Bio Notes Test # 1 (In Class-Review)

Format of the Test:

1. Multiple Choice (10)
2. Diagram (Draw or Label = Meiosis/DNA/Mitosis) 4/5 Marks
3. Short Answer (15 Marks)
4. Punnet Square (10)

DNA
Molecule of Heredity: Molecule = DNA. A-T-G-C (A connects to T, G
connects to C)
DNA is naturally in chromatin form (uncondensed) and once it is
condensed takes place in the form of chromosomes.
DNA is located in the nucleus!

CHROMOSOMES

Number of chromosomes in normal cells and gametes =

46 in somatic cells, 23 in gametes
Define:
• Somatic Cells: all human body cells that form the structure of
the body! (Everything but gametes) 2n = being twice the
number of chromosomes that there would be in gametes
• Gametes: exception to Somatic cells – used to form a zygote
(half number of chromosomes) n = number of chromosomes

CELL CYCLE:
Interphase = growth and function of the cell
• G1 = Growth and stable job
• S = Synthesizing (doubling)
• G2 = Preparing for cell division
Mitosis/Meiosis = cell division
Cytokinesis = division of the cytoplasm and the remainder of the
organelles

MITOSIS & MEIOSIS

Mitosis: Goal is to grow and divide to produce more genetically

identical cells, ensures genetic continuity! One cell will divide into two
daughter cells (exact replica) Mitosis is asexual reproduction

P = Prophase. Chromosomes are doubled already and condense from

chromatin into chromosomes. Spindle fibres form, nuclear membrane
disappears. Chromosomes attach to spindle fibres by the centromere.
DIPLOID.
M = Metaphase. Chromosomes line up along the equator and prepare
for division. Line up 46 down. (Equivalent of 92 chromosomes, genetic
information) DIPLOID.
A = Anaphase. Chromosomes move to opposite sides of the pole.
Sister chromatids separate. DIPLOID
T = Telophase. Nuclear membrane reappears, spindle fibres receeds,
nuclear membrane forms around the set of chromosomes. DIPLOID!
After Cytokinesis, you have two new cells, which are exact genetic
replicas of each other. Both are diploid and each has 23 chromosomes.

Meiosis: Goal is to produce cells with half the number of

chromosomes as the parent cell and ensure genetic diversity!

Two stages of Meiosis:

Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2 = Meiosis one separates the 46 double
stranded chromosomes (somatic cell) into two cells that are haploid
and only have 23 double stranded chromosomes. Then, Meiosis 2,
similar to Meiosis, separates the 23 chromosomes into single stranded
chromosomes.

Meiosis 1
Prophase 1: Nuclear membrane disappears, spindle fibres form from
centrosomes, chromosomes attach to spindle fibres by the centromere.
Different in Meiosis than Mitosis: Chromosomes line up 23 down as
Tetrads.
Tetrads: Two pairs of Chromosomes next to each other (homologous
chromosomes) 1D – 1M. So instead of 46 down it is 23 down!
Homologous Chromosomes: Two chromosomes that are genetically the
same (1D – 1M)
During Prophase, there is a genetic crossing over. So a little bit of 1D is
transferred to 1M, and DNA of 1M is transferred to 1D. This assures
genetic diversity, because every chromosome will be different. DIPLOID
Metaphase 1: Chromosomes line up along the equator, 23 down as
tetrads. DIPLOID. Can be lined up independently. 1D – 1M, or 2M – 2D
(Independent Assortment)
Anaphase 1: Chromosomes split to different poles. Sister chromatids
do not separate. Rather 23 chromosomes move to one side, and 23
chromosomes to the other.
Telophase 1: Nuclear membranes does not reform. Meiotic spindles
break down. You now have 2 HAPLOID cells.

Meiosis 2 (Parallel to Mitosis)

Prophase 2: Meiotic spindle fibres reform, chromosomes reattach to
spindle fibres. HAPLOID
Metaphase 2: Chromosomes line up along the equator, 23 down.
HAPLOID
Anaphase 2: Chromosomes split up and move to opposite ends of the
poles, separate into sister chromatids.
Telophase 2: Nuclear membrane reforms around chromosomes,
chromatin  chromosomes, spinde fibres disappear
CYTOKINESIS: now you have 4 HAPLOID cells! These haploid cells are
the gametes found in humans (sperm/egg). Sperm will fertilize with
egg to form a zygote.

Mitosis & Meiosis in Females & Males

The process of meiosis is slightly different in females and males.

Gametogenesis (Creation of Gametes)
In males, the process is called Spermatogenesis:
Spermatogonium undergoes Mitosis to produce 2 cells: 1
Spermatogonium and 1 Primary Spermatocyte. Primary Spermatocyte
then undergoes Meiosis 1 to form two secondary Spermatocytes. The
two Spermatocytes undergo Meiosis 2 to form 4 Haploid sperm cells.
In females, the process is called Oogenesis:
Oogonium undergoes Mitosis to produce 2 cells: 1 Oogonium and 1
Primary Oocyte. The Primary Oocyte undergoes Meiosis 1 to produce 1
secondary Oocyte and a polar body (Cytokinesis is uneven). The
secondary oocyte undergoes Meiosis 2 and produces 1 egg and 1 polar
body (Cytokinesis is again uneven)

Mistakes in Meiosis

1. Two many/two few chromosomes in gametes

2. Duplicated/Deleted genes in the chromosomes of the gametes.

1. Two many/two few chromosomes in gametes

a. Homologous chromosomes not separating at Anaphase 1
b. Sister chromatids not separating at Anaphase 2 (Non
disjunction)
Eg. Down Syndrome: Non disjunction of Chromosome 21.
One extra chromosome.
2. Duplication/Deleted genes in the chromosomes of the gametes.
a. Unequal crossing over between homologous chromosomes,
one chromosome therefore gets more DNA than the other,
and one chromosome has NO copies of the certain genes!

Terms in Genetics

• Chromosome: DNA in a highly condensed form

• Gene: A segment of DNA that provides the instructions for the
building and regulation of a functional molecule in the cell
 • Locus: The location within a chromosome where a gene is found.
Eg, the locus of the gene is 1p, 21 (P & Q two parts, 1 – 23 in
each part starting from the middle, 1 being the chromosome
number)
• Allele: Every cell having 2 copies of each chromosome, each
chromosome has 1 copy of every gene, the copy of a gene in one
homologous chromosome may be the same or different than the
copy of the gene in the other chromosome.
An allele is a version of a gene. For example, Version 1 could be
AGCGTAGT with
TCGCATCA
Version 2 could be
AGCATAGT with
TCGTATCA
(One segment of the sequence is different.)

Homologous chromosomes may have the same or different alleles.

Homozygous: same form of gene
Heterozygous: alleles are different

Genotype & Phenotype:

The combination of alleles a person has at a locus.
Brown Eyes = B
Blue eyes = b
Bb, therefore phenotype is Brown, bc brown eyes are dominant.

Origins of Genetics
Question: How are traits passed on to offspring?

1. The Bloodline: traits are passed down through the blood

2. Blending Theory of Inheritance: traits from mom and traits from
dad are blended
3. Pangenesis: skills perfected during life will be passed on to
offspring

All of these theories were proven false by Gregor Mendel who was a
monk from Vienna! He knew nothing about biology!
He had a garden of peas. Peas had many traits with two specific forms,
eg
Flower Colour: Purple or White
Seed Colour: Yellow or Green
Height: Tall or Short
Shape of Seeds: wrinkled or smooth

Mendel could see how traits appear and disappear once he crossed the
plants with each other.
First, he had to make purebred strains
Purebred Strain: Keep having the same characteristic over and over
after undergoing self-fertilization. Mendel used purebred strains for
consistency.

Dominance and Recessiveness of Alleles

G = Green eyes
g = Blue eyes

GG = Green eyes
Gg = Green eyes
gg = Blue eyes

Dominant Allele: the allele for which the phenotype is observed in

heterozygous individuals
Recessive allele: the allele for which the phenotype is masked in
herterozygous individuals

Punnet Squares:
Complete both page 112 and the extra sheet of monohybrid
problems!

In a cross, offspring are observed in a ratio of 3 Tall to 1 short, where

tall is dominant over short. Determine the genotypes of the parents.

1. Let Tall = T, Short = t

2. We can determine that we have a ratio of 3:1. (Three tall, one
short) The short genotype must be tt. (homozygous recessive)
The three tall could be: TT or Tt.

T t

T Tt Tt

t Tt tt

The genotypes of the parents are Tt and Tt (Heterozygous for both)