Aircraft General Engineering

Maintenance Practices
UNIT 1
AIRCRAFT GROUND HANDLING AND
SUPPORT EQUIPMENT

BY KANU PRIYA JHANJI

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES
HINDUSTAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
 Mooring
• The following is a list of equipment need to park
and/or moor (tie down) the airplane.
• 4 wheel chocks
• 3 screw-in mooring rings (left and right wing, and
tail)
• 3 ropes (nylon or other non-shrinking/non-stretching
synthetic material)
• If wheel brakes are hot from prolonged taxi, allow
brakes to cool before setting parking
brake.
• Controls may be secured with ailerons neutral and
horizontal stabilizers leading edge
down by pulling the control stick aft as far as possible
and fastening seat belt snugly
around it.
 SHORT-TERM PARKING
• Perform this procedure for short-term parking of
the airplane.
1. Taxi or tow airplane to desired parking
position.
2. Align nose of airplane into the wind.
3. Ensure nose wheel is centered.
4. In windy or gusty weather, moor (tie down) the
airplane.
5. Set the parking brake.
• If wheel brakes are hot from prolonged taxi, allow
brakes to cool before setting parking
brake.
6. Place chocks in front of and behind main
wheels.
7. Release the parking brake.
8. Secure flight controls in neutral position;
retract flaps.
Controls may be secured with ailerons neutral
and horizontal stabilizers leading edge
down by pulling the control stick aft as far as
possible and fastening seat belt snugly
around it.

9. Close and lock the doors.

• LONG-TERM PARKING
Perform this procedure for long-term parking of the
airplane.
1. Perform the steps for short-term: parking.
2. Moor (tie down) the airplane.
3. Install external rudder lock if available.
• ALL GUST LOCKS MUST BE REMOVED FROM THE AIRCRAFT
PRIOR TO TAXI AND FLIGHT. CARE
SHOULD BE TAKEN NOT TO DEFORM OR DAMAGE THE
STRUCTURE DURING INSTALLATION AND
REMOVAL OF THESE LOCKS. ALL DEFOMRATION, DAMAGE
AND INTERFERENCE MUST BE
REVIEWED BY A QUALIFIED MECHANIC OR TECHNICIAN
PRIOR TO FLIGHT.
4. Install pitot/static, canopy, and propeller covers as
applicable.
• 5. Refer to engine, electrical, and fuel system chapters of
this manual for information on required servicing for
long-term storage.
• The airplane has three mooring points: one under each
wing, and one under the tail.
• Mooring rings are provided to secure tie down ropes into
the mooring points.
• Park the airplane, see the procedures for short and long
term parking of the airplane.
• Attach tie-down ropes to ground tie-downs and aircraft
mooring rings.
• Leave sufficient play or looseness in the ropes to
prevent inadvertent loading of the structure.
• Also, if using a rope, tie a bowline knot to allow tension
freedom.
 JACKING AIRCRAFT
• The aviation technician must be familiar with
the jacking of aircraft in order to perform
maintenance and inspection.
• Since jacking procedures and safety precautions
vary for different types of aircraft, only general
jacking procedures and precautions are
discussed.
• Consult the applicable aircraft manufacturer’s
maintenance instructions for specific jacking
procedures.
• Extensive aircraft damage and serious personal injury have
resulted from careless or improper jacking procedures.
• As an added safety measure, jacks should be inspected
before use to determine the specific lifting capacity, proper
functioning of safety locks, condition of pins, and general
serviceability.
• Before raising an aircraft on jacks, all work stands and other
equipment should be removed from under and near the
aircraft.
• No one should remain in the aircraft while it is being raised
or lowered, unless maintenance manual procedures require
such practice for observing leveling instruments in the
aircraft.
• The aircraft to be jacked must be located in a level position,
well protected from the wind.
• A hangar should be used if possible. The manufacturer’s
maintenance instructions for the aircraft being jacked should
be consulted for the location of the jacking points.
• These jacking points are
usually located in relation to
the aircraft center of gravity
so the aircraft will be well
balanced on the jacks.
• However, there are some
exceptions to this. On some
aircraft it may be necessary
to add weight to the nose or
tail of the aircraft to achieve
a safe balance.
• Sandbags are usually used
for this purpose.
• Tripod jacks similar to the
one shown in figure are
used when the complete
aircraft is to be jacked.
• A small single base jack
similar to the one shown
in figure is used when
only one wheel is to be
raised.
• The jacks used for jacking
aircraft must be
maintained in good
condition; a leaking or
damaged jack must never
be used.
• Also, each jack has a
maximum capacity, which
must never be exceeded.
 Jacking complete aircraft
• Prior to jacking the aircraft, an overall survey of
the complete situation should be made to
determine if any hazards to the aircraft or
personnel exist.
• Tripod jacks of the appropriate size for the aircraft
being jacked should be placed under the aircraft
jacking points and perfectly centered to prevent
them from cocking when the aircraft is raised.
• The legs of the jacks should be checked to see that
they will not interfere with the operations to be
performed after the aircraft is jacked, such as
retracting the landing gear.
• At least three places or points are provided on
aircraft for jacking purposes; a fourth place on
some aircraft is used to stabilize the aircraft
while it is being jacked at the other three points.
• The two main places are on the wings, with a
smaller one on the fuselage near either the tail
or the nose, depending on the landing gear
design.
• Most aircraft have jack pads located at the jack
points. Others have removable jack pads that
are inserted into receptacles bolted in place
prior to jacking.
• The correct jack pad
should be used in all
cases.
• The function of the
jack pad is to ensure
that the aircraft load is
properly distributed at
the jack point and to
provide a convex
bearing surface to
mate with the concave
jack stem. Figure 11-
40 illustrates two
types of jack pads
• Prior to jacking, determine if the aircraft configuration
will permit jacking.
• There may be equipment or fuel which has to be
removed if serious structural damage is to be avoided
during jacking. If any other work is in progress on the
aircraft, ascertain if any critical panels have been
removed.
• On some aircraft the stress panels or plates must be in
place when the aircraft is jacked to avoid structural
damage.
• Extend the jacks until they contact the jack pads.
• A final check for alignment of the jacks should be made
before the aircraft is raised, since most accidents
during jacking are the result of misaligned jacks.
• When the aircraft is ready to be raised, a man should be
stationed at each jack.
• The jacks should be operated simultaneously to keep the
aircraft as level as possible and to avoid overloading any of the
jacks.
• This can be accomplished by having the crew leader stand in
front of the aircraft and give instructions to the men operating
the jacks. Figure 11-41 shows an aircraft being jacked.
• Caution should be observed, since on many jacks the piston can
be raised beyond the safety point; therefore, never raise an
aircraft any higher than is necessary to accomplish the job.
• The area around the aircraft should be secured
while the aircraft is on jacks.
• Climbing on the aircraft should be held to an
absolute minimum, and no violent movements
should be made by persons who are required to go
aboard.
• Any cradles or necessary supports should be
placed under the fuselage or wings of the aircraft
at the earliest possible time, particularly if the
aircraft is to remain jacked for any length of time.
 Aircraft Towing
• On aircraft with
a nose-wheel
landing gear, a
steering arm
should be fitted
to the nose
wheel to guide
the aircraft Light
aircraft can be
moved and
guided, by hand
or by a tug.
• Special attention should be paid to the following:
• Force should not be applied to the thin trailing or rear edges
of wings or control surfaces such as ailerons or elevators.
• Generally speaking it is better to push an aircraft backwards
rather than forwards, because the leading edges of the
wings and tail-plane are stronger than the trailing edges.
• The struts, which support the undercarriage on some
aircraft, are suitable for pushing the aircraft as these are the
strength parts of the aircraft.
• The flat of the hands should be used when pushing, so as to
spread the load over the largest area.
• When pushing on struts, the force should be applied as near
to the end fittings as possible.
• A propeller must never be used to push or pull the aircraft,
as the engine should always be regarded as ‘live’ and a
propeller may kick if it is turned.
• On aircraft with a steering nose wheel connected
to the rudder pedals, care must be taken not to
exceed the turning limits.
• Normally the maximum limits are marked on nose
wheel doors as “NO TOW”
• On this type of aircraft it is also important that the
rudder controls are not locked during the towing
operations.
• This is because the rudder controls and the nose-
wheel steering mechanism are interconnected and
the excessive movements could damage the
mechanical linkages.
• When towing aircraft by tow bar and tug special
care should be given to below facts,
• The correct tow-bar should be connected
between the towing attachment at the base of
the nose undercarriage leg and the tug.
• A person familiar with the aircraft brake
system should be seated in the cockpit/cabin
to operate the brakes in an emergency.
• The brakes should not normally be applied
unless the aircraft is stationary.
• Once the tow-bar is connected, the brakes,
and if fitted, the rudder lock, may be released
and the aircraft towed at a safe speed. A safe
speed is considered to be walking speed.
• A close watch should be kept on the wing tips
and tail, particularly in confined spaces, to
ensure that they do not come into contact
with other stationary or moving object.
• In circumstances where the ground over which
the aircraft has to be towed is either boggy or
very uneven, the strain imposed on the nose
undercarriage may be excessive and it may be
necessary to tow the aircraft by means of bridles
attached to each main undercarriage.
• If towing attachments are not provided on the
main undercarriage legs, ropes should be passed
carefully around the legs as near to the top as
possible and avoiding fouling on adjacent pipes or
structure.
• A separate tug should be connected to each main
undercarriage assembly.
• Steering should be carried out by means of a
steering arm attached to the nose wheel rather
than by differential movement of the tugs.
• The most common means of towing a large
aircraft nowadays is by means of a tow bar-less
aircraft handling tractor.
• These tractors tend to be front wheel driven and
therefore when towing an aircraft, are acting to
‘pull’ the tractor/aircraft combination.
• The tow-barless tractor consists of a low level
tractor with a rear mounted cradle, comprising of
a ‘scoop and gate’ assembly.
• Owing to the tractor’s low height it can easily
move-in under the aircraft’s fuselage to couple-up
with the aircraft’s nose wheel. During operation
the nose wheel is raised by about 20cms by the
tractor and after the towing is completed the nose
wheel is lowered and the nose wheel is released
from the cradle.
 Leveling (By Plumb Bob Method)
• Jack aircraft at wing and nose jack point
• Attach plumb bob and string to eyebolt at FS 259
(fuselage station). Position the plumb bob directly
over the leveling plate on floor of aircraft. Level
aircraft laterally (left to right) by adjusting wing
jacks until plumb bob tip is directly above the
center line in the leveling plate.
• Level the aircraft longitudinally(forward and aft)
by adjusting the nose jack until plumb bob tip is
directly above FS 259 line on the leveling
 Longitudinal Leveling
• Place spirit level or
digital protractor on
top of port or
starboard doorsill.
• Shim under tires to
achieve longitudinal
level.
• Repeat on opposite
side of aircraft to
confirm level has
been achieved.
• This alternate method of
longitudinal leveling is
presented as a matter of
being possibly more
convenient than the
previous method. Both
methods are equally
acceptable.
– Place spirit level
lengthwise along aircraft
centerline on flat area
between two seat backs.
– Shim under tires to
achieve longitudinal level.
 Lateral Leveling
• Place a 4-ft length (minimum) beam
level at approximately center of the
door opening 19 to 20 inches from
forward edge of door.
• Remove a portion of the door seal
from the lower edge of the door
opening
• Place the beam level perpendicular to
the aircraft’s centerline.
• Shim under main gear tires to achieve
lateral level.
• After leveling is achieved, remove
level. Do not disturb balance.
• Roll aircraft off scales and shims.
• If aircraft is to be weighed, weigh
shims so their weight may be
subtracted from the overall weight
obtained.
 Piston Engine Starting Procedure
• The following procedures are typical of those
used to start reciprocating engines.
• There are, however, wide variations in the
procedures for the many reciprocating engines.
• No attempt should be made to use the methods
presented here for actually starting an engine.
Instead, always refer to the procedures contained
in the applicable manufacturer’s instructions.
• Reciprocating engines are capable of starting in fairly
low temperatures without the use of engine heating or
oil dilution, depending on the grade of oil used.
• The various covers (wing, tail, cockpit, wheel, etc.)
protecting the aircraft must be removed before
attempting to turn the engine.
• External sources of electrical power should be used
when starting engines equipped with electric starters.
• This eliminates an excessive burden on the aircraft
battery.
• All unnecessary electrical equipment should be left off
until the generators are furnishing electrical power to
the aircraft power bus.
• Before starting a radial engine that has been shut down for more
than 30 minutes, check the ignition switch for off; turn the
propeller three or four complete revolutions with the starter, or it
may be pulled through by hand to detect a hydraulic lock if one is
present.
• Any liquid present in a cylinder is indicated by the abnormal
effort required to rotate the propeller, or by the propeller
stopping abruptly during rotation. Never use force to turn the
propeller when a hydraulic lock is detected.
• Sufficient force can be exerted on the crankshaft to bend or break
a connecting rod if a lock is present.
• To eliminate a lock, remove either the front or rear spark plug
from the lower cylinders and pull the propeller through. Never
attempt to clear the hydraulic lock by pulling the propeller
through in the opposite direction to normal rotation.
• This tends to inject the liquid from the cylinder into the intake
pipe. The liquid will be drawn back into the cylinder with the
possibility of complete or partial lock occurring on the
subsequent start.
• To start the engine, proceed as follows:
• Turn the auxiliary fuel pump on, if aircraft is so equipped.
• Place the mixture control to the position recommended for
the engine and carburettor combination being started. As a
general rule, the mixture control should be in the “idle
cutoff” position for pressure type carburettors and in the
“full rich” position for float type carburetors.
• Many light aircraft are equipped with a mixture control pull
rod which has no detented intermediate positions. When
such controls are pushed in flush with the instrument
panel, the mixture is set in the “full rich” position.
• Conversely, when the control rod is pulled all the way out,
the carburetor is in the “idle cutoff” or “full lean” position.
Unmarked intermediate positions between these two
extremes can be selected by the operator to achieve any
desired mixture setting.
• Open the throttle to a position that will provide 1,000 to 1,200
rpm (approximately 1/8 to 1/2 inch from the “closed” position).
• Leave the preheat or alternate air (carburetor air) control in the
“cold” position to prevent damage and fire in case of backfire.
These auxiliary heating devices should be used after the engine
warms up. They improve fuel vaporization, prevent fouling of
the spark plugs, ice formation, and eliminate icing in the
induction system.
• Energize the starter after the propeller has made at least two
complete revolutions, and turn the ignition switch on. On
engines equipped with an induction vibrator, turn switch to the
“both” position.
• When starting an engine that uses an impulse coupling
magneto, turn the ignition switch to the “left” position. Place
the ignition switch to “start” when the magneto incorporates a
retard breaker assembly.
• Do not crank the engine continuously with the starter for more
than 1 minute. Allow a 3 to 5 minute period for cooling the
starter between successive attempts. Otherwise the starter may
be burned out due to overheating.
• Move the primer switch to “on” intermittently,
or prime with one to three strokes of priming
pump, depending on how the aircraft is
equipped.
• When the engine begins to fire, hold the primer
on while gradually opening throttle to obtain
smooth operation.
• After the engine is operating smoothly on the
primer, move the mixture control to the “full
rich” position.
• Release the primer as soon as a drop in rpm
indicates the engine is receiving additional fuel
from the carburetor.
 TURBOPROP ENGINE STARTING
PROCEDURE
• Prestart Procedures
• The various covers protecting the aircraft must be removed.
• Engine tailpipes should be carefully inspected for the
presence of fuel or oil.
• A close visual inspection of all accessible parts of the engines
and engine controls should be made, followed by an
inspection of all nacelle areas to determine that all inspection
and access plates are secured.
• Sumps should be checked for water.
• Air inlet areas should be inspected for general condition and
foreign material.
• The compressor should be checked for free rotation, when
the installation permits, by reaching in and turning the blades
by hand.
• While starting an engine, always observe the
following:
1. Never energize the starter while the engine is
rotating.
2. Do not move the power lever of any engine
while it is being bled for cross-bleed starting.
3. Do not perform a ground start if turbine inlet
temperature is above that specified by the
manufacturer.
4. Do not use bleed air from an engine that is
accelerating.
• To start an engine on the ground, perform the following
operations:
• Place the start selector switch to the desired engine and the
start arming switch (if so equipped) to the “start” position.
• Turn the aircraft boost pumps on.
• Place the fuel and ignition switch on.
• Position the low rpm switch in low or normal (high).
• Make sure that the power lever is in the “start” position. If
the propeller is not at the “start” position, difficulty may be
encountered in making a start.
• Depress the start switch and, if priming is necessary, depress
the primer button.
• Make sure the fuel pump parallel light comes on at, or
above, 2,200 rpm and remains on up to 9,000 rpm.
• Check the oil pressure and temperature. Maintain the power
lever at the “start” position until the specified minimum oil
temperature is reached.
• Disconnect the ground power supply.
 Turbojet Starting Procedure
• The following procedures are useful only as a general guide, and are
included to show the sequence of events in starting a turbojet engine.

1. Move power lever to “off” position unless the engine is equipped with
thrust reverser. If the engine is so equipped, place the power lever in the
“idle” position.
2. Turn on electrical power to engine.
3. Turn fuel system shutoff switch to “fuel on” position.
4. Turn fuel boost pump switch on.
5. A fuel inlet pressure indicator reading of 5 psi ensures fuel is being
delivered to engine fuel pump inlet.
6. Turn engine starter switch on; when engine begins to rotate, check for oil
pressure rise.
7. Turn ignition switch on after engine begins to rotate.
8. Move throttle to idle (if engine is not equipped with thrust reverser).
9. Engine start (light up) is indicated by a rise in exhaust gas temperature.
10. After engine stabilizes at idle, ensure that none of the engine limits are
exceeded.
11. Turn engine starter switch off after start.
12. Turn ignition switch off.
 Unsatisfactory Turbojet Starts
• Hot Starts
• A hot start occurs when the engine starts, but
the exhaust gas temperature exceeds
specified limits. This is usually caused by an
excessively rich fuel/air mixture entering the
combustion chamber. The fuel to the engine
should be shut off immediately.
2. False or Hung Start.
• False or hung starts occur when the engine starts normally but
the rpm remains at some low value rather than increasing to
the normal starting rpm. This is often the result of insufficient
power to the starter, or the starter cutting off before the
engine starts self-accelerating. In this case, the engine should
be shut down.
3. Engine Will Not Start.
• The engine will not start within the prescribed time limit. It can
be caused by lack of fuel to the engine, insufficient or no
electrical power, or malfunctions in the ignition system. If the
engine fails to start within the prescribed time, it should be
shut down.
• In all cases of unsatisfactory starts the fuel and ignition should
be turned off. Continue rotating the compressor for
approximately 15 seconds to remove accumulated fuel from
the engine. If unable to motor (rotate) the engine, allow a 30
second fuel draining period before attempting another start.
 How Fires occur?
• In areas where high amount of current flows,
heat is formed as the by product. When this heat
comes in contact with protective coatings or any
other flammable material a spark can be
generated.
• Presence of unnecessary flammable materials.
• An unclean shop. If the shop is cluttered with
objects it might lead to unprecedented or Sparks
which leads to a fire.
• Improper maintenance of compressed gases and
proximity to heat.
 Types of fires
• Fires can be broadly classified into 4 types.
• CLASS A – Fires due to ordinary combustible materials
such as wood, cloth etc.
• CLASS B – Fires caused by inflammable petroleum
products or other flammable or combustible liquids,
greases, solvents and paints.
• CLASS C – Fires involving energized electrical
equipment's where the electrical non conductivity of
the extinguishing media is of importance.
• CLASS D – fire inflammable metal generally caused by
CLASS A, B, C type fires.
 Fire Extinguishers
• Water type – It extinguishes fire by cooling the fuel
below combustion temperature used in CLASS A fires.
• Dry Chemicals – Do not conduct electricity. Sodium bi
carbonate used in CLASS B and C. Ammonium
phosphate used in B AND C. multi purpose dry
chemical used in CLASS A B and C.
• Gas – Used to dissipate oxygen in the immediate
vicinity of the fire. Commonly used are CO2 ,
halogenated carbonates, CCl4, methyl bromide chloro
Bromo methane and di chloro di Fluro methane.
• Ground type Extinguishers can be self propelled hand
held or even mechanically pumped.
 Check list
• Extinguishers should be placed in the
appropriate places.
• Safety seals should be unbroken
• Remove external rust and dust.
• No nozzle should be obstructed.
• Check if the pressure is in operation range.
 Aircraft Ground Support Unit

• Ground Support Equipment (GSE) is the

support equipment found at an airport.
• The role this equipment plays generally
involves ground power operations, aircraft
mobility, and cargo/passenger loading
operations.
 Non Powered Equipment
• Dollies are used
for the
transportation of
loose baggage,
over-sized
baggage, mail
bags, loose cargo
carton boxes, etc.
between the
aircraft and the
terminal or sorting
facility.
• Chocks are used to
prevent an aircraft
from moving while
parked at the gate or
in a hangar.
• Chocks are placed in
the front ('fore') and
back ('aft') of the
wheels of landing
gear.
• They are made out of
hard wood or hard
rubber.
Aircraft Jacks
• They are used to support a parked aircraft to
prevent their tail from drooping or even falling
to the ground.
 Powered Equipment
• Aircraft refuelers can be
either a self-contained fuel
truck, or a hydrant truck or
cart.
• Fuel trucks are self-
contained, typically
containing up to 10,000
gallons of fuel and have their
own pumps, filters, hoses,
and other equipment.
• A hydrant cart or truck hooks
into a central pipeline
network and provides fuel to
the aircraft.
• The tugs and
tractors at an airport
have several
purposes and
represent the
essential part of
ground support
services.
• They are used to
move all equipment
that cannot move
itself. This includes
bag carts, mobile air
conditioning units,
air starters, and
lavatory carts.
• A ground power unit (GPU) is a
vehicle capable of supplying
power to aircraft parked on the
ground.
• Ground power units may also be
built into the jetway, making it
even easier to supply electrical
power to aircraft.
• Many aircraft require 28 V of
direct current and 115 V 400 Hz
of alternating current. The
electric energy is carried from a
generator to a connection on the
aircraft via 3 phase 4-wire
insulated cable capable of
handling 261 amps (90 kVA).