07/12/2018

RESEARCH: AN
INTRODUCTION
DR Naeem Abas Kalair
University of Gujrat

What is Research?
 It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems
through objective and systematic analysis. It is a search for knowledge, that
is, a discovery of hidden truths. Here knowledge means information about
matters.
 The information might be collected from different sources like experience, human
beings, books, journals, nature, etc.
 A research can lead to new contributions to the existing knowledge.
 Not confined to science & technology
 Objectives of research
 to discover new facts
 to verify and test important facts
 to analyse an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect
relationship
 to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand scientific
and non-scientific problems
 to find solutions to scientific, non-scientific and social problems

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Importance of research
 (1) A research problem refers to a difficulty which a researcher or a
scientific community or an industry or a government organization or a
society experiences. It may be a theoretical or a practical situation. It
calls for a thorough understanding and possible solution.
 (2) Research on existing theories and concepts help us identify the
range and applications of them.
 (3) Research provides basis for many government policies. For
example, research on the needs and desires of the people and on the
availability of revenues to meet the needs helps a government to
prepare a budget.
 (4) It is important in industry and business for higher gain and
productivity and to improve the quality of products.

Continued …
 (5) It leads to the identification and characterization of
new materials, new living things, new stars, etc.
 (6) Only through research inventions can be made; for
example, new and novel phenomena and processes such as
cloning has been discovered only through research.
 (7) Social research helps find answers to social problems.
They explain social phenomena and seek solution to social
problems.

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Deductive vs Inductive reasoning

 Deductive reasoning works Theory
from the more general to
the more specific.
Sometimes this is informally
Hypothesis
called a "top-down"
approach. We might begin
with thinking up a theory
about our topic of interest. Observation
We then narrow that down
into more specific
hypotheses that we can Confirmation
test.

Deductive vs Inductive reasoning

 Inductive reasoning works the Theory
other way, moving from
specific observations to
broader generalizations and
theories. Informally, we
sometimes call this a "bottom Hypothesis
up" approach. In inductive
reasoning, we begin with
specific observations and
measures, begin to detect
Patterns
patterns and regularities,
formulate some tentative
hypotheses that we can
explore, and finally end up
developing some general Observation
conclusions or theories.

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Task- Identify the type of reasoning

 A classic example of ------ reasoning within sociology is the
premise of Émile Durkheim's study of suicide. Considered one
of the first works of social science research, the famous and
widely taught book, Suicide, details how Durkheim created a
sociological theory of suicide - as opposed to a psychological
one - based on his scientific study of suicide rates among
Catholics and Protestants. Durkheim found that suicide was
more common among Protestants than Catholics, and he drew
on his training in social theory to create some typologies of
suicide and a general theory of how suicide rates fluctuate
according to significant changes in social structure and norms.

Task- Identify the type of reasoning

 An example within sociology of how ------ reasoning is
applied is a 2014 study of whether biases of race or
gender shape access to graduate-level education. A team
of researchers used ------ reasoning to hypothesize that,
due to the prevalence of racism in society, race would play
a role in shaping how university professors respond to
prospective graduate students who express interest in their
research. By tracking professor responses and lack of
responses to imposter students, coded for race and gender
by name, the researchers were able to prove their
hypothesis true. They concluded, based on this research,
that racial and gender biases are barriers that prevent
equal access to graduate-level education across the U.S.

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Research Designs
 Qualitative Research

 Quantitative Research

 Mixed Method Research

Research Designs
 Qualitative Research
 Qualitative research is a means for exploring and understanding
the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human
problem.
 Subjective: The process of research involves emerging questions and
procedures, data typically collected in the participant’s setting
 Unstructured/semi-structured
 Small sample
 data analysis inductively building from particulars to general
themes, and the researcher making interpretations of the meaning
of the data.
 The final written report has a flexible structure. Those who engage
in this form of inquiry support a way of looking at research that
honors an inductive style, a focus on individual meaning, and the
importance of rendering the complexity of a situation (Creswell,
2007)

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Research Designs
 Quantitative Research
 Quantitative research is a means for testing objective theories
by examining the relationship among variables. These
variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on instrument, so
that numbered data can be analysed using statistical
procedures.
 The final written report has a set structure consisting of
introduction, literature and theory, methods, results, and
discussion (Creswell, 2008).
 testing theories deductively
 building in protections against bias
 being able to generalise and replicate the findings. (large
sample)

Research Designs
 Mixed Method Research
 Mixed method research is an approach to inquiry that
combines or associates both qualitative and quantitative
forms. It involves philosophical assumptions, the use of
qualitative and quantitative approaches, the mixing of both
approaches in a study. Thus, it is more than simply collecting
and analysing both kinds of data; it also involves the use of
both approaches in tandem so that overall strength of a
study is greater than either qualitative or quantitative
research (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2007)

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Task
 Read on Qualitative/Quantitative research methods
and write the differences in tabular form.

Components in A Design
 Philosophical Worldviews/ paradigms/ epistemologies
& ontologies
A basic set of beliefs that guide action (Guba, 1990:17)
 A general orientation about the world
 Shaped by discipline area, beliefs of advisors/faculty and
past research experiences
 Remain largely hidden in research-need to be identified

 Strategies of Inquiry
 Types of qualitative/quantitative/mixed method studies
 Research Methods
 Forms of data collection, analysis and interpretation

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Philosophical Worldviews
1. Post-positivist Worldview
 Positivist view
 In its broadest sense, positivism is a rejection of metaphysics
 It is a position that holds that the goal of knowledge is simply to describe the phenomena that we
experience. The purpose of science is simply to stick to what we can observe and measure. Knowledge
of anything beyond that, a positivist would hold, is impossible.
 Recall behaviourist-rat-runners (If you want to predict how people behave, concentrate on
positive/negative reinforcers)
 What a person thinks-can’t be measured-can’t be a research topic
 Objective reality: independent of our thinking about it that science can study (Positivists and post-
positivist both were realist with a difference)
 Post-positivist
 Knowledge is conjectural/ fallible/ imperfect. No absolute truth
 Research is a process of claims and then refining or abandoning some of them for others
 Knowledge is based on empirical observations and measurement- being objective is an essential
aspect
 Determination-cause determines effect
 Theory verification (like positivists)

Philosophical Worldviews
2.The Social Constructivist/Interpretivist Worldview
 Reality is not objective
 Meaning is constructed by human beings as they
engage with the world they are interpreting.
Meanings are varied and multiple.
 Understanding the complexity of views

 Role of context or setting of participants

 Inductive process of research. Meaning is

generated from the data collected in the field.

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The Pragmatic Worldview

 Pragmatism is not committed to any one system of
reality

Strategies of Inquiry
 Qualitative Strategies
 Phenomenology
 Ethnography
 Case study
 Grounded Theory

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Phenomenology
 Research Purpose: To describe one or more individuals’
experiences of a phenomenon (e.g., the experience of the
death of a loved one)
 Origin: Philosophy
 Primary Data-Collection Method: In-depth interviews with up
to 10–15 people
 Data Analysis Approach: List significant statements,
determine meaning of statements, and identify the essence of
the phenomenon
 Narrative Report Focus: Rich description of the essential or
invariant structures (i.e., the common characteristics, or
essences) of the experience

Ethnography
 Research Purpose: To describe the cultural
characteristics of a group of people and to describe
cultural scenes.
 Origin: Anthropology.
 Primary Data Collection Method: Participant
observation over an extended period of time (e.g.,
one month to a year). Interviews with informants.
 Data Analysis Approach: Holistic description and
search for cultural themes in data.
 Narrative Report Focus: Rich description of context
and cultural themes.

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Case Study
 Research Purpose: To describe one or more cases in-depth
and address the research questions and issues
 Origin: Multidisciplinary roots, including business, law, social
sciences, medicine, and education.
 Primary Data Collection Method: Multiple methods are used
(e.g., interviews, observations, documents).
 Data Analysis Approach: Holistic description and search for
themes shedding light on the case. May also include cross-case
analysis
 Narrative Report Focus: Rich description of the context and
operation of the case or cases. Discussion of themes, issues,
and implications.

Grounded Theory
 Research Purpose: To inductively generate a grounded
theory describing and explaining a phenomenon.
 Origin: Sociology
 Primary Data Collection Method: Interviews with 20–30
people. Observations are also frequently used.
 Data Analysis Approach: Begin with open coding, then
axial coding, and end with selective coding.
 Narrative Report Focus: Description of topic and people
being studied. End with a presentation of the grounded
theory. May also list propositions

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Action Research
 Research Purpose: To inductively generate a
grounded theory describing and explaining a
phenomenon.
 Origin: Sociology
 Primary Data Collection Method: Interviews with
20–30 people. Observations are also frequently
used.
 Data Analysis Approach: Begin with open coding,
then axial coding, and end with selective coding.
 Narrative Report Focus:

Strategies of inquiry
 Quantitative Strategies
 Experimental Research

 Survey

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Experimental Research
 Research Purpose: it determines if a specific
treatment influences an outcome.
 This impact is assessed by providing a specific
treatment to one group and withholding it from
other and then determine how both groups scored
on an outcome.
 Trueexperiment-random design
 Quasi-experiment-non-random design

Survey Research
 Research Purpose: to provide a numeric description
of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by
studying a sample of that population; to generelize
from a sample to a population
 Data Collection Method: Structured questionnaires
and interviews

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Strategies of inquiry
 Mixed Method Strategies
 Sequential Strategies

Research Methods
 Research Question

 Data Collection

 Data Analysis

 Interpretation

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