The Western Journal of Medicine Medicine in Perspective Imhotep and Medicine—A Reevaluation GUENTER B. RISSE, MD, PhD, San Francisco Fe ita One, tmhotep was “the fiat fue of physician to stand out clearly from the mists of antiq- vity."* Such an assessment, frequently repeated in subsequent articles and books.* cannot be supported by the available historical evidence. Although we still have very limited re- cords concerning Imhotep’s life, he was undoubtedly an im- Portant official during the Old Kingdom. Indeed. his 40-year ‘career as an administrator and builder of funerary monuments probably spanned the reigns of four pharaohs living in the ‘Third Dynasty (c 2686 to 2613 nc), reaching its peak under Zoset around 2640 wc. At no time, however, did Imhotep bear the name swnw. oF physician, as did one of his contem: poraries* in a period when officials proualy displayed a pro- fusion of designations.** Like other prominent personalities of his time, Imhotep’s ‘memory was subsequently kept alive through the establish ment of a funerary cult, which presumably worshiped at his Comb withthe assistance of a specially designated priesthood, Remembering certain famous personalities was one of An cient Egypt’s methods for rewarding their services and em- phasizing historical continuity. By stressing important cultural ideals, such memorials were supposed to foster emu- Jation and generate a national consciousness. In Imhotep’s case, his earthly career served to underline the importance of knowledge and skill, closely Linked to literacy and the seribal craft 0 AAs representative of a past golden age, Imhotep came to personify the sage man, learned but also committed to apply his erudition for the welfare of his fellow humans. In this role, Imhotep gradually assumed an important place among the fondly remembered intellectual leaders of Egyptian culture. In the Chester Beatty papyrus, composed around 1200 ac, he ‘was even included in alist of Egyptian rulers and linked tothe ‘god Ptah of Memphis, creator of the universe and patron of artisans.’? Such an honored position, clearly demonstrable for the New Kingdom, did not specifically include medical traits, although the healing art depended on the ability of scribes to record clinical experiences, occu Hy Re, hf nn an i aif hee vesctnegee Dac nde tat chek Bat her iim SoA Ey Ca mon a ie ea te Ce Bean ail 9 6 ‘The process whereby revered historical figures such as Imhotep gradually assumed the role reserved in Christian culture for saints oF deified intermediaries between humains and the traditional gods occurred late in Egyptian history. It began in the 26th Dynasty (664 to 525 nc) during the Saitic renaissance and extended well into the Ptolemaic and Roman periods. Sages such as Imhotep and, to lesser extent, Amen: hhotep witnessed an expansion of their attributes that made them magicians, diviners and even astrologers—authentic dispensers of life in its diverse manifestations. Not unexpect- edly, responsibilities for the regular movement of stars, peti ‘dic Hooding ofthe Nile River and continuous human fertility ‘were coupled with protection or relief from the ravages of poverty and illness. * ‘The documented existence of a temple dedicated solely to Imhotep during the 26th Dynasty*” * may have reflected the wishes of a sizeable number of Greek mercenaries em- ployed in the army of the Pharaoh as wel as other immigrants involved in commerce. Familiar with their own healing god, Asclepius. the Greeks probably tumed oa local Egyptian cult that offered the closest parallels and affinities to their original object of worship. Such Greck tolerance and adaptability to foreign religions was widespread and attempts to identify their own gods with those of the country in which they were setting characterized this period and the subsequent Helle nistic era under the Ptolemies. Henceforth the association of Asclepius with Imouthes—the Greek rendering of Imhotep— became firmly established, and 2 separate cultto the god came into being at Memphis, probably one of the greater religious centers in all of Egypt, For the 30th Dynasty (380 to 343 nc) there are even hints ofa yearly festival in that ity organized inhonor of the god. Thus, the gradual rise of Imhotep from a venerated public official and patron of the scribe guild to that of a new deity in his own right was the rsult of a broadly based popular move- ‘ment, not governmental decree, AS the gap between the rich and the poor widened, Imhotep came to personily the fate of a ‘commoner whose superior efforts could be appreciated and justly rewarded. For some, Imhotep’s upward mobility in- spited hope and stimulated imitation. Others saw him as a prea aad" Urbep hak withing 28 tse maa strip knisie the pcan of Bassey eral ab ad kno ‘Speen co (ise GB: Imhotep and medicine A revaluation. West J Med 1986 May 144622-623) epee to Cur Rise, MD. PD. Peso ad Cha, Dern oe Hye Sewers nest of Cafes, San Fun, Seba of ox THE WESTERN JOURNAL OF MEDICINE. ined from the Western Journal of Medicine, © 1986IMHOTEP AND MEDICINE genuine father figure whose original humanity suggested to petitioners that their problems and ambitions would get a Sympathetic hearing. As revealed onan inscription from the 30th Dynasty, the range of appeals and prayers to Imhotep ‘was broad. He was asked to bestow fertility on barren women, select proper marriage partners, guarantee male heir and ensure the recovery of health. These petitions ad~ dressed Imhotep make it clear that he was considered a ‘mediator between humans and the god Ptah, his spiritual fa ther. Tmbotep’s cult was originally restricted to Memphis and located in the necropolis of Saggara, presumably near his original burial place 2,000 years earlir.* Besides Ptah, the Lord of Life, he was linked to other local divinities such as, Thoth, the divine wizard, and Hathor, the mother goddess and protector of childbirth. After the 30th Dynasty, Imotep’s, cult quickly spread tothe rest of Egypt, and thereafter the new godhead was regularly included in the official pantheon of Ezypiian deities, especially during the Ptolemaic period. In- deed. Imhotep appeared in a number of newly constructed temples, inchding those at Deir-el-Bahari, Edfu, Dendera and Philae. His worship, however, was no restricted totem ples but widely scatered at domestic shrines and his name utered in private prayers. The conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great in 332 nc far from jeopardizing the Egyptian religious cults, restored many of them to theie previous glory aftr the Persian plun- dering and neglect. Now privileges were granted tothe Egyp: tian priesthood and acreage added to the “sacred land whose revenues paid for the maintenance of the cults, From the contents ofa demic papyrus dated to about 313, one can assume thatthe cut of Imhotep became an important activity at the necropolis of Memphis, with pilgrims from the nearby city and perhaps afar coming to the: new god's temple in search of help.** Open gates provided free access to the courtyard, petitions were delivered and oracles requested ‘One source from Heliopolis during the 30th Dynasty suggests {hat visitors tothe local Imhotep shrine were allowed t0 stay in the temple. their dreams subsequently interpreted by the priesthood. +A letter dated from about 300 8c and now known, 4 the Flinders Petre papyrus reveals that a petitioner even received some Linen strips or bindings at Imfotep’s temple, but it remains unclear whether the present was ceremonial or ‘ended as practical healing procedure." By now it should be clear thatthe powers attributed to Ihotep represented abroad spectrum of life-giving actions. from ordering the periodic flooding of the Nile. ensuring fertility, to guaranteeing eteral youth and fending off iliness and deat. Judging from the archeologic and literary evi dence, Imbotep clearly seemed to combine the functions of a Sage and magician. This is reflected inthe traditional depic- tion of him as a seated scholar reading a papyrus roll. his clean-shaven head covered by cap similar to that womby his celestial father, Ptah, Not surprisingly, subsequent Greco- Sicha wi ny he rth Fy dpi ney wheat aden a Che infor empty sSand arrogant Ener) May 1986 + 148 + 5 Roman documents linked Imhotep to archuie sciences such as astrology and alchemy as the importance of esoteric know! edge increased. As a personification ofthe ideal and educated Egyptian, Imhotep’s connection to alchemical lore gave this science much needed authority and legitimacy, as witnessed in the writings of Zosimos of Panopolis in the third cen- tury ap and several Islamic alchemists six centuries Tater sores ‘What role, then, did Imbotep play in medical matters? As previously noted, protection from illness and death were cer- tainly listed among the various functions of the new dkity. Following the Gresk model, the cult of Imhotep offered some striking parallels to that of Asclepius. Both had originally been historical personalities subsequently deified and incorpo- rated into thei respective religious systems through paternity ‘with powerful gods. Thus, following in part the example of reek setlers and later their hellenized leaders who founded. ‘Asclepian shrines and identified their god with Imhotep, Egyptians of all walks of life were encouraged to seek out their own indigenous divinity for, among others, its healing functions TThe new emphasis can be seen at the necropolis of Mem: phis where, in proximity to the cult of Imbotep. extensive ‘caches of votive objects were found. Among them were espe- cially plaster casts of various bodily parts such as complete human heads, torsos, logs and feet, suggesting medical offer ings left by sick visitors to allow a symbolic cure by Imhotep or simply as tokens of gratitude for a perceived recovery.” These objects can be connected to the more than 200 votive inscriptions available at the upper terrace of Queen Hat- shepsut’s temple in Western Thebes. Here a temple originally consecrated to Asclepius under Ptolemy Ill was actually trans- ‘ormed intoa shrine dedicated to “the greatest physician with skillful fingers": Imhotep.*"™="2":**" Subsequent temple in- scriptions in Roman times reiterate Imhotep’s healing fune- tion by variously stating that he “heals all disease in Egypt (Balu), “cures diseases in his own fashion” (Esna) and “makes various limbs healthy" (Philae).*¥ #18130 ‘Social and economic conditions current in Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt unquestionably played a decisive role in the ascendancy of Imhotep and the establishment of a cult in his honor that prominently included religious healing ceremo- nies. A growing faith in ritualism and magic, especially es- poused by the lower segments of society, must have fueled such a development. Living a marginal and perilous existence in congested and unhealthy city slums, the poor were espe- cially in need of divine protection and reassurance. As in the case of Asclepius in the Greco-Roman world outside of Egypt, the cult of Imhotep became a convenient and inexpen- sive way to secure help for those pious masses who most acutely felt the economic threat of ilness.*** Kot KS: espn icin. Sado Arh 1975:57.2482 eaIMHOTEP AND MEDICINE 6, Widne D: ftp us Amen, Guttering ln enol. Bsn andbungh Besechartunnetag BIT? ne a Mo 1 Gasdiey AN Hert Payee Bris Marca, Seen, Chee ety Git Vo La, Bah Mas 18,380 1 Se Kate. Alp de Aes rycen Me ue Za se Keems Poe. Unccn 2 Gon nlrredande hep 8 ay Bs Rep tian as by ie Oss 8020 10, Fey WH Prelit he xcs at Nomh Sagas 1965.2 ype Ami D8 S88 TH Nock AD: Comein. The Od ante New Klin fn Alum ‘Great kasi pp. Oitrd Or Une Pea 35 boas 1a, Geil BF Heat AS Oryry eb Fay Ni, Lon, Es so roo Moby P- The Foe Fare Fp, Di, Raa, 628 14, Tyo FS: The vishom Zaman. Amin 99718892 15. Sule HE. They Ac Tease Alcbey M ‘on Can, Aste Se oF Roa 8 16, Sticker BH Lago de sep Acs Osem 194: 1101-157 1. Ber WH: Penny reprtente xan a Noch Sagi, IK yp Atchl 95 89, ‘ 1, Mis 16: Tsuna Deirs-Ra Egypt Ar 114 19698 19, Butte A: Ls erin reais ee de athe «ees Be antl apy ar Pens create aes 188 20, Weill AEP: Gitte Angi Upper ay Fe As sade nts, Meco Go fk if Bh Gaga Com nce Rome Hat Une tne 22 Lina Daly Leia Roma yp. Lend, FM, 953 ‘THE WESTERN JOURNAL OF MEDICINE