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Effect of fish in rice-fish culture on

the rice yield

Article (PDF Available) in Fisheries Science 77(1):95-

106 · January 2011 with 1,822 Reads
DOI: 10.1007/s12562-010-0299-2
Cite this publication

Tetsuya Tsuruta

Motoyoshi Yamaguchi

Shin-ichiro Abe

Kei’ichiro Iguchi
31.45 · Nagasaki University

Abstract

Rice-fish culture, which means the simultaneous

culture of rice and fish, is one of the best options to
increase food production from limited land and is
practiced in many countries in the world. Although
many researchers and farmers believe that the rice
yield is increased by fish farming in paddy fields, this
hypothesis has never been fully tested. Here, we
report ecological processes leading to higher rice
yields in the rice-fish culture using crucian carp
(Carassius complex), which have adapted to the
paddy field ecosystem in Japan. We compare the
rice-fish and rice-only plots in the experimental paddy
field for biota, water quality, and rice yield. Coverage
of duckweed and densities of zooplankton and
benthic invertebrates in the rice-fish plots were lower
than those in the rice-only plots, indicating that fish
utilized them as food. NO3–N concentration in the
rice-fish plots was higher than that in the rice-only
plots, indicating that the increase in NO3–N
concentration results from excretion of unutilized food
nutrients by the fish. Consequently, rice yield in the
rice-fish plots was 20% higher than that in the rice-
only plots. The fertilizing effect of the fish excrement
probably increased rice yield. KeywordsCrucian
carp–Ecological agriculture–Sustainable farming
system–Nitrogen–Paddy field ecosystem–
Biodiversity–Multifunctionality

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Fish Sci (2011) 77:95–106

DOI 10.1007/s12562-010-0299-2

O R I G I N A L A RT I C L E Aquaculture

Effect of fish in rice-fish culture on the rice yield

Tetsuya Tsuruta • Motoyoshi Yamaguchi •

Shin-ichiro Abe • Kei’ichiro Iguchi

Received: 26 March 2010 / Accepted: 4 October 2010 / Published online: 12 November 2010
Ó The Japanese Society of Fisheries Science 2010

Abstract Rice-fish culture, which means the simulta- Introduction

neous culture of rice and fish, is one of the best options to
increase food production from limited land and is practiced Rice is a globally important food crop, with diversified
in many countries in the world. Although many researchers varieties grown on 157 million ha worldwide in a wide
and farmers believe that the rice yield is increased by fish range of ecological conditions and water regimes. It forms
farming in paddy fields, this hypothesis has never been the staple food for over half of the world’s population with
fully tested. Here, we report ecological processes leading to an annual production in 2007 of 652 million t. Rice-fish
higher rice yields in the rice-fish culture using crucian carp culture, which means the concurrent culture of rice and
(Carassius complex), which have adapted to the paddy fish, is one of the best options for increasing food pro-
field ecosystem in Japan. We compare the rice-fish and duction from limited land through ecological agriculture
rice-only plots in the experimental paddy field for biota, [1, 2] and is practiced in many countries in the world,
water quality, and rice yield. Coverage of duckweed and particularly in Asia [3]. In China, rice-fish culture has been
densities of zooplankton and benthic invertebrates in the practiced for at least 1,700 years [4, 5] and is listed by the
rice-fish plots were lower than those in the rice-only Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
plots, indicating that fish utilized them as food. NO 3–N (FAO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
concentration in the rice-fish plots was higher than that in Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as one of the Globally
the rice-only plots, indicating that the increase in NO3–N Important Ingenious Agricultural Heritage Systems (GI-
concentration results from excretion of unutilized food AHS) in 2005, owing to its long history and diversified
nutrients by the fish. Consequently, rice yield in the rice- patterns and techniques [6].
fish plots was 20% higher than that in the rice-only plots. Benefits of rice-fish culture go beyond producing addi-
The fertilizing effect of the fish excrement probably tional fish in the paddy field. It is believed that the fish
increased rice yield. control weeds and pests in the paddy fields, allowing
! integrated pest management (IPM), and there ! is a fertiliz-
Keywords Crucian carp Ecological agriculture ! ing effect from the!fish excrement, which increases the
!
Sustainable farming system Nitrogen Paddy field! nutrient availability to the rice crop [2, 7–9]. Rice-fish
ecosystem Biodiversity Multifunctionality culture preserves an ecological balance in the paddy field
and may not only be a higher yielding but also a more
sustainable farming system [10, 11].
However, it is debatable whether the rice yield increases
in simultaneous rice-fish culture compared to rice mono-
! ! culture. Many!researchers and farmers believe that rice
T. Tsuruta (&) M. Yamaguchi S. Abe K. Iguchi yield is increased by fish farming in paddy fields, and many
Freshwater Fisheries Research Division, National Research
Institute of Fisheries Science, Fisheries Research Agency,
studies have attempted to prove this hypothesis (reviewed
1088 Komaki, Ueda, Nagano 386-0031, Japan in [3, 7, 9]). However, it is rare that rice yield in rice-fish
e-mail: tsurutat@affrc.go.jp culture has been rigorously compared with that in rice

123

96 Fish Sci (2011) 77:95–106

monoculture, such as by incorporating statistical tests and yield in rice-fish culture. We hypothesized that fish that
equal experimental conditions (see [3, 7, 9]). Moreover, in feed on various natural prey items in paddy fields excrete
all of these studies, the hypothesis was not supported by excess nutrients, and consequently the fertilizing effect of
statistically significant results [12–24]. Furthermore, the the fish excrement increases rice yield. To test this
ecological processes leading to higher rice yield in rice-fish hypothesis, biota, water quality, and rice yield were
culture were not demonstrated (but see [25]). investigated in the rice-fish and rice-only plots in experi-
Since a variety of fish species can be integrated with mental paddy fields, using crucian carp as the Japanese
rice, such as common carp (Cyprinus carpio), crucian carp native fish. We also discuss the effects of fish on biodi-
(Carassius complex) including many species, silver barb versity in the paddy field ecosystem.
(Barbonymus gonionotus), snakeskin gourami (Trichogas-
ter pectoralis), and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus),
many different types and techniques of rice-fish culture Materials and methods
systems have been developed by adapting each paddy area
to increase productivity of rice and fish [3, 9, 26]. Many Experimental setup and site
rice-fish farming areas tend to raise nonindigenous fishes,
such as Nile tilapia and common carp, which have higher A field experiment was carried out at the National Research
productivity and/or commercial value, and most of the Institute of Fisheries Science, Ueda Station, Nagano, Japan,
studies regarding rice and fish yields in rice-fish culture from May 2006 to October 2006. The experimental paddy
also have been carried out using nonindigenous fish [12, field in the station is situated at 36°220 N latitude and
13, 16–18, 23, 24]. On the other hand, rice-fish culture in 138°150 E longitude, at an altitude of 455 m above sea
Japan has been practiced with native fishes, such as com- level. The average daily rainfall during the experiment was
mon carp and crucian carp, since the 1840s [27–29]. These 0.121 mm. The minimum atmospheric temperatures during
fish had originally utilized temporary waters around rivers, the experiment fluctuated between 3.2 and 24.3°C, and the
such as floodplains, as spawning and/or feeding habitats. maximum atmospheric temperatures fluctuated between
Since most Japanese lowlands and floodplains have been 15.5 and 35.5°C.
converted to rice fields, the rice fields and irrigation ditches The experiment was conducted as a generalized Youden
became important habitats for them [30–32]. Therefore, the design [33]: blocks, 4 ponds and 4 positions; treatment,
ecological characters of the native fish may have adapted to rice-fish or rice-only plots (Fig. 1). The experimental
the paddy field ecosystem because lowland rice culture in paddy field was built in four 5 9 45 m rectangular con-
Japan has been practiced for at least 2,500 years. crete ponds, which can be irrigated from the Chikuma
The objective of the present study is to clarify whether River. Four 4.0 9 9.9 m experimental plots (these plots
fish farming in paddy fields enhances rice yields and to correspond to positions 1, 2, 3, and 4 from the upper reach
examine the ecological processes leading to higher rice to the lower reach within each pond) within each pond

Fig. 1 Design of experimental Position within pond

paddy field. Four experimental
1 2 3 4
plots (positions 1–4) were
located in each concrete pond
(ponds A–D). Fish were released A
into the hatched plots. Shaded
areas represent levees. Broken
lines in irrigation canal
represent partition nets. Black
and white arrows indicate inlet B
and outlet, respectively. The
outlet gate of each plot was
Pond

closed until 83 days after

transplanting
C

10 m

123

Fish Sci (2011) 77:95–106 97

(ponds A, B, C, and D) were separated by levee (40 cm
height) with plastic boards (Fig. 1) and filled up with
25 cm of soil (silt clay loam with total nitrogen content of
0.053% and available phosphate content of 0.016 mg/2 g).
Each plot had an outlet/inlet connecting it to the irrigation
canal within the pond. The outlet gate of each plot, how-
ever, was kept closed until 83 days after transplanting
(DAT) to increase the temperature of the floodwater,
because lower temperatures decrease the growth of rice
plants. Migration of fish between the plots and movement
of wild fish into each plot were prevented by nylon nets
(1 mm mesh size) in the irrigation canal within the pond
(Fig. 1). In addition, the ponds were surrounded by 1.8 m
high nylon nets (45 mm mesh size) to prevent piscivorous
predators, such as herons, from foraging.
Experimental and sampling calendar is shown in
Table 1. The plots were ploughed two times before the
transplanting of rice using a rake, after base dressing. Rice
seedlings (Oryza sativa L. ssp. japonica cv. Koshihikari)
were transplanted from a nursery into the experimental plots
at 27 days after seeding. Rice was transplanted at a spacing
of 30 cm between the rows and 17 cm within the rows, with
two to three seedlings per hill. Irrigation water was supplied
to maintain a water level of 5–10 cm in the plots.
No pesticides were applied during the experimental
period. As base dressing in all plots at 12 days before
Table 1 Experimental and sampling calendar
Date DAT
20 April -27 Seeding rice in nursery
5 May -12 Fertilization: base dressing
17 May 0 Rice transplanting
24 May 7 Investigation of water quality
29 May 12 Fish stocking: crucian carp
14 June 28 Fertilization: top-dressing
21 June 35 Investigation of water quality
23 June 37 Fish stocking: goldfish
25 July 69 Algae sampling, zooplankton
sampling, investigation of water
quality
27 July 71 Benthos sampling
4 August 79 Investigation of duckweed coverage
7 August 83 Opening outlet gate: running water
24 August 99 Investigation of water quality
5 September 111 Terrestrial arthropod sampling
12 September 118 Draining pond B
13 September 119 Draining ponds A and C
14 September 120 Draining pond D, fish sampling
28 September 134 Rice sampling in pond A
29 September 135 Rice sampling in ponds B, C, and D
31 October 167 Threshing rice
DAT Days after transplanting
transplanting, the organic fertilizers, including cow and
chicken manure, were applied at a rate of 47.0 kg nitrogen
(N)/ha, 38.1 kg phosphorus (P)/ha, and 15.8 kg potassium
(K)/ha, and the inorganic fertilizer was applied at a rate of
36.4 kg N/ha, 70.7 kg P/ha, and 42.4 kg K/ha. The inor-
ganic fertilizer was applied as top-dressing at a rate of
40.4 kg N/ha and 20.2 kg K/ha at 28 DAT.
Fish
Crucian carp (Carassius complex) were stocked at 12 DAT
with 9,122 ± 436 individuals (mean ± SD) per hectare
with a total mass per hectare of 126 ± 7 kg. Goldfish
(Carassius complex), as supplementary fish, were also
stocked at 37 DAT with 24,179 ± 1,026 individuals per
hectare with a total mass per hectare of 505 ± 0 kg. The
mean body mass of the fish at stocking was 19 g, and the
mean stocking density was 33,302 individuals per hectare.
Goldfish, which is an ornamental variety of crucian carp,
occupies the same niche as crucian carp in a biotic com-
munity, and allowed us to observe that the fish were dis-
tributed both within the plot and irrigation canal in the
experimental paddy field (see Fig. 1). Fish were not fed
during the experiment. Dead fish were removed every day
from the experimental paddy field, in order to prevent any
fertilization effect. At 120 DAT, fish were collected by
draining off the water in the ponds, and then the total
number of individuals and total weight of the stocked fish
Activities and their offspring for each rice-fish plot were recorded.
Algae
To estimate the biomass of planktonic algae, a 500 mL
water sample was collected in each plot at 69 DAT. To
estimate the biomass of benthic algae, a 5 9 5 cm quadrat
was chosen randomly from the bottom of each plot, and
sediment within the quadrat was collected with a pipette at
69 DAT. As an index of the algal biomass, chlorophyll
a was measured according to the procedure of Steinman
and Lamberti [34]. The sample was filtered through glass
fiber filters (Whatman GF/C; Whatman International,
Maidstone, UK) and preserved at -20°C until analysis.
Chlorophyll a was extracted with 90% acetone for 24 h at
4°C and measured with a spectrophotometer (UV-160A,
Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan).
Duckweed
Coverage of duckweed in each plot was investigated at 79
DAT. Quadrats (1 9 1 m) were set at three random points
within a plot, and coverage of duckweed within the
quadrats was estimated by eye. The mean value of the three
points was used.

123

98 Fish Sci (2011) 77:95–106

Terrestrial arthropods, zooplankton, and benthic effective panicles per hill, and highest leaf height for 10
invertebrates hills in the lower part of the center row in each plot were
measured at 134–135 DAT, and their mean values were
Terrestrial arthropods in each plot were sampled with 10 used as rice yield parameters of each plot. In addition, rice
sweeps of a 37 cm diameter muslin net while advancing in plants of the 20 hills in lower part of the center row in each
a plot at midday 111 DAT. Specimens from one sample of plot were harvested at 134–135 DAT, and then rough rice
each plot were identified and counted under a stereomi- and brown rice yields were determined after the moisture
croscope in the laboratory. level were adjusted to 14.5%. Rice yield (kg/ha) was cal-
Zooplankton in each plot were sampled by passing 10 L culated using the following equation:
of surface water through a plankton net of NXX 13 (94 lm !
mesh size) at 69 DAT and preserving the specimens in 10% Rice yield ¼ ðRW=20Þ NH
formalin solution. Organisms from one sample of each plot where RW is rice weight (kg) of 20 hills and NH is number
were identified and counted under a stereomicroscope in of hills per hectare:
!
the laboratory.
NH ¼ 10000=ððLR=10Þ ðLH=10ÞÞ
Benthic invertebrates were sampled at 71 DAT using a
cylindrical corer of 9 cm diameter and 3 cm depth (about where LR is total distance (m) between 11 rows in the
191 cm3) [35]. Three core samples were taken randomly lower part of each plot and LH is the total distance (m)
from each plot and pooled to make one composite sample. between 11 hills in the lower part of the center row in each
The samples were fixed in 10% formalin solution and then plot. Number of spikelets per land area (n/m2) was
washed through a 300 lm sieve. Benthic organisms from calculated using the following equation:
! !
one sample of each plot were identified and counted under Number of spikelets per land area ¼ NS NE NHM
a stereomicroscope in the laboratory.
where NS is the number of spikelets per effective panicle,
To estimate the community diversity of terrestrial
NE is the number of effective panicles per hill, and NHM is
arthropods, zooplankton, and benthic invertebrates, the
0
the number of hills per square meter. Grain weight (mg)
Shannon-Wiener
" diversity index (H ) was calculated [36]: was calculated using the following equation:
S ! ! !
X pi ln pi Grain weight ¼ RRW= 20 ð NS NE Þ
H 0 ¼ i¼1
where RRW is rough rice weight (mg) of 20 hills.
where S is number of taxonomic categories and pi is the
proportion of the ith taxonomic category in the total Statistical analysis
specimens in the plot.
The data were subjected to ANOVA for generalized
Water quality Youden design, using the GLM procedure of SASÒ 9.1.
Model sums of squares were separated into treatment,
Water temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen (DO) in the pond, and position effects. Proportional data for coverage
floodwater of each plot were measured with a water quality of duckweed were arcsine-transformed, and data of the
monitor (U-21, Horiba, Kyoto, Japan) from 1000 to 1200 h number of individuals of terrestrial and benthic inverte-
at 7, 35, 69, and 99 DAT. In addition, to measure nitrate brates and zooplankton were ln-transformed (after adding
nitrogen (NO3–N), nitrite nitrogen (NO2–N), ammonium 1), prior to ANOVA. However, values presented here are
nitrogen (NH4–N), and orthophosphate phosphorus (PO 4–P) means and standard deviations of raw (i.e., untransformed)
concentrations in the floodwater of each plot, a 500 mL data. For terrestrial and benthic invertebrates and zoo-
water sample was collected at 7, 35, 69, and 99 DAT. plankton, we did not perform the statistical tests for indi-
These nutrients were analyzed using a spectrophotometer vidual numbers of rare taxonomic categories (mean
(DR/2000, Hach, Loveland, CO, USA). NO3–N, NO2–N, number of individuals per plot \1), because such variables
NH4–N, and PO4–P were analyzed by the cadmium reduction did not fit into the foregoing parametric test.
method, diazotization method, salicylic acid method, and
PhosVer3 (ascorbic acid) method, respectively.
Results
Rice yield
Algae and duckweed
The water in the ponds was drained off at 119–120 DAT.
The number of spikelets of effective panicles with the Chlorophyll a values as an index of the planktonic algal
highest and second lowest height in a hill, number of biomass did not differ significantly between the rice-fish

123

Fish Sci (2011) 77:95–106 99

and rice-only plots (F 1,8 = 0.03, P = 0.871), and their

100 mean ± SD were 4.14 ± 5.76 and 3.74 ± 4.41 lg/L,
respectively. Likewise, chlorophyll a values as an index of
the benthic algal biomass did not differ significantly
Coverage of duckweed (%)

80
between the rice-fish and rice-only plots (F 1,8 = 2.18,
P = 0.178), and their mean ± SD were 1.05 ± 0.65 and
60 0.74 ± 0.35 lg/cm 2, respectively.
Coverage of duckweed, including Spirodela polyrhiza,
Lemna aoukikusa, and L. gibba, was significantly lower in
40
the rice-fish plots than in the rice-only plots (Fig. 2,
F 1,8 = 86.02, P \ 0.0001). There were also significant
20 differences in the coverage of duckweed among the ponds
(F 3,8 = 6.08, P = 0.018).
0
Rice-fish Rice-only Terrestrial althropods
Treatment

Fig. 2 Mean coverage of duckweed in the rice-fish and rice-only Total number of individuals, number of taxa, and species
plots at 79 DAT. The error bars represent standard deviations diversity of terrestrial invertebrates did not differ

Table 2 Mean ± SD and F values for treatment effects from ANOVA for individual number and species diversity of terrestrial invertebrates in
the rice-fish and rice-only plots at 111 DAT
Phylum Class Order Family Operational taxa Treatment
Rice-fish Rice-only F 1,8

Arthropoda Arachnida Araneae Araneae 4.4 ± 4.0 5.6 ± 2.1 1.94

Insecta Ephemeroptera Ephemeroptera 0.4 ± 0.7 0.1 ± 0.4 –
Odonata Coenagrionidae Ischnura asiatica 6.1 ± 2.9 14.5 ± 5.3 42.43*
Orthoptera Locustidae Oedaleus infernalis – 0.1 ± 0.4 –
Hemiptera Hemiptera 0.1 ± 0.4 – –
Miridae Stenodema calcaratum – 0.1 ± 0.4 –
Deltocephalidae Deltocephalidae – 0.3 ± 0.7 –
Nephotettix cincticeps 0.8 ± 0.9 0.9 ± 1.1 –
Delphacidae Delphacidae 8.4 ± 9.6 8.6 ± 8.5 3.55
Aphididae Aphididae 2.3 ± 2.1 2.0 ± 2.1 0.07
Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Lycaenidae – 0.1 ± 0.4 –
Diptera Diptera 0.4 ± 0.5 – –
Tipulidae Tipulidae 0.3 ± 0.7 – –
Chironomidae Chironomidae 13.8 ± 5.8 12.0 ± 6.9 0.39
Syrphidae Sphaerophoria menthastri – 0.3 ± 0.5 –
Sciomyzidae Sepedon sauteri 0.8 ± 0.7 1.3 ± 1.0 1.72
Chloropidae Chlorops oryzae – 0.1 ± 0.4 –
Coleoptera Coccinellidae Propylaea quatuordecimpunctata 0.4 ± 0.7 0.1 ± 0.4 –
Hymenoptera Ichneumonidae Ichneumonidae 0.3 ± 0.5 0.1 ± 0.4 –
Itoplectis naranyae 0.1 ± 0.4 0.1 ± 0.4 –
Braconidae Braconidae 0.1 ± 0.4 – –
Formicidae Formica fusca japonica 0.1 ± 0.4 0.4 ± 0.7 –
Total number of individuals 38.5 ± 14.9 46.8 ± 17.8 1.70
Number of taxa 7.4 ± 1.8 7.6 ± 2.0 0.08
Shannon-Wiener index (H0 ) 1.500 ± 0.276 1.591 ± 0.175 0.99
* P \ 0.001

123

100 Fish Sci (2011) 77:95–106

significantly between the rice-fish and rice-only plots Zooplankton

(Table 2), although there was a significant difference in the
total number of individuals among the ponds (F 3,8 = 5.30, Total number of individuals and number of taxa of zoo-
P = 0.026). plankton were significantly lower in the rice-fish plots than
However, the number of individuals for Ischnura asi- in the rice-only plots, whereas the Shannon-Wiener index
atica was significantly lower in the rice-fish plots than in was significantly higher in the rice-fish plots than in the
the rice-only plots, whereas there were no significant dif- rice-only plots (Table 3). There were also significant dif-
ferences in Araneae, Delphacidae, Aphididae, Chironomi- ferences in the total number of individuals among the
dae, and Sepedon sauteri (Table 2). Numbers of positions within ponds (F 3,8 = 8.07, P = 0.008) and in the
individuals for I. asiatica also differed significantly among Shannon-Wiener index among the ponds (F 3,8 = 4.97,
the ponds (F3,8 = 8.77, P = 0.007), and those for Delp- P = 0.031).
hacidae differed significantly among the ponds (F 3,8 = Numbers of individuals for Eurotatorea, Oligochaeta,
20.23, P \ 0.001) and among the positions within ponds Cladocera, Podocopida, Copepoda, copepod nauplii, Ba-
(F 3,8 = 14.62, P = 0.001). etidae, and Chironomidae were significantly lower in the

Table 3 Mean ± SD and F values for treatment effects from ANOVA for individual number and species diversity of zooplankton in the rice-
fish and rice-only plots at 69 DAT
Phylum Class Order Family Operational taxa Treatment
Rice-fish Rice-only F 1,8

Cnidaria Hydrozoa Hydroida Hydridae Hydridae 1.6 ± 2.1 3.4 ± 4.9 0.11
Platyhelminthes Turbellaria Turbellaria – 1.5 ± 2.1 –
Aschelminthes Eurotatorea Eurotatorea 3.6 ± 2.9 64.4 ± 68.3 46.00***
Nematoda Nematoda 1.1 ± 1.4 2.6 ± 4.3 0.09
Mollusca Gastropoda Pulmonata Physidae Physa acuta – 1.1 ± 2.8 –
Annelida Oligochaeta Oligochaeta 0.9 ± 1.8 15.0 ± 13.0 11.54**
Arthropoda Arachnida Acarina Acarina 1.3 ± 1.8 0.6 ± 1.1 –
Araneae Araneae 0.5 ± 0.8 – –
Crustacea
Branchiopoda Cladocera Cladocera 7.6 ± 7.3 1,499.1 ± 1,654.8 236.49****
Ostracoda Podocopida Podocopida 0.1 ± 0.4 9.1 ± 11.9 9.22*
Copepoda Copepoda 8.4 ± 6.9 141.9 ± 146.9 21.59**
Copepod nauplii 4.8 ± 7.3 374.9 ± 747.4 25.84***
Entognatha Collembola Collembola 1.8 ± 2.9 1.5 ± 3.5 0.33
Insecta Ephemeroptera Baetidae Baetidae 0.3 ± 0.7 5.6 ± 4.9 8.66*
Odonata Coenagrionidae Ischnura asiatica 0.1 ± 0.4 0.9 ± 0.6 –
Hemiptera Hemiptera 0.3 ± 0.5 0.1 ± 0.4 –
Corixidae Corixidae – 0.9 ± 1.4 –
Gerridae Gerridae 0.8 ± 1.0 0.1 ± 0.4 –
Thysanoptera Thysanoptera – 0.1 ± 0.4 –
Trichoptera Trichoptera 0.1 ± 0.4 – –
Diptera Culicidae Culicinae 0.5 ± 1.4 0.6 ± 0.7 –
Chironomidae Chironomidae 1.8 ± 1.2 30.9 ± 18.0 40.78***
Ceratopogonidae Ceratopogonidae 0.1 ± 0.4 – –
Stratiomyidae Stratiomyidae 0.5 ± 0.8 0.8 ± 0.7 –
Coleoptera Dytiscidae Hydroporinae – 0.3 ± 0.5 –
Hydrophilidae Hydrophilidae 0.1 ± 0.4 0.8 ± 1.0 –
Total number of individuals 36.1 ± 20.9 2,156.1 ± 1759.1 292.54****
Number of taxa 9.5 ± 2.4 13.1 ± 1.9 20.51**
Shannon-Wiener index (H0 ) 1.879 ± 0.280 0.968 ± 0.484 43.44***
**** P \ 0.0001; *** P \ 0.001; ** P \ 0.01; * P \ 0.05

123

Fish Sci (2011) 77:95–106 101

Table 4 Mean ± SD and F values for treatment effects from ANOVA for individual number and species diversity of benthic invertebrates in
the rice-fish and rice-only plots at 71 DAT
Phylum Class Order Family Operational taxa Treatment
Rice-fish Rice-only F 1,8

Annelida Oligochaeta Oligochaeta 5.4 ± 4.2 57.8 ± 76.3 44.36**

Hirudinea Hirudinea 0.1 ± 0.4 – –
Arthropoda Insecta Ephemeroptera Ephemeroptera – 0.1 ± 0.4 –
Diptera Chironomidae Chironomidae 136.6 ± 54.1 202.1 ± 127.8 1.61
Coleoptera Hydrophilidae Hydrophilidae – 0.1 ± 0.4 –
Berosus – 0.3 ± 0.5 –
Curculionidae Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus 3.3 ± 1.9 3.4 ± 2.1 0.01
Total number of individuals 145.4 ± 54.3 263.8 ± 118.4 5.15
Number of taxa 3.1 ± 0.4 3.5 ± 0.5 4.50
Shannon-Wiener index (H0 ) 0.268 ± 0.126 0.515 ± 0.226 10.99*
** P \ 0.001; * P \ 0.05

rice-fish plots than in the rice-only plots, whereas there The mean value of pH in paddy fields did not differ
were no significant differences in numbers of Hydridae, significantly between the rice-fish and rice-only plots
Nematoda, and Collembola (Table 3). Number of individ- (Fig. 3b, 7 DAT: F 1,8 = 1.68, P = 0.231; 35 DAT:
uals for Cladocera also differed significantly among the F 1,8 = 0.87, P = 0.378; 69 DAT: F 1,8 \ 0.01, P = 0.997;
ponds (F 3,8 = 5.71, P = 0.022) and among the positions 99 DAT: F 1,8 = 0.28, P = 0.612), although there was a
within pond (F 3,8 = 4.75, P = 0.035). significant difference in pH among the ponds at 99 DAT
(F 3,8 = 8.42, P = 0.007). The mean concentration of DO
Benthic invertebrates in the paddy fields did not differ significantly between the
rice-fish and rice-only plots (Fig. 3c, 7 DAT: F 1,8 = 1.88,
Species diversity of benthic invertebrates was significantly P = 0.207; 35 DAT: F 1,8 = 3.54, P = 0.097; 69 DAT:
lower in the rice-fish plots than in the rice-only plots F 1,8 = 0.10, P = 0.756; 99 DAT: F 1,8 = 0.41, P = 0.54),
(Table 4). Although total numbers of individuals and although there was a significant difference in DO among
numbers of taxa for benthic invertebrates were lower in the the ponds at 99 DAT (F 3,8 = 5.86, P = 0.020). The mean
rice-fish plots than in the rice-only plots, the difference did values of pH and DO in the paddy fields decreased until 69
not quite reach significance (Table 4, total number of DAT and then slightly increased at 99 DAT.
individuals: P = 0.053, number of taxa: P = 0.067). Water temperature, pH, and DO showed approximately
Number of individuals for Oligochaeta was significantly equal values among the inlet stream, rice-fish, and rice-
lower in the rice-fish plots than in the rice-only plots, only plots at 99 DAT (Fig. 3) because the irrigation water
whereas there were no significant differences in Chiro- ran through each plot after the outlet gate of each plot was
nomidae and Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus (Table 4). Number opened on 83 DAT (see ‘‘Materials and methods’’).
of individuals also differed significantly among the ponds Although the mean value of NO3–N concentration in the
for L. oryzophilus (F3,8 = 7.85, P = 0.009). rice-fish plots was higher than that in the rice-only plots, the
difference was statistically significant at 35 and 69 DAT
Water quality (Fig. 4a, 7 DAT: F 1,8= 2.83, P = 0.131; 35 DAT:
F 1,8 = 16.06, P = 0.004; 69 DAT: F 1,8 = 9.73, P = 0.014;
Mean water temperature in paddy fields did not differ sig- 99 DAT: F 1,8 = 2.27, P = 0.170). There were significant
nificantly between the rice-fish and rice-only plots (Fig. 3a, differences in NO3–N concentration among the ponds at 35
7 DAT: F 1,8 \ 0.01, P = 0.950; 35 DAT: F 1,8 = 1.52, DAT (F 3,8 = 5.24, P = 0.027) and 99 DAT (F 3,8 = 32.09,
P = 0.252; 69 DAT: F 1,8 = 2.07, P = 0.189; 99 DAT: P \ 0.0001). The NO 3–N concentration in the floodwater
F1,8 = 0.24, P = 0.639). There was a significant difference also increased with the progression of the season.
in the water temperature among the ponds at 7 DAT The mean value of NO2 –N concentration in the flood-
(F 3,8 = 18.24, P \ 0.001). Water temperature in the inlet water did not differ significantly between the rice-fish and
stream slightly increased over the season, whereas water rice-only plots (Fig. 4b, 7 DAT: F 1,8 = 0.02, P = 0.895;
temperature in the paddy fields decreased over the season 35 DAT: F 1,8 = 0.23, P = 0.644; 69 DAT: F 1,8 \ 0.01,
with the growth of rice because of the increased shading. P = 0.961; 99 DAT: F 1,8 = 0.02, P = 0.894), although

123

102 Fish Sci (2011) 77:95–106

∗
(a) 32 (a) 2.0
30
28 1.5
Water temperature ( C)

∗∗
NO3-N (mg/L)

26
24 1.0

22

20 0.5

18
16 0
7 35 69 99 7 35 69 99

(b) 0.03
(b) 10

9
NO2-N (mg/L)

0.02
8
pH

7 0.01

6
0
5 7 35 69 99
7 35 69 99
(c) 0.08
(c) 14

0.06
NH4-N (mg/L)

12
0.04
DO (mg/L)

10 0.02

8 0

7 35 69 99
6
7 35 69 99
DAT (d) 0.4

Fig. 3 Temporal fluctuations in mean values of a water temperature,

b pH, and c dissolved oxygen level in the floodwater of the rice-fish 0.3
(filled circle) and rice-only (open circle) plots and in the inlet stream
PO4-P (mg/L)

(square). The error bars represent standard deviations. DAT Days

after transplanting 0.2

there were significant differences in the concentrations

0.1
among the ponds at 7 DAT (F 3,8 = 9.85, P \ 0.005) and
35 DAT (F 3,8 = 5.38, P = 0.025). The mean NO 2–N
concentration in the floodwater decreased until 69 DAT 0
7 35 69 99
and then increased at 99 DAT. DAT
The mean value of NH4–N concentration in the flood-
water did not differ significantly between the rice-fish and Fig. 4 Temporal fluctuations of mean values of a NO 3 –N, b NO2–N,
rice-only plots (Fig. 4c, 7 DAT: F 1,8 = 0.47, P = 0.511; c NH4–N, and d PO 4 –P concentrations in the floodwater of the rice-
fish (filled circle) and rice-only (open circle) plots. The error bars
35 DAT: F 1,8 = 0.19, P = 0.674; 69 DAT: F 1,8 = 3.44, represent standard deviations. DAT Days after transplanting;
P = 0.101; 99 DAT: F 1,8 = 0.00, P = 1.000), although **P \ 0.005; *P \ 0.05

123

Fish Sci (2011) 77:95–106 103

Table 5 Mean ± SD and F values for treatment effects from ANOVA for rice yield parameters in the rice-fish and rice-only plots
Rice yield parameter Treatment
Rice-fish Rice-only F 1,8

Rough rice yield (kg/ha) 6381.9 ± 820.1 5319.7 ± 1098.0 8.39*

Brown rice yield (kg/ha) 4871.0 ± 586.3 4061.1 ± 868.3 8.06*
Number of spikelets per land area (n/m 2) 26289.2 ± 4724.2 22471.1 ± 2291.0 11.45*
Number of spikelets per effective panicle 91.4 ± 6.0 86.1 ± 9.9 4.07
Number of effective panicles per hill 15.0 ± 3.0 13.2 ± 2.3 3.16
Grain weight (mg) 24.5 ± 2.7 23.5 ± 2.7 0.53
Leaf height (cm) 102.6 ± 3.5 99.0 ± 2.4 10.92*
* P \ 0.05

there was a significant difference in the concentration Discussion

among the ponds at 7 DAT (F3,8 = 7.07, P = 0.012).
The mean value of PO4 -P concentration in the floodwater The aquatic insects, such as chironomid larvae, remove
did not differ significantly between the rice-fish and rice- nutrients from the water because the adults leave the water
only plots (Fig. 4d, 7 DAT: F 1,8 = 0.26, P = 0.625; 35 after spending their juvenile stage there [37]. However, since
DAT: F 1,8 = 3.66, P = 0.092; 69 DAT: F 1,8 = 0.38, fish prey on these aquatic insects during the aquatic life-
P = 0.553; 99 DAT: F 1,8 = 4.38, P = 0.070), although period, nutrients that might be removed by the insects can be
there was a significant difference in the concentration among restored to the water via fish. Furthermore, fish metabolize
the ponds at 7 DAT (F3,8 = 6.38, P = 0.016). The mean various natural feed sources and excrete excess nutrients,
PO4 –P concentration was rather stable, except for water thus accelerating the turnover of organically bound nutrients
sampling at 35 DAT, which was 1 week after top-dressing. [38, 39]. In the present study, the fertilizing effect from dead
The nutrient concentrations were approximately equal fish was prevented by removing them every day from
between the rice-fish and rice-only plots at 99 DAT (Fig. 4) experimental paddy field. Therefore, the increase in nitrogen
because the irrigation water ran through each plot once the concentration in the rice-fish plots may be explained by the
outlet gate of each plot was opened on 83 DAT (see excretion of unutilized food nutrients by the fish.
‘‘Materials and methods’’). The coverage of duckweed and densities of zooplankton
and benthic invertebrates such as crustaceans and oligo-
Rice yield chaetes in the rice-fish plots were lower than those in the
rice-only plots, indicating that crucian carp, which is
The rice-fish plots showed higher mean values for all rice omnivorous [40, 41], utilized them as food. The number of
yield parameters than the rice-only plots, and the differences individuals of the terrestrial arthropod I. asiatica in the rice-
were statistically significant for rough rice yield, brown rice fish plots was also considerably lower than that in the rice-
yield, number of spikelets per land area, and leaf height only plots, indicating that the larvae were preyed on by the
(Table 5). Rough rice yield and brown rice yield increased fish during the aquatic life-period. On the other hand, juve-
by approximately 20% when fish were stocked in the paddy niles of crucian carp, offspring of the stocked fish, fed on
field. Number of spikelets per land area differed significantly rotifers, small crustaceans, and chironomid larvae [42]. Thus
among the ponds (F 3,8 = 6.13, P = 0.018). Number of crucian carp feeds on the various prey items in the paddy
spikelets per effective panicle was also significantly different field and subsequently defecates the excrements. Therefore,
among the positions within ponds (F3,8 = 5.84, P = 0.021). it is most likely that the increase in NO3–N concentration in
the rice-fish plots resulted from excretion of unutilized food
Fish yield nutrients by the fish. Similarly, NH 4–N concentration in the
rice-fish plots increased at 35 and 69 DAT, although the
Mean fish yield per hectare was 14,236 ± 3,361 individ- differences were statistically not significant.
uals with a mass of 345 ± 92 kg/ha. Survival rate of the Previous studies have shown that the number of spik-
fish was approximately 43%. Mean body mass per indi- elets per land area is closely related to the nitrogen accu-
vidual fish was 24.2 g with a 5.3 g increase compared with mulation during the reproductive stage of the rice plant
the initial mass. Juveniles of crucian carp were collected [43–46]. In the present study, the number of spikelets per
in all rice-fish plots (38,240 ± 49,479 individuals; 67 ± land area in the rice-fish plots was higher than that in
54 kg/ha) because the stocked fish bred. the rice-only plots. Probably, the increase in nitrogen

123

104 Fish Sci (2011) 77:95–106

concentration in the rice-fish plots led to the higher nitro- was influenced by fish within the rice field and was
gen content in the rice plant, and contributed to the decreased by their predation.
enhancements in the spikelet number and rice yield per The present study illustrated that the use of the native
land area. fishes in rice-fish culture contributes to enhancing rice
Nitrogen is the most important nutrient influencing rice yield through the possible fertilizing effect of fish excre-
yield in irrigated rice fields [47], and the roots of the rice ment. The development of a well-balanced ecosystem in
plants are able to take it up as NO 3- and NH4? [48]. The rice-fish culture highlights a sustainable role of a fish that
fish in paddy fields increase the soil nutrient status [49], is adaptive to the local environments. Therefore, it seems
while uptake of nitrogen by rice plants in rice-fish culture that the use of inorganic fertilizer can be decreased in the
was higher than that in rice monoculture [50, 51]. The rice-fish culture because it is expected that the rice yield
floodwater and soil interstitial water patterns of nutrient of such a rice-fish culture is equal to that of rice mono-
fluxes are also very similar because the rice field flood- culture. Weeds and pests in paddy fields are also
water and the soil form a continuum [25], although only decreased by direct and indirect effects of fish activity
nutrient concentrations in the floodwater were investigated [17, 18, 23], allowing practice of IPM and reduced pes-
in the present study. Therefore, the fertilizing effect from ticide usage. Moreover, rice from the rice-fish fields that
the fish excrement probably increased rice yield in this has been grown with reduced levels of pesticides and
study. Moreover, fish perturbation of the soil-water inter- inorganic fertilizer will be preferred by consumers
face may lead to a release of fixed nutrients from soil to because such rice has value added in terms of safety and
water and make the soil porous for nutrients readily security for human health [53]. Therefore, the adoption of
absorbed by the rice roots [25]. rice-fish culture allows more stable production methods
Another reason for the increase in rice yield in the rice- and economically benefits the farmers [3, 11, 21, 54, 55].
fish plots may be a reduced competition for nutrients Consequently, a sustainable farming system can be real-
between rice plants and weeds. Overgrowth of weeds, ized by utilizing the multifunctionalities of rice-fish cul-
which may reduce nutrient status in the paddy fields, ture, which offers good results to farmer, consumer, and
negatively affects growth of rice plants, and omnivorous or ecosystem.
herbivorous fish in the paddy field decrease the weeds [9,
18, 23, 52]. In the present study, most of the surface of the Acknowledgments We wish to thank the staff of Saku Statistical
Information Center, Kanto Regional Agricultural Administration
rice-only plots was covered by duckweed, whereas there Office for technical assistance in the investigation of rice yield. We
was little duckweed in the rice-fish plots (Fig. 2). More- thank the students of the Faculty of Eco-Tourism, Nagano University,
over, duckweed-foraging by crucian carp was frequently and the staff of National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Ueda
observed during the study period in the experimental paddy Station, for their help in the rice transplanting. We are also grateful to
Ms. T. Hazama for her help during the study.
field (T. Tsuruta, personal observation). Such elimination
of competition through duckweed-foraging of crucian carp
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Citations (21) References (58)

... We have obtained rice yield at the tune of 53.8 kg

which is promising given the fact but no modern
HYV can survive in the one-meter depth of water for
more than a month. So, in flooded field deepwater
rice and fish system is far better than any HYV; the
better yield of rice when coupled with fish has been
overly documented in recent years, our findings
underscore the same fact (Gurung and Wagle,
2005; Tsuruta et al. 2011; Ahmed and Garnett,
2011). Apart from rice production, the simultaneous
yield of magur was also promising. ...

Deep-water rice and indigenous fish co-cultivation to

ensure rural livelihood, food security, and eco… health
health
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... Alternative farming systems, such as intensive

lotus or a 2-ha rice field plus a small vegetable or
high-value crop area, could in- crease farm income.
Diversification schemes, furthermore, help farmers
offset the market risks associated with a rice
monocrop (Chambers and Conway, 1992;Berg,
2002; Tsuruta et al., 2011; Phong et al., 2010;Pretty
and Bharucha, 2014;Roel et al., 2006). Moreover,
conversion of a small rice area to other crops is an
easier alternative, in terms of the financial and
technological investment required, than a full
conversion to a different farming system. ...

Questioning triple rice intensification on the

Vietnamese mekong delt… use trends and alternatives
environmental and economic analysis of current land-
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Dung Duc Tran · Gerardo van Halsema ·
Petra J.G.J. Hellegers · Andrew Wyatt

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... Their use has been studied in experimental and

field trials in many Asian countries (see Hasan and
Chakrabarti (2009) for a review). Other floating
plants, such as Azolla sp. and some duckweed
genera (Lemna, Wolfia, Wolfiella and Spirodela),
have nutritional value for fish and in certain
conditions can provide other beneficial ecological
properties and ecosystem services ( Tsuruta et al.
2011; Zhao et al. 2014). ...

Implementing ecological intensification in fish

farming: Definition and principles from … experiences
experiences
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Dec 2017
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Industrial rice farming supports fewer waterbirds than

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Stakeholders’ assessment of dike-protected and flood-

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Prospects of rice-fish farming system for low lying

areas in Bihar, India
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Functions of indigenous animals in paddy fields: an in

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Efficient Rearing of Larvae and Juveniles of

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Mar 2013
Takeshi Kikko · Morihito Nemoto · Syuhei Ban ·
Yasuhiro Fujioka

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Integrated Rice–Fish Agroecosystems in China:

Science, Practice, and Sustainable Management
Chapter
Apr 2016
Chen Xin

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National strategic food commodities such as rice is a

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Effects of fertilization on the

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June 1999

D. K. Saha · Azad Shah · M. S. Islam ·

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of two different doses of fertilizers on the production of
Indian major carps (Labeo rohita, Catla catla and
Cirrhina mrigala) in six rain fed ponds (40 m2) for a
period of three months. There were three treatments
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Article

Total Suspended Solids Effects on

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Fish
August 2017 · Bulletin of Environmental Contamination
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Peter M Chapman · April Hayward ·

John Faithful

Protective benchmarks for the effects of total

suspended solids (TSS) on freshwater aquatic biota
primarily focus on fish; whether these benchmarks will
also protect their prey or co-existing lower trophic level
aquatic biota was uncertain. We conducted an
extensive literature review of TSS effects on those
organisms comprising the food webs upon which fish
living in lakes depend: phytoplankton, ... [Show full
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Article Full-text available

Evidence of biological recovery in

acid-stressed lakes near Sudbury,
Canada
February 1992 · Environmental Pollution

Bill Wendel Keller · John Maxwell Gunn

· Norman D. Yan

Reductions in the emissions of SO2 and trace metals

from the Sudbury smelters have resulted in substantial
improvements in water quality in many surrounding
lakes. Significant biological changes have
accompanied the chemical improvements. Evidence of
relatively rapid recovery was found for benthic
filamentous algae, phytoplankton, zooplankton, mobile
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Article

Radioecological exposure
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hydrodynamics impacts
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Y. Feng · L. F. Miller · Steven M Bartell

The purpose of this study was to investigate the

implication of adding hydrodynamic complexity in
estimating the exposure of biota to ¹³â​·Cs in the
Chernobyl cooling pond (lake) from May to September
1986. Hydrodynamics was incorporated into this study
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Effects of a long term water level

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August 2013 · Knowledge and Management of Aquatic
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Konstantinos Stefanidis ·
Eva Papastergiadou

Key-words: fish, macrophytes, water level fluctuation,

water quality, zooplankton Water level fluctuations play
a significant role in the lake nutrient dynam-ics, and
consequently may have a strong influence on the
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