refining the shape. In addition, the inherent design modelling consistency results
in fewer problems for automatic C N C code generation.

Because they share the same underlying sculptured product characteristics as golf club
heads, it is anticipated that similar results will be experienced in using E F feature
methods for shoe last design.

4. Conclusions
An initial feature anatomy for a common shoe style is presented, to support the need
for localized shape control for current and future design requirements. T h e following
conclusions can be made based on this work.

(1) It is possible to decompose a shoe last into feature anatomy for E F feature-based
design.
(2) There are issues common to sculptured products, including shoe lasts, that are
specifically addressed and dealt with effectively within the E F method, such as
the following:
0 CAD tool implementation based on product-specific terminology;
0 localized and simplified shape control for sculptured product design;
0 hybrid and variational product design;
0 anisotropic grading of product families.
(3) An E F feature-based approach shows significant potential to benefit last design
efficiency, enhance size grading and improve manufacturing processes.
(4) More work needs to be done to evaluate the efficacy of a system based on the E F
feature methods and the proposed last anatomy.
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166 S. R. Mitchell et al.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank The EPSRC, Delcam Int. Ltd, Dunlop Slazenger Int.
and the Department of Manufacturing Engineering at Loughborough University for
their support. They would also like to thank BUSM and Clarks Shoes for their help in
understanding the shoe and shoe last industries, as well as Sean Parsons, Jennifer
Rankin and David Venables for their valuable contributions.

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