Unit I

Casting
1. CASTING PROCESS

Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold,
which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified
part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete
the process.

Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is formed.
Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with the help of
pattern.
Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that makes up the mold.
Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases. It is a
mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.
Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the
mold cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to create
openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.
Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten metal
is poured.
Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the mold
cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold.
Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks and
solidifies. Also known as “feed head”.
Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.
2. TYPES OF PATTERNS.

1. Solid pattern
• It is the simplest of all the patterns and the cheapest.
• It is made in one piece and carries no joint, partition, or loose piece.
• Depending upon the shape, it can be moulded in one or two boxes.
Application : steam valve bodies, spindle, AK 47 rifle stock.

Solid pattern
2. Split pattern
 A pattern consist of two pieces is called a two piece split pattern
 One half of the pattern rests in the lower part of the moulding box known as drag.
 The other half in the upper part of the moulding box known as cope.
 The line of separation of the parts is called parting line or parting surface.
 Dowel pins are used for keeping the alignment between the two parts of the pattern.
Application: lap joint, dovetail joint.

Split pattern
3. Match plate pattern

• A match plate pattern is made by fastening each half of a split pattern to the opposite
side of one plate.
• Match plate pattern are to expensive to construct.
• The plate provides a substantial mounting fro patterns and widely used in machine
moulding.
• These patterns are suited for mass production of small castings in moulding machines.
Applications : small casting such as corner bracket.
 Match plate pattern

4. Sweep pattern

• Sweep pattern are used for forming large circular moulds of symmetric kind
by revolving a sweep attached to a spindle as shown in figure.
• Sweep is a template of wood or metal and is attached to the spindle at one
edge and the other edge has a countour depending upon the desired shape of
the mould.
• The pivot end is attached to a stake of metal in the center of the mould

Sweep pattern
5. Segmental pattern
Segmental pattern are used for preparing mould of large circular castings, they work like a
sweep but the difference is a sweep is given a continuous revolving motion to have a
desired shape.

Segmental pattern

PATTERN ALLOWANCES
 A pattern is always made larger than the required size of the casting considering the
various allowances. These are the allowances which are usually provided in a pattern.

1. Shrinkage allowances
Liquid shrinkage is the reduction in volume during the process of solidification, and
Solid shrinkage is the reduction in volume during the cooling of the cast metal. Shrinkage
allowance takes into account only the solid shrinkage. The liquid shrinkage is accounted for by
risers.
It depends on:
a) Dimensions of casting
b) Design and intricacy of casting
c) Resistance of mol to shrinkage
d) Molding materials used
e) Method of molding used
f) Pouring temp of the molten metal

2. Machining Allowances or Finishing allowances

Machining allowance or finish allowance indicates how much larger the rough casting
should be over the finished casting to allow sufficient material to insure that machining
will "clean up" the surfaces.

This machining allowance is added to all surfaces that are to be machined. Machining
allowance is larger for hand molding as compared to machine molding.
It depends on:
a) Machining operation
b) Characteristics of metal
c) Methods of castings
d) Size, shapes and volumes of castings
e) Degree of finish required in castings
f) Configuration of the casting
Metal Dimension (inch) Allowance (inch)
Up to 12 0.12

Cast iron 12 to 20 0.20

20 to 40 0.25
Up to 6 0.12

Cast steel 6 to 20 0.25

20 to 40 0.30
Up to 8 0.09

Non ferrous 8 to 12 0.12

12 to 40 0.16

3. Draft allowance or Taper allowance

 Pattern draft is the taper placed on the pattern surfaces that are parallel to the direction in
which the pattern is withdrawn from the mould (that is perpendicular to the parting
plane), to allow removal of the pattern without damaging the mould cavity.
It depends on:
a) The method of molding
b) The sand mixture used
c) The design (shape and length of the vertical side of the pattern)
d) Economic restrictions imposed on the casting
e) Intricacy of the pattern

4. Distortion allowance or camber allowance.

This allowance is taken into consideration when casting products of irregular shapes.
When these are cooled they are distorted due to metal shrinkage.

5. Rapping or shaking allowance.

To take the pattern out of the mould cavity it is slightly rapped to detach it from the
mould cavity. So the cavity is increased a little.

GATING AND RISING SYSTEM

Gating system

The assembly of channels which facilitates the molten metal to enter into the mold cavity is
called the gating system. Alternatively, the gating system refers to all passage ways through
which molten metal passes to enter into the mold cavity. The nomenclature of gating system
depends upon the function of different channels which they perform.

• Down gates or sprue

 • Cross gates or runners
• Ingates or gates

The metal flows down from the pouring basin or pouring cup into the down gate or sprue and
passes through the cross gate or channels and ingates or gates before entering into the mold
cavity.

Goals of Gating System

The goals for the gating system are

• To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into the mold

• To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the metal starts to solidify
• To avoid shrinkage
• Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the solidifying casting so that the
shrinkage if occurs must be in the gating system not in the required cast part.
• Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic inclusions.

Riser

Riser is a source of extra metal which flows from riser to mold cavity to compensate for
shrinkage which takes place in the casting when it starts solidifying. Without a riser heavier parts
of the casting will have shrinkage defects, either on the surface or internally.

Risers are known by different names as metal reservoir, feeders, or headers.

Shrinkage in a mold, from the time of pouring to final casting, occurs in three stages.

1. during the liquid state

2. during the transformation from liquid to solid
3. during the solid state

First type of shrinkage is being compensated by the feeders or the gating system. For the second
type of shrinkage risers are required. Risers are normally placed at that portion of the casting
which is last to freeze. A riser must stay in liquid state at least as long as the casting and must be
able to feed the casting during this time.

Functions of Risers

• Provide extra metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage

• Allow mold gases to escape
• Provide extra metal pressure on the solidifying mold to reproduce mold details more
exact.
 Gating and rising system

MOULDING SAND
Green sand

Green sand is an aggregate of sand, bentonite clay, pulverized coal and water. Its principal use
is in making molds for metal casting. The largest portion of the aggregate is always sand, which
can be either silica or olivine. Not all Green sand is green in color.

Procedure involved in making green sand mould

• Suitable proportions of silica sand (85 – 92%), bentonite binder (6-12%) water (3-
5%) and additives are mixed together to prepare the green sand mixture.
• The pattern is placed on a flat surface with the drag box enclosing it. Parting sand
is sprinkled on the pattern surface to avoid green sand mixture sticking to the
pattern
• The drag box is filled with green sand mixture and rammed manually till its top
surface.

Dry sand

Dry sand is the green sand that has been dried or baked after preparing the mould. Drying sand
gives strength to the mould so that it can be used for larger castings.

Loam sand
 Loam sand is asnd containing upot 50% clay which has been worked to the consistency
of builder mortar. This sand is used for loam sand moulds for making very heavy castings
usually with the help of sweep and skeleton patterns.

Parting sand

This sand is used during making of the mould to ensure that green sand does not stick to the
pattern and the cope and drag parts can be easily separated for removing the pattern without
causing any damage to the mould.

Facing sand

Facing sand is the sand which covers the pattern all around it. The remaining box is filled with
ordinary floor sand. Facing sand forms the face of the mould and comes in direct contact with the
molten metal when it is poured.

CORE

A core is a device used in casting and molding processes to produce internal cavities and
reentrant angles. The core is normally a disposable item that is destroyed to get it out of the
piece. They are most commonly used in sand casting, but are also used in injection molding.

Core

Core print

For supporting the cores in the mould cavity any impression in the form of a recess is made in
the mould with the help of a projection on pattern. This projection is known as core print.
 Core print

SPECIAL CASTING PROCESS

SHELL MOULDING

Shell moulding, also known as shell-mould casting, is an expendable mold casting process that
uses a resin covered sand to form the mold. As compared to sand casting, this process has better
dimensional accuracy, a higher productivity rate, and lower labor requirements.

In the first stage of shell molding, a metal pattern is made which is resistant to high temperature
and can withstand abrasion due to contact with sand. The sand and resin mixture for the shell
mold is brought in contact with the pattern. The mold is placed in an oven where the resin is
cured. This process causes the formation of a thin shell around the pattern. The thickness of the
mold can be 10-20mm as compared to the heavy mold made for sand castings. When fully cured
the skin is removed from the pattern, which is the shell mold.

For each shell molds there are two halves know as the cope and drag section. The two sections
are joined by resin to form a complete shell mold. If an interior design is required, the cores are
placed inside the mold before sealing the two parts.

For heavy castings, shell mold are held together by metals or other materials. Now, the molten
metal is poured into the mold, and once it solidifies, the shell is broken to remove the casting.
This process is highly useful for near net shape castings. Another advantage is that shell molding
can be automated.

Advantages of Shell Mold Casting(Shell Molding):

• Thin sections, complex parts and intricate designs can be cast

• Excellent surface finish and goal size tolerances
• Less machining required for the castings
• Near net shape castings, almost 'as cast' quality
• Simplified process that can be handled by semi skilled operators
• Full mechanized and automated casting process
• Less foundry space required.

Shell Molding Applications: A sizable amount of the casting in the steel industry is made by
shell molding process that ensures better profitability. Carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel,
low alloys, aluminum alloys, copper, are all cast using shell molding process. Casting that
require thin section and excellent dimensional accuracy are cast using this process. Body panes,
truck hoods, small size boats, bath tubs, shells of drums, connecting rods, gear housings, lever
arms, etc. are cast using croning process.

INVESTMENT CASTING

The root of the investment casting process, the cire perdue or “lost wax” method dates back to at
least the fourth millennium B.C. The artists and sculptors of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia
used the rudiments of the investment casting process to create intricately detailed jewelry,
pectorals and idols. The investment casting process alos called lost wax process begins with the
production of wax replicas or patterns of the desired shape of the castings. A pattern is needed
for every casting to be produced. The patterns are prepared by injecting wax or polystyrene in a
metal dies. A number of patterns are attached to a central wax sprue to form a assembly. The
mold is prepared by surrounding the pattern with refractory slurry that can set at room
temperature. The mold is then heated so that pattern melts and flows out, leaving a clean cavity
behind. The mould is further hardened by heating and the molten metal is poured while it is still
hot. When the casting is solidified, the mold is broken and the casting taken out.

The basic steps of the investment casting process are

1. Production of heat-disposable wax, plastic, or polystyrene patterns

2. Assembly of these patterns onto a gating system
 3. “Investing,” or covering the pattern assembly with refractory slurry
4. Melting the pattern assembly to remove the pattern material
5. Firing the mold to remove the last traces of the pattern material
6. Pouring
7. Knockout, cutoff and finishing.

Advantages

• Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores

• Less material required for gate
• Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting free of gas and shrinkage cavities
and porosity
Disadvantages

• More segregation of alloy component during pouring under the forces of rotation
• Contamination of internal surface of castings with non-metallic inclusions
• Inaccurate internal diameter.

DIE CASTING

Die casting is a moulding process in which the molten metal is injected under high pressure and
velocity into a split mould die. It is also called pressure die casting. The split mould used under
this type of casting is reusable. Die casting is categorized two types namely- hot chamber and
cold chamber as shown in Figure M2.3.1. Metals like Zinc, tin and lead alloys are casted in hot
chamber die casting having melting point below 3900 C whereas aluminum alloys are casted in
cold chamber die casting machine. Aluminum dissolves ferrous parts in the die chamber and
hence preferred to be used in cold chamber die casting. Continuous contact of molten metal is
avoided by using a ladle for introducing molten metal directly to the machine.

Advantages of the die casting process

1. High production rate.

2. High accuracy in part dimensions.

3. Smooth surface finish for minimum mechanical finishing.

4. Ability to make many intricate parts such as hole opening slot trademark number etc.

5. Much thinner wall sections can be produced which can’t be produced by other casting
methods.
6. Varieties of alloys can be used as per design requirements. For example zinc can be used for
intricate forms and plasticity, aluminum for higher structural strength, rigidity and light weight.

7. Ability to cast inserts such as pins studs shafts, fasteners etc.

Disadvantages of the die casting process

1. Microporosity in the die casting products is a common problem because of faster

solidification, trapped air and vaporized die lubricants.

2. Undercuts cannot be found in simple two piece dies.

3. Hollow shapes are not readily casted because of the high metal pressure.

4. Limited sizes of the products can be produced based on the availability of the equipment

5. High melting temperature alloys are practically not die casted

6. Flash is present except for very small zinc die casting.

Applications

Die casting process is preferred for nonferrous metal parts of intricate shapes. Examples of
products are automobiles appliances, hand tools, computer peripherals, toys, optical and
photographic equipment etc.

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

In this process, the mold is rotated rapidly about its central axis as the metal is poured into it.
Because of the centrifugal force, a continuous pressure will be acting on the metal as it solidifies.
The slag, oxides and other inclusions being lighter, get separated from the metal and segregate
towards the center. This process is normally used for the making of hollow pipes, tubes, hollow
bushes, etc., which are axisymmetric with a concentric hole. Since the metal is always pushed
outward because of the centrifugal force, no core needs to be used for making the concentric
hole. The mold can be rotated about a vertical, horizontal or an inclined axis or about its
horizontal and vertical axes simultaneously. The length and outside diameter are fixed by the
mold cavity dimensions while the inside diameter is determined by the amount of molten metal
poured into the mold.
 Advantages:

1. Suitable for small hollow cylindrical products.

2. Economic for small production.

Disadvantages:

3. Complex shape cannot be made.

4. Resin with low viscosity is needed.
5. The finish of the inner side of the product is not good.
6. The structural properties may not be good as the chopped fibres are used.

CASTING DEFECTS

The following are the major defects, which are likely to occur in sand castings

• Gas defects
• Shrinkage cavities
• Molding material defects
• Pouring metal defects
• Mold shift
Gas Defects

A condition existing in a casting caused by the trapping of gas in the molten metal or by mold
gases evolved during the pouring of the casting. The defects in this category can be classified
into blowholes and pinhole porosity. Blowholes are spherical or elongated cavities present in the
casting on the surface or inside the casting. Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of
hydrogen gas, which gets entrapped during heating of molten metal.

Causes

The lower gas-passing tendency of the mold, which may be due to lower venting, lower
permeability of the mold or improper design of the casting. The lower permeability is caused by
finer grain size of the sand, high percentage of clay in mold mixture, and excessive moisture
present in the mold.

• Metal contains gas

• Mold is too hot
• Poor mold burnout

Shrinkage Cavities

These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the solidification of the casting. To
compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid metal is required. For this reason risers are placed at
the appropriate places in the mold. Sprues may be too thin, too long or not attached in the proper
location, causing shrinkage cavities. It is recommended to use thick sprues to avoid shrinkage
cavities.

Molding Material Defects

The defects in this category are cuts and washes, metal penetration, fusion, and swell.

Cut and washes

These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are caused by erosion of molding
sand by the flowing metal. This is caused by the molding sand not having enough strength and
the molten metal flowing at high velocity. The former can be taken care of by the proper choice
of molding sand and the latter can be overcome by the proper design of the gating system.

Metal penetration

When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand grains, the result is a rough casting
surface. This occurs because the sand is coarse or no mold wash was applied on the surface of
the mold. The coarser the sand grains more the metal penetration.

Fusion
This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with the molten metal, giving a brittle, glassy
appearance on the casting surface. The main reason for this is that the clay or the sand particles
are of lower refractoriness or that the pouring temperature is too high.

Swell

Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold wall may move back causing a swell in the
dimension of the casting. A proper ramming of the mold will correct this defect.

Inclusions

Particles of slag, refractory materials, sand or deoxidation products are trapped in the casting
during pouring solidification. The provision of choke in the gating system and the pouring basin
at the top of the mold can prevent this defect.

Pouring Metal Defects

The likely defects in this category are

• Mis-runs and
• Cold shuts.

A mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mold cavity completely and thus leaves
unfilled cavities. A mis-run results when the metal is too cold to flow to the extremities of the
mold cavity before freezing. Long, thin sections are subject to this defect and should be avoided
in casting design.

A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting in the mold cavity, do not fuse together
properly thus forming a discontinuity in the casting. When the molten metal is poured into the
mold cavity through more-than-one gate, multiple liquid fronts will have to flow together and
become one solid. If the flowing metal fronts are too cool, they may not flow together, but will
leave a seam in the part. Such a seam is called a cold shut, and can be prevented by assuring
sufficient superheat in the poured metal and thick enough walls in the casting design.

The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either by a lower fluidity of the mold or when the
section thickness of the casting is very small. Fluidity can be improved by changing the
composition of the metal and by increasing the pouring temperature of the metal.

Mold Shift

The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag or molding boxes have not been properly
aligned.
Blow holes Scar

Casting defects
 UNIT II
MECHANNICAL WORKING OF METALS
HOT WORKING AND COLD WORKING

Plastic deformation of metal carried out at temperature above the recrystallization temperature,
is called hot working. Under the action of heat and force, when the atoms of metal reach a certain
higher energy level, the new crystals start forming. This is called recrystallization. When this
happens, the old grain structure deformed by previously carried out mechanical working no
longer exist, instead new crystals which are strain-free are formed.

In hot working, the temperature at which the working is completed is critical since any
extra heat left in the material after working will promote grain growth, leading to poor
mechanical properties of material.

In comparison with cold working, the advantages of hot working are

1. No strain hardening
2. Lesser forces are required for deformation
3. Greater ductility of material is available, and therefore more deformation is possible.
4. Favorable grain size is obtained leading to better mechanical properties of material
5. Equipment of lesser power is needed
6. No residual stresses in the material.

Some disadvantages associated in the hot-working of metals are:

1. Heat energy is needed

2. Poor surface finish of material due to scaling of surface
3. Poor accuracy and dimensional control of parts
4. Poor reproducibility and interchangeability of parts
5. Handling and maintaining of hot metal is difficult and troublesome
6. Lower life of tooling and equipment.

Cold working

Plastic deformation of metals below the recrystallization temperature is known as cold working.
It is generally performed at room temperature. In some cases, slightly elevated temperatures may
be used to provide increased ductility and reduced strength. Cold working offers a number of
distinct advantages, and for this reason various cold-working processes have become extremely
important. Significant advances in recent years have extended the use of cold forming, and the
trend appears likely to continue.

In comparison with hot working, the advantages of cold working are

1. No heating is required

2. Bettter surface finish is obtained

 3. Better dimensional control is achieved; therefore no secondary machining is generally
needed.

4. Products possess better reproducibility and interchangeablity.

5. Better strength, fatigue, and wear properties of material.

6. Directional properties can be imparted.

7. Contamination problems are almost negligible.

Some disadvantages associated with cold-working processes are:

1. Higher forces are required for deformation.

2. Heavier and more powerful equipment is required.

3. Less ductility is available.

4. Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free.

5. Strain hardening occurs ( may require intermediate annealing ).

6. Undesirable residual stresses may be produced.

ROLLING

Rolling is one of the most important industrial metal forming operations. Hot Rolling is
employed for breaking the ingots down into wrought products such as into blooms and billets,
which are subsequently rolled to other products like plates, sheets etc.

Rolling is the plastic deformation of materials caused by compressive force applied through a set
of rolls. The cross section of the work piece is reduced by the process. The material gets
squeezed between a pair of rolls, as a result of which the thickness gets reduced and the length
gets increased.

Mostly, rolling is done at high temperature, called hot rolling because of requirement of large
deformations. Hot rolling results in residual stress-free product.

Types of rolling

• Two rolling mill

• Three rolling mill
• Multi rolling mill
• Universal rolling mill
Rolling mill consists of rolls, bearings to support the rolls, gear box, motor, speed control
devices, hydraulic systems etc. The basic type of rolling mill is two high rolling mill. In this mill,
two opposing rolls are used. The direction of rotation of the rolls can be changed in case of
reversing mills, so that the work can be fed into the rolls from either direction. Such mills
increase the productivity. Non reversing mills have rolls rotating in same direction. Therefore,
the work piece cannot be fed from the other side. Typical roll diameters may be 1.4 m.

A three high rolling mill has three rolls. First rolling in one direction takes place along one
direction. Next the work is reversed in direction and fed through the next pair of roll. This
improves the productivity. Rolling power is directly proportional to roll diameter. Smaller dia
rolls can therefore reduce power input. Strength of small diameter rolls are poor. Therefore, rolls
may bend. As a result, largerdia backup rolls are used for supporting the smaller rolls. Four high
rolling mill is one such mill. Thin sections can be rolled using smaller diameter rolls. Cluster mill
and Sendzimir mill are used for rolling thin strips of high strength materials and foils [0.0025
mm thick]. The work roll in these mills may be as small as 6 mm diameter – made of tungsten
carbide. Several rolling mills arranged in succession so as to increase productivity is called
rolling stand. In such arrangement, anuncoiler and windup reels are used. They help in exerting
back tension and front tension.

FORGING

Forging is a process in which material is shaped by the application of localized compressive

forces exerted manually or with power hammers, presses or special forging machines. Therefore,
the term forging usually implies hot forging carried out at temperatures which are above the
recrystallization temperature of the material.

A variety of forging processes have been developed that can be used for either producing a
single piece or mass – produce hundreds of identical parts. Some common forging processes are:

1. Open – die hammer forging

 2. Impression – die drop forging
3. Press Forging
4. Upset Forging

Open – Die Hammer Forging.

It is the simplest forging process which is quite flexible but not suitable for large scale
production. It is a slow process. The resulting size and shape of the forging are dependent on the
skill of the operator.

Open die forging does not confine the flow of metal. The operator obtains the desired shape of
forging by manipulating the work material between blows. Use may be made of some specially
shaped tools or a simple shaped die between the work piece and the hammer or anvil to assist in
shaping the required sections (round, concave, or convex), making holes, or performing cut – off
operations. This process is most often used to make near – final shape of the part so that some
further operation done on the job produces the final shape.

Closed die forging

Closed die drop forging sometimes referred to as impression die forging comprises
of a die on the anvil which resembles a mould, the ram w hich falls and strikes the
top of the work piece can also be equipped with a die. The metal work piece is
heated and placed on the lower die while the ram falls down forcing the metal to
fill the contours of the die blocks. The ram may impact the work seve ral times to
ensure all of the contours are filled, with all the pressure put on the work piece its
common place to get metal flow between the dies called flash, however the flash
due to its decreased size cools relatively quickly and therefore helps block or
reduce further flow between the dies. This flash will have to be trimmed off once
forging is complete.
 Closed die forging

Advantages

• Hot forging prevents work hardening associated with cold forming

• Parts of sizes up to 25 tons can be produced with closed die forging
• Closed die forging can produce near net shapes that will require only a
small amount of finishing
• Economic for large runs of product
• Forging provides superior mechanical properties over castings due to the
internal grain structure formation in forged parts

Disadvantages

• Not very economical for short runs due to the high cost of die production
• The business set up cost of drop forging is very high, not only are the
machines and furnaces costly but special building provisions must be i n
place to cope with the powerful vibrations caused by drop forging. A
special foundation must be laid to deal with this environment .
• Drop forging presents a dangerous working environment .
WIRE DRAWING

Bar or wire drawing is a deformation process in which the work piece in the form of cylindrical
bar or rod is pulled through a converging die. The stress applied is tensile. However, the material
is subjected to compressive stress within the die thereby deforming plastically. A bar or rod is
drawn down in order to reduce its diameter. In general, drawing results in reduction in area of
cross-section. Drawn rods are used as raw materials for making bolts etc. Wire drawing is used
for producing wires e.g. electrical wires, cables, strings, welding electrodes, fencing etc. Basic
difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is the size of bar stock used for bar drawing is
large. Wire is a drawn product having less than 5 mm. For wire drawing smaller diameter bar
stock is used. Wire drawing is usually done in multiple steps, using 4 to 12 dies, because the
length of the wire drawn is very large-several meters. Bar drawing is done in single draft. Draft
is the difference between initial and final diameter. Wire drawing is a continuous process.

Wire drawing

EXTRUSION

Extrusion is a compressive deformation process in which a block of metal is squeezed through an

orifice or die opening in order to obtain a reduction in diameter and increase in length of the
metal block. The resultant product will have the desired cross-section. Extrusion involves
forming of axisymmetric parts.

Types of extrusion

• Direct extrusion or forward extrusion

• Indirect extrusion or backward extrusion

Direct extrusion, also called forward extrusion, is a process in which is the billet moves along the
same direction as the ram and punch do. Sliding of billet is against stationary container wall.Friction
between the container and billet is high. As a result, greater forces are required. A dummy block of
slightly lower diameter than the billet diameter is used in order to prevent oxidation of the billet in
hot extrusion. Hollow sections like tubes can be extruded by direct method, by using hollow billet
and a mandrel attached to the dummy block.
 Direct extrusion

Indirect extrusion (backward extrusion) is a process in which punch moves opposite to that of
the billet. Here there is no relative motion between container and billet. Hence, there is less
friction and hence reduced forces are required for indirect extrusion. For extruding solid pieces,
hollow punch is required. In hollow extrusion, the material gets forced through the annular space
between the solid punch and the container. The variation of extrusion pressure in indirect
extrusion is shown above. As seen, extrusion pressure for indirect extrusion is lower than that for
direct extrusion. Many components are manufactured by combining direct and indirect
extrusions. Indirect extrusion can not be used for extruding long extrudes.

Indirect extrusion

Tube extrusion

Tube extrusion: Employing hollow billet and a mandrel at the end of the ram, hollow sections
such as tubes can be extruded to closer tolerences. The mandrel extends upto the entrance of the
die. Clearance between the mandrel and die wall decides the wall thickness of the tube. The
mandrel is made to travel alongwith the ram in order to make concentric tubes by extrusion.
 Tube extrusion

Tubes can also be made using solid billet and using a piercing mandrel to produce the hollow.
The piercing mandrel is made to move independently with the help of hydraulic press. It moves
along with the ram coaxially. First the ram upsets the billet, keeping the mandrel withdrawn.

SHEARING, PIERCING, TRIMMING AND STRETCH FORMING

Shearing

Shearing is a cutting operation used to remove a blank of required dimensions from a large sheet.
To understand the shearing mechanism, consider a metal being sheared between a punch and a
die

Piercing

It is a process by which a hole is cut (or torn) in metal. It is different from punching in that
piercing does not generate a slug. Instead, the metal is pushed back to form a jagged flange on
the back side of the hole.

A pierced hole looks somewhat like a bullet hole in a sheet of metal.

Trimming

When parts are produced by die casting or drop forging, a small amount of extra metal gets
spread out at the parting plane. This extra metal, called flash, is cut – off before the part is used,
by an operation called trimming. The operation is very similar to blanking and the dies used are
also similar to blanking dies. The presses used for trimming have, however, relatively larger
table.

Stretch forming

Stretching of a sheet metal, by holding its ends or edges and bending it over a form block,
simultaneously is called stretch forming. It is a process involving tensile force. Rigid die is used
in the process. Materials with good ductility alone can be stretch formed. Further, in this process
there is very little springback because of absence of nonuniform deformation or due to constant
stress gradient across the thickness. This is due to high tensile stress applied

THEORY OF BENDING

Bending is one very common sheet metal forming operation used not only to form shapes like
seams, corrugations, and flanges but also to provide stiffness to the part (by increasing its
moment of inertia).
MINIMUM BEND RADIUS

As the ratio of the bend radius to the thickness of sheet (R / t) decreases, the tensile strain
on the outer fibres of sheet increases. If R / t decreases beyond a certain limit, cracks start
appearing on the surface of material. This limit is called Minimum Bend Radius for the material.

Bending Force :

There are two general types of die bending : V – die bending and wiping die bending. V –
die bending is used expensively in brake die operations and stamping die operations. The
bending force can be estimated from the following simple relation.

P = k.Y.L.t2 / D

where P is bending force, g is the yield stress of the material, L is the bend length ( bend
allowance ), t is the sheet thickness, D is the die opening and k is a constant whose value can be
taken as 1.3 for a V-die and 0.3 for a wiping die.

DRAWING

It is a process of cold forming a flat blank of sheet metal into a hollow vessel without much
wrinkling, trimming, or fracturing. The process involves forcing the sheet metal blank into a die
cavity with a punch. The punch exerts sufficient force and the metal is drawn over the edge of
the die opening and into the die. In forming a cup, however, the metal goes completely into the
die.

Drawing Force.

For drawing cylindrical shells having circular cross section, the maximum drawing force P
can be determined from the relation

P = k.t.d.t.Y

where d = outside diameter of cup

t = thickness of material
Y = yield strength of material

k = factor whose value is approx. equal to [D/d – 0.6]

D = blank diameter.

EMBOSSING

Embossing is an operation in which sheet metal is drawn to shallow depths with male and
female matching dies. The operation is carried out mostly for the purpose of stiffening flat
panels. The operation is also sometimes used for making decoration items like number plates or
name plates, jewelry, etc.

Embossing

COINING

Coining is a severe metal squeezing operation in which the flow of metal occurs only at
the top layers of the material and not throughout the values. The operation is carried out in closed
dies mainly for the purpose of producing fine details such as needed in minting coins, and medal
or jewelry making. The blank is kept in the die cavity and pressures as high as five to six times
the strength of material are applied. Depending upon the details required to be coined on the part,
more than one coining operations may be used.

TYPES OF DIES IN FORMING

• Progressive die forming

• Compound die forming
• Combination die forming

Progressive forming

Progressive dies are made with two or more stations arranged in a sequence. Each
station performs an operation on the workpiece, or provides an idler station, so that the
workpiece is completed when the last operation has been accomplished. Thereafter each stroke
of the ram produces a finished part. Thus after the fourth stroke of a four – station die, each
successive stroke will produce a finished part. Operations which may be carried out in a
progressive die are piercing, blanking, forming, drawing, cut – off, etc. The list of possible
operations is long. The number and types of operations which may be performed in a progressive
die depends upon the ingenuity of the designer.

Compound die forming

Compound die combines the principles of the conventional and inverted dies in one station.
This type of die may produce a workpiece which is pierced and blanked at one station and in one
operation. The piercing punch is fastened in the conventional position to the punch holder. Its
matching die opening for piercing is machined into the blanking punch. The blanking punch and
blanking die opening are mounted in an inverted position. The blanking punch is fastened to the
die shoe and the blanking die opening is fastened to the punch holder.
 UNIT III

THEROY OF METAL CUTTING

During an orthogonal cutting a chip length of 160mm was obtained from an uncut length of
350mm. The cutting tool has 220 rake angle and a depth of cut is 0.8mm. Determine the
shear plane angle and chip thickness?
Given data:
l2  160mm
l1  350mm
  22o
t1  0.8mm
To find:
1. Shear plane angle   
2.Chipthickness  t2 

Solution:

l2 160
Chip thickness ratio, r =   0.457
l1 350

 r cos  
Shear plane angle  = tan -1 
1  r sin  
 0.457  cos 22 
= tan -1 
1  0.457  sin 22 
  270 Ans.

We know that, chip thickness

t
r= 1
t2
0.8
0.457=
t2
t2  1.75mm Ans.
Result:
1. Shear plane angle, =27 o
2.Chipthicknes, t2  1.75mm
In orthogonal cutting process the following observations were made
Depth of cut = 0.25mm
Chip thickness ratio = 0.45
Width of cut = 4mm
Cutting velocity = 40m/min
Cutting force component parallel to cutting velocity vector = 1150N
Cutting force component normal to cutting velocity vector = 140N
Rake angle = 180
Determine resultant cutting force, power of cutting, shear plane angle, friction angle and
force component parallel to shear plane?
Given data:

t1  0.25mm
r  0.45mm
b  4mm
V  40m / min
Fz  1150 N
Fx  140 N
  18o
To find:
F, power of cutting,  , , and Fs
Solution:

Re sulting cutting forces, F = Fz2  Fx2  11502  1402

F = 1158.49N Ans.
Power of cutting forces, P = Fx  V  1150  40
= 46000Nm/min Ans.
 r cos  
Shear angle,   tan  
1  r sin  
 0.45  cos18 
  tan 1 
1  0.45  sin18 
   Ans.
  F  Fz tan  
Friction angle, = tan -1  x 
 Fz  Fx tan  
140  1150 tan18 
 = tan -1 
1150  140 tan18 
 = 25o Ans
Shear force, Fs  Fz cos   Fx sin 
= 1150cos26.5o  140sin 26.5o
Fs  966.7 N Ans.

Result:
1.Re sul tan t cutting force = 11584.9N
2. Power of cutting force = 46000Nm/min
3. Shear plane angle, =26.5o
4.Friction Angle,   25o
5.Shearforce, Fs  966.7 N

The following data from the orthogonal cutting test is available

Rake angle = 100
Chip thickness ratio = 0.35
Uncut chip thickness = 0.51mm
Width of cut = 3mm
Yield shear stress of work material = 285N/mm2
Mean friction coefficient on tool face = 0.65
Determine the (i) Cutting force (ii) Radial force
(iii) Normal force on the tool and (iv) Shear force on the tool.
Given data:
  = 10o
r  0.35
t1  0.51mm
b  3mm
 = 285N/mm 2
 = 0.65

To find:
Fz, Fx, N and Fs
Solution:

 r cos  
Shear angle,  =tan -1 
1  r sin  
 0.35cos10 
= tan -1 
1  0.35sin10 
 = 200
 = tan
Friction angle,  = tan -1  tan 1 0.65  33
Fs
To find shear stress,   Sin 
A1
  A1 285  0.51 3
Fs  
sin  sin 20
 A1  3  0.51
Fs  1274.92 N Ans.

Fs  F cos   F cos       
Fs 1274.92
F 
cos        cos  20  33  10 
F  1743.23 N
Cutting force, Fs  F cos.    
 1743.23cos 33  10 
Fz  1604.6 N Ans.
F  Fz2  Fx2
 Radial force, Fx  F 2  Fz2  1743.232  1604.62
Fx  681.1N Ans.
Normal force on the tool,
N = Fz cos   Fx sin 
= 1604.6  cos10-681.1 sin10
N=1461.9N Ans.

Re sult :
1. Shear force, Fs  1274.92 N
2. Cutting force, Fz  1604.6 N
3. Radial force, Fx  681.1N
4. Normal force on the tool,N = 1461.9N

4. In a tool wear test with high-speed steel cutting tool, the following data were recorded.

Tool life Cutting speed

30min 25m/min
2min 70m/min

Compute the Taylor’s equation

Given data:
T1 = 30min
V1 = 25m/min
T2 = 2min
V2 = 70m/min
To find:
Compute the Taylor’s equation.
Solution:
Taylor’s equation is VTn = C
V1T1n  V2T2 n
25  30n  2  70n
25  70 
   n   2.333
n

2  30 
 25 
n log  2.333  log  
 2 
n  2.98
Taylor ' s equation is 30   25   2   70 
2.98 2.98
Ans.

If the relationship for H.S.S tools is VT1/8 = C1 and for tungsten carbide tools is VT1/5 = C2
and assuming that at a speed of 25m/min, the tool life was 3 hours in each case, compare
their cutting lives at 32m/min.

Given data:

VT 1/ 8  C1 ...... 1
VT 1/ 5  C2 ......  2 
V  25m / min
T  3hrs  180 min
V '  32m / min
To find:
Compare cutting lives at 32m/min
Solution:

From equation 1

VT 1/ 8  C1
25  180   C1
1/ 8

C1  47.846
From equation  2 
VT 1/ 5  C2
25  180   C2
1/ 5

C2  70.63
From equation 1
32  T 1/ 8  47.846  C1  47.846 
T  24.97 min
From equation  2 
32  T 1/ 5  70.63
T  52.38 min
For 32m/min cutting speed, second equation
i.e.VT1/5  C2 gives better life. Ans.

CUTTING FLUIDS
During any machining or metal cutting process, enough heat is evolved in cutting zone. To
remove this heat from cutting zone, soluble oils are used as cutting fluid during machining.
Emulsions (also known as soluble oil) cool the work piece and tool and thus relieved them from
overheat. Air circulation is required so as to remove the heat by evaporation. The remaining oil
forms a protecting layer over the machined work piece and save it from rust and corrosion. Such
coolants decrease adhesion between chip and tool, provides lower friction and wear and a smaller
built up edge.
They remove chips and hence help in keeping freshly machined surface bright. They also protect
the surface from corrosion. They decrease wear and tear of tool and hence increase tool life.They
improve mach inability and reduce machining forces. Chemical cutting fluids possess a good
flushing action and are noncorrosive and no clogging. Since they are no clogging, they are widely
used for grinding and sawing.The most efficient method of applying cutting fluids is to use a
pump, tray and reservoir, to give a slow continuous stream over the cutting action.
Chemical cutting fluids are replacing straight and emulsifiable cutting oils for many applications.
If chemical concentrates are mixed in correct proportion with deionized water, chemical cutting
fluids provide longer life at less cost than oil base cutting fluids. Other coolants and cutting fluids
are cutting wax and kerosene. Cutting fluids may also be used on aluminium, aluminium alloys
and brass for machining operations of low severity. It may be used as a coolant and for removing
chips when machining cast iron. Some commonly used machining materials require following
cutting fluids:Steel Soluble oil Straight, Water base mainly grinding Aluminium and alloys
Paraffin Dry Cast iron Dry Brass, Copper and Bronze Dry
Functions or Uses of Cutting Fluids
• The important functions of cutting fluids are given as under.
Cutting fluid washes away the chips and hence keeps the cutting
region free.
• It helps in keeping freshly machined surface bright by giving a
protective coatingagainst atmospheric, oxygen and thus protects
the finished surface from corrosion.
• It decreases wear and tear of cutting tool and hence increases tool
life.
 • It improves machinability and reduce power requirements
• It prevents expansion of work pieces.
• It cools the tool and work piece and remove the generated heat
from the cutting zone.
• It decreases adhesion between chip and tool; provide lower friction
and wear, and a smaller builtup edge.

SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL GEOMETRY

ASA stands for American Standards Association. Geometry of a cutting tool refers mainly to its
several angles or slopes of its salient working surfaces and cutting edges. Those angles are
expressed with respect to some planes of reference.

Shank: The portion of the tool bit which is not ground to form cutting edges and is rectangular
in cross section.
Face: The surface against which the chip slides upward.
Flank: The surface which face the work piece. There are two flank surfaces in a single point
cutting tool. One is principal flank and the other is auxiliary flank.
Heel: The lowest portion of the side cutting edges.
Nose radius: The conjunction of the side cutting edge and end cutting edge. It provides
strengthening of the tool nose and better surface finish.
Base: The underside of the shank
Rake angles: γx = Side rake angle (axial rake): angle of inclination of the rake surface from the
reference plane(ΠR) and measured on machine reference plane, ΠX. γy = Back rake angle: angle
of inclination of the rake surface from the reference plane and measured on machine transverse
plane, ΠY.
Clearance angles: αx = Side clearance angle (Side relief angle): angle of inclination of the
principal flank from the machined surface (or CV) and measured on ΠX plane.
Designation of tool geometry:The geometry of a single point tool is designated or specified by
a series of values of the salient angles and nose radius arranged in a definite sequence as
follows:Example: A tool having 7, 8, 6, 7, 5, 6, 0.1 as designation (Signature) in ASA system
will have the following angles and nose radius. Back rack angle = 70
Side rake angle = 80
Back clearance angle = 60
Side clearance angle = 70
End cutting edge angle = 50
Side cutting edge angle = 60
Nose radius = 0.1 inch.
Difference between oblique cutting and orthogonal cutting.

S. No.
Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

1. The cutting angle of tool make right The cutting angle of tool foes not make right
angle to the direction of motion. angle to the direction of motion.

2 The chip flow in the direction normal to The chips make an angle with the normal to the
the cutting edge. cutting edge.

3. In orthogonal cutting only two
components of force considered cutting
force and thrust force which can be
represent by 2D coordinate system.
In oblique cutting three component of force are
considered, cutting force, thrust force and radial
force which cannot represent by 2D coordinate.
It used 3D coordinate to represent the forces
acting during cutting, so it is known as 3D
cutting.

4. This tool has lesser cutting life compare This tool has higher cutting life.
to oblique cutting.

5. The shear force act per unit area is high The shear force per unit area is low, which
which increase the heat developed per decreases heat develop per unit area hence
unit area. increases tool life.

6. The chips flow over the tool. The chips flow along the sideways.