HYDRAULIC & BIT TECHNOLOGYxMii illing fluid is central to both the well control system and the hydraulics m. The column of drilling fluid provides sufficient wellbore hydrostatic to balance the pressures of any formation encountered, thereby con- ag the well. In the hydraulics system, drilling fluid facilitates the removal Edailled cuttings from beneath the bit and carries the cuttings out of the hole primary purposes of the hydraulics system are to remove cuttings beneath the bit and to carry cuttings out of the hole to prevent up-hole or stickingtof the drill string. If an engineer were concerned only ancing formation pressures, the needs of a circulating hydraulics sys- id be substantially reduced. The requirement of bottomhole cleaning smental reason for designing a powerful circulating system. The fine ‘of the use of that hydraulic power is partially determined by the benefits from the secondary purposes. secondary purposes of the hydraulics system are to cool the bit and bit’s teeth. The requirement of bottomhole cleaning is a fundamental designing a powerful circulating system. Hydraulics and Bit Technologyi HYDRAULIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS Although you should have already completed the module entitled Components, Operations, and Safety Considerations, in the Drilling E neering Series, Lesson 1 in Unit I of this module will serve as a review. equipment that is related specifically to the hydraulics or circulation syst RIG PUMP—MUD PUMP Around a drilling rig, many types of pumps are used. Some pumps fer fuel (i.c., gear type-pumps) while others circulate mud in the surface ta and pits (i.e. centrifugal pumps). The pump selected depends upon the The job of circulating mud down the wellbore and removing cuttings requi a particular type of pump referred to as a slush_pump or mud pump. Mi pumps typically have power capabilities in the range of S0M{to While large in power and size, the mud pump is a fairly simple positiyg displacement pump. The pumping action is obtained by reciprocating a pista and moving fluid through spring loaded suction and discharge valves in a wa similar to the operation of fucl intake and exhaust valves in an automobil engine. A mud pump operates when power is applied to the piston drive shaff Figure 1-1. Mud Pump Hydraulics and Bit Technologyig Staged compressors or pumps. ‘The nature of drilling fluid, being solids n and abrasive, prevents the use of high technology turbine compressors Be conti ouly efencd ayes 2 disap pressure. 180 degree bend is attached to the top of the standpipe with a hammer (Connection). This down-turn permits the next component (the standpipe ry hose) to hang freely without bending or kinking when the kelly sed or lowered. iat» wanton eetatven Endpipe to the kelly, must be a flexible hose. i addition to being flexible, this hose section must be capable of with- ding the operating pressures of the mud pumps (1,000 to 5,000 psb and ie of permitting large flow rates (250/t6 1\000gpi) of mud to pass with minal friction pressure losses. To meet these conditions, the size of le. The rotary hose also allows the kelly to be raised out of the hole to ipe to clear the floor and be made-up or broken out. Hydraulics and Bit TechnologySWIVEL The swivel connects the kelly to the rotary hose. The swivel has three purposes. The swivel © provides a smooth, continuous, pressure rated, non-leaking flow path for the mud between the standpipe hose and the kelly. © allows rotation of the kelly and the drill string, collars ard bit. © provides a means for the weight of all pipe and collars hanging from the kelly to be transferred to the hoisting equipment or travelling block’ and hook. Thus, the swivel must be a pressurized flow adapter, as well as an adapter for mechanical loads that permits one part to rotate freely of the other. KELLY ‘The segment of the flow path below the swivel is the kelly. The kelly is hollow and allows the pumping of mud through it. The flat sides of the kelly. are used as drive faces in a rotating bushing that allows the driller to rotate the entire drill string. This rotation, of course, permits the drill bit to make the hole. Since the kelly goes into the hole as the hole is drilled deeper, the flat sides of the kelly are long (approximately 40 feet) and move through a drive bushing in the rotary table. The kelly may be drilled down its length, raised, a single joint of pipe added below the kelly, and still have enough vertical travel at the kelly to engage the bushing and rotary table for additional drilling. The vertical travel of the kelly requires the rotary hose to be long and flexible. ‘The kelly is the last individual component of one sub-system in the rig’s circulating (hydraulics) system. This sub-system is referred to as the f the circulating system and is composed of all flow conduit or plumbing from the mud pump to the first joint of drill string below the kelly (.e., the pipe from the pump.to.the siandpipe, the standpipe, standpipe hose, swivel and kelly), Hydraulics and Bit Technologyhe Kelly, drill pipe allows passage of mud. The drill pipe comprises jority of the length of the drill string. The drill pipe connects the kelly 's and eventually to lows segmented (approximately 30 foot) additions to the drill string ngth as the well is drilled, and segmented recovery /stacking of drill tring when retrieving worn-out bits. ithe drill string must also be iach designed to carry tensile ile being fluid sealed and casy to repeatedly make-up and break-out. : eed arat eee ea ATS ie segment of the rig's hydraulics system Hydraulics and Bit Technology6 Cutting Methods A drill bit can cut rock in one of two methods. It can: A rrereenal © Drill and excavate rock by mechanically induced stresses, from cont pressive loading of the bit teeth. © Shear the rock with a drag cutter. These cutting methods or methods of rock destruction are explained in greater detail in Unit II of this module. For now, be aware.that cutting through: rock: formations generates rock chips, and heat, Nozzles Since one of the primary purposes of the hydraulics system is to remove | cuttings from beneath the bit, the bit nozzles are critical to the system because. they provide the final delivery of mud to the area beneath the bit. The sizing and placement of the nozzles is critical to the bit's performance. Nozzles must be placed so as to clear chips from the bottom of the hole and also to prevent the teeth or cutters on the bit from balling or overheating. Drilling engineers | using commercially available bits do not have the luxury (or the difficul: task) of designing nozzle placement and mud flow paths, Manufacturers of bits provide a variety of nozzle arrangements ranging from three nozzle: the cones (standard), to extended nozzles, and center jet nozzles between the cones. Manufacturers of drag bits (i.e., natural diamond and synthetic diamond cutter bits) also provide a broad range of combinations of nozzle sizes and locations. The close proximity of drag bit nozzles to the rock face makes the circulating pressure drop through a drag bit dependent upon the weight-on-bit. Pressure drops of drag bits will not be discussed here due to the wide variety of nozzle locations and sensitivity to weight on bit. The focus will be on the hydraulics of roller bits with three standard nozzles. As previously indicated, drilling engineers do not usually specify the lo- cation of nozzles in the bit. The nozzle locations are ‘sjandard’ as supplied by a bit manufacturer. The manufacturers do provide the opportunity for the | engineer to select nozzle sizes. Various diameter nozzles are supplied by the bit makers. The nozzles can be changed easily with tools provided by the bit manufacturers. The task of a drilling engineer is to efficiently use the circu- lating system power to assist the drilling of new hole. The engineer accom- plishes this task by selecting nozzle sizes for optimum hydraulics. Nozzle size selection is described in Lesson 7 of Unit I in this module. Hydraulics and Bit TechnologySegments—the segment around the drill collars and the segment around Upipe. These segments are called the drill collar annulus, and drill Bthe force of gravity that tends to settle cuttings to the bottom of the of cullings carrying can result in large quantities of cuttings suspended drill pipe, drill collars, bit nozzles, drill collar annulus, and drill pipe dus comprise the downhole components of the rig’s mud circulating sys- (Gee Figure 1-2). Drill Pipe Annulus Drill Collar Va | Borehole \ 3— Bit Figure 1-2. Downhole Components of Circulating System Hydraulics and Bit TechnologyFLUID TYPES For the purpose of hydraulics, muds can, of course, be either water oil based. Only water base mud hydraulics will be discussed in this module’ Additional information on drilling fluids is provided in the module entith Drilling Fluids, in the Drilling Engineering Series. Fluid density is controlled by adding weighting materials to the mud. Fluid loss.is controlled with dis persed clays that influence hydraulics by varying the fluid viscosity ard solid carrying capacity. When calculating friction pressure losses in the circulatin system, it is necessary to adjust the losses for various mud properties such density and plastic viscosity. The calculation of mud properties for oil ba muds is complicated by a temperature and pressure dependence of the oil’ viscosity and density In summary, the hydraulics or circulating system is comprised of the: © power source (mud pump) © surface components ( fe & t Sleaipy, Steyn, «etry hace Sail, tty ) © downhole components (97, 7@, bit nezale, 0c Amis , PP trqulvs) © working fluid (water base drilling mud) Hydraulics and Bit Technology14 1 BASIC FLUID FLOW UNIVERSAL HYDRAULICS A brief overview of fluid flow through conduits and pipe is included inl this lesson. This discussion precedes an explanation of the specifics of cal culating friction losses for muds in the circulating system, While several com: puter and calculator programs are available to do the circulation calculatioi (i.c., DRILLFLOW, JETBIT, CIRCULATE, and hand held calculator pr grams), a drilling engineer should have mastered the basics of fluid flow be fore allowing a machine to make all of the assumptions and calculations. Flow-Rate The flow of any fluid through a conduit or pipe is associated with a frie tion pressure drop across the length of the pipe. If the rate of flow is changed’ the pressure drop will also change for constant pipe size and fluid properties Traditional units of fluid flow rate are gallons per minute, liters per second etc. In oilfield rig applications, for positive. displacement mud pumps, the uni of flow-rate commonly used is gallons per minutes, (4pm ) Pressure Loss Friction pressure loss is related to the ry, and the of the conduit. Engineers traditionally us the (0 calculate friction pressure loss. Unfortunatel the Moody Charis signed for Newtonian us and agama Bus, engineers should use the basie concepts from this chart begin to conceptualize how pressure losses change in a circulating system. Pipe Length For a given mud density, viscosity, pipe diameter and flow rate, the sure loss is directly proportional to the length of the conduit. Mr id Density As the density of the fluid increases, the amount of pressure drop, creases. For the purpose of this module, @6in68 assume it is a linear relatioi ship. Just remember that both increase together. Hydraulics and Bit Technologyreased pressure drop. Pipe Ssection and geometry are also factors to consider. ssure drop occurs when fluid is moving inside a non-moving pipe. ssure drop can also be created by moving the pipe through a still i¢ pressure drop across a moving pipe can be approximated by using tive fluid flow rate relative to the moving pipe. Thus, pipe motion can principles of Kirchoff, from electrical engineering, apply to some Bol fluid flow. In tecms of voltage and electrical circuits, the total volt” E=>p.'s the sum of the individual voltage drops. Similarly, for hydraulics sanipioe = APsartace components + AP asin pipe + AP ar cones + AP ic noesie + APeotar annuus + AP, Pipe annus Hydraulics and Bit Technology16 Hydraulics System Flow Regimes Laminar Flow Consider the relationship between friction pressure loss and flow a row of particles are ‘lined up’ across the diameter of a pipe and ver pumping begins, particles near the wall move more slowly than pa the center of the pipe. Particle speeds vary, but all are travelling » the wall of the pipe, cach in its own ‘lane of traffic.’ This uniform, p flow is termed as Jaminar flows(see Figure 1-3). If small increases in rate continue and the particles continue to travel parallel to the pipe wall magnitude of. th re drop is linear with the flow rate: i ‘The constant K includes effects of the pipe length, pipe cross pipe diameter, fluid density and fluid viscosity. Q represents the flow ral Figure 1-3, Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow Referring to the previous discussion of laminar flow, if the flow rate CoM dat iM tinues to increase, a rate is reached at which the particles no longer m act + otek gore parallel to the pipe wall and begin to ‘collide in other traffic Janes.’ Just sv we awed9 SS cars dart from lane to lane on the freeway, backii particle movement results in higher pressure loss flow is defined as tiifbuléHEAOyy i-c., when the flow lines of particles in ff fluid are swirling and not flowing smoothly, parallel to the pipe wall @ Figure 1-4). If the flow rate continues to increase and the pressure drog monitored, the relationship would be: AP amin = KO'] where K has the same parameters as for laminar flow Hydraulics and Bit Technologylooking at the relationships on a log-log plot that displays the «ois linearly (see Figure 1-5): Log Figure 1-5. Comparison of Flow Regimes Hydraulics and Rit Technology18 270° Traayhea © eae 4 4 tenner mea In the previous description of moving particles, the laminar flow made « transition from laminar to turbulent flow. The exact flow rate at which tran: sition occurs can vary, but is generally identified by a‘ Reynolds Number (NA. Engineers generally assume that flow is laminar if the Reynolds Number is ove 4,000. ‘The Reynolds Number formula is available in most college level fluid dynamics textbooks, However, few of these texts apply to oilfield units, so drilling engineers calculate the Reynolds Number, as shown below: Qmw) 2 De } Where 0 " the flow rate in, gpm MW = the mud weight in ppg 9 the effective diameter in inches b= the mud viscosity in ep (centipoise) As mentioned above, range of Ne for the end of laminar and the on of turbulent flow is wide (2,700 to 4,000). The transition, interval, betweei laminar and turbulent flow is a difficult region for calculating pressure If the oilfield version of the above equation is applied, an engineer can eval: uate which flow regime occurs in various components of a hydraulics circy lating system. The flow segime is typically turbulent through the inside of th drill siting and_may be either laminar or turbulent jn the annulus. Bit Nozzles Due to the yery small cross section of the nozzles and the nc it culation rates, the flowsthirolphithesnozzlessis;assumedatorbesturbulent Vo; lidity of this assumption may be verified by calculating Ng. Thus: 7 oe ‘Surface Components iy Gr \ th to Usher ar 4 4 'sdone pyr, fotery hore, Susiee ely Calculating Np for a4 inch diameter standpipe at 100 gpm with 10 ppg, 20 ep mud, note that: Hydraulics and Bit Technology19 (100)(10) __ 378.94)(1,000) 378.94 4(20) 80 = 4,737 ich is on the edge of transition to turbulent. Similar calculations for the face lines to the standpipe, rotary hose, gooseneck, swivel and Kelly result ce. Thus, the surface equipment operates on the lower [oP Ko" | ie a Another Ng calculation for the collar and pipe annuli will result in a flow ime that can vary widely between laminar and turbulent. Whether the flow in these annuli are laminar or turbulent primarily depends upon the ticular mud properties, cross sections, and flow rates in the annuli - For convenience of summing pressure losses, despite the absolute inac- , the form of the equation and exponent used to calculate annular pres- ; losses is the same as the equation used to calculate inside pipe pressure 3; Le., AP = KQ'™ The magnitude of the annuli pressure losses is a’ smal] percentage of total gculating losses, Thus, inaccuracies in calculating these losses will not sub- Hydraulics and Bit Technology20 &ry, More information about the relative magnitudes of circulating losses and about the optimization procedure is provided later in this module. EQUIPM RELATED HYDRAULICS Hydraulic Horsepower ‘The working, usable power in a moving, pressurized fluid is hydraulig horsepower. In oilfield units, hydraulic horsepower is defined as: Where = the total pressure drop in psi Q = the flow rate in gpm HHP = in horscpower With this formula, the power output of the mud pumps can be calculated Also, the power consumption in the various components of the circulating system can be calculated by using P for that component. 3 Equipment Efficiency In order to calculate available hydraulic horsepower, either measure and Q and use the formula above, or calculate the power delivered to the fluid by the prime mover on a mud pump. In calculating power delivered to fluid, two types of efficiency must be considered—mechanical and volumety ° Mechanical Efficiency 8F a The mud pump, driven by rotational energy, transforms this energy in the reciprocation of pump plungers inside their liners. The drive system uses a large gear box, oiler, etc, to operate plungers i in the fuid end of the pun of 0.85.01 85 85 percent mechanical efficiency should be used for the gear of the pump. Thus, if the mud pump was driven by an. electric motor th provided 1,000 horsepower to the gear end of the pump, only 850 horsepov ‘would be expected to be available to the fluid end of the pump. Hydraulics and Bit Technologyfat bien jas ak pgetine Slush Pump Efficiency — Volumetric Duplex Pumps SPM < 40 Vol. Eft. = 95% SPM > 40 Vol. Eff. = 90% Triplex Pumps* All Speeds Vol. Eff. = 93% 'pumpispre-charged, raise volumetric efficiency. *Most triplex pumps are pre-charged and have a volumetric efficiency near 100%. Figure 1-6. Volumetric Efficiency Table X mechanical efficiency X volumetric pump efficiency Hydraulics and Bit Technology2 © Contractor limited case Max HHP = Max allowed flow rate X Max allowed surface pressure + 1,714 The prime mover limited case is straight forward and similar to the con: ventional mechanical engineering calculation for power. In the pump limited case, it is important to recognize that the mechanical end of the mud pump is designed for a maximum power input. These maximum inputs are specified by each manufacturer for every model of mud pump and are tabulated in the booklet ‘Pump Performance Charts’ that accompanies the Reed Hydraulic Slide Rule. Also note (in the tabulated data) that the maximuinh input-horsepow changes with:liner size‘changest ‘The contractor limited horsepower case is sometimes the most difficult to understand because the priorities of a contractor often differ from those of; ‘an operating company. Typically, the drilling contractor will place a limit on the maximum allowable standpipe pressure. This maximum surface pressure is typically a combined result of working pressure limits on the piping, flanges. and valves—and a desire to decrease maintenance costs that are directly pro- portional to operating pressure. In addition to the limit on pressure, the con; tractor may have a limit on the maximum stroke rate allowed for the plungers in the mud pap. This limitation of stroke rate is sometimes related to max: imum speed for which the pump geat-box can be adequately oiled and fluid) and plungers lubricated, or is related to a gear/drive assembly /prime mover output RPM limit. The result of the dual limit of pressure and stroke rate cstablishes a limit on deliverable hydraulic horsepower through the relationship: he {np = 22 1714 Notélthatlonesliniityis'stroketraté, notiflow rates To determine flow rate, the; plunger displacement length and liner diameter must be used to calculate gal. Tons per stroke. Thus, in the contractor limited case, the limit may be raised, or lowered by changing the liner size (pump plunger diameter) in the pump, to achieve a higher or lower flow rate at the same stroke-rate limit. Though it sounds contradictory, remember that the maximum available HHP is the lowest of these three maximums and that one of the maximums; ‘can change with changes in pump liner size ics and Bit Technology/Maximum Standpipe Pressure In the discussion about contractor limits, surface pressure limits were tioned. Although most rigs have surface plumbing rated to at least 5,000 |, some may be rated higher. Occasionally, one segment of pipe or hose ill be the ‘weak’link’ in the surface system and result in a decreased limit If all the surface plumbing were rated to 15,000 psi, it would not nec- arily be possible to drill and circulate at that pressure. The mud pumps lide Rule packet. These limits typically get higher as liner size decreases. is is not unusual since pressure vessels get stronger as they get smaller in _ Thus, the maximum standpipe pressure is the’ smallest of:th@ © ‘Weakest link’ in surface plumbing. ‘whether the pump is a triplex or duplex and the size of the plungers and fers in the pump, a specific volumetric output per pump stroke can be de- fermined. Liners are interchangeable to permit changes in pump displacement. iThe specific volume per stroke (or pump revolution) can be calculated, or can ibe obtained from the Pump Performance Tables. If this volume per revolution maximum number of. strokes per minute (SPM) and the lincr.size define she maximum flow rate available from Hie-pump. Maximum stroke rates are usually set by the drilling contractor, aithough manufacturers’ recommendations are available in the Pump Perfor- mance Charts booklet. Hydraulics and Bit TechnologyMinimum Flow Rate they can properly lubricate the driving mechanism. This minimum speed cou pled with the liner size establishes a minimum flow rate. The speed and loall behavior of the prime mover powering the mud pump will also influence ‘minimum pump strokes per minute (flow rate). It should be noted that dies engines have a limiting speed, because they lose power as they are slow down. Hydraulics and Bit Technology“remember that the cuttings must flow up, against gravity, and that rock cli wm WoRK OF THE AYDRAULIC SYSTEM. FLUID FLOW THROUGH THE SYSTEM Flow Near the Bit The primary purpose of the moving mud is to get cuttings out of the hola To move rock chips away from the bit, the nozzles in the bit are used to bi the bottom of the hole much like washing down your driveway with a gal hose. Grass clippings, bark, etc., can be moved more easily by putting a thu or finger on the end of the hose. When this is done, the exit velocity of i Water and its impact increases on the debris you want to move, The nozdl in the bit increase the impact of the mud hitting the rock chips on the bottdf of the hole, to remove the chips once they are created by the bit teeth. A typical tri-cone bit has fluid flowing from only three nozzles to cov the entire bottom of the hole. The geometry of placing these nozzles resi in areas immediately under the bit receiving more impact than others. The nozzles rotate with the bit to constantly move the high impact arca chips aij from the teeth. Once the jets of mud hit the bottom of the hole, the mi spreads radially to create a flow across the bottom of the hole. This cross £19 moves the chips off the bottom and allows them to be carried up with ret flow of mud. Some areas under the bit have upward mud flow where the ‘splash’ the jet returns with the cuttings. Since the jets are typically spaced evel between the rollers of the bit, the return flow of mud tends to wash the teeth as the mud moves upward from the bottom of the hole The first part of the job for the circulating system is now complete; ig the cuttings have been removed from under the bit, have cleaned the bit tell and cooled the bit. Although it sounds simple to circulate out the cutting tend to sink in mud, The chips do not float up—they must be lifted up, of the hole. Flow in Return Annulus The transport of drill cuttings to the surface through the collar and pipe annuli, requires pumping the mud up the annuli faster than the cutti fall through the mud; i.e., net velocity is up the hole for the cuttings. 4 rate of cuttings generation (ROP) and the upward velocity of the cuttings & an indication of the amount of cuttings suspended in the annuli at any Hydraulics and Bit Technologyin es, the mud density generally increases. dd to the effective density of the annulus d. The amount of the density increase is related to the concentration of drill igs in the mud that, in turn, is related to the rate of cuttings generation g rate. Thus, the effective density of the. ans is mud js, higher than the effec ins why mud often flows back fr ir onnection, Figure 1-7 shows the increase in bottom hole pressure ombined result of annular cuttings load and annular pressure losses. For ific hole size and constant ROP, note that the cuttings dilution effect exactly what to expect from basic hydraulics; @ flow rate, = mud weight is referred to as equivalent cireilating densityECDY. The ECD is important since various zones and formations are exposed and each fhroughout this module, the primary purposes of the rig hydraulics sys- Mihave been described as being the removal of cuttings from beneath the Biliaid the carrying of the cuttings out of the hole. The cost of mud pumps ithe emphasis on selection of nozzle sizes and flow rates would seem to ate that cuitings removal is essential to the overall drilling operation. Al- , one of these benefits aids in improving ROP, other benefits are re- to. minimizing trouble costs. Hydraulics and Bit Technology32 Drilling and Circulation Increase Bottom Hole Pressure cog Driling Rate FPH 900 300 800 & 700 g 8 600 & 8 = soo} 5 & 2 400 8 g 8 3 300 200 44 Dil Pipe and 900° of 616" Drill Collars 100 in 7% Hole - 8000" MW =9.5 ppg PV =6cP pS ea Too 200° 300 400 500 600 Flow Rate: GPM Figure 1-7. Drilling and Circulation Increase Botiom Hole Pressure Drilling Rate The positive benefit of hydraulics is the potential to improve the rate drilling (higher ROP). This improvement is achieved by clearing the cuttin; from the bottom of the hole so that the next pass of a tooth or cutter can ci the bottom of the hole and not a previously cut rock chip. Thexs to cut rock twice; cut it once and remove. iJ. A key word to remember i Hydraulics and Bit Technologyms itial.’Simply improving the rate of cuttings that are removed from be- the bit does not guarantee increased ROP. It increases the potential for Hnproved ROP. If cuttings are not created faster than the drilling fluid removes them, then improved hydraulics will not improve ROP. So, there are instances improved hydraulics will not improve upon already adequate cleaning th the bit. oved hydraulics. If bit loading (combination of weight on bit and rotating is low, then several magnitudes of bottom hole cleaning are adequate. achieved with WOB or RPM, because cuttings are being re-ground. If ing improves, higher ROP can be achieved with increased bit loading. BitLoading ——> Much Less Than Maximum Cleaning Less Than Maximum Cleaning 3 = Maximum Cleaning Figure 1-8. Drilling Rate Hydraulics and Bit Technology34 / creasing the friction back pressure Trouble Costs Hole Cleaning When using a simple electric drill at home to drill holes in wood or meta a few inches deep, the bits themselves (usually helical or fluted) aid in moviagl cuttings out of the hole, But, in drilling wells, the hole is very long, andi the cuttings are not removed, they will bind up around the drill string and mechanically wedge or stick the drill string in the hole. (It is important & avoid stuck pipe, because it costs time and money to get the pipe unstuck’ The worst case for stuck pipe would require an entire well to be junked.) Som a preventive aspect of the hydraulics system is hole cleaning —preventing stuck pipe Circulating mud up the annulus carries the cuttings out of the wellbo: and disperses the cuttings in the mud flow so that the concentration of cuttin in the annulus will not stick the pipe in the hole. Lost Returns ECD: eeviaalint Grevow’ Deonty Earlier in this module the strength of various formations was described as a reason for an engineer to be concerned about ECD. Various formations are capable of withstanding different pressures before they split or fractur If the pressure at which a zone fractures is accidentally exceeded, it can spi 'd vonsume large amounts of mud (thousands of barrels) fairly rapidijg This ‘drinking’ of mud is not only expensive due to the expense of mud terials, but presents a real safety hazard when the formation fluid press cannot be positively controlled because the mud column in the wellbore partially lost. This passive control of formation fluid pressures is lost simpl because it becomes impossible to keep the hole full of mud. ‘The lost returns problem occurs if the ECD exceeds the density that tha weakest exposed rock zone can withstand. The_hydraulics system becoria two-edged with Jost returns: ECD can be decreased by ‘diluting’ the cuttings load to prevent pipd sticking. (This can be achieved through decreased rate of cuttings geil (eration, referred to as controlled drilling.) > ® ECD can be increased by increasing the circulation rate, thereby i Hydraulics and Bit Technology38 v IMPORTANCE OF HYDRAULICS BY INTERVAL As the hole is drilled and the depth increases, the optimum hydraulics change. Each segment of hole presents its own challenges to the hydraulics sys: tem. In some cases, maximum hole cleaning is preferable to maximum clean ing under the bit. In others, maximum cleaning under the bit is more preferable’ Some general statements about hydraulics and hole interval are discussed in this lesson, Remember, these are generalities. Any well drilled may present exceptions to these generalities. Nevertheless, this lesson should provide a useful introduction to hydraulies—by depth interval, SURFACE HOLE Surface hole is typically characterized by ‘easy’ drilling. Shallow sedi ments are soft and rate of penetration is only nominally influenced by bit loading. Sometimes it is possible to literally make hole with no apparent weight on the bit at all, letting the nozzles jet the hole. With this type of rapid drilling, the concern is not so much absolute ROP, but removing all of the cuttings, so that the pipe doesn’t stick in the hole. ‘Control drilling’ may be done with. intentionally restricted ROP in order to assure adequate ‘dilution’ of cuttings for hole cleaning. Also, it may be desirable to limit the annulus cuttings con tribution to reduce the ECD when shallow, weak formations might be en! countered and unintentionally fractured. Thus, if inay be nccessary to sacrifice, some cleaning under the bit to get better annular velocity for hole cleaning ir, surface hole. This increased annular flow rate for carrying cuttings is also necessary because the surface hole is usually much larger than the drill pipe (a large annulus). To improve flow-rate from.the.mud pump, larger liners cay ‘be used. This solution may not be practical, however. Itis necessary to change ack to smaller pump liners when the surface hole is finished. Qne_ solutio to changing Jiners is to use.two.or more. mud pumps.in.patallel, so-supy high flow rate needed, for a short interval. AHIRUTACEHOR , HYArALiCNis HOTS CONCHA WTA HOTS TEATS thasimproved:ROPS Usually, volume is the limitation on the pumps rather than pressure limitation. INTERMEDIATE HOLE When drilling rates begin to slow down in the intermediate hole, cuttings camying as well as decreased bottom hole cleaning become concems. The} occurrence of decreased bottom hole cleaning offers room for rate of pene Hydraulics and Bit Technology39 n improvements in the intermediate hole. Cuttings are transported more the intermediate hole annulus, than in the larger surface hole jate hole may encounter depleted pay zones (rock layers) with low pore ssures and decreased resistance to fracturing. Another concern that makes fpocant to watch ECD occurs when intermediate hole penetrates abnor- sistance of ‘higher density mud. The increased mud weights and ECD used to control abnormal zone, increase the possibility of losing returns in a normally encountered with pipe motion are BwabbiM@fand collars or casing. Swabbing results in a pressure_decrease, the, drill_stting upward.too.rapidly. Swabbing can induce .¢., gas) to enter the wellbore—thus creating a safety hazard sient pressure increase due to induced fluid movement. A brief pressure se from the movement can cause Jost retums,,depending upon the speed Ofmovement and the magnitude of the pressure transient. Swabbing and surg- of great concern when long intervals of pipe are almost the same size hole; when running casing, for example. ‘important concerns than maximum ROP. Also, the annular velocities sary to adequately clean directional holes may be greater than for vertical Es, Thus, hydraulics will be a concern because of hole cleaning, but not a Primary objective until the wellbore path is properly established. Hydraulics and Bit Technology40 PRODUCTION HOLE The last interval of hole is characterized by slow drilling. The productigg hole,is an interval where cleaning under the bit is of great concern. Thisit one area where improved ROP is money saved. If each rock chip is drilled only once instead of twice or more, more footage of the new hole from th bit will result. More drilled footage between each bit trip (that increases as ime/cost consideration as the hole is drilled deeper) will also result. So, hold cleaning is particularly important in the production interval. It is easier (f accomplish hole cleaning in the production interval due to the reduced annuli cross section in this smaller hole. In the production interval, there is usual more concern with bottom hole cleaning under the bit and improving ROB with hydraulics than with annular hole cleaning. Pump rates are moderate ff low, unlike pump rates for surface hole. For production hole, the stand-pipg pressure is typically the maximum allowable stand-pipe pressure. The effects of maximum standpipe pressure and available hydraulic horse power are described in Lesson 6 of Unit I, of this module. Hydraulics and Bit Technologyy JET ioraer Within Exxon, improved cleaning beneath the ified withg hydraulic’ impact! Some other companies relate hydraulic horsepower pended at the bit or nozzle velocity to improved cleaning. But Exxon on hydraulic impact as the measure of bottom hole cleaning because inj can be better quantified. If impact is the quantifier or measurable quantity used, what is it? Imy is a force calculated by § Hydraulic Impact pV; “fluid density Q = fluid flow rate velocity of fluid through nozzles To improve cleaning, maximize the force of the fluid impacting the rock c on the bottom of the hole. Hydraulics and Bit Technologyerring again to the analogy of a garden hose, using a nozzle with no #av« Eiion, the volume of flow is high, but velocity is low (see Figure 1-9, p> /1 ): If you move your thumb across the end of the hose, the volume of + («5 -decreased, but the velocity is rapidly increased. This increases the mutt Orce of the water jet (point B) until you restrict so much of the flow «4 omentum of the small volume of water passing through impacts with :(‘!«¢ Ge (point C). It is not difficult to determine the maximum impact by just “problem is not so simple downhole when drilling a well. The nozzle s:++ ¢ calculated ahead of time. B ( vet Bow is dteres Flow ietigh 5 i Hy tala) wager Qe Figure 1-9. Bottom Hole Cleaning, Hydraulics and Bit Technology1 OPTIMUM HY peAULte Optimum hydraulics is a term that refers to the quantification of: many factors (previously discussed in this module) within an operating ¢ velope for the circulating system of a rig. This lesson explains the opera envelope for pressure and flow rate. This lesson also introduces a method j selecting the one pressure and flow rate that yields maximum hydraulic imp under the bit OPERATING ENVELOPE The operating envelope of the circulating system is described on a pi of pressure and flow rate, called a P-Q chart. To make the visualization si ple, a log-log chart is used, due to the exponential and product relatio to be plotted (see Figure 1-10). Bo feasseee petit LogP AN LogQ Figure 1-10. P-Q Chart ‘The fitsesbeiundaryon the envelope is the most difficult to draw. draulic horsepower (PQ/1,714). Hydraulic horsepower is plotted as a st line with a @i6@e of G9 and offset from the origin. Clearly, it is not poss outside of the envelope (see Figure 1-11). Hydraulics and Bit Technologycoetsnbens TER taper MP > t tow dette Figure I-11. Hydraulic Horsepower Limit boundary to consider is the maximum allowable standpipe pressurt (had ide of our envelope. Recall prea perlite. discussion that the maximum,standpipe pressurcligmieysmallost assemnenaactess 1-12. Maximum Allowable Standpipe Pressure (Surfuce Pressure) Limit Hydraulics and Bit TechnologyThe two remaining boundaries to include are maximum and minimus flow rate. The maximum flow rate is determined as previously discussed wi equipment limits, Minimum flow rate, was also discussed as a mechanical lis but additional constraints must be included on the minimum flow rate ( Figure 1-13). These new constraints are related to the objectives of the by: draulics system—cleaning bencath the bit and hole cleaning —while the othe limitations are derived from mechani if cation of bit and hole cleaning is rather empirical, re guidelines that represent rules of thumb, These guidelines provide starting to establish a lower boundary for flow rate. Each geographic operating most likely has modified versions of these general guidelines bas operating experience Log P = CASE = ase + Toure lied Gagan nt; Sarge Bue Wain fayioet Figure 1-13, Maximum and Minimum Flow Rate Limits Up to this point, an envelope on the log P-log Q chart in which to ope has been discussed, The envelope contains an infinite number of P&Q com nations available. It is important to learn how to select a pressure and rate that will optimize bottom hole impact or chip cleaning Hydraulics and Bit TechnologyOPTIMIZED IMPACT If a well could be drilled with no circulating system pressure losses, the ~ equation for hydraulic jet impact at the bit could be written in terms of pressure aid flow rate. Using Calculus, the derivative of the impact function would be st equal to zero, to find the combination of P&Q, needed for impact to be maximum surface pressure and the HHP limit intersect. Each side of the dis- ty must be dealt with separately. The flow rate Q for the intersection [ iscalled QB Qciuica is tienflowerate above Which the system isipowerlint © fied; not'surface’ pressure Tinite’. The power limited region will be referred © to as CASE | and the surface pressure limited region will be referred to as ‘CASE Ill. The operating region on a P-Q chart has helped to decrease the choices + ef useable standpipe pressure and flow rate combinations. Within the operating Region, an infinite number of P,Q pairs still remain to choose from, for op- tinization of bit impact. A mathematical method is employed to obtain the E flow rate and bit jet sizes to yield optimum impact beneath the bit In order to use the mathematical method, an equation for impact must be developed in terms of the parameters under our control, i.e., the bit nozzle sizes and flow rate, When developing the expression for impact, a mathe- “matical discontinuity is found where the operating limits change from ‘Max- imum Standpipe Pressure Limited’ to ‘Maximum Hydraulic Horsepower Limited.’ In the case of ‘Mathematical Hydraulic Horsepower Limited,’ the expres- F = impact force K AP = the pressure drop across the nozzles at flow rate Q a constant with unit conversions and orifice coefficient Hydraulics and Bit Technology56 Seeking an expression to substitute for P, recall that ’ FAP = Prsoapipe — APoircutaion and in the case of limited (cr €0 tan) hydraulic horsepower P. where HHP is a constant—the maximum available horsepower. Also that AP. = K,Q", where K, is another constant, depending upon the ometry of the circulating system and fluid properties. Substituting the above into the impact expression yields HHP Et F=K - Ko" oy -xe) Upon obtaining the curve’s derivative, the following expres the condition of flow rate at which optimum impact force oc 7 HHP = KW + 2) 3m Paatadiesanipipe Qopioum vor uate = KyCtt + 2) Qeptnam Dividing by Qopiimam Yields Parse sanigie = (H+ 2)Ki Qbpinn that is the same as Pausitabie sunipine = (Ul + 2) AP scotasion at optimum Q equation: 1 AP rcsaion a opimem 0 = 5 Hydrauties and Bit 1 nology“hen the above expression is true, impact is maximum, Since AP.icutaion lear on a log P ~ log Q plot, a graphical method may be employed to Hthe single flow rate, Qorsimums A which impact is maximum can now be used to find APyx 45%] Ape available standpipe pressure at Quinn AP pic opsiemuin = Paysitabte standpine AP ciccstation optimum te yield if Pic opimann = Pavaitabte stanapipe — (4 Prostse ni) A _(“t!)p FP a pimun = (73) Pate sani Om nowing a flow rate, Quinny aNd APoa opin the nozele sizes may be eslovtote. he above expressions are valid only in the horsepower limited case and ott ferred to as the solution conditions for CASE I. mal circulation rate moves from the horse- go"*~ Timited conditions of CASE I, and transitions through CASE Tl into “eeeve.- minm surface pressure limited conditions of CASE III. While in the in- terval. (transition, CASE M1, the optimum flow rate remains constant at Qeriica ond amount of Pri opinon decreases from that of CASE |, to that of CASE back to Figure 1-13) E Hl occurs when the opti ‘ASE IIL is derived in the operating region of ng the same methods employed in dee‘ for F and differentiating the expres-»e for and Py, become solution known as C! Sat maximum standpipe pressure. Usi equations for CASE I (expression F) the expressions for AP.icision and itydraulies and Bit Technology er58 ‘This brief introduction to the optimization of hydraulic impact lays ground work for additional graphical methods of optimization and prov pre's basic information necessary for learning how available computer programs sui sven_as DRILFLO perform the optimization, More information about DRILFLOs ‘+ provided in the Exxon, U.S.A. Drilling Engineering Schoo! REMEMBER—FOR MAXIMUM IMPACT. If Quy < Qereat» then operating in CASE III with APeircaistion optisnam = —— Pasaxionan standpipe ‘dreuation op ee “ and if Qsprinum = Qeriicts then operating in CASE IL, the transition bet CASE II and CASE 1, and if Qoyimm > Qennicns then operating in CA with 1 ut), MP omen = (7 | Pres ‘The expressions for impact use the relationship between circulating s tem pressure ond flow rate of the system to arrive at a remaining pressure for the bit AP si: = Paanopipe ~ AP cincattion > P asnayine — KQ" When the expressions for impact are maximized (optimum cleaning neath the bit), the following bit pressure drop equations result % Pauctace maximum 2 CASE TIT AP opin = u where w is the exponent of flow rate. Hydraulies and Bit Technology6 wa HOW TO CALCULATE WITH THE REED SUPE Rute CALCULATIONS WITH REED SLIDE RULE The Reed Slide Rule is a custom calculation device for computing g frp outputs, annular velocities and pressure loss (sw Figure 1-14). The equation for pressure loss used on the Reed Rule are sepirically derived and quite messy to use without this special slide rule 1 pre-programmed computer 3 Figure 1-14. Reed Slide Rule—Front The Reed Slide Rule is used for several types of hydraulic caleui as follows: © RamiCoor © PRESSOR ~Surface connections -Inside pipe —Annulus -Bit nozzles © FveRTIeARSREpowE Hydraulics and Bit TechnologyPump Output _ APN) 2) HHP, = T714 5, HP yy, = LSTOEED) ig 1,714 Hydraulics and Bit Technology78 cham before beginning this unit of the module. Brt TECHNOLOEY INITIAL ACTIVITIES Before you begin this unit, it will be helpful for you to examine cet things that will help you learn from the material in this unit, s service company. Ask your supervisor or training coordinator where to lo these items © Mill tooth (steel.tooth) tri-cone bit. © Insert (carbide. tooth) tri-cone bit. © Diamond bit. © Diamond core bit © Stratapax bit (steel body and tungsten carbide body) © Bit Grading Chart. Major manufacturer's product Sceatsity, Reed, or the World Oil Composite Catalog ‘The following items are printed in this workbook. © Bit Selection Chart (page 110) © Bit Grading Chart (page 114) © Typical Cost Tabulation (page 158) Locate and examine each of these items to become familiar with i Hydraulics and Bit Technologynena oR 82 i INTRODUCTION TO BIT TECHNOLO 6y EARLY BIT TYPES tor'y 1900s. Cable tool drilling consists of a heavy, blunt pointed bit (simil te large cold chisel) being raised and lowered to pound against the format 'y_means of a cable connected to a power source at the surface. Formation “t-tings were removed from the hole with a bailer (similar to a bucket wil © hinged bottom) via a cable. ‘This method of drilling was replaced in the ery 1900s when the need for deeper wells brought about the development ofr “<7 drilling methods. Cable tool drilling is still used in some ‘hard rock’ areas °{ the U.S. and other parts of the world, for water and oil well drilling. Cae ot tool drilling is also used for completion drilling when it is necessary to yst-cisely control the penetration depth of the pay zone. It has been many ¥ since Exxon has employed cable tool drilling. Occasionally, Exxon still cable tool rigs for completion drilling The discovery of Spindictop (near Beaumont, Texas) in 1901 acceler the use of rotary drilling methods and provided the basis of the develops} of today’s tri-cone bit. One of the earliest rotary bits was the drag or fish bit shown in Figure 2-1. This bit was and is very effective in soft ‘ormatia but it has some inherent problems, including deviation from uneven blade and bit destruction from hard streaks. The drag bit is still used occasi in very soft formations. Figure 2-1. Drag Bit ( Hydraulics and Bit TechnologyP falthe method of rock failure, plowing, scraping acti ple: avant The operating characteristics of a drag bit, low bit weight and high RPM are identical to that Stratapax bit? or polycrystalline diamond compact bit (PDC) that will be d in detail later in this section. Trademark of the G-E. Corp Hydraulics and Bit Technology84 In 1909, Howard Hughes, Sr. developed the first successful rotary, tw cone rolling-cutter, rock bit. The two-cone bit has undergone many changes and improvements, but the original bit concept is, in many respects, stil th basis of our most common drilling today. In 1933, the th inter th bit (\ci-cone)* was introduced followed by diamond bits and jet bits* i the 1940s, carbide tooth (insert) bits, and sealed bearing rock biss* in 1950s, and journal bearing bits* in the 1970s. The most recent significant b development is the Stratapax/PDC bit that was introduced in 1973. ‘The tri-cone bit is used to drill approximately 90% of the world’s well today. Most of the other wells are drilled with diamond and Stratayax/PDG bi ‘Tmpovements co the original rotary two cone roling-cutter foek bit EXPERIMENTAL BITS/DRILLS Besides the bits mentioned above, many other types of bits have evaluated over the years. These include pellet drills, implosion drills, sp drills, explosive drills, erosion drills, ultrasonic drills, jet piercing dlls for flame drills, nuclear drills, laser drills, electron beam drills and electric drills. None of these types of drills have proved to be economically attract However, there has been significant improvement in rotary bits including mond and drag bits ROCK DESTRUCTION Conventional drilling systems drill and excavate rock by mechani induced stresses. These induced stresses are produced by erosion, abrasions and impact. When these stresses exceed a rock's tensile or shear stre brittle fracturing or plastic yielding occurs. Unconsolidated shallow fermatio in the Gulf of Mexico and other areas can be drilled from the erosioral forced effected by the drilling fluid being pumped through the jets of the bits formations become more consolidated and harder, gouging, scraping, ping, and finally impact (crushing) must be used to fail rock Ao gong (40m) ) rncungtil Hydraulics and Bit Technology=H .° Excavation of rock can be compared to the approach used in digging a | Bsizn. Various types of tools are needed for gardening, depending on the °\ sol and rock in the garden. Similarly, various types of bits are needed for «le! fing, depending on the formation to be chilled. Soft Iyose soil is dug with to a long tooth bit used in drilling. Con s excavated with the aid of pick that compares toa lan Ber bit. Boulder removal would be handled by a sledge hammer that com- jv es 0 a short insert bit. ‘The basic elements of tri-cone bits are described in Hater detail in the next lesson of this module.90 a TRH-CONE BITS ~ BASIC ELEMENTS & TERMINOLOGY SO Ie ER SMENTS oe TER BASIC ELEMENTS OF TRECONE'BIZS The tri-cone bit has four basic elements. They are the bit body, bear cones and tecth (see Figure 2-2). Bit Body ‘The bit body consists of the threaded pin shank that attaches the bi the drill stem, the bearing pins on which the bearings and cones are mounié the lubricant reservoirs that contain lubricant for the bearings, and three fh courses through which the drilling fluid flows to remove the cuttings from! bottom of the hole. Replaceable nozzles are installed in the outlet of the f courses. Nozzle size is calculated when optimizing hydraulics and is describ in this lesson. The bit body is made from three steel forgings or castings. bearings and cones are assembled with the three body sections that are we together. Bearings The major bearing designs used in various tri-cone bits today, are if non-sealed ball and roller bearing, the sealed (lubricated) ball and ro ing and the sealed (lubricated) journal bearing. A fourth bearing design, sealed air circulation ball and roller bearing, is used where air, gas or mig used as a drilling fluid. a Early in drilling history, a non-sealed, mud lubricated ball and roller be ing was employed. This is the least expensive type of bearing and is still i on a limited basis in steel tooth bits to drill top hole sections where trip ti is short. The life of this type of bearing is much shorter than sealed bea If tooth wear is the cause of dulling, non-sealed ball and roller bearings h limited application. Hydraulics and Bit Technology rrFigure 2-2. Elements of a Tri-Cone BitThe sealed ball and roller bearing is employed primarily on steel tool bits and generally lasts as long as the cutting structure. A self-contain : reservoir lubricates the ball or roller bearing assembly using drilling fluid h ‘drostatic pressure to force grease from the reservoir into the bearing assembly Figure 2-3 illustrates the ball and roller bearing. The major portion of ti radial load on the cutter is absorbed by the roller race with the nose beat absorbing a lesser amount. The thrust surface, perpendicular to the pilot and the thrust button, take the outward thrust. The ball bearings retain tf cone on the bearing pin and takes inward thrust. The is the most recent development in bit bearings and, since its introduction the carly 70s, there have been several significant improvements. ‘The jo bearing was developed because the life of the sealed ball and roller be was much shorter than the life of carbide (insert) cutting structures, 1. Cone Shell 2. Nose Friction Bearing 3. Ball Bearing 4, Roller Bearing Figure 2-3. RORSRBRGBearigaEIeay The journal bearing does not contain rollers. The bearing design con of a solid journal pin (bearing pin) mated to the inside surface of the con as shown in Figure 2-4. Hydraulics and Bit TechnologyCone Backface Pilot Pin Shoulder Bit Size, ‘Assembly Number, \____Type, Trade Mark, and Serial Number Figure 2-4. Journal Bearing Bit94, The journal bearings differ somewhat among bit manufacturers. © Reed Rock Bit Company, employs a floating bearing bushing that between the journal pin and cone bearing su: fundamental advantage of this feature is that it provides two sliding surfaces so the bearing can turn at a higher RPM with less ative rotation of each surface with less resultant wear. 2 Hughes Tool Company journal bearings do not employ ball b (used primarily to secure the cones to the bearing pin). In the a design, a snap ring holds the cones on the beating pin, This fe reportedly allows for a larger journal surface, reduced loading eliminates point loading from inward thrust. q Cones Cone geometry is the most important aspect of cone design. It d slightly from manufacturer to manufacturer and is notanoptionsin bit tion. Soft formation bits are designed to depart substantially from true roll action on bottom. They have two or more basic cone angles, neither of has its apex at the center of bit rotation. The conical heel surface t rotate about its theoretical apex and the inner row surface about the ce its own apex. Since the cones are forced to rotate around the they slip as they rotate and produce a tearing, gouging action. This c scaled ORES or SMMESRER creasing the slipping action of the cone against the formation will incr rate of penetration. Increasing cone offset also increases tooth wear, es} in abrasive formations. Therefore, harder formation bits do not have as offset as softer formation bits. Cone offset values range from 0 to 4 dei Direction of Rotation Cone Offset Figure 2-5. Cone Offset Hydraulics and_ The length of the cone heel surface and the conical angle greatly affect ing the gauge area (outside of the hole) of the hole. A change in conical at the heel teeth can increase or decrease the amount of gauge cutting (has) !) teeth contact & The teeth or cutting elements are circumferentially located in rows on Exh cone and interfit between rows of teeth in adjacent cones, so that the Est tend to clean themselves. The teeth are either stcel, machined on part of cone, or sintered tungsten compacts pressed into holes machined in the surfaces, are used in relatively ennai A steel tooth profile similar to shovel in some respects. A shovel gouges and shears. Th is used to move Off loose dirt while the shommshove) blade is and a a Most stecl tooth cones have tungsten hard facing material applied to the Ee surface and to the teeth, depending on the intended use. Hard facing H, weth improves wear resistance but reduces resistance to chipping and brea lesigned for soft formations typically have hart as on the gauge surface. But, steel tooth eaws, «= designed for somewhat harder formations, typically have hard facing on ‘gauge only, it was developed to drill ‘ompacts of cylindrical sin-terd shaped ends are pressed into machined in case hardened alloy steel cones to form the teeth major improvements and chang. change has been the develop: at a penetration rate equal es have been made in insert bits. The ment of inserts that will drill softer for- fo steel tooth bits, but with a longer life, sent bit is to crush and chip Soft formation insert bit is quite ‘ause gouging and scraping is the mechanism used ..96, Bit Size Excessive tooling costs, parts inventories, and finished product ig inwa\e- ries prevent bit manufacturers from offering optimized bit designs ie ‘eevee possible size. Therefore, bit manufacturers have adopted 25 bit dia Stes as standard sizes (sec Figure 2-6). API bit diameter tolerances are Se" io Figure 2-7. Non-standard bit sizes may be available on special ordet ‘ (general examination): (check the worstcone): Tr... tooth height Ye gone B1 bearing lfeused: % 72...-tooth height ”gone B2 bearing lfeused: % (tight) 3. ..:tooth height % gone B3 bearing liteused:% Ta... tooth height Yegone B4 bearing life used: ¥ (medium) 5... tooth height % gone BS bearing lfeused:% 6. ...tooth height % gone £86 bearing life used: % (/oose) 77... tooth height %& gone B7 bearing lfeused: 7 8. ...tooth height all gone B8 bearing all gone j. NOTE: ifany one rowhasa majority of (locked or lost) © teethbroken, add the letters ("BT") BIT GAUGE: |... . . in gauge; 0. . . . out of gauge (NOTE: If out of gauge, follow the “O" with the amount out of gauge in fractions of an inch) Example #1... . T2-B41 (Teeth ‘& gone, bearing medium, bit in gauge) Example #2... . T6BT-B6-0% (Teeth % gone, broken teeth, bearing loose and bit out of gauge Ye inch) Figure 2-13, Bit Grading Using the symbols in Figure 2-14, additional remarks can be made de- scribing the cutting structure such as *BT’—for broken teeth, followed by the number of such teeth and also the cone that was involved; i.c., T4 (BT6, #1), representing a teeth grade of “4” with 6 broken teeth on the number I cone. Looking directly at the face of the bit, the cones are sequentially numbered proceeding in a clockwise direction beginning with the spear point cone as number 1. Hydraulics and Bit TechnologySymbols for Grading Steel Tooth Bits Cutting Structure Location of Conditions Cone Teeth Conditions 118 dul Tt Spearpoint S Broken Teeth Br 4 cut 12 Nose N Balled Up eau) 318 dul 13 Middle Row M Cone Dragged co. 412 du T4 Heol H Cored cr 518 cull 15 Gage G Oftconter Wear oc 3/4 cull 16 Cone or Head Rounded Gage RG 718 cull oo T7 “Number 1.23. Uniform Wear uw 818 dull 18 Worn Out of Gage secon WO Classification of Run Roller Bearings Very Good Good « Bearing Conditions 18 du B1 Good Run Good Beating Failure BF 14 duit 82 Above Average ‘Avg Broken Bearing Pin BP 318 dull BS Average Run ‘Avg Broken Rollers BR 112 duit B4 Below Average ‘Aug= Cone Locked aL 518 dull i BS Poor Run ... Poor Lost Cone tc 316 dll BB Very Poor Run Poor- Lost Rallers LR 718 dull 87 Seals Effective SE 818 dull BB Formations Seals Questionabie sa Send S Seal Faire ns Sy ConeShellConditions Lime L BitRorunnabie ve RR Broken Axally BA Sandy Lime SL Bi Not Rerunnable NR. Broken Dolomite D Circumferential BC Sandy Doiomite sD Bit Body Conditions Broken Spearpoint BS Anhydlite A Bent Legs aL Cracked Axially CA Gypsum G Damaged Bt 08 Cracked Salt SA Eroded Nozzle EN Circumforenialy CC Red Beds FB Lost Nozzie wN Eroded Cone Shelt EC Shale SH Plugged Nozzle PN Hard Shale HSH Shintal Damaged so Sandy Shale SSH Shintall Won sw Hard Sandy Shale SSH Sticky Shale STSH Cher CHE Ghat HA Granite wo GRA. Quart Q Pyrite Pp Chal cK Figure 2-14, Symbols for Grading Steel Tooth Bits Insert Bits The grading of insert type teeth is similar to mill tooth types. Tungsten | carbide teeth usually will break, or fall out rather than wear away; therefore, the amount of breakage or loss is a key consideration. Grading an insert bit involves taking the ratio of the broken and/or lost inserts and ‘used-up’ in- serts, to the total number of inserts contained in a new bit and expressing the ratio in 8ths. For example, a bit with '/, of the inserts broken or lost would be graded a ‘T2’ (1/4 = % = T2). If one-half of the inserts are broken or lost, the teeth grade would be a T4. Insert grading should always be followed by, Hydraulics and Bit TechnologyMS RINGS Bearing grading should also be done, based on the condition of the worst . Grading is different for the two basic types of bearing systems, the ball- ‘ked cones should be identified by cone number and all missing cones should recorded. In addition to a numerical grading, bearings of this type con- ining seals should also be graded with respect to the condition of the seal fss, itis worn out, A cone that turns easily indicates that the journal bearing Has failed. Again, the seal condition of the worst cone is used. Information Sich as that in Figure 2-14 is used to code the reason the bit was pulled and hether it is suitable for further drilling SAUGE P Gauge wear is designated on all rock bit types as ‘I’ for in gauge and ‘O° or out of gauge. If a bit is determined to be out of gauge, a value in fractions ff an inch should be shown indicating the amount that the bit is ‘undergauge’ Gauge wear is determined with the use of a ring gauge having the exact di- (er of the new bit. If a bit is undergauge, the ring gauge will slip over the ily and when pulled up tight against two cones, a space will exist between the ring gauge and the third cone. The measurement of this space determines the amount that the bit is undergauge. An example of a gauge designation would be O-!/, inch indicating out of gauge by '/, inch. Hydraulics and Bit Technology116 OPERATING PRACTICES—BIT WEIGHT. AND RPM Mill Tooth Bits In soft, plastic-type formations, bit weight usually has to be limited to the tendency of the bit to ‘ball up’ causing a reduction in rate of penetratia (ROP). As compensation, the rotary speed (RPM) should be increased 4g§ maintain an optimum ROP. Typical bit weights in soft formations (such gumbo), range from 2,000 to 6,000 pounds per inch of bit diameter with! corresponding rotary speed range of 75 to 250 RPM. In medium format (such as carbonates, anhydrites, or sandstones), rotary speed must gen be slowed to minimize tooth breakage and abrasive wear. However, hight bit weights are now possible and are required to keep the teeth sharp. Rota speeds should be in the range of 50 to 150 RPM with weight on bit in tf Tange of 3,000 to 7,000 pounds per inch of bit diameter. Rotary speed shou be decreased as the weight is increased to improve bearing life, if bearing fi is the limiting factor of bit life. Brilinemtestiatthe snares: a mionete pee TDPORIbIeWeIBNMAAOLA)-peed? Thus, it is common tice to utilize high bit weights in the range of 4,000 to 9,000 pounds per ing of diameter and low rotary speeds in the range of 40 to 120 RPM to give best performance in these hard, brittle formations (such as granites . quartzites). Figure 2-15 is one manufacturer's recommendation for maximum bit based on bearing capacity and/or cutting structure. In general, it is desirah to drill with the highest amount of weigit and highest rotary speed necess to achieve a maximum ROP. Higher penetration rates may be achieved by, use of high bit weights combined with high rotary speeds but bit life will limited and the resulting cost per foot may be higher. Remember when erating a bit, a trade-off must always be made between drilling wel and rotary speed to achieve an optimum bit life and ROP. ANI Goel bits. Formation = Sepe 7 Bit wt 2 2 one Leas Bs i “Ae bie gd a i s 5e-150 cen 7 ‘ ae er eee. que tbsp CEe. Yo-izd eet a Hydraulics and Bit Technology117 GUIDELINES FOR MAXIMUM ECONOMICAL WEIGHT ON BIT (1000's LB.) iLL-TOOTH BIT SERIES AND TYPE INSERT BIT SERIES AND TYPE™*] wfi2]is]i]2dfos] es foe letl ss] e [7 fe Ba] 7 | O] ae 7 | 38 | 41 | 44 | 48 | 49 | 57 20 | 29 | 30 | 35 | 27 47 | 48 | 52 | 55 | 59 | 60 | 68 | 74 | 28 | 36 | 40 | 45 | 96 56 | 56 | 60 | 63 | 68 | 70 | 83 | 87 | 32 | 44 | 46 | 51 | 41 64 | 65 | 69 | 69 | 75 | 76 | a7 35 | 49 | 51 | 58 | 45 68 74 93 ‘37 | 52 | 54 | 61 | 48 72 | 74 78 | 89 | 91 | 104 23 | 57 | 60 | 68 | 54 78 85 s2 | 110 so | 67 | 71 | 80 | 64 85 95 | 120 52 | 65 | 73 | 84 | 67 “MAXIMUM WEIGHT BASED ON BEARING CAPACITY. FOR SERIES 1 BITS WEIGHTS MAY BE EXCESSIVE FOR CUTTING STRUCTURE IN NON-UNIFORM FORMATIONS, INSERT BIT MAXIMUMS ARE BASED ON CUTTING STRUCTURE, NOT BEARING CAPACITY. Figure 2-15. Guidelines for Maximum Weight on Bit Carias \wsert Gite? Formations Sop: bet: Bere 4 yin wie gs ; Mpa ue ge ee ai ee Gat hise: Sebalisvees ig arbide Insert Bits pe ce eee Sard Wie ats je 500 Mrem bic Insert bits have less bottom hole coverage thé mili tooth bits and gen- erally require less bit weight for optimum drilling in soft formations. An insert tit leaves approximately 70 percent more uncut bottom than a steel tooth bit. Manufacturers’ recommendations for running insert bits in soft formations range from 2,000 to 4,500 pounds bit weight per inch of bit diameter at rotary speeds varying from 45 to 90 RPM. Medium formation recommendations range from 3,000 to 6,000 pounds per inch of bit diameter with 45 to 65 RPM. Weight and rotary speeds for extremely hard formations range from 3,000 to 6,500 pounds per inch of bit diameter at 35 to 60 RPM. Figure 2-16 is a manufac- turer's suggested guide for weight/RPM product, based only on bearing ca- pability for various size bits. Figure 2-15 also includes one bit manufacturer's recommendations for maximum bit weight based on cutting structure and/or bearing capacity for insert bits. As a general rule, in equal formations, gititisomabi0cRORMARUEIOS een ATMOS owever, observations have been made in medium and hard formation drilling where insert bits have drilled faster than nill tooth bits when using clear water or light gel mud systems. But, in heavily weighted and high solids mud, they generally drill much slower. High con- centrations of oil in the mud also tend to slow ROP. A possible explanation Hydraulics and Bit Technology118 is that the oil and oil-wet solids add a lubricating effect to the bottom of the hole causing more slippage. This can sometimes be counteracted by the use of a bit with a longer type of insert j In general, weight and especially rotary speed is less for insert bits than mill tooth bits. The journal bearings used on insert bits cannot support hi drilling weights in conjunction with high rotary speeds. All bit manufacturers recommend reducing rotary speed as bit weight is increased. Since carbi teeth rarely dull, additional weight application during drilling is not required: unless a formation change occurs. The given ranges for bit weight and rot speed serve only as recommendations from the bit manufacturers. Individi situations should be investigated to find the optimal drilling loads that will result in the least drilling cost per foot. Remember, although a maximum rate of penetration does not always result in a minimum drilling cost— typically it does result in a minimum drilling cost. WN NUMBER TABLE ‘A GUIDE TO BEARING CAPABILITY OF “HUGHESET” JOURNAL BEARING ROCK BITS ‘Gael type [_ sit | aR a 7400 Ee 2500 2150 2100 2100 2450 "2900 2900, 3450_| 3450 | 9450_| 9550 | 3550 | 3550 3450 3300 3580 | 3650 | 9650 | 9500 | 3500 4000_| 4000 | 3650_|~ 4200 | 4200_| 4200 ‘5000 | 5000 | 4450 | 4450 | 4450 a 2280 4550_|_4650_| 4650_| 5000 ‘5000 ‘6050. “4700__| 4800, 5750_| 5900 | 5900 | 7250 | 7250 | 7250 14% 5450 5450 7% 3000 | 8900, ‘The numbers inthe above table incicale the product NOTE: This table only considers beating ca ‘of bit weight (Win 1000 tbs, times rotary spaed (N) and Goes not consider compact breakage or seal in rovolutone per minute tai the bearing can safely ro, whch may be tho imiing factors fr bt handle. mance. Figure 2-16. A Guide to Bearing Capability of Carbide Journal Bearing Bits—WN Number Table Hydraulics and Bit TechnologyMost experts agree that an inereasein.cotary spec! while drilling aghale terval will increase the rate of penetration (ROP) more than an increase in eight. In Craciured or broken formations such as limestone or anhydrite, an as¢_in the weight rather than rotary speed will result in a greater ROP. ese broken formations can create excessive drill string bounce requiring a Btuction in rotary speed. Sandy and abrasive formations require a reduction rotary speed to prevent excessive seal, gauge, and tooth wear. In sandy lormations penetration rate is directly proportional to drilling weight and ro- Bry speed. Most experts also agree that an increase in drilling weight should produce Gidirectly proportional increase in ROP in all formations This not hold true in the case of an extremely hard or a very soft formation. Consider a tough, quartz-like material having a compressive strength that re- s 30,000 pounds of bit weight to fracture the rock. If less bit weight is rilling is only accomplished by the scraping action of the teeth resulting high abrasion and low drilling rate. Additional drilling weight at or above Be fracture point of the formation may drastically increase the penetration rate Jor 3 times over the previous rate drilled at a weight below the fracture point, 4 non-proportional increase. In very soft formations having high ROPs, eight additions generally increase drilling rate up to the point where the bit Enis to ‘ball up’. This occurs because we have reached the limit of the hole Beaning ability of the circulated fluid. Additional weight applications will not erease the penetration rate, only decrease the bearing life. Therefore, ad- tional hole cleaning is required if increased penetration rates are to be ex- wed by further increasing the bit weight. © Much research has been done to determine an optimum combination of i weight and rotary speed. Optimum bit weight and rotary speed results in 1um ROP. Researchers generally agree that higher bit loads (both weight | In 1967, a concept termed optimized drilling was developed and applied gt selecting the most economical combination of bit weight and rotary speed & given drilling conditions. The purpose of this empirical, opti ion was to determine a compromise on bit weight and rotary speed when Hydraulics and Bit Technology 119120 Optimum drilling equations are quite complex and require inputing many roncontrollable variables. Consequently, a computer is necessary to perfo the tedious calculations. This technique is being used on a limited basis i industry today. It should be remembered, however, that the recommended! weight and rotary speed from this calculation is only as good as the input dat References to papers on optimized drilling and other methods used to deter mine the optimum bit weight and rotary speed are included in the Appendi Bit Pulling Some operators have found it cost effective to pull a bit after reaching predetermined number of rotating hours to avoid lost cones and fishing jobs! This practice yields an artificial bit life and masks the effects of formation changes, relative abrasiveness on bit wear, and changes in mud properties Validsreasons for.pulling:a:bitsinclude: © Torque increase due to worn gauge or bearings. © Cone lockup due to erratic torque or bit grabbing on bottom. © Extreme loss of penetra Mm rate. © A shale section that requires a sharper bit © An abrasive section that may cause severe gauge wear requires a harde bit 3 Generally in soft, non-continuous formations, the above reasons should be used as guidelines. On long, hard, continuous formations, especially when using a mill tooth bit, the pulling point should occur at the time when addi tional drilling causes an increase in cost per foot. A graphical solution can be constructed by calculating cumulative cost per foot for randomly selected i tervals. Plot these values versus the cumulative footage drilled to determine the point of increasing cost per foot (i.e., the time at which the bit should be. pulled) Hydraulics and Bit Technologye and type of breaker should always be used. While tripping in the hole, extreme caution bould be used to prevent hitting bridges, ledges, liner tops, or the bottom of hole. When making connections on a long string of pipe, the pipe should lowered slowly back to bottom. Sudden stops will cause the drill pipe to ch and may cause the bit to hit the bottom, Be aware of holes being out gauge, The bit should never be forced into the hole. The cones will be cd resulting in bearing damage and the nozzles may become plugged. A hole should always be reamed. When a bit reaches bottom, the pumps ould circulate a few minutes before the bit begins to drill. This will help Gkan the bit and should prevent balling. A new bit should be broken-in by Hydraulics and Bit Technology126 Y DIAMONDS — BITS DIAMOND BITS mon when used in appropriate applications Drilling Principle plished by a scraping or grinding action, rather than crushing or chipping. essence, diamond bits are very specialized, expensive drag bits Bit Construction Diamond bits are of solid-body construction having no moving parts. design and manufacture incorporate the use of two of the hardest and stronges and, therefore, they alone must support all the weight applied to the bit. clearaace between the tungsten carbide matrix material and the outer diamond cutting edge is known as exposure? The exposure allows penetration into the formation and an area for cuttings removal. Molded fluid courses (waterways) in the tungsten carbide matrix direct the circulating fluid between the mat and the bottom hole allowing cleaning and cooling of the diamonds. These waterways are sized to develop a desired pressure drop at the face of the bit when on bottom. Optimum drilling with a diamond bit heavily depends on this pressure drop and the resulting hydraulic horsepower. Bit Manufacturing Figure 2-17 is a cross section of a diamond bit. Manufacturing is dot in two separate parts, the cutting end and the pin end. A concave mold is out of graphite in the exact dimension and shape of the bit cutting structur The locations where the diamonds will be set are marked and drilled to desired size and exposure. Molded displacements are placed in the grap! mold to become the fluid courses, junk slots, and down-port on the finished product. Hydraulics and Bit TechnologyDiamonds that have been selected and weighed are individually set in the predrilled holes with the aid of a vacuum needle. Tungsten carbide powder and a steel blank are then loaded into the mold. A funnel is attached to the mold and filled with a binder material that will bond the tungsten carbide particles to themselves, the diamonds, and the steel blank. a (Secondary) ‘Gram «qt pe Feouer_{ FLUID COURSES Opening N 2 (is = Fe} sow stor Darend Set Pas ey RS UplNS A\\\ Conta Dianetes (eke oles Ns acs ie <— a Fant owe : Shoulder Radias—! Sos" | crown ‘Gage Point —| PROFILE: Ge Lats ‘wel ‘BLANK ip le =] shan Braker S 2 Figure 2-17. Diamond Drill Bit Cross Section Ata temperature of 2,000°F, the binder material melts and infiltrates the tungsten powder and the steel blank forming a continuous phase. The mold is removed from the furnace and allowed to cool at a controlled rate. As the binder solidifies, it mechanically and chemically bonds the other materials together with a solid casting. To provide a good bond between the diamond and the matrix material, only 1/5 to 'Y6 of the diamond body is left to be exposed to the formation. Hydraulics and Bit TechnologyA @ The upper steel end of the casting is then threaded so that it can be made- up with a threaded steel section containing the API pin threads. This connec- tion is then permanently welded. Since the diamond bit is cast in an exact shape, only a clean-up grinding operation is needed. The bit is then inspected and made ready for use. Diamond Bit Design Diamond bits are designed and manufactured to fit a specific application. ‘The diamonds are sized for the specific formation to be drilled and set to coordinate with the location of fluid courses to optimize drilling rates. To design a bit, the operating conditions must be known. Included are the depth and type of formation to be drilled, hydraulic and mechanical rig capabilities, drill string size, and mud properties. A diamond bit engineered for a specific type of application will probably contribute more to a successful performance than any operational factor. Bit Size Diamond bits can be built to any diameter since they utilize a solid body without bearings. The API has established bit diameter tolerances for nominal bit sizes, as shown in Figure 2-18. Nominal Bit Size ‘OD Tolerances OD Inches Inches Up to 6 incl +0 0.015" 68) 0 9" incl. +0 -0.020" Stig" to 13% ine. +0 -0.030" 138 and larger +0 ~0.085" Figure 2-18. Nominal Bit Sizes and OD Tolerances Fluid Flow ‘Two basic types of fluid flow are utilized in diamond bits, cross pad flow and radial flow. Cross pad flow occurs when the bit face has alternating high and low pressure areas that allow fluid to flow to the low pressure areas across the bit face at high velocities. This flow design works well in very soft, plastic formations and in very hard formations. It is also quite effective for drilling with oil-base muds. The radial flow design is one in which all the fluid radi- ates from the center to the outside diameter of the bit. It is used primarily in medium-soft, medium, and medium-hard formations. Hydraulics and Bit TechnologyDiamond Types All diamonds used in bits are industrial grade, non-gem quality diamonds © of three specific types Congo Diamonds. Congo diamonds, classified as “Standard”, are generally round in shape having a textured surface. Two other versions of Congo dia monds exist. The ‘Select’ that is a standard diamond which is processed, and the ‘Cube’, which is a natural Congo diamond in cubic form. Its surface is also textured with the corners and edges slightly rounded. West African Diamonds. West African diamonds, commonly classified as ‘Premium’, come in dodecahedron (twelve facets) and round shapes. Ninety percent of West African diamonds are generally round, having smooth but irregular surfaces. ‘Special Premium’ is another version of the West African diamond which is a more select stone of the highest quality. A ‘PSPM’ dia- mond is a 50/50 mixture of ‘Premium’ and ‘Special Premium’ stones. Carbonado Diamonds. Carbonado diamonds, classified as ‘Carbonado’, are non-crystalline or amorphous diamonds. A Carbonado is completely opaque and irregular in shape. It has the highest impact strength of all diamonds, but has relatively low resistance to abrasion and is very expensive. Bit Costs In general, a diamond bit costs three to four times as much as an insert journal bearing bit of the same diameter: As an example, an 8"/ inch diamond bit costs approximately four times as much as an 81/3 inch journal bearing bit Diamond bit prices are based upon the quantity of diamonds in the bit plus a manufacturing charge. All diamonds are weighed and priced in terms of carat weight. * Diamond bits normally have a salvage valve ranging as high as 33% of the original cost. A diamond bit sent to salvage undergoes an op- eration that destroys the matrix bonding material allowing the diamonds to fall free. Reusable diamonds are weighed and a credit is issued to the purchaser. A carat equals one-fiflh of gram (28.3 grams equals 1 ounce). A half carat spherical diamond has & diameter of S15 millimeters and a one carat spherical diamond has a diameter of 6.5 millimeter. Hydraulics and Bit Technology 129130 Diamond Sizing The diamond bit removes formation by a scraping or grinding action. The diamonds must have enough exposure to allow the physical removal of the formation at the desired rate. In addition, the diamonds must be able to support the drilling weight and provide complete bottom hole coverage in order to remove all of the formation. If too large a diamond is used, it will have poor embedment into the formation and unit loading will be too high. This results cither in excessive localized heat generation that burns the diamonds, or in diamond fracturing; either of which will destroy the cutting edges o° the bit Generally, the harder the formation the smaller the diamond size should be. Soft formations drilled at 10 feet per hour may require ¥/; to 1/2 carat diamonds (see Figure 2-19). Diamonds of this size range have been used suc- cessfully on shale formations. Medium formations drilled at less than 5 fect per hour usually require diamonds of 1/5 to 1/2 carat per stone. Hard formation bits (see Figure 2-20) that drill less than 2 feet per hour have many small stones (II to 15 stones per carat). The tougher and more abrasive the for- mation, the smaller the stone size needs to be to prevent flattening of the diamonds. Bit profile is also dependent on the formation hardness. Long, pointed profiles are used on soft formations, while flatter profiles are used on harder formations. Figure 2-19. Soft Formation Diamond Bit Hydraulics and Bit Technology131 Figure 2-20. Hard Formation Diamond Bit Other conditions also influence stone size to be used. Plastic shales re- spond better to large stones. Experience indicates that light weight muds, less than IL ppg, suggest using a smaller diamond size to prevent excessive wear and breakage. Diamond bits properly designed for a particular formation will have a drill rate that is dependent on the stone size and the amount of bottom hole cleaning. With sufficient hole cleaning, drilling penetration rate increases to the point that the exposed diamond is completely embedded into the for- mation. The amount of diamond exposure is dependent on the particular dia- mond size. Diamond Bit Operating Practices Hydraulics Diamond bits depend on hydraulic energy for both bit life and perfor- mance. Hydraulic energy is defined in terms of hydraulic horsepower (HHP) and is as follows: (AP)GPM 1714 AP = Bit Pressure Drop (psi) GPM = Flow Rate (gal/min) 1,714 = Conversion Constant HHP = ies and Bit TechnologyHydraulic horsepower per square inch (HS1) is defined as follows HHP (AP)GPM =o A 1,345D* D = Bit diameter (in) HS! in?) = TD z A = Hole area (in?) = —7— = .785D' As drilling gets tougher, hydraulic HSI values decrease. In soft forma- tions, emphasis is placed on cuttings removal while in hard formation drilling, emphasis is placed on diamond cooling. Diamond bits designed for soft for- mations (10 feet per hour) have HSI requirements of 3.0 to 3.5 while the hardest formations (less than 2 feet per hour) may have HSI values of 0.5 to 15 From the equations, it is obvious that to increase HHP, an increase in flow rate or an increase in pressure drop across the bit face is required. Dia- mond bits are normally designed to operate optimally at a bit pressure drop of 500 to 1,000 psi, unless used in combination with a motor or turbine (max- imum pressure drop 400 psi). Bit pressure drop is dependent on the total flow area (TFA) of the bit. It is analagous to the nozzle area of jet nozzles and can be used interchangeably on hydraulic slide rules. Bit pressure drop can be determined directly on the drilling rig by re- cording a constant pump rate circulating pressure off bottom and again on bottom while rotating the bit. An actual HSI calculation can now be made and compared to what was designed. 3 Fluid velocity is another parameter evaluated to determine the ability of the hydraulic system to clean the bit and cool the diamonds. Fluid velocity is defined as: 0.32 (GPM) TFA V = Velocity (ft/sec) 0.32 = Conversion factor GPM = Flow rate (gal/min) ‘TFA = Total bit flow area (in’): furnished by bit manufacturer v= In normal drilling applications fluid velocities in the range of 150 to 300 ft/sec are required for cooling and cleaning Hydraulics and Bit TechnologyBit Weight and Rotary Speed Normal operating requirements for diamond bits are 2,000 to 4,000 pounds per inch of bit diameter and rotary speeds of 100 to 150 RPM. Drilling rate is very responsive to rotary speed. The use of a downhole motor or turbine will increase the penetration rate and should be used if its cost can be justified Arate of penetration test, also called a driliiof®'tésp, should be run to determine the optimum conditions. Theoretically, if sufficient hydraulics are maintained to properly cool and clean the bit, penetration rate should increase propor- tionally to an increase in weight. High rotary speeds generate vast quantities of heat and will result in diamond flattening if not properly cooled. In addition, high weights can also fracture the diamonds due to impact loading. These conditions will result in premature diamond failure. Stabilization Stabilization is very important in improving diamond bit drilling perfor- mance and life, The use of stabilized drill collar assemblies while running heavy bit weights allows a minimum of hole angle build-up. Stabilizers also force the bit to maintain a concentric rotation about its center preventing bit wobble, fluid starvation, and excessive shock loading on alternating sides of the bit. Special Considerations and Precautions Diamond bits are very expensive tools and can be easily damaged if im- properly run, Care must be taken to ensure that there is no junk metal present in the hole. It is wise to run a junk basket on the rock bit run preceding the diamond bit. Diamond bits should never be run immediately behind a badly undergauge bit since reaming may cause excessive wear on the gauge dia monds due to poor hydraulic cooling. Also, they should never be run without full circulation or allowed to be dry-drilled. Care must be taken when making the bit up and running in the hole especially through exposed liner tops. The bit should not be allowed to hit bottom abruptly. Once on bottom, the bit should be rotated slowly and circulation established for 5 to 10 minutes before drilling to allow ample opportunity for any metal or loose formation to be washed away from the bottom of the hole. Rotary speed should be increased ‘o approximately 100 RPM while easing to bottom. Weight should be added slowly, up to a maximum of 1,000 pounds for each inch of bit diameter, while establishing a new bottom hole pattern. After 6 to 12 inches have been drilled, - the weight and rotary speed can be increased to desired levels. Hydraulics and Bit Technology134 Used Diamond Bit Evaluation Whenever a diamond bit is pulled it should be inspected and analyzed. Important things to look for are: © Fluid erosion © Heat stress cracking © Fiat or worn diamonds on the crown © Wom or missing diamonds anywhere on the bit (especially in the throat area) This inspection should be detailed and provided to the drilling engineer by the diamond bit manufacturer. This information is of value for future bit selection and for determining whether to salvage the bit or hold it for reuse. Remember, diamond bits are individually designed for a specific application and using a rerun bit may not result in an optimal performance. In general, if a bit has been run more than 150 hours and an immediate use is not foreseen, it would be wise to send the bit to salvage. Diamond Bit Applications In order for the diamond bit to be economically attractive, it must have an acceptable rate of penetration combined with long life because of its rel- atively high cost. Bit runs of 209}to BOGours are CSSSERN(cuns of 400 hours are on record). Break-even curves should always be constructed to justify using a diamond bit. Diamond bits should not be run in formations containing pyrite or chert as they will destroy the diamonds. ‘The greatest potential applications for diamond bits occur when: © Insert ROPs are Jess than 2 to 3 fect per hour in holes deeper than 10,000 feet. © Tripping pipe is hazardous © Hole sizes are less than 51s inches. Hydraulics and Bit Technology140 Vi STRATAPAX/P0S BITS DRILLING PRINCIPLE Like the diamond bit, Stratapax bits (also referred to as polycrystalline diamond compact—PDC bits) drill with a grinding, scraping action. Cuttings have the appearance of metal removed by a machining operation on a lathe. Due to a tungsten carbide backup, impact resistance is higher for the Stratapax cutters than natural diamond eutters. Increased penetration rates are attributed to the greater exposure of the large, self-sharpening cutters. GENERAL DESCRIPTION ‘The Stratapax drill blank (see Figure 2-21) is manufactured and patente by General Electric. The Stratapax was introduced in 1973. The blanks consis Grill blank was commercially introduced and became available to bit fabri cators around the world. Early Stratapax bits failed, primarily because of g fractures or loss of the polycrys cleaning, mounting stud shearing, and other inherent deficiencies in bit desig and fabrication also contributed to these early failures. In 1977, a new bondi technique for attachment of the diamond cutters to the tungsten carbide strate was developed. This new bond involved localized, high-tempera brazing that produces a bond two-and-one-half times as strong as the previo lower temperature braze. Later, Sandia Laboratories developed a high-pressurg temperature diffusion bonding process that has twice the shear strength of the conventional braze. Current research is being done using diffusion bondim on steel alloy subtrates with hopes of improving the shock resistance of thy drill blank. The polycrystalline synthetic diamond has a thermal stability of 700°C. Bonding temperatures in excess of this reduce the abrasive resi tance of the diamond. Therefore, temperature control in bonding and ma facturing is required 3 Figure 2-21. Stratapax Bit Hydraulics and Bit Technology141 Bit body construction is of nwo types. Both are of solid body construction. One type utilizes a machined steel body, while the other uses the conventional tungsten carbide material and manufacturing process used in making natural diamond bits. Post-type drill blanks are used exclusively on the steel body construction. Extended substrate drill blanks are used mainly on the tungsten carbide body. In bit manufacturing, the appropriate side rake angle needs to be maintained (see Figure 2-22). Research has proven that the optimum side take is dependent on the type of rock to be drilled. Small side rake angles of to 10° improve the drilling rate in most rock types, because the small angles produce the greatest cutting surface area. In soft shales, the incidence of shale chips sticking to the cutting surface is reduced at 15° side rake. Higher side ‘ake angles will improve bit cleaning by directing the cuttings toward the gauge of the bit for quicker removal from the cutting surface, but will also increase the stress on the diamond bond, The optimum angle of back rake, as deter nnined by General Electric, is a negative 10° to 15° and is the standard on the General Electric manufactured drill blanks. Research has proven that this back rake angle will minimize flaking of the diamond cutting surface in hard for- nations. However, it is believed that in plastic soft shales a 0° back rate is required to minimize cutting forces. Increased side rack angles should reduce B. the tendency for bit balling with the assistance of sufficient hydraulic cleaning 5 in these soft formations. Back Rake Aagle sido Rate angio as Figure 2-22. Side Rake Angle—Stratapax Bit Hydraulics and Bit Technology142 BIT DESIGN Steel Body Bits Steel body bit designs (see Figure 2-23) are machined to the bit shape. Post-type Stratapax drill blanks are inserted into predrilled holes in desired | locations. Tungsten carbide slugs are installed on the bit OD for gauge pro-i tection. A number of replaceable jet nozzles are installed. Depending on bit size, three to seven nozzles may be used. This type of bit has experienced the majority of success in U.S. runs. Bit failures have resulted from wearing out 4 of the cutters, particularly in the gauge area or from the erosion of the bit! face, causing a loss of drill blanks or nozzles. Erosion problems are especially” critical when drilling in a sandy, abrasive formation. Bit-face erosion is be: licved to be caused by formation ‘splash-back’, but it may instead be related to ‘bit balling’ that can direct fluid flow across only a few cutters rather than across the entire bit face. Nozzle plugging also has been a problem. Tungsten Carbide Body Bits Bits with tungsten carbide bodies (see Figure 2-24) are manufactured the same manner as natural diamond bits, except that Stratapax blanks ¢ be set the way diamond bits are, because the required high furnace temperature would destroy the diamond cutter. After firing the bit, the extended substal drill blanks are usually attached by the diffusion bonding process or with coag ventional brazing. Five ‘9 ten fluid openings, depending on the bit size, cast into the tungsten carbide body serving as nozzles. Tungsten carbide bod bits with interchangeable nozzles are available. Sometimes, natural diamonds are inserted on the gauge for increased pay tection. Bit-face fluid erosion is minimized with bits constructed of tungste carbide, but the fluid port plugging problem still occurs. Success has b limited with this bit design. Reduced cutter exposure, as compared to p type bits, increases the tendency of the bit to “ball up’ when drilling in sa shale formations a Hydraulics and Bit Technology143 Figure 2-24. Tungsten Carbide Bodied Bit Hydraulics and Bit Technology144 OPERATING PRACTICES Similar operating procedures and practices for diamond bits should be utilized on Stratapax bits. Special precautions should be used to ensure that there is no junk in the hole at the beginning of the bit run. Once the bit is nin to bottom, it should be rotated and circulated several feet off bottom to cir culate junk up the hole and clean the bit face. ‘To break in the bit, it should be run with light weight and slow rotary speed until the bit has established its own pattern on bottom. Gradually, the weight and rotary speed should be increased to ideal operating conditions. Rotating torque should be monitored since this bit typically generates higher torques than roller-cone bits. Hydraulics Hydraulics recommendations for a Stratapax bit are somewhat different than the recommendations for a diamond bit. Generally, Stratapax perfor- mance is equal in oil base and water base fluids within sand intervals, if the flow rate is approximately 4 gpm per square inch of bit (nominally less than the flow rate required for annular hole cleaning). However, when drilling shale intervals with water base fluids, additional bit cleaning is needed to prevent cutter balling. Some hydratable (water-sensitive) shales cannot be drilled with water base fluids and Stratapax bits. Cutter balling typically is not a problem in oil base fluids if the flow rate is adequate for sand intervals. A guideline to prevent shale balling in water base fluids is to expend at least 4 hydraulic horsepower across the bit per square inch of bit (HSI, although 10 HSI is preferable. By increasing HSI, Stratapax bits can be used with minimum balling potential in shale intervals, when using water base fluids. Weight on Bit Bit weight of 1,000 to 2,000 pounds per inch of bit diameter is usually’ all that is required for the bit to drill. Additional weight could result in over- stressing the cutters or increasing the tendency of the bit to ball. Lower bit weights will minimize hole deviation and result in a lower rotating torque. As the bit wears, the bit weight can be increased to the range of 2,000 to 3,000, pounds per inch of bit diameter. Hydraulics and Bit Technology145 Rotary Speed Drill rate is usually proportional to rotary speed for a Stratapax bit. The highest ROP is found at maximum rig rotary speed and by then varying bit weight. Downhole motors with their high RPM have produced excellent runs. Stabilization Although stabilizers are normally run with a Stratapax, benefits of sta- bilizers run with a Stratapax have yet to be proven, Stabilizers should be run on the bit preceding the Stratapax run to eliminate reaming with the full gauge, solid body bit. Stabilizers should help to minimize deviation and reduce dam- age to the drill collars due to high RPM and the associated torque. POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS Until recently, Stratapax bits were considered only as an alternative to diamond bits. Tests conducted on sandstones and shale formations at depths ranging from 6,000 feet to 7,000 feet with light mud weights have shown that © this type of bit can be run economically if rotary-cone bit penetration rate falls below 25 fect to 30 feet per hour. Deep drilling in heavy freshwater muds has experienced limited success. Penetration rates and bit life have been compa- rable to diamond bits. Stratapax bits run in oil-mud systems, especially the new relaxed invert muds have been very successful. With this mud, penetra~ tion rates of 30 feet to 35 feet per hour have been achieved in certain deep sedimentary formations. In general, Stratapax bit runs in oil-base muds have performed very well in soft to medium hard formations. ‘The majority of the successful Stratapax runs have been with bit sizes of S%s inch to 12"/; inch. Minimum bit size is limited by the drill blank size ‘Applications of larger bit sizes are limited because of high bit cost and prob- Jems encountered with sufficient cleaning and gauge protection. High bit costs often limit Stratapax bit applications, but if rig operating costs are in excess of $10,000 per day and a run of 1,000 feet exists, a Stratapax bit may be ecoromical. Salvage is not given for the bit unless it is of the type that has reusable natural diamonds in the gauge area. Benefits of faster penetration rates and long bit life will often offset the high initial bit cost. Hydraulies and Bit Technology152 viv GUIDELINE FoR BIT SELECTION GUIDELINES When making bit recommendations for an upcoming well, a review of offset bit records is probably the best basis for bit selection. A complete offset 3 bit record will show such variables as weight, rotary speed, hydraulic infor mation, and mud propertics as well as the bit type, bit run, and condition of | the bit when pulled, By carefully examining this information, the drilling en gincer can accurately predict the effect of changing: © Bit type © Bit operating conditions © Hydraulics program In varying formations, offset well electric lithology logs are very impor: tant tools used in the selection of a drilling bit, Information from the offset bit records including length of run, penetration rate and bit type should beg plotted on the offset log. By correlating the offset clectric lithology log with the current drilling mud log, a prediction of upcoming drill intervals can be made. Again, this is very important for an inconsistent formation (sand-shale) and becomes a big factor in selecting a bit with the proper cutting structure and bearing type. 4 An offset well bit ‘scatter plot’ is an effective way to analyze bit pet formance. Cost per foot, by bit type and formation drilled, is plotted versus depth for all offsets. This type of plot demonstrates which bit type performed best, on a cost per foot basis in specific formations. The advantage of this type of plot is that all of the bit data is compiled on one plot Knowledge of how specific rocks in an area drill (formation drillability is important in well planning. Formation drillability relates to a formation’s hardness characteristics. In gencral, the softest formations that are easiest Grill are shallow and require long tooth bits. As depth increases, appare Urillability decreases due to an increase in rock hardness and extraneous facto such as mud flow properties and poorer hydraulics. Drilling into abnormally pressured intervals generally will increase drillability due to undercompactioal of the shale sediments. Although this will not usually cause a change in bij selection, it will sometimes postpone the application of the next harder bits type to a deeper depth. Hydraulics and Bit Technology153 Rock hardness is related to both compaction and the inherent compressive surengths of the rock. Some rock types such as limestone are harder than others regardless of what depth they are encountered. Therefore, they may require a f significantly harder bit type than the preceding or following sand or shale intervals Sands are generally more abrasive than shales with some limestones being much more abrasive than others. Presence of abrasive intervals may call for = the use of shorter, stronger teeth so the teeth will remain sharp to drill the following shale interval. Special gauge protection may also be required. How- F ever, in poorly consolidated shallow sands, tooth hard facing on soft formation bits increases the tooth life and maintains sharpness sufficiently enough to | make such bits (with shorter and stronger teeth) the best choice despite the § abrasive character of the sand Fracturing is a common occurrence found in hard, brittle formations. In 4rilling a fractured formation, the rock tends to break in large pieces that must be ground up before the drilling fluid can carry them out of the area beneath the bit. The resulting non-uniform bottom hole surface causes the bit to run rough and can result in broken teeth and damaged bearings. These fractured formations often require the use of bits with short, strong tecth operating at lighter bit weights and slower rotary speeds. The use of drill string shock absorbing tools may help the bit run smoothly in these fractured formations. Few formations are uniform, Hard streaks in the main section may require the use of shorter tooth bits, perhaps with better gauge protection. The softer intervals dictate the use of a longer tooth bit to prevent ‘balling up’ and severe Joss of penetration rates. Even though bit life may be sacrificed with using soft formation bits in these streaked intervals, cost per foot may be minimized. Mini computers can be used effectively to tabulate and analyze bit rec- ords. Where a lot of drilling is done in an area, data banks can be built rapidly that can be very useful in aiding bit selection. Exxon Production Research Company (EPR) has an ongoing program in the fundamentals of drilling. The program includes the evaluation of different bit types used in various types of formations. The studies are performed both in the laboratory and the field. These studies can be very useful to the engineer when making bit selections. Hydraulics and Bit Technology158 Figure 2-27 relates the relative cost of mill tooth, insert, diamord and Stratapax bits. This table should be used for general guidelines only. Relative Bit Costs “eset IIE sina REISE BIL POSES: abe ak Mi Lae Dollars Size TADC-23-4 1ADCT27 ‘Steatapae ches Mitt Tooth Bit Insert Bier oie 1.100 3.300 5.000 Bl 1-400 4300 12.500 1 2,400 8300 21,000 Me 7,300 177200 ‘0,000 1983 Manufacture Prices diamond and Stratapax bits can be purchased at considerable discount Normally nat economical in this size. Figure 2-27. Relative Bit Costs Salvage Value Rock Bits— inimal Diamond Bits—Function of the number and condition of diamonds salvaged. Value can be as high as 33% of bit cost. Stratapax Bit—Minimal Hydraulies and Bit Technology164 wit SPECIAL tooLs CORING—PURPOSE AND METHODS The purpose of coring is to obtain a formation sample to aid in locating productive horizons. Core analysis is useful for reservoir evaluation of pro- ducing zones, for geologic study and for drilling studies of hole problems. A Grilling engineer should attempt to furnish the maximum, undamaged core recovery possible at a minimum operational cost Three different methods of coring are used: © Conventional coring © Electric line sidewall coring Conventional coring requires that the entire drill string be pulled to re- cover the core. In wireline coring, the core can be retrieved by wireline cable and an overshot. However, because the core is recovered through the drill pipe, a limit exists on the size and length of the core. Wireline coring is rarely done. Electric line sidewall cores are obtained with the use of a sample gun that is run on an electric logging line after the hole has been drilled. Recovered cores of this type are approximately "/j5 to 7/s of an inch in diameter, and 1 to 1'/y inches long. Such cores may become contaminated by the drilling fluid. Electric ine sidewall coring is the least expensive method for recovering a formation sample. j The method used for coring should be one that provides the desired results most eccnomically. In selecting. a coring method, consideration should be given to the: © Length and diameter of the desired core © Coring drill rate © Maximum length of core that can be cut in one operation © End use of the core The drilling engineer should coordinate with the geologic and reservoir groups to determine the method of coring to be used. The method selected should’ accomplish the objectives set forth, in the most economical manner. Hydraulics and Bit TechnologyConventional Coring The most commonly used coring method today is conventional coring using a double tube core barrel with a diamond core or Stratapax bit. The conventional core barrel (see Figure 2-28) consists of a rotating outer bare) enclosing a non-rotating inner barre) that houses the cores. The inner barrel is suspended on a swivel assembly using a mud lubricated antifriction bearing that prevents rotation of the inner barrel as the outer barrel is rotated. The core-hit is made-up on the bottom of the outer barrel while the inner barrel is fited with a core.catcher assembly. Core barrels are available in 30 foot sec- tions and can be made up to run in multiple lengths with a maximum eco- nomical length of 90 feet. Core diameter is approximately one half the di- ameter of the hole size. A 4 inch diameter core, for example, is recovered when using a 7’/s inch diameter core bit. A core barrel should only be used in a hole that is in stable condition A core barrel should be equipped with a stabilizer directly above the dia- mond bit to prevent bit wobble. Bit wobble could cause the core barrel to cut a spiral core that can cause core wedging or core loss. Stabilizers are generally 0 to ¥/9 inch undergauge. The stabilizer should be replaced if they are worn more than Yj to !/yp inch. Additional stabilizers should be placed at 30 foot intervals if more than one section of a core barrel is being used and especially when hole size is reduced for coring. The core catcher is located on the bottom of the inner barrel. It allows the core to enter the tube but prevents the core from falling out while making a connection or a trip. These catchers should be carefully selected. Their type is dependent on the type of formation being cut. Generally, in highly fractured formations, two different types of core catchers are run in tandem. A core barrel with stabilizers can easily become stuck in a well bore with a severe dog leg or key seat. If lost circulation occurs, the flow path of the core barrel can easily become plugged with lost circulation material. In a well control situation, barite (used to add weight to the drilling fluid) can settle and plug the drill pipe. The bore hole must be clear of metal, or the core head can be damaged. Fractured formations can cause COSCIGERAUA GAIA that reduces core recovery. Hydraulics and Bit Technology166 Safety Joint ‘Thrust Bearing ‘Swivel Assembly ‘Outer Tube Inner Tube Stabilizer Core Catcher Inner Tube Shoe Figure 2-28. Conventional Core Barrel Diamond Core Bits Diamond core bits (see Figure 2-29) are available in numerous desigt for drilling various types of formations. In general, the design is the same for diamond drill bits. Soft formations utilize diamonds spaced relatively apart, whereas hard, formation bits use smaller diamonds set close. toged The cost of a core bit depends on the weight, quality, and size of the dia Hydraulics and Bit Technology167 used. Bits purchased and used may be returned for a salvage credit on the F reusable diamonds. Most coring companies offer a rent versus buy option on F core bits. The hardness and abrasiveness of the formation and the core interval should be considered in determining whether to rent or buy. Other than diamond size, the main difference in core bit design is in the sie, placement, and the number of drilling fluid channels for cleaning and cooling the bit. Water course design is dependent on the formation to be cored and the available pump horsepower. Large fluid courses permit high circu- lation rates for better bit cleaning while drilling sticky shales. In hard abrasive formations, small numerous flood courses provide better cooling of the diamonds. Figure 2-29. Diamond Core Bit Stratapax Core Bits Stratapax core bits (see Figure 2-30) are rather new to the industry, They are used instead of diamond bits for the same reasons described in the section on Potential Applications (Stratapax bits) in Lesson 6. Essentially, they should be used where shales, sandy shales, and sands are to be cored. Hydraulics and Bit TechnologyFigure 2-30. Stratapax Core Bit Oriented Coring To help determine the dip and strike of formation beds, the direction of fractures, and direction of maximum permeability, a process called ‘oriented coring’ is used. Directional survey tools giving magnetic direction and incli- nation of the core barrel are coupled to knives that continuously scribe the core to provide a reference mark of known directional orientation. Adapting conventional double tube core barrels for oriented coring is a simple and in- expensive operation that can be done in the field. Sponge Coring An aluminum tube coated on the inside with a sponge like material made out of oil base products is used to trap any oil in the core. Normally, most of the fluids in a core will bleed out or be flushed out of the core before it is recovered at the surface. The aluminum tube has ribs on the inside to keep the sponge from tearing. When the conventional core barrel is retrieved from the hole, the aluminum tube containing the core is pushed out of the inner barrel. The aluminum tube is sealed and cut for shipping. Hydraulics and Bit Technology> Rubber Sleeve Core Barrel A special rubber sleeve core barrel is available for coring unconsolidated = sands or fractured formations. As the core is cut, it enters a rubber sleeve that pulls the core into the inner barrel protecting it from fluid washout and flush- ing. The core is recovered encased in the rubber sleeve and may be cut to any length desired for handling and shipping. The rubber sleeve enhances uncon- F solidated sand and fracture formation core recovery. PVC Liner In some areas, poorly consolidated formations make core recovery very difficult. The core may crumble during the coring operation and/or fall apart © when removing the core from the barrel. A polyvinyl chloride (PVC) inner barrel has been developed to hold the core in place during both coring and recovery operations. The PVC inner bar- rl fits inside the steel inner barrel and remains stationary as the outer barrel tums with the bit. The PVC liner facilitates handling and containerizing the E core when it is removed from the core barrel. Rather than pushing the core out of the barrel onto a core trough, that typically results in the core crumbling, F the PVC liner is extracted from the liner barrel. The liner is then cut into appropriate lengths and packaged, with the core still remaining intact inside the PVC liner. ‘The maximum temperature at which PVC can be used is approximately 5 110°F, limiting use to depths no greater than 10,000 to 11,000 feet Pressure Coring Normally, when a core reaches the surface, part of the fluid present in the core on bottom has escaped, This is due to expansion of gas within the core forcing fluids from the core as pressure is decreased on the trip to the surface. Even after it is at the surface, a core often ‘bleeds’ as fluid is dis- placed by expanding gas. Bleeding makes accurate calculation of volumes of ‘original hydrocarbons in the core very difficult. A technique for trapping the pressure in the core while on bottom and maintaining that pressure until the core is processed at the surface has been developed. This process, known as pressure coring, utilizes an ing and an outer barrel, and a balj_valyg activated by dropping a steel ball down the drill pipe. When the ball is dropped, it activates a latch that moves down and closes the ball valve, thus isolating the core. Hydraulics and Bit Technology 169170 Once the core is brought to the surface, it is frozen with CO,. The inner barrel is then removed and cut into five foot lengths and placed into dry ice vats for transportation to the evacuation facility. other techniques. The cost is also much higher. The cost to pressure core a % zone and to evaluate the core is approximately 10 times that of conventional coring HOLE OPENERS AND UNDERREAMERS Hglesipeneis are used to enlarge a hole tothe required size.* A standard tri-cone hole opener (see Figure 2-31) is typically used in large holes where @ casing has not been run. Replaceable cutters are made of milled steel or tung sten carbide inserts on special request. When reaming, it is a wise practice to install a bit on the lead end of the hole opener to serve as a pilot. Welding of the bit to the hole opener should be done to prevent backing off while: reaming. An SH8SHESMER is primarily used to enlarge open hole below casing Open hole completions that are gravel packed are normally underreamed, After setting production casing in the top of the pay section, a hole is drilled throug the pay zone. Then an underreamer is run to enlarge the hole to a size several inches in diameter larger than the casing. An underreamer can also be used! as a standard hole opener. Retractable arms containing rotating, cutters collapsed while running in the hole. Upon reaching the point where a lar hole is desired, the cutter arms are expanded upward and outward by ci tool is picked up, the cutting arms retract to the body of the underreamer. pilot bit should be used to center and stabilize the underreamer, and re possible bridges. Special care should be exercised with hole openers and derreamers, so that they do not become damaged. *In directional drilling, it soften easier to directionally dill «121 inch hole than a 17% inch ole nas ‘where a 17s inch hole is desired, a 1214 inch diretional hole would be crilled and then a hole oper wes ‘un © open the hole to 17" inches Hydraulics and Bit Technologym1 Figure 2-31. Tri-Cone Hole Opener MILLS AND ROTARY SHOES Cement can be drilled out of casing and tubing strings utilizing the type of mill shown in Figure 2-32. Fast penetration rates and excellent resistance to wear is achieved with a three or four bladed mill that uses replaceabie tungsten carbide blades, braised to the cutting edge of the mill. The body is a three-piece welded forging. a Figure 2-32. Blade Tungsten Carbide Cement Mill 4 Hydraulics and Bit Technologyte Conventional cement mills (see Figure 2-33) utilize fragmen:ed tungsten carbide hardfacing dressed on a machined steel alloy body. Penetration rates are not as high with this type of mill. The mill can be reused with further additions of the tungsten carbide hardfacing. Cement can also be drilled ef- fectively with Stratapax bits, particularly if several thousand feet of cement must be drilled. | Figure 2-33. Fragmented Tungsten Carbide Cement Mills Hydraulics and Bit Technology173 Concave or flat bottom mills (see Figure 2-34) are used primarily to mill rock bit cones, bridge plugs, packers, and miscellaneous junk left in the hole. Many mill shapes such as the tapered mill shown in Figure 2-34 are available to fit particular situations and others can be custom built to fit specific needs. Figure 2-34. Tapered Mill (Top) and Concave Bottom Mill (Bottom) Hydraulics and Bit Technology174 Rotary (burning) shoes (see Figure 2-35) are constructed of a heat treated steel alloy body dressed with milling material composed of fragmented tung- sten carbide or diamonds bonded in a tungsten carbide matrix. They are used primarily on the bottom of the washpipe as a mill in a washover operation Different types of shoes are available that have the milling material inside, outside, on the bottom of the tool or in any combination of places required for a particular job. Figure 2-35. Rotary (Burning) Shoes SHOCK SUBS If drill string bounce is evident while drilling in any formation, a change in the bit weight and rotary speed should be made to minimize the amount of shock loading on the teeth and bearings. If drill string bounce persists, it may be beneficial to use some sort of downhole shock absorbing tool. These shock subs are run directly above the bit. Most tools use expanding/contracting metal rings or wire mesh units housed in an oi! bath. Improved drilling rates and increased bit life more than offset the tool rental cost when used in appropriate applications. Shock subs can minimize bottom hole assembly failure (cracked boxes or pins). Shock subs may contribute to building hole angle because there is a small amount of deflection in the sub assembly. Hydraulics and Bit TechnologyDOWNHOLE MOTORS AND TURBIN! Downhole motors and turbines employed with vai several uses including side tracking, maintaining a straight hole and increasing penetration rate. Since a turbine can develop more horsepower and RPM than a downhole motor, a turbine is more effective than a downhole motor, pro- vided sufficient hydraulic horsepower is available. When it is not practi possible to obtain a rotary RPM high enough to yield the most cost effective penetration rate a downhole machine should be evaluated. It is usually cost effective to utilize a downhole machine with a diamond bit and in some cases with insert bits. Downhole motor speeds range from 100 to 500 RPM. Turbine speeds range from 500 to 1,300 RPM ous types of bits have Sidetrack diamond bits are used to kick-off in hard formations. Design characteristics show a flat, concave profile with a very short gauge section with many exposed diamonds that enable the bit to cut into the side of the hole. Large fluid courses for high circulation rates with a low pressure drop across the bit is common. Most diamond sidetrack bits are run in conjunction with a downhole motor. They are full gauge, eliminating additional trips to ream a rathole. NOZZLE VARIATIONS Extended Nozzle Recent research has proven the benefits of extending bit nozzles closer to the formation. The closer the nozzle is to the formation face, the higher the fluid energy Ievel becomes. Extended nozzle bits have extension tubes welded onto the normal nozzle outlets that reduce the distance from nozzle to formation by as much as 75%. The improved hydrauli increase ROP by 40% in soft formations. Harder formations that are less sensitive to hydraulics typically show little improvement in ROP due to extended nozzles. The history of these bits shows a high incidence of nozzles breaking off. Extra care should be exercised while tripping an extended nozzle bit. Center-Jet To improve bit cleaning, a center jet can be run in addition to the three standard nozzles. This low cost modification can improve ROP in very soft drilling or in areas in which gumbo (soft, sticky shales) is a problem. The center jet sends fluid down between the cones, reducing the likelihood of bit balling. Hydraulics and Bit Technology176 Two Nozzle A two-nozzle bit is one in which a nozzle blank is placed in one of the three nozzle positions, or a bit in which a ball is dropped down the drill string to plug one of the nozzles. This causes all of the fluid to flow out of the other two nozzles and across the face of the bit. This no-cost alteration provides a higher hole cleaning pressure on bottom and cleans the bit face with the cross- flow. Two nozzle applications are probably most useful in harder rock drilling Some evidence of increased hole washout has been noticed with two-nozzle bits, however. In some cases, the modified flow patterns reduce the bit life of two-nozzle bits. AIR AND HAMMER BITS In applications where air, foam, or mist is used as a drilling medium, non-sealed ball and roller bearing bits are used. The design allows a portion of the drilling medium to be diverted through the bearing for cooling, cleaning, and lubrication. Since fluid in contact with loaded bearing surfaces will reduce their life, bits are equipped with a water separator to prevent this action in applications where water is injected into the drilling medium to control dust Also in air, foam and mist drilling, pneumatically driven percussion mo- tors (hammer tools) are used. The percussion motor is a downhole jack ham- mer. Flat bottom button percu one percussion bits are used with the hammer tool. The tri-cone percussion bits feature heavy duty con- struction to withstand the percussion impact. The hammer bit is particularly effective when spudding in hard rock where it is not possible to employ any significant weight on bit and air is going to be used for drilling all or part of the hole. Technology179 FINAL EXERCISE Given: “Rig Co $450 /he Trip Time: 6 hrs, P Rotating Time 25 hrs. Footage: 418 feet Bit Cost $1,750 ROP; 16.7’ /hr Calculate cost per foot What is the breakeven footage for the next hour? Hydraulics and Bit Technologyian oo Ore h03 and Sob der vaalone stil oa eo i A aiviietb jeas mnyaniete shh einen aqenoa: yd sith te. an ids. tneo ened Se aa tebilon a vlaele ylevttonlty a, : hnttasiniwe? gain sey oi 7 4 i i foie Aelia la fine tid adéfian. aoesequiessis Gen Whsoniging iT Silt weiranciaiy katong amily ai Tes enw yok lig Bt sn Mibitetinesnttne AS ahiekjosgagd mids. Mts ta su ‘colt 20 ahi 1D Sea (sks lanquiate Sr iat Mpa fd: gritty ten yh Op [poeta wisn th yen nic hottebnommendoesy erbtnint ative Sloe "assalgne 401 # Valo sd Saal fed a one Maida ex Hove ee —oorp quam bath eae bone esinaqerd tlm Jestloatied 36 aus sonenrihiay Ed geitsele tose + ctviles Neve pit ia behind sen Ylomaivale sehiiner. sw tio MP qaiqaied pray olen as pmiigh»

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