Friday, November 9, 2018

Title
Land Use

Concepts:

- abatement: removal or elimination of a problem, nuisance, disturbance to public

health or safety

• ex: removal of site improvement not to code

- arterial street: 2+ moving lanes, traffic signals, truck/bus routes, intended to serve
traffic moving through area

• major: principal street within network for inner and intra city traffic movement
• minor: secondary street within network for movement between
neighbourhoods/areas

- area of state critical concern: areas determined by local government and

state/regional agencies which allow for adoption of land development regulations,
density requirements, and special permitting requirements by these entities

• EPA (?) delegated authority for implementing AOC program to States, including
developing

- remedial action plans

- coordinating with local public advisory councils
- implementing cleanup activities
- building codes: local regulations that control design, construction, materials used in
construction. Based on health and safety

- building construction permit: authorization issued by government agency allowing

construction of project according to approved plans and specs

- building intensity standards: bulk of concentration of physical development of uses

permitted in district.

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• building intensity measurements:
- lot coverage (LC)
- floor area ratio (FAR)
- open space ratio (OSR)
- height, landscape volume ratio (LVR)
- building volume ratio (BVR)
- Boulevard: street lined with trees or constructed with landscaped middle
- buffer: area of land which is set aside to provide transition between different land
uses and to eliminate/reduce adverse environmental impact, and incompatible land
use impacts

• serves as protective barrier

- capital improvement: structure/component erected as permanent improvement to real
property that adds to its value and useful life

- capital improvement program (CIP): long -range multi-year plan of capital

improvement projects that are used in development of annual operating and capital
budgets, strategic plans, and long range financial plans

• provides means for evaluating facility and infrastructure projects

• provides expansion services such as street, sewer, and water projects that may
affect a design plan

• provides info on what services are to be upgraded, repaired, or constructed

- chicane: series of narrowings or curb extensions, used at mid block locations only,
that alternate from one side of street to the other, forming S-shaped curves; traffic
calming technique

- closures: traffic calming technique including diagonal diverters, half closures, full
closures, and median barriers, the purpose of which is to reduce cut-through traffic by
obstructing traffic movements in one or more directions

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- cluster development: pattern of development where industrial and commercial
facilities and homes are grouped together on parcels of land in order to leave parts of
land undeveloped. Zoning ordinances permit cluster development by allowing smaller
lots when part of land is left as open space. Component of PUD

- collector street: streets that connect residential and local streets and neighbourhood
connector streets through or adjacent to more than one neighbourhood and have
continuity between arterial streets

• convey traffic out of neighbourhoods to arterial streets

- comprehensive/master plan: official statement gf governing body which sets forth
major policies concerning desired future land use and physical development of area.
Describes long-term direction and vision for growth and development. Topic areas
include land use, economic development, community character, natural resources,
parks and rec, transportation, housing, historic preservation. Outlines trends in area
and how to address future growth in areas such as transportation, environment, and
recreation

- covenant: written agreement between two+ parties in which party or parties pledge to
perform/not perform specified acts with regard to property; usually found in real estate
documents such as deeds, mortgages, lease and contracts for deed

• restrictive covenant: agreement included in deed to real property buyer that buyer
(grantee) will be limited as to future use of property (i.e., fence building)

- conveyance: written instrument used to transfer/convey title to property, such as deed

- cul-de-sac: dead-end street with only one inlet/outlet and turnaround area as its
closed end which limits through traffic in residential areas

- deed: document transferring ownership of real estate. contains names of old and new
owners, and legal description of property, signed by seller

• deed of trust:
- legal document that conveys title to real property to 3rd party
- 3rd party holds title until owner of property has repaid dept in full
- deed of trust can sometimes be used instead of mortgage

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• quit claim deed:
- transfers to grantee any and all legal rights the grantor has in parcel of real
property

- used to clear errors on title (i.e., misspelled name on earlier transfer of property)
- demography: statistical study of characteristics of human populations (size, growth,
density, distribution, vital statistics, and changes over time due to births, deaths,
migration, aging). Used by LAs to analyze neighbourhood characteristics, make
neighbourhood comparisons, and determine median income in order to determine
housing needs during initial stages of planning a project

- density: average number of people, families, or housing units on one unit of land. Also
expressed as dwelling units per acre

- environmental impact report (EIR): public document used by government agency to

analyze significant environmental effects of proposed project, to identify alternatives
and to disclose possible ways to reduce or avoid possible environmental damage

- easement: legal right or permission, giving person or entity limited use of another’s
property. if easement benefits holder personally and isn’t associated with land owned,
it’s an easement in gross (i.e., public utility’s right to run power lines through another’s
property). If easement is held incident to ownership of some land, it’s easement
appurtenant (i.e., right to run a ditch through neighbour’s yard to drain your land)

• temporary easement: grant by property owner to public or other person/entity over

specific tract of land for specific use or purpose for specific time frame

• permanent easement: grant by property owner to public over specific tract of land
for specific use/purpose of indefinite duration

• scenic easement: legal means of protecting views and associated aesthetic quality
along site by restricting change in existing features without government approval

- environmental regulations: federal, state, local requirements for managing

environmental health. LA would be concerned with temporary and permanent
measures for sediment and erosion control and wetland or stream protection

- frontage: boundary of property which abuts existing or dedicated public ROW, water
body, or similar barrier

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- greenbelt/greenway: corridor composed of natural vegetation with specific measures
designed to mitigate fire, flood, and erosion hazard, land use planning, and
development. Examples: irrigated landscaped buffer zone between development and
wild lands such as golf courses, parks, etc

- intensity: comparison of development proposal against environmental constraints or

other conditions which determine carrying capacity of specific land area to
accommodate development without adverse impacts

- land classification: current law requires that Sixteenth Section Lands be classified into
of of 9 land classifications - forest, agricultural industrial, commercial, residential, farm
residential, recreational, catfish farming, and other. This is determined according to
highest and best land use that will produce mac income for leasing

- land-use plan: set of decisions about how land will be used and ways to achieve
desired use. Includes:

• definition of goals
• ordering of land and human material resources
• explicit statement of methods, organization, responsibilities, and schedule to be
used

• agreed targets
- line of sight: general term for vertical view corridor that might normally be 3 degrees
measured up or down from height of viewer’s eyes

- local/residential street: provides access to residences and businesses within a

neighbourhood

- mixed use development: development that is created in response to patterns of

separate uses that is typical in suburban areas necessitating reliance on cars.
Includes residential, commercial, and business accommodations in one area

- no action/no-build policy (do nothing alternative, null alternative): planning option of

leaving situation as it exists. Existing facilities and services are maintained, existing
transportation stays the same. Normally includes short-term, minor restoration types
of activities (i.e., safety and maintenance improvements) that maintain continuing
operation of existing facility

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- open space: includes any area of land/water essentially unimproved that is designed
or reserved for purposes similar to the following:

• preservation of natural resources

• managed production of resources
• outdoor recreation
• protection of public health and safety
• farming
• protection of scenic views and features
• environmental protection
• visual beauty
• educational opportunities
- Open space ratio (OSR): proportion of site that is required to remain as open space
and may be used of recreation, agriculture, and resource protection

- ordinance: formal legislative enactment by government body of governing body. Must

not be in conflict with any higher form of law to have full force and effect of law within
boundaries to which it applies

- ordinance regulations (typical): prevent sediment damage to storm drain system:

• control storm water discharges to minimize downstream erosion

• minimize soil exposure
• establish permanent vegetation
• stabilize waterways and outlets
• protect stormwater inlets
• install/maintain ESC facilities and practices
- planned unit development (PUD) (cluster housing): project/subdivision that consists of
common property and improvements that are owned and maintained by owner’s
association for benefit and use of individual units within project. To qualify, owner’s

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association must require automatic, non-severable membership for each unit owner,
and provide mandatory assessments. Zoning isn’t basis for classifying project or
subdivision as PUD

- police powers: right of government to enforce laws for public welfare, including
building codes, zoning, etc

- population density: number of people in given area

- regional land use: determines how area is being used and developed and how it may
project into future uses. Objectives include spatial distribution of various land uses
that:

• results in compatible arrangement of land uses

• protects and uses wisely the region’s natural resources including soils, inland lakes
and streams, groundwater, wetlands, woodlands, prairies, wildlife, natural areas,
and critical species habitats

• supports transportation, utility, and public facility systems

• doesn’t look at specifics as plant and animal counts
- ROW: publicly owned space for current/future facilities like highways, streets, trails,
above and below ground utilities. Usually extents 10-20’ beyond curb into yard area.
Privately installed trees, fences, retaining walls, sprinklers shouldn’t be built in ROW

• new road ROW: dedicated to public use on subdivision, must be constructed under
permit issued by governing body and comply with provisions of regulations during
construction in order to be accepted for maintenance

• public ROW: area where governing body has dedicated/acquired ROW interest in
real property. Usually includes area on/below present and future streets, alleys,
avenues, roads, highways, parkways, boulevards, dedicated or acquired as ROW

- setback: min. horizontal distance required between lot line/ROW and nearest point of
building, structure, or improvement located or to be located on lot

- sight line triangle: setback at street and driveway intersection that restricts anyone
from placing view obstructions at height of driver’s line of sight generally located
between 3-6” above ground for specified horizontal distance related to street design
speed

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- specific area plan (SAP): legal tool for detailed design and implementation of defined
portion of area covered by General Plan. May include all detailed regulations,
conditions, programs, and/or proposed legislation that may be necessary or
convenient for systematic implementation of any General Plan elements

- streetscape: space between buildings on either side of a street. Includes building

frontage/facade, landscaping, sidewalks, street paving, street furniture, signs,
awnings, street lighting

- subdivision: tract of land divided by owner into blocks, building lots and streets
according to recorded subdivision plat

- subdivision rules and regulations: procedures, requirements, and provisions

governing subdivision of land that is specified in formal rules and regulations

- sustainable development: development with goal of preserving environmental quality,

natural resources, and livability for present and future generations

- title search or examination: check of title records to make sure buyer is purchasing a
house from legal ornate and there aren’t any liens, etc., which would adversely affect
marketability or value of title

- transfer of development rights: transfer of development rights allow property owners

to sell development rights to their property while retaining ownership of land. Often
used to preserve natural open space located on a large site proposed for residential
development

- variance: means of modification or waiving of provisions of code as applied to specific

property

- zoning: legislative process that classifies land in community into different areas and
districts. Regulates building dimensions, density, design, and placement

- zoning map: defines current zoning designations and land use

FEDERAL REGULATORY AGENCIES

- department of the interior: federal agency including National Park Service and Bureau
of Land Management. Most LA’s employed

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- environmental protection agency (EPA): administering and enforcing federal
environmental laws, including Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, Endangered Species
Act

- army corp of engineers: provides quality, responsive engineering services to nation

including planning, designing, building and operating water resources, etc.

- federal emergency management agency (FEMA): agency responsible for

administering national flood insurance program

- fish and wildlife services: provides for wildlife conservation, allows of surveys and
investigations of wildlife to be conducted in public domain

FEDERAL ACTS

- Federal water pollution act of 1972 (FWPCA) (clean water act):

• primary federal law in the US governing water pollution
• makes it illegal to discharge any toxic/non-toxic pollution without permit
• encourages use of best available technology for pollution control
• provides federal funding for constructing sewage treatment plants
- clean water act:

• 1977 amendment to PWFCA

• emphasizes control of toxic pollutants
• established program to transfer responsibility of federal clean water programs to
individual states

• includes dredges materials, solid waste, incinerator residue, sewage, garbage,

sewage sludge, munitions, chemical wastes, biological materials, radioactive
materials, heat, wrecked/ discarded equipment, rock, sand, cellar dirt, industrial,
municipal and agricultural waste discharged into water

- national pollutant discharge elimination system (NPDES): permitting system of clean

water act that controls water pollution by regulating point, non point sources that
discharge pollutants into waters of US

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- endangered species act: governs how animal and plant species who's populations
are dangerously in decline or close to extinction will be protected and recovered

- national environmental policy act (NEPA): ensures integration of natural and social
sciences and environmental design in planning and decision making for federal
projects/projects on federal lands

- safe drinking water act (SDWA): regulated treatment of water for human
consumption, and required testing for and elimination of contaminants for protection
of human health

- watershed protection and flood prevention act: authorizes states and local agencies
to carry out works for improvement for soil conservation and other purposes including
flood prevention, conservation, development, utilization, and disposal of water, and
conservation and proper utilization of land

- wellhead protection program: amendment to federal safe drinking water act in 1986;
minimizes potential for contamination of public ground water supplies

NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

- american institute of architects (AIA): developed general conditions of the contract for
construction

- american nursery and landscape association (ASTM): national voice of nursery and
landscape industry, sets standards for acceptable plan health and vigour, publishes
plant quality standards

- american society for testing and materials (ASTM): develops technical standards for
materials, products, systems, and services. I.e., concrete standards

- american society of consulting arborists (ASCA): non-profit created to develop and

preserve highest standards of performance in the field of arboricultural consulting

- american society of landscape architects (ASLA):

• national professional association representing landscape architects
• promotes landscape architecture profession and advances practice through
advocacy, education, communication, and fellowship

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• governs use of construction materials throughout north america
- construction specification institution (CSI):
• technical society composed of architects, specifiers, engineers, contractors,
product reps, building owners, and facility managers who create and sustain built
environment

• provides common system of organization and presentation of construction

information, enhancing communication among all construction industry disciplines

- consumer product safety commission (CPSC): a federal commission that evaluates

products, investigates causes of product related inquiries, issues, and enforces safety
standards

- illuminating engineering society of north america (IESNA): has sports and recreational
areas lighting committee, develops standards and design criteria for various sports,
indoor and outdoor

- International society of arboriculture:

• worldwide professional organization dedicated to fostering a greater appreciation
for trees

• publishes tree valuation methodology by council of tree and landscape appraisers

- Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED): building environmental
certification program developed and operated by US green building council. Self
assessing system designed for rating new and existing commercial, institutional, and
high rise residential buildings. Evaluates environmental performance from ‘whole
building’ perspective over a buildings lifecycle, providing definitive standard for what
constitutes green building. Points awarded for credits achieved, with 69 possible. 40%
must be achieved to gain certification, including four progressive levels: certified,
silver, gold, platinum. Points are gained in sustainable sites, water efficiency, energy
and atmosphere, materials and resources, indoor environmental air quality, and
innovation and design process.

- landscape contractors association (LCA): exists to provide local resources to

landscape professionals to help them maximize business potential

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- national evaluation service: arm of council of american building officials sponsored
jointly by three major american model code organizations - ICBO, SBCCI, and BOCA.
Studies applications for new products, publishes evaluation reports recommending
approval by three constituent members

STATE, REGIONAL, AND LOCAL RESPONSIBILITIES

- state:
• adopt laws that establish policy and regulatory frameworks for governmental
guidance of development and conservation

• provide direction to local governments about content of and process for adopting
land use plan

• authorize local governments to control location and nature of development

• erect new legal and institutional structures that integrate state, regional, and local
guidance of developments and conservation of natural resources such as coastal
zone management

• establish comprehensive state goals and policy priorities for county development
and institute new intergovernmental procedures for achieving those goals and
priorities

- regional (geographic region):

• subject to state rules for special district
• has authority to set rules for issues of regional significance
• required to plan and coordinate local plans
• may review developments that have regional impacts, thus linking agencies directly
with development process

• allow regionalized concentration of staff, services, equipment, and materials to

provide a cost effective mechanism to meet federal and state obligations

• may apply sanctions

- local:

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• provide government services more efficiently and responsively than could be done
by state

• control own planning and decision making

• include police power to enforce land use plans and zoning
• allow for transfer of development rights
• comply with regional issues
• establish statutes that spell out elements of local comprehensive plans

SITE DESIGN

SITE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

- decreasing impervious surfaces helps to avoid problems from stormwater runoff and
water table depletion, by reducing surfaces that prevent natural filtration

- methods may include:

• reducing roadway surfaces (shared driveway, landscaped islands)

• permeable pavement surfaces (can reduce need for traditional stormwater
infrastructure)

• planning site layout and grading to natural land contours (minimizes grading costs,
retains land’s natural hydrology)

• natural resource preservation (minimizes need for irrigation systems)

• xeriscaping (less maintenance)
• clustering homes (small lot areas, more space for wildlife, can reduce infrastructure
costs)

• code/regulatory (mandating implementation of stormwater management plans)

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MAPS

- zoning map: divides city into areas according to use. Used to control growth and
population densities

- quadrangle map: used to showw structures, topography, water, and roadways

- assessor’s map: used to locate buildings and land in order to determine their value
- city master plan map: used to show how city may be developed over long period of
time. Allows for area to be rezoned

SITE SELECTION

- slope: provide best views and offer advantages in water and air drainage. Escalating
flat pad on sloped site can provide earth for building, gardening, or landscaping

• very steep poles (+8%) require excessive digging and may be difficult to get around
on during building

- aspect: direction a sloped site faces affects ground temperature

• south facing slopes tend to collect more heat in winter, which contributes to energy
savings

- drainage: avoid marsh areas, flood plains, depressions

• avoid seasonal creeks and gullies where surface water may flow only during part of
year or only once every several years

• determine where water would flow

• put building on a slope so you can create artificial drainage if site has poorly
drained clay soil and rainy climate. High water table means drainage problems and
wetland conflicts

- subsurface geology: how far down is it to bedrock?

• how much topsoil is there?

• what kinds of amendments soil needs for building with
• whether site is seismically stable

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- microclimate:
• solar access: where winter heating required, windows on south side help;
unobstructed view to horizon from southeast to southwest provide best sites for
passive solar heating

• shade: hot summers benefit from afternoon shading plan for tall trees on southwest
and west of site; deciduous trees block summer sun and let winter sun in

• prevailing wind direction: wind direction on specific site can vary from regional norm
due to topography; determine direction of biggest storms approach site

• air drainage: in clear winter nights, air cools off and condenses wherever it is
exposed to sky, flowing downhill and frost pockets can be created; position
buildings so air can drain away and where early morning winter sun will warm them
up sooner

BUILDING PLACEMENT CHARACTERISTICS

- minimize stormwater runoff

- minimize habitat disturbance
- protect open space
- reduce risk of erosion
- save energy by providing passive solar, natural ventilation, and day lighting

SUBDIVISION PLAT

- proposed streets are properly oriented and integrated with existing streets and are
adequate width

- street intersections are safe and avoid dog legs that create dangerous jogs
- lots satisfy area and other dimensional requirements of zoning code
- lot layout is sound
- sites dedicated or reserved for parks/public facilities

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- utility easements
- stormwater detention facilities provided
- sewer and water lines
- thoroughfares
- sidewalks throughout subdivision connect with other sidewalks in area
- traffic calming methods used to move traffic through residential neighbourhoods via
raised intersections, differing paving textures, shifts in direction, grassy road
shoulders, narrowed travel ways, street trees, roundabouts, medians

HOUSING TYPES

- cluster housing: allows units to be cluster on usable part of site to avoid unbuildable
sensitive portions of site (wetlands, streams, etc.). Not limited in size but generally
small lot size for owners who don’t want large yard

- cottage housing: grouping of small, single family dwelling units clustered around
common area and developed with coherent plan for entire site

- cul-de-sac: street which meets another street at one end but is closed at other, such
that little traffic will travel down it and property owners enjoy excellent privacy. Widens
sufficiently at end to permit automobile to make u-turn

- single family housing: overwhelming preference in US; high value on safety, quiet and
privacy, large yard

SITE FURNISHINGS

- manmade amenities needed to service needs of public/assist in safe and orderly

management of site (benches, tables, trash, bike racks, etc.)

- hardscape (Inanimate) vs. softscape (plants)

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NEEDS ASSESSMENT

- analysis conducted by designer in initial stages of design to determine client’s

landscaping needs and interest

SITE ANALYSIS

- purpose is to provide thorough info about site assets and liabilities prior to starting
design process in order to develop concepts that incorporate meaningful responses to
external conditions of the site

- includes:
• tepography, slope, and adjacent landforms
• soil types, textures, load-bearing capacity
• vegetative cover and existing native plant populations
• geologic and seismic data
• parcel shape and access with a adjacent land uses, buildings, and structures
• utility easements or corridors
• utility lines and sizes
• road system and networks for parking, pedestrians, bicycles, and transit
• security and safety improvements
• microclimate factors
• proposed future development
• shape, massing, materials, structural systems, mechanical systems, access and
service, solar orientation, and provisions for security and fire safety

ENVIRONMENTAL SITE ASSESSMENT

- involves researching historical use of property and visually inspecting property for
signs of activity that may have caused release of hazardous substance.

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• determines if environmental issues exists on subject parcels
• identifies property development and former land use from available aerials and
historical documents

• determines if underground storage tanks are located at subject parcels, or if any

other environmental issues exist at parcels

• determines if environmental issues exist at subject parcels

• report documentations and conclusions

BASE INFORMATION

- small scale = site location map, large scale = topographic map

- site location map: small scale showing general location of project with respect to
nearby features such as water bodies, structures, roads, and utilities

- site topographic map: records existing topographic contours, drainage, general

vegetative cover types, streams, ponds, wetlands, undisturbed riparian buffers,
utilities, existing roads and buildings, and accurate property lines; records soil types
and slopes on site

SOILS INFORMATION

- evaluate soil types and erodabilities to make erosion cotrol suggestions

- soil types:
• loamy: loam and sandy loam textures
• clayey: clay, clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay loam
• silty: silt and silt loam
- erodability factors:

• soil texture
• organic matter content
• soil structure

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• permeability

EROSION POTENTIAL CAUSES

- nearby waterways or bodies of water

- highly or moderately erodible soils
- slopes with high or medium erosion potential
- absence of well-vegetated areas
- duration of exposure
- slopes (low = <8%, medium = 8-16%, high + > 16%)

VEGETATION

- survey:
• record existing vegetation
• label individual large trees by dbh
• tryt o save large specimen trees when planning layout of development
- classification of vegetation:

• softwood (evergreen)
• mixed softwood and hardwood
• hardwood
• old field, pasture, etc

SOIL

COMPOSITION

- the unconsolidated mineral and organic material on the immediate surface of the
earth that serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants

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- solids: mineral material and living matter components
- liquid: water
- gas: oxygen, etc
- each amount of the solid, liquid, and gas, determines types of soil

THREE BASIC SOIL GROUPS

- cohesive soils: smallest particles

• clay, used in embankment fills and retaining pond beds
• silt
• plastic when wet
• can be molded, but become hard when dry
• usually requires force such as impact or pressure
- granular soils: sand to gravel
• known for water draining properties
• obtain max density in either fully dry or saturated state
- organic: not suitable for compaction

SOIL CONSISTENCY TERMS

- refers to soil’s response to stress

- cementedL hard; little affected by moistening
- firm: when moist, crushes under moderate pressure between thumb and forefinger,
but resistance is distinctly noticeable

- friable: when moist, crushes easily under gentle pressure between thumb and
forefinger and can be pressed together into a lump

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- hard: when dry, moderately resistant to pressure; can be broken with difficulty
between thumb and forefinger

- loose: noncoherent when dry or moist; doesn’t hold together in a mass

- plastic: when wet, readily deformed by moderate pressure but can be pressed into a
lump; will form a wire when rolled between thumb and forefinger

- sticky: when wet, adheres to other material and tends to stretch somewhat and pull
apart rather than pull free from other material

- soft: when dry, breaks into powder or single grains under very light pressure

SOIL TRIANGLE

- any 3 percentages of sand, silt, clay. Loam is 7-27% clay, 28-50% silt, less than 52%
sand

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PERMEABILITY

- quality of soil that enables water to move downward through profile.

- measured as number of inches per hour that water moves downward through
saturated soil

• very slow + <0.06”/hr

• slow = 0.06-0.2”/hr
• moderately slow = 0.2-0.6”/hr
• moderate = 0.6-2.0”/hr
• moderately rapid = 0.0-6.0”/hr
• rapid = 6.0-20”/hr
• very rapid = > 20”/hr

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LAND CAPABILITY CLASS

- land capability classes distinguished according to risk of land damage or difficulty of

land use

- land suitable for cultivation and other uses:

• class I: few limitations that restrict their use
• class II: some limitations that reduce choice of plants or require moderate
conservation practices

• class III? severe limitations that reduce choice of plants or require special
conservation practices, or both

• class IV: very severe limitations that restrict choice of plants, require very careful
management, or not

- land generally not suitable for cultivation (without major treatment)

• class V: little or no erosion hazard but have other limitations, impractical to remove,
that limit their use largely to pasture, range, woodland, or wildlife food and cover

• class VI: severe limitations that make them generally united for cultivation and limit
use largely to pasture or range, woodland, or wildlife food and cover

• class VII: very severe limitations that make it unsuited to cultivation and that restrict
use largely to grazing, woodland, or wildlife

• class VIII: limitations that preclude use for commercial plant production and restrict
use to recreation, wildlife, water supply, or aesthetic purpose

HYDROLIC SOIL GROUPS

- classified by natural resource conservation service into 4 hydrologic soil groups

based on soil’s runoff potential

- group A: sand, loamy sand, or sandy loam; low runoff potential and high infiltration
rates even when thoroughly wetted

- group B: silt loam or loam moderate infiltration rate when thoroughly wetted
- group C: sandy clay loam; low infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted

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- group D: clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay, silty clay or clay; highest runoff
potential

CONCEPTS

- aerobic: ability of organisms or tissues to function only with presence of free oxygen
- alluvial: general term for sediments laid down in river beds, floodplains, lakes, fans at
the foot of the mountain slopes and estuaries during relatively recent geological times

- anaerobic soil: soil that is devoid of interstitial oxygen. In wetlands, this condition most
normally occurs because of the sustained presence of water, which limits contact with
atmosphere

- angle of repose: angle between horizontal and max slope that a soil assumes through
natural processes

- bearing capacity (soil capacity): measure of load per unit area that a material can
withstand before failure. This is an important feature when determining sizing of a
footing

- compressive strength: resistance to a crushing or buckling force, the max

compressive load a specimen sustains divided by its original cross-sectional area

- cubic yard: volume measure commonly applied to rock/soil material (27 cubic feet)
- hydric soil: type of soil with characteristics resulting from prolonged saturation and
chemically reducing conditions that occurs under anaerobic conditions

- liquefaction: point as which soil acts like a liquid, typically in earthquakes

- loam: mixture of 2 or more soil ingredients
- mineral soil: having properties determined predominantly by mineral matter. Usually
contains less than 20% organic matter

- organic matter: plant and animal residue in soil at various stages of decomposition.
Good source of nitrogen and nutrients for crops

- percolation: movement of water through porous substance, as through soils of

spreading basin

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- shear strength: ability of a soil to hold together under pressure from downhill force

SLOPE

- important to soil formation and management because of influence on runoff, soil

drainage, erosion, use of machinery, and choice of vegetation

- incline/gradient of surface and is commonly expressed in %

- determined by measuring distance in vertical elevation in feet over 100’ of horizontal
distance

• i.e., 5% slope roses/falls 5’ per 100’ of horizontal distance

- simple slope:
• has smooth appearance with surfaces extending in 1-2 directions
• > 1% should only be irrigated with sprinkler/drip systems
• 1% or less commonly used for surface irrigation
• i.e., foot slopes of river valleys
- complex slope:
• short slopes which extend in several directions
• consist of convex/concave slopes
• i.e., knoll
• greater than 1% should only be irrigated with sprinkler or drip systems
- shape:

• convex slope: curves outward like outside surface of back

• concave: curves inward like inside surface of suacer
• plane slope: like tilted flat surface

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EROSION

- group of processes where earth/rock material is loosened/dissolved and removed

from any part of earth’s surface. Generally caused by heavy down pours of rain, water
in general, snow and ice, wind, harsh chemicals, or even buildings or contractors

- erosion control methods:

• erosion control blankets: made up of straw/synthetic materials; helps contain
extremely erosive soil where vegetation is planted; these are very sturdy and can
last several years

• riprap: heavy stone placed around inlets and outlets of pipes/paved channels to
provide protection against erosion; permanent, erosion-resistant protective layer
intended to prevent soil erosion in areas of concentrated flow, turbulence or wave
energy

• fiber roll product: protects bank by stabilizing toe of slope and trapping sediment
from sloughing bank. Used where portions of bank are bare and other parts
stabilized by existing vegetation

• perimeter diversion dike: dike/dike channel constructed along perimeter of

disturbed construction area

• temporary ROW: diversion is ridge of compacted soil, loose rock or gravel placed
perpendicular to roads, disbarred ROWs or similar long sloping areas that are
disturbed

• water bar: permanent ridge/ridge channel constructed diagonally across sloping

road, utility ROW, or path that is subject to erosion

- erosion factor K: indicated susceptibility of soil to sheet and rill erosion by water,
values of K range from 0.05-0.69, higher the value, the more susceptible soil is to
erosion by water

- erosion factor T: estimate of max average annual rate of soil erosion by wind/water
that can occur without affecting productivity over sustained period; rate is in tons per
acre per year

- erodibility index (EI): numerical expression of potential of a soil to erode; higher the
index, greater risk for erosion; EI scores of 8+ are equated to highly erodible land

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ERODABILITY

- depends on such soil characteristics as context of sand, silt, and clay (texture);
organic matter content; soil structure and soil permeability

- erodability ratings: low = .23 and lower; moderate = .26-.36; high = .37 and higher
- loamy soils: moderately erodable; easier to dig than clay soils when dry; doesn’t
produce as much sediment as clayey soils

- clayey soils: moderately erodible; usually difficult to dig when dry; may form rills on
slopes after hard rain with large amount of sediment collecting at base of slopes;
easily transportable but harder to detach than silty soils; can cause serious
sedimentation problems because they stay in suspension in water longer; harder to
catch in sediment basins

- silty soils: highly erodible; particles easily detached by rainfall and transported by
runoff; powdery when dry; doesn’t stick together when moist rills and shallow
channels on slopes after hard rain with large amounts of sediment accumulating at
base of slopes

SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

- grain size distribution of particles

• course grained: grains large enough to be seen
• gravel: can be picked up with thumb and forefinger
• sand: particles large enough to be seen but too small to be picked up individually;
coarse soil with little or no fine particles

• fine grained soils: grains too small to be seen; cohesive in nature; tends to
compress

• silt: finer than sands, but coarser than clays; slightly finer material is classified as
• clay: consisten of microscopic flake-shaped crystalline minerals; plate-shaped; finer
than 0.005 mm; expands with moisture causing problems in foundations

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- plastic limit: moisture content in soil at threshold between semi-solid and plastic
• determined by rolling thread of soil on glass plate until 1/8” diameter thread begins
to crumble

- liquid limit: moisture content in soil at threshold between plastic and liquid

• determined by forming groove in dish of soil and impacting dish until groove closes
• large liquid limit indicates high compressibility and high shrink sweet tendencies
- shrinkage limit: water content, expressed as percentage of weight of oven-dried soil,
at which further loss in moisture won’t cause decrease in volume

MOIST WIDELY USED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

- unified soil classification system (USCS): most widely used and accepted
• classifies soils according to properties that affect use as construction material
• classified according to: grain sized distribution of fraction less than 3” in diameter;
plasticity index; liquid limit; organic matter content

- unifies system assumes that:

• coarse material is better than fines

• low liquid limit is better than high
• narrow range from plastic limit to liquid limit is better than wide range
• well graded material is better than poorly graded; well graded means lots of sizes
mixed together which allows small materials to fill pores between larger materials
and give denser mix than does uniformly sized materials

- G = gravel, S = sand, M = silt, C = clay, O = organic, PT = peat, W = well graded, P =

poorly graded, L = low liquid limit compressibility, lean, low liquid limit, plasticity, H =
high liquid limit, compressibility, fat, high liquid limit, elastic

- AASHTO: suitability of soils based on stability for highway surged use

• group A: high infiltration rate (low runoff) when thoroughly well consists mainly go
deep, well drained to excessively drained sands or gravelly sands

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• group B: moderate infiltration rate when thoroughly wet; consists chiefly of
moderately deep or deep, moderately well drained or well drained soils that have
moderately fine texture to moderately coarse texture

• group C: slow infiltration rate when thoroughly wet; consists of soils having layer
that impedes downward movement of water or soils of moderately fine texture or
fine texture

• group D: very slow infiltration rate (high runoff) when thoroughly wet; consists of
clays that have high shrink sweet potential, soils that have permanent high water
table, soils that have clay pan or clay layer at or near surface, soils that are shallow
over nearly impervious material

SOIL COMPACTION

PURPOSE

- defined as method mechanically increasing density of soil by reducing total pore

space in soil

- increases load-bearing capacity

- prevents soil settlement and frost damage
- provides stability
- reduces water seepage, swelling and contraction
- reduces settling of soil

PRINCIPLE TYPES OF COMPACTION FORCE

- static:
• deadweight of machine, applying downward force on soil surface, compressing soil
particles

• may be changed by adding/subtracting weight of machine

• confined to upper soil layers

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• i.e., kneeding and pressure
- vibratory
• uses mechanism, usually engine-driven, to create downward force in addition to
machine’s static weight

• use certain amount of force to overcome cohesive nature of particular particles

• i.e., rammers and compactors

TYPES OF TESTS

- proctor tests:
• determine max density of soil needed for specific job site
• tests effects of moisture on soil density
• expresses value as percentage of density which is determined before any
compaction takes place to develop compaction specifications

• modified proctor values are higher because they take into account higher densities
needed for certain types of construction projects

• test methods are similar for both tests

- modified method (modified proctor test)
• uses equivalent energy or comparative effort
• requires 4.5 times more effort than required by standard compaction method
• required where foundations are to be placed in soil backfill, and where minimal or
no settlement can be tolerated by the structure

- field test: used to know and control soil density during compaction
• the hand test: pick up handful of soil, squeeze and open; if soil is foldable and
breaks into only a couple of pieces when dropped, it has the right amount of
moisture for proper compaction

• sand cone test: compares density of soil that was just compacted to density
obtained from proctor test of soil from same area

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• nuclear density: uses radioactive isotope source at soil surface from probe placed
into soil; gives off photons which radiate back to meter’s detectors on bottom of
unit; dense soil absorbs more radiation than loose soil and readings reflect overall
density

• soil modulus (soil stiffness): ratio of force to displacement; desired engineering

property; machine sends vibrations into soil and then measures deflection of soil
from the vibrations; very recent development that replaces soil density testing

STRESS

- refers to pressure/force/weight that’s applied to soil

- compressive stress: force that tends to compress the surface
- tensional stress: opposite of compressional stress. occurs when one part moves
away from another part that doesn’t move

- strain: response to stress

- yield point: point at which material fails (deformability and firmness of soil), often
plotted as function of stress by engineers

GRADING

- grade: level or surface of ground established by law or on record where not

established by law

- exterior surface grading: designed to direct surface water from or around home
• avoids water penetration problems such as: structural damage to wood framing,
interior damage, hydrostatic pressure against foundation walls, cracking of slab and
foundation walls

- grading of soil around perimeter of the home:

• slope away (min rate 1” per foot for first 6’) from house to prevent rain water from
accumulating next to foundation

• refers to layer of soil that’s impervious to water such s clay, which directs water
away from house; topsoil is porous and absorbs surface water; sub-layer of

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clay/similar non-porous soil prevents water from continuing in downward movement
and directs water laterally

- grading of the lot: directs water around and away from house to avoid receiving water
run-off; create swales to direct water around the house

RESIDENTIAL EXCAVATIONS

- usually the C soil

- will require slope at 1 1/2:1
- soils pile is at least 2’ back from edge of excavation

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