Hydraulic Actuators

Learning Objectives:
Upon completion of this chapter, the student should
be able to:
• Explain the classification of hydraulic actuators.
• Explain various types of hydraulic cylinders.
• Explain the importance of cylinder cushioning.
• Evaluate the performance of hydraulic systems using
cylinders.
 Hydraulic systems are used to control and transmit
power. A pump driven by a prime mover such as an electric
motor creates a flow of fluid, in which the pressure,
direction and rate of flow are controlled by valves. An
actuator is used to convert the energy of fluid back into the
mechanical power. The amount of output power developed
depends upon the flow rate, the pressure drop across the
actuator and its overall efficiency. Thus, hydraulic actuators
are devices used to convert pressure energy of the fluid into
mechanical energy.
 Depending on the type of actuation, hydraulic
actuators are classified as follows:
1. Linear actuator: For linear actuation (hydraulic
cylinders).
2. Rotary actuator: For rotary actuation (hydraulic
motor).
3. Semi-rotary actuator: For limited angle of actuation
(semi-rotary actuator).
 Hydraulic linear actuators, as their name implies,
provide motion in a straight line. The total movement is a
finite amount determined by the construction of the unit.
They are usually referred to as cylinders, rams and jacks.
All these items are synonymous in general use, although
ram is sometimes intended to mean a single-acting
cylinder and jack often refers to a cylinder used for lifting.
The function of hydraulic cylinder is to convert hydraulic
power into linear mechanical force or motion.
 Hydraulic cylinders extend and retract a piston
rod to provide a push or pull force to drive the external
load along a straight-line path. Continuous angular
movement is achieved by rotary actuators, more
generally known as a hydraulic motor. Semi-rotary
actuators are capable of limited angular movements
that can be several complete revolutions but 360o or
less is more usual.
Hydraulic cylinders are of the following types:
• Single-acting cylinders.
• Double-acting cylinders.
• Telescopic cylinders.
• Tandem cylinders.
1. Single-Acting Cylinders
A single-acting cylinder is simplest in design and is
shown schematically in Fig.1.1. It consists of a piston
inside a cylindrical housing called barrel. On one end of
the piston there is a rod, which can reciprocate. At the
opposite end, there is a port for the entrance and exit of
oil.
 Single-acting cylinders produce force in one direction by
hydraulic pressure acting on the piston. (Single-acting
cylinders can exert a force in the extending direction only.)
The return of the piston is not done hydraulically. In single-
acting cylinders, retraction is done either by gravity or by a
spring. According to the type of return, single-acting cylinders
are classified as follows:
• Gravity-return single-acting cylinder.
• Spring-return single-acting cylinder.
 1.1 Gravity-Return Single-Acting Cylinders
Figure1.2 shows gravity-return-type single-acting
cylinders. In the push type [Fig. 1.2(a)], the cylinder
extends to lift a weight against the force of gravity by
applying oil pressure at the blank end. The oil is passed
through the blank-end port or pressure port. The rod-
end port or vent port is open to atmosphere so that air
can flow freely in and out of the rod end of the cylinder.
 To retract the cylinder, the pressure is simply
removed from the piston by connecting the pressure
port to the tank. This allows the weight of the load to
push the fluid out of the cylinder back to the tank. In
pull-type gravity-return-type single-acting cylinder, the
cylinder [Fig. 1.2(b)] lifts the weight by retracting. The
blank-end port is the pressure port and blind-end port
is now the vent port. This cylinder automatically extends
whenever the pressure port is connected to the tank.
1.2 Spring-Return Single-Acting Cylinder
A spring-return single-acting cylinder is shown in
Fig.1.3.In push type [Fig. 1.3(a)], the pressure is sent
through the pressure port situated at the blank end of
the cylinder. When the pressure is released, the spring
automatically returns the cylinder to the fully retracted
position. The vent port is open to atmosphere so that air
can flow freely in and out of the rod end of the cylinder.
 Figure 1.3(b) shows a spring-return single-acting
cylinder. In this design, the cylinder retracts when the
pressure port is connected to the pump flow and
extends whenever the pressure port is connected to the
tank. Here the pressure port is situated at the rod end
of the cylinder.
2 Double-Acting Cylinder
There are two types of double-acting cylinders:
• Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on one side.
• Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on both sides.
2.1 Double-Acting Cylinder with a Piston Rod on One Side
Figure 1.4 shows the operation of a double-acting cylinder with a
piston rod on one side. To extend the cylinder, the pump flow is sent to
the blank-end port as in Fig. 1.4(a). The fluid from the rod-end port
returns to the reservoir. To retract the cylinder, the pump flow is sent to
the rod-end port and the fluid from the blank-end port returns to the
tank as in Fig.1.4(b).
2.2 Double-Acting Cylinder with a Piston Rod on Both Sides
A double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on both
sides (Fig.1.5) is a cylinder with a rod extending from both
ends. This cylinder can be used in an application where
work can be done by both ends of the cylinder, thereby
making the cylinder more productive. Double-rod
cylinders can withstand higher side loads because they
have an extra bearing, one on each rod, to withstand the
loading.
3.Telescopic Cylinder
A telescopic cylinder (shown in Fig. 1.6) is used when a
long stroke length and a short retracted length are required.
The telescopic cylinder extends in stages, each stage
consisting of a sleeve that fits inside the previous stage. One
application for this type of cylinder is raising a dump truck
bed. Telescopic cylinders are available in both single-acting
and double-acting models. They are more expensive than
standard cylinders due to their more complex construction.
 They generally consist of a nest of tubes and operate on the
displacement principle. The tubes are supported by bearing
rings, the innermost (rear) set of which have grooves or channels
to allow fluid flow. The front bearing assembly on each section
includes seals and wiper rings. Stop rings limit the movement of
each section, thus preventing separation. When the cylinder
extends, all the sections move together until the outer section is
prevented from further extension by its stop ring. The remaining
sections continue out-stroking until the second outermost section
reaches the limit of its stroke; this process continues until all
sections are extended, the innermost one being the last of all.
Tandem Cylinder
A tandem cylinder, shown in Fig. 1.7, is used in
applications where a large amount of force is required
from a small-diameter cylinder. Pressure is applied to
both pistons, resulting in increased force because of
the larger area. The drawback is that these cylinders
must be longer than a standard cylinder to achieve an
equal speed because flow must go to both pistons.
Hydraulic Motor
Learning Objectives:
Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able
to:
• Differentiate hydraulic motor from hydraulic pump.
• Discuss various classifications of hydraulic motor.
• Explain the construction and working of gear, vane and piston
motors.
• Explain various types of efficiency terms used in hydraulic
motors.
• Evaluate the performance parameters of systems using motors.
• Define mechanical, volumetric and overall efficiency of pumps
 Hydraulic motors have become popular in industries.
Hydraulic motors can be applied directly to work. They
provide excellent control for acceleration, operating speed,
deceleration, smooth reversals and positioning. They also
provide flexibility in design and eliminate much of bulk and
weight of mechanical and electrical power transmission. The
applications of hydraulic motors in their various
combinations with pumping units are termed hydrostatic
transmission.
a
Classification of Hydraulic Motors
There are two types of hydraulic motors: (a) High-speed low-torque
motors and (b) low–speed high-torque motors. In high-speed low-torque
motors, the shaft is driven directly from either the barrel or the cam
plate, whereas in low-speed high-torque motors, the shaft is driven
through a differential gear arrangement that reduces the speed and
increases the torque. Depending upon the mechanism employed to
provide shaft rotation, hydraulic motors can be classified as follows:
1. Gear motors.
2. Vane motors.
3. Piston motors:
Axial piston-type motors.
Radial piston-type motors.
Gear Motors
A gear motor develops torque due to hydraulic pressure
acting against the area of one tooth. There are two teeth trying to
move the rotor in the proper direction, while one net tooth at the
center mesh tries to move it in the opposite direction. In the
design of a gear motor, one of the gears is keyed to an output
shaft, while the other is simply an idler gear. Pressurized oil is
sent to the inlet port of the motor. Pressure is then applied to the
gear teeth, causing the gears and output shaft to rotate.
 The pressure builds until enough torque is generated to
rotate the output shaft against the load. The side load on the
motor bearing is quite high, because all the hydraulic
pressure is on one side. This limits the bearing life of the
motor. Schematic diagram of gear motor is shown in Fig.1.1.
Most of the gear motors are bidirectional. Reversing the
direction of flow can reverse the direction of rotation. As in
the case of gear pumps, volumetric displacement is fixed.
a
Piston Motors
Piston motors are classified into the following types:
1. According to the piston of the cylinder block and the drive shaft,
piston motors are classified as follows:
• Axial piston motors.
• Radial piston motors.
2. According to the basis of displacement, piston motors are
classified as follows:
• Fixed-displacement piston motors.
• Variable-displacement piston motors.
Performance of Hydraulic Motors
The performance of hydraulic motors depends upon
many factors such as precision of their parts, tolerances
between the mating parts, etc.Internal leakage between the
inlet and outlet affects the volumetric efficiency. Friction
between mating parts affects the mechanical efficiency of a
hydraulic motor. Gear motors typically have an overall
efficiency of 70–75% as compared to vane motors which have
75– 85% and piston motors having 85–95%.
 Motor torque is divided into three separate groups:
1. Starting torque: The starting torque is the turning force the motor
exerts from a dead stop.
2. Running torque: Running torque is exerted when the motor is
running and changes whenever there is a change in fluid
pressure.
3. Stalling torque: Stalling torque is the torque necessary to stop the
motor.
In most hydraulic motors, the stalling and starting torques
are equal. Usually, starting torque is 75–80% of the maximum
design torque.
1. Volumetric efficiency: The volumetric efficiency of a
hydraulic motor is the ratio of theoretical flow rate to actual
flow rate required to achieve a particular speed. The motor
uses more flow than the theoretical due to leakage:
2. Mechanical efficiency: The mechanical efficiency of a
hydraulic motor is the ratio of actual work done to the
theoretical work done per revolution. The output torque of a
hydraulic motor is less than theoretical torque due to
mechanical friction between the mating parts:
3. Overall efficiency: The overall efficiency of a motor is the
ratio of output power to input power of the motor. Output
power is mechanical power output at the shaft and input
power is fluid energy supplied to the inlet of the hydraulic
motor:

Note: The actual power delivered to a motor by a fluid is

called hydraulic power and the actual power delivered to a
load by a motor via a rotating shaft is called brake power.
Hydraulic Pump
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to:
• Classify the hydraulic pumps used in the industry.
• Differentiate between positive displacement and non-positive
displacement pumps.
• Explain the working and construction of gear, vane and piston
pumps.
• Evaluate the discharge parameters of gear, vane and piston
pumps.
Introduction
The function of a pump is to convert mechanical energy into
hydraulic energy. It is the heart of any hydraulic system because it
generates the force necessary to move the load. Mechanical energy
is delivered to the pump using a prime mover such as an electric
motor. Partial vacuum is created at the inlet due to the
mechanical rotation of pump shaft. Vacuum permits atmospheric
pressure to force the fluid through the inlet line and into the
pump. The pump then pushes the fluid mechanically into the
fluid power actuated devices such as a motor or a cylinder.
 Pumps are classified into three different ways and must be
considered in any discussion of fluid power equipment.
1. Classification based on displacement:
• Non-positive displacement pumps (hydrodynamic pumps).
• Positive displacement pumps (hydrostatic pumps).
2. Classification based on delivery:
• Constant delivery pumps.
• Variable delivery pumps.
3. Classification based on motion:
• Rotary pump.
• Reciprocating pump.
Classification of Pumps
1.Classification Based on Displacement
1.1. Non-Positive Displacement Pumps
Non-positive displacement pumps are primarily velocity-type
units that have a great deal of clearance between rotating and
stationary parts. Non-displacement pumps are characterized by a
high slip that increases as the back pressure increases, so that the
outlet may be completely closed without damage to the pump or
system. Non-positive pumps do not develop a high pressure but
move a large volume of fluid at low pressures.
 They have essentially no suction lift. Because of large
clearance space, these pumps are not self-priming. In other words,
the pumping action has too much clearance space to seal against
atmospheric pressure. The displacement between the inlet and the
outlet is not positive. Therefore, the volume of fluid delivered by a
pump depends on the speed at which the pump is operated and
the resistance at the discharge side. As the resistance builds up at
the discharge side, the fluid slips back into the clearance spaces,
or in other words, follows the path of least resistance. When the
resistance gets to a certain value, no fluid gets delivered to the
system and the volumetric efficiency of the pump drops to zero for
a given speed.
 These pumps are not used in fluid power industry as
they are not capable of withstanding high pressure. Their
maximum capacity is limited to 17–20 bar. These types of
pumps are primarily used for transporting fluids such as
water, petroleum, etc., from one location to another
considerable apart location. The two most common types of
hydrodynamic pumps are the centrifugal and the axial flow
propeller pumps.
Advantages and disadvantages of non-positive displacement
pumps
The advantages are as follows:
1.Non-displacement pumps have fewer moving parts.
2.Initial and maintenance cost is low.
3. They give smooth continuous flow.
4. They are suitable for handling almost all types of fluids
including slurries and sledges.
5.Their operation is simple and reliable.
The disadvantages are as follows:
1. Non-displacement pumps are not self-priming and hence they
must be positioned below the fluid level.
2. Discharge is a function of output resistance.
3. Low volumetric efficiency.
1.2.Positive Displacement Pumps
Positive displacement pumps, in contrast, have very little
slips, are self-priming and pump against very high pressures, but
their volumetric capacity is low. Positive displacement pumps
have a very close clearance between rotating and stationary parts
and hence are self-priming. Positive displacement pumps eject a
fixed amount of fluid into the hydraulic system per revolution of
the pump shaft. Such pumps are capable of overcoming the
pressure resulting from mechanical loads on the system as well as
the resistance of flow due to friction. This equipment must always
be protected by relief valves to prevent damage to the pump or
system. By far, a majority of fluid power pumps fall in this
category, including gear, vane and piston pumps.
Positive displacement pumps are classified based on the following
characteristics:
1. Type of motion of pumping element: Based on the type of motion of
pumping element, positive displacement pumps are classified as follows:
• Rotary pumps, for example, gear pumps and vane pumps.
• Reciprocating pumps, for example, piston pumps.
2. Displacement characteristics: Based on displacement characteristics,
positive displacement pumps are classified as follows:
• Fixed displacement pumps.
• Variable displacement pumps.
3. Type of pumping element.
 The advantages of positive displacement pumps over non-positive
displacement pumps are as follows:
1. They can operate at very high pressures of up to 800 bar (used for lifting
oils from very deep oil wells).
2. They can achieve a high volumetric efficiency of up to 98%.
3. They are highly efficient and almost constant throughout the designed
pressure range.
4. They are a compact unit, having a high power-to-weight ratio.
5. They can obtain a smooth and precisely controlled motion.
6. By proper application and control, they produce only the amount of flow
required to move the load at the desired velocity.
7. They have a great flexibility of performance. They can be made to operate
over a wide range of pressures and speeds.
2 Classification Based on Delivery
2.1 Constant Delivery Pumps
Constant volume pumps always deliver the same
quantity of fluid in a given time at the operating speed and
temperature. These pumps are generally used with relatively
simple machines, such as saws or drill presses or where a
group of machines is operated with no specific relationship
among their relative speeds. Power for reciprocating actuators
is most often provided by constant volume pumps.
2.2 Variable Delivery Pumps
The output of variable volume pumps may be varied either
manually or automatically with no change in the input speed to the
pump. Variable volume pumps are frequently used for rewinds, constant
tension devices or where a group of separate drives has an integrated
speed relationship such as a conveyor system or continuous processing
equipment.
2.3 Classification Based on Motion
This classification concerns the motion that may be either rotary or
reciprocating. It was of greater importance when reciprocating pumps
consisted only of a single or a few relatively large cylinders and the
discharge had a large undesirable pulsation. Present-day reciprocating
pumps differ very little from rotary pumps in either external appearance
or the flow characteristics.
Table 1.1 Differences between positive displacement pumps and
non-positive displacement pumps
Pumping Theory
A positive displacement hydraulic pump is a device used for
converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. It is driven
by a prime mover such as an electric motor. It basically performs
two functions. First, it creates a partial vacuum at the pump inlet
port. This vacuum enables atmospheric pressure to force the fluid
from the reservoir into the pump. Second, the mechanical action
of the pump traps this fluid within the pumping cavities,
transports it through the pump and forces it into the hydraulic
system. It is important to note that pumps create flow not
pressure. Pressure is created by the resistance to flow.
.
1. As the piston moves to the left, a partial vacuum is created in the
pump chamber that holds the outlet valve in place against its seat
and induces flow from the reservoir that is at a higher
(atmospheric) pressure. As this flow is produced, the inlet valve is
temporarily displaced by the force of fluid, permitting the flow
into the pump chamber (suction stroke).
2. When the piston moves to the right, the resistance at the valves
causes an immediate increase in the pressure that forces the inlet
valve against its seat and opens the outlet valve thereby
permitting the fluid to flow into the system. If the outlet port
opens directly to the atmosphere, the only pressure developed is
the one required to open the outlet valve(delivery stroke).
Gear Pumps
Gear pumps are less expensive but limited to pressures
below 140 bar. It is noisy in operation than either vane or
piston pumps. Gear pumps are invariably of fixed
displacement type, which means that the amount of fluid
displaced for each revolution of the drive shaft is theoretically
constant.
Gerotor Pumps
Gerotor pumps operate in the same manner as internal
gear pumps. The inner gear rotor is called a gerotor element.
The gerotor element is driven by a prime mover and during
the operation drives outer gear rotor around as they mesh
together. The gerotor has one tooth less than the outer
internal idler gear. Each tooth of the gerotor is always in
sliding contact with the surface of the outer element. The
teeth of the two elements engage at just one place to seal the
pumping chambers from each other.
Lobe Pumps
Lobe pumps, unlike external gear pumps, have both
elements externally driven and neither element has any
contact with the other. For this reason, they are quieter when
compared to other types of gear pumps. Lobe contact is
prevented by external timing gears located in the gearbox.
Pump shaft support bearings are located in the gearbox, and
because the bearings are out of the pumped liquid, pressure is
limited by bearing location and shaft deflection. They do not
lose efficiency with use. They are similar to external gear
pumps with respect to the feature of reversibility.
Screw Pumps
These pumps have two or more gear-driven helical
meshing screws in a close fitting case to develop the desired
pressure. These screws mesh to form a fluid-type seal between
the screws and casing.
Hydraulic Valves
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able
to:
• Determine the basic considerations regarding hydraulic
valves.
• Differentiate different types of valves according to purpose.
• Explain the working and construction of different types of
valves.
• Classify the different hydraulic valves according to their
principle of operation.
Control Valves
Devices which are used to regulate and control the flow
and pressure in any assigned manner are called control
valves or simply valves. With the tremendous growth and
advancement in machineries involving fluid power the
various sophisticated valves are developed to match with
exact requirements. However, in this section we shall discuss
only the basic features and operating principles of few
ordinary and general purpose valves.
Basic Consideration:
Both the flow and pressure are controlled by using the
principle of orifice flow. The major factors that affect the valve
performances are:
i) Rate of opening the orifice.
ii) Size of the orifice.
iii) Designed characteristics of orifice.
iv) Direction of opening.
v) Sequences of opening the orifices in a multi orifice valve.
 There are basically three types of valves employed in
hydraulic systems:
1. Directional control valves
2. Flow control valves
3. Pressure control valves
1. Direction control valve
Directional control valves are used to control the
distribution of energy in a fluid power system. They provide
the direction to the fluid and allow the flow in a particular
direction. These valves are used to control the start, stop and
change in direction of the fluid flow. These valves regulate the
flow direction in the hydraulic circuit. These control valves
contain ports that are external openings for the fluid to enter
and leave. The number of ports is usually identified by the
term ‘way’.
Directional control valves can be classified in the following
manner:
1. Type of construction:
• Poppet valves
• Spool valves
2. Number of ports:
• Two- way valves
• Three – way valves
• Four- way valves.
3. Number of switching position:
• Two – position
• Three - position
4. Actuating mechanism:
• Manual actuation • Hydraulic actuation
• Mechanical actuation • Pneumatic actuation
• Solenoid actuation • Indirect actuation
1.1 Type of construction
1.1.1 Check Valves
These are unidirectional
valves and permit the free
flow in one direction only.
These valves have two ports:
one for the entry of fluid and
the other for the discharge.
1.1.2 Spool valve
The spool valves derive their name from their appearance. It
consists of a shaft sliding in a bore which has large groove around
the circumference. This type of construction makes it look like a
spool. The spool is sealed along the clearance between moving
spool and housing (valve body). The quality of seal or the amount
of leakage depends on the amount of clearance, viscosity of fluid
and the level of the pressure. The grooves guide the fluid flow by
interconnecting or blocking the holes (ports). The spool valves are
categorized according to the number of operating positions and
the way hydraulic lines interconnections.
1.2 Number of ports
1.2.1 Two way valves
Two way valves have only two ports. These valves are also
known as on-off valves because they allow the fluid flow only
in direction. Normally, the valve is closed.
1.2.2 Three way valves
When a valve has one pressure port, one tank port and
one actuating port as shown in Figures 5.4.7 and 5.4.8, it is
known as three way valve. In this valve, the pressure port
pressurizes one port and exhausts another one. As shown in
figures, only one actuator port is opened at a time. In some
cases a neutral position is also available when both the ports
are blocked. Generally, these valves are used to operate single
acting cylinders.
1.2.3 Four way valves
Figure 5.4.9 shows a four-way valve. It is generally used
to operate the cylinders and fluid motors in both the
directions. The four ways are: pump port P, tank port T, and
two working ports A and B connected to the actuator. The
primary function of a four way valve is to pressurize and
exhaust two working ports A and B alternatively.
1.3 Classification of control valve according to number/ways of switching
position
1.3.1 Three position four way (3/4) valves
Three position four way (3/4) valves are used in double-acting
cylinders to perform advance, hold and return operation to the piston.
Figures 5.5.1 and 5.5.2 show three position four way valves. These types of
valves have three switching positions. They have a variety of possible flow
path configurations but have identical flow path configuration. When
the centered path is actuated, port A and B are connected with both the
ports P and T respectively. In this case, valve is not active because all the
ports are open to each other. The fluid flows to the tank at atmospheric
pressure. In this position work cannot be done by any part of the system.
This configuration helps to prevent heat buildup.
1.3.2 Two position four way (2/4) valves
The two position four way valves have only two switching
positions and do not have any mid position. Therefore, they
are also known as impulse valves. The typical connections of
2/4 valves is shown in Figures 5.5.7 and 5.5.8. These valves can
be used to operate double acting cylinders. These are also
used to reciprocate or hold an actuator. The operation is
faster because the distance between ports of these valves is
smaller. Hence, these valves are used on machines where fast
reciprocation cycles are needed such as punching and
stamping etc.
1.4. Classification based on actuation mechanism
1.4.1 Manual actuation
In this type, the spool is operated manually. Manual actuators
are hand lever, push button and pedals etc.
1.4.2 Mechanical actuation
The DCV spool can be operated by using mechanical elements
such as roller and cam, roller and plunger and rack and pinion etc.
In these arrangements, the spool end is of roller or a pinion gear type.
The plunger or cam or rack gear is attached to the actuator. Thus, the
mechanical elements gain some motion relative to the actuator
(cylinder piston) which can be used for the actuation.
1.4.3 Solenoid actuation
The solenoid actuation is also known as electrical
actuation. The schematic of solenoid actuation is shown in
Figure 5.5.9. The energized solenoid coil creates a magnetic
force which pulls the armature into the coil. This movement of
armature controls the spool position. The main advantage of
solenoid actuation is its less switching time.
1.4.4 Hydraulic actuation
This type actuation is usually known as pilot-actuated
valve and a schematic is shown in Figure 5.5.10. In this type of
actuation, the hydraulic pressure is directly applied on the
spool. The pilot port is located on one end of the valve. Fluid
entering from pilot port operates against the piston and
forces the spool to move forward. The needle valve is used to
control the speed of the actuation.
1.4.5 Pneumatic actuation
DCV can also be operated by applying compressed air
against a piston at either end of the valve spool. The
construction of the system is similar to the hydraulic
actuation as shown in Figure 5.5.10. The only difference would
be the actuation medium. The actuation medium is the
compressed air in pneumatic actuation system.
2. Flow Control Valves
In practice, the speed of actuator is very important in
terms of the desired output and needs to be controlled. The
speed of actuator can be controlled by regulating the fluid
flow. A flow control valve can regulate the flow or pressure of
the fluid. The fluid flow is controlled by varying area of the
valve opening through which fluid passes. The fluid flow can
be decreased by reducing the area of the valve opening and it
can be increased by increasing the area of the valve opening.
A very common example to the fluid flow control valve is the
household tap.
2.1Plug or glove valve
The plug valve is quite commonly used valve. It is also termed as
glove valve. Schematic of plug or glove valve is shown in Figure 5.5.12. This
valve has a plug which can be adjusted in vertical direction by setting
flow adjustment screw. The adjustment of plug alters the orifice size
between plug and valve seat. Thus the adjustment of plug controls the
fluid flow in the pipeline. The characteristics of these valves can be
accurately predetermined by machining the taper of the plug. The typical
example of plug valve is stopcock that is used in laboratory glassware.
The valve body is made of glass or teflon. The plug can be made of plastic
or glass. Special glass stopcocks are made for vacuum applications.
Stopcock grease is used in high vacuum applications to make the
stopcock air-tight.
2.2 Butterfly valve
A butterfly valve is shown in Figure 5.5.13. It consists of a disc which
can rotate inside the pipe. The angle of disc determines the restriction.
Butterfly valve can be made to any size and is widely used to control the
flow of gas. These valves have many types which have for different
pressure ranges and applications. The resilient butterfly valve uses the
flexibility of rubber and has the lowest pressure rating. The high
performance butterfly valves have a slight offset in the way the disc is
positioned. It increases its sealing ability and decreases the wear. For
high-pressure systems, the triple offset butterfly valve is suitable which
makes use of a metal seat and is therefore able to withstand high
pressure. It has higher risk of leakage on the shut-off position and suffer
from the dynamic torque effect. Butterfly valves are favored because of
their lower cost and lighter weight. The disc is always present in the flow
therefore a pressure drop is induced regardless of the valve position.
2.3 Ball Valve
The ball valve is shown in Figure 5.5.14. This type of flow
control valve uses a ball rotated inside a machined seat. The ball
has a through hole as shown in Figure 5.5.14. It has very less
leakage in its shut-off condition. These valves are durable and
usually work perfectly for many years. They are excellent choice
for shutoff applications. They do not offer fine control which may
be necessary in throttling applications. These valves are widely
used in industries because of their versatility, high supporting
pressures (up to 1000 bar) and temperatures (up to 250°C). They
are easy to repair and operate.
3. Pressure Control Valves
3.1 Pressure relief valves
The pressure relief valves are used to protect the
hydraulic components from excessive pressure. This is one of
the most important components of a hydraulic system and is
essentially required for safe operation of the system. Its
primary function is to limit the system pressure within a
specified range. It is normally a closed type and it opens when
the pressure exceeds a specified maximum value by diverting
pump flow back to the tank.
3.2. Unloading Valve
The construction of unloading valve is shown in Figure
5.6.2. This valve consists of a control chamber with an
adjustable spring which pushes the spool down. The valve has
two ports: one is connected to the tank and another is
connected to the pump. The valve is operated by movement of
the spool. Normally, the valve is closed and the tank port is
also closed. These valves are used to permit a pump to operate
at the minimum load.
3.2. Sequence Valve
The primary function of this type of valve is to divert flow
in a predetermined sequence. It is used to operate the cycle of
a machine automatically. A sequence valve may be of direct-
pilot or remote-pilot operated type.
3.4 Counterbalance Valve
The counterbalance valves can be used as breaking valves for
decelerating heavy loads. These valves are used in vertical presses,
lift trucks, loaders and other machine tools where position or hold
suspended loads are important. Counterbalance valves work on the
principle that the fluid is trapped under pressure until pilot
pressure overcomes the pre-set value of spring force. Fluid is then
allowed to escape, letting the load to descend under control. This
valve is normally closed until it is acted upon by a remote pilot
pressure source. Therefore, a lower spring force is sufficient. It leads
to the valve operation at the lower pilot pressure and hence the
power consumption reduces, pump life increases and the fluid
temperature decreases.
3.5 Pressure Reducing Valve
These valves are used to limit the outlet pressure. Generally, they are
used for the operation of branch circuits where the pressure may vary
from the main hydraulic pressure lines. These are open type valve and
have a spring chamber with an adjustable spring, a movable spool as
shown in figure. A drain is provided to return the leaked fluid in the
spring (control) chamber. A free flow passage is provided from inlet port
to the outlet port until a signal from the outlet port tends to throttle the
passage through the valve. The pilot pressure opposes the spring force
and when both are balanced, the downstream is controlled at the
pressure setting. When the pressure in the reduced pressure line exceeds
the valve setting, the spool moves to reduce the flow passage area by
compressing the spring.