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Civil Engineering

Andrzej Moczko

Modern Testing Methods for Non-Destructive

Inspection of Building Structures

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INTRODUCTION
Non-destructive testing is generally defined as not impairing the intended performance of the
element or member under test, and when applied to concrete is taken to include methods
which cause localized surface zone damage. Such tests are commonly described as partially-
destructive. All non-destructive methods can be performed directly on the „in-situ” concrete
without removal of a sample, although removal of surface finishes is likely to be necessary.
Assessment of „in-situ” quality of concrete and its integrity is primarily concerned with
the current adequacy of the existing structures and their future performance. Routine
maintenance needs of concrete structures are now well established and increasingly utilized in
„in-situ” NDT-testing to assist lifetime predictions [1,2,3]. An integrated NDT approach
allows the evaluation of basic concrete composite properties and make it possible to answer
several questions, which seem to be crucial for engineering practice.
 What is actual compressive strength of concrete?
 What is actual near-to-surface tensile strength of concrete?
 How to localize and identify steel bars?
 How to identify areas of rebar corrosion?
 What is actual risk of concrete corrosion?
 What is depth of carbonation and carbonation profile?
 What is chloride content and chloride profile in concrete cross-section?
 How to measure actual thickness of only one side accessible concrete elements?
 How to localize voids and delaminations?
It is important to mention that such an approach allows not only the assessment of the
properties of the material, but also render possible an evaluation of a structural member as a
whole. A series of concrete bridges in Poland were examined in this way [4]. The applied
testing system was developed as joint (international) industry and university efforts. It
consists of the following main measuring techniques:
 CAPO-Test
 BOND-Test
 German’s Water Permeation Test
 Rapid Chloride Test
 Rainbow-Test
 Impact-Echo
The results obtained indicate that the integrated NDT approach can indeed yield a clear
insight into serviceability conditions, and as a result provide reliable basic information on the
conditions of the concrete for designing a rehabilitation scheme, including repair.

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CAPO-TEST
The CAPO-Test was developed in Denmark [5,6] as a variation of the „pull-out” technique
for determining on site compressive strength of existing concrete structures. The principle
behind the test method is that the force required to pull an insert out of concrete can be
correlated with the concrete’s compressive strength. To prepare a test, an 18 mm diameter
hole is drilled outside reinforcement disturbance followed by recessing a 25 mm diameter
groove at a depth of 25 mm. A special steel ring is inserted through the hole in the groove and
expanded by means of a special expansion tool until it fits in the inside diameter of the groove
(Fig.1). Finally, the ring is pulled against a counter pressure 55 mm in diameter. A load is
applied through a manually operated hydraulic pull-machine (Fig.2).

Fig. 1. Test set up for CAPO-Test „pull-out” system.

Fig. 2 CAPO-Test in progress

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The pull-out force is recorded and correlated to compressive strength by means of a general
relationship applicable for all kinds of concretes with max. aggregate size less than 38 mm.
Based on finite element analysis and statistical evaluation of the test data worldwide
published from 1970 to 1994, the following general equations have been recommended [7]:

fc,cub = 1.41 P - 2.82 for fc,cub < 50 MPa (1)

fc,cub = 1.59 P - 9.52 for fc,cub  50 MPa (2)

From an engineering point of view, the following practical: application of CAPO-Test may be
considered
 evaluation of the actual compressive strength in existing concrete structures during
technical surveys,
 testing of the actual strength of concrete members rejected by laboratory specimens,
 testing of the residual strength of concrete elements prior to further loading.
„Pull-out” testing with CAPO-Test is covered by the ASTM C 900 Standard and the
European Standard CEN/104/SCI/TG8:187, Scandinavian Standards DS 423.31, SS 137238,
NS 3679 and NT BUILD 211, British Standard BS 1881:Part 207:1992 and German Standard
DIN 8046.

BOND-TEST
The „pull-off” test was oryginally developed to measure the in-situ tensile strength of
concrete by applying a direct tensile force [8,9]. The method is also used for measuring
bonding of surface repairs [10]. The BOND-Test is one of the available testing systems which
utilize stiff steel discs with diameters 75 mm or 50 mm and glued to a planed surface. The
disc is cut free, e.g. to the base material (Fig.3), with a special designed coring rig ensuring a
core concentric with the disc, perpendicular to the planed surface and totally straight. This is
to avoid any bending forces during the „pull-off” procedure. A counter pressure ring is placed
on the planed surface concentric with the disc, which is attached to a hydraulic precision pull-
machine resting against such counter pressure (Fig.4). Loading of the disc in tension takes
place with the machine using a specified loading rate until rupture of the partial drilled core
occurs. The „pull-off” force is recorded and correlated to tensile/adhesion strength by dividing
the value of measured force by the cross-sectional area of the disk.
It is usually required that the tensile strength of base concrete and adhesion strength of an
applied coating or overlay should be at least 1.5 MPa.

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Fig. 3. Testing principle of the „pull-off” technique.

Fig. 4 BOND-Test during „pull-off” procedure

The BOND-Test is standardized in several countries. An example it is covered by British

Standard (BS 1881:Part 207:1992) and NT BUILD 365.

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WATER PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENTS

German’s Water permeation Test (GWT) was developed mainly for testing the ability of
concrete to resist water pressure. The principle of the method is to measure the amount of
water penetrating the substrate under controlled pressure conditions (Fig.5). A sealed pressure
chamber shown in Fig.6 is clamped to the surface with a watertight gasket in between. The
chamber is filled with de-aerated water, which is compressed to the surface. The pressure
selected (usually 1.5 MPa) is maintained by means of a sensitive micrometer gauge pressing a
piston into the chamber substituting the water penetrating into the concrete.

Fig. 5 Testing principle of GWT system

The gauge readings are recorded over time and used to evaluate the water permeation
characteristics of the surface tested. The test may be conducted until the micrometer has no
more movement. Usually a single test lasts about 5-10 minutes, depending on the concrete
quality.

Fig. 6 View of GWT chamber during the tests

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For comparative measurements the flux „q”, using the first mentioned procedure, may be
calculated from the equation:
q = B (g1  g 2 ) [mm/sec.] (3)
At
where:
B - area of the micrometer pin being pressed into the chamber water (78.6 mm2
for a 10 mm pin diameter)
A - water pressure surface area (3018 mm2 for the diameter of 62 mm)
t - the time the test is performed over [sec.]
g1, g2 - the micrometer gauge readings in mm before and after the test has been
performed
In practice GWT can be successfully applied for:
 evaluation of water permeation,
 evaluation of porosities of the „skin” concrete of the finished structures,
 testing of the water tightness of joints,
 testing of the surface before and after application of a protective water-proof
membrane.
The GWT is covered by the ISO/DIS 7031 and the CEN/TC 104/SCI/TG8:184 Standards.

RAPID CHLORIDE TEST

The Rapid Chloride Test (RCT) allows the measurements of onsite chloride content of
existing concrete structures (Fig.7). It can be also used to establish the chloride profile for
service life estimation, to evaluate the cause of corrosion of reinforcement, and to monitor the
chloride content during electrochemical removal of chlorides. Two options are available for
chloride measurements, either the acid soluble or water soluble chloride content.

Fig. 7 Rapid Chloride Test

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The test method relies on a reference laboratory test in which the chloride electrode is
calibrated by potentiometric titration or by ion chromatography. The samples of concrete dust
obtained at different depth by drilling out or profile grinding, are mixed with an excess
amount of extraction liquid and shaken for about five minutes. The extraction liquid will
remove the disturbing ions, e.g. sulfides [11]. The amount of acid soluble chlorides, expressed
as a weight percent of concrete mass, is determined directly by means of the calibrated
chloride electrode submerged in the solution.
Related standards are e.g. the DS 423.28 and the ASTM C 144-81 „Standard Titration for
Acid Soluble and Water Soluble Chloride Content in Concrete”.

RAINBOW-TEST
The Rainbow-Test is a method to measure carbonation depth, or more generally to establish
the carbonation profile „in-situ” by checking the pH-coefficient of the cement paste on a
freshly broken piece of concrete. The testing principle of this method is that the carbon
dioxide in the air penetrates the concrete surface and reacts with the calcium hydroxide in the
cement paste. This reaction will decrease the alkalinity of concrete. For a pH-value of around
9 and lower, the passivity of the reinforcement is encountered and corrosion may start. For
checking the pH-value, a fresh drilled core, blotted dry, is sprayed with the indicator and
allowed to dry. The pH-value is revealed by colors (Fig.8). The colors vary like a rainbow
with the pH-value, from orange-pH=5, yellow-pH=7, green-pH=9, purple-pH=11, finally to
blue-pH=13. So, the carbonation profile can be shown and the depth of carbonation is
indicated by the green colour at a pH-value of about 9. The Rainbow indicator is also often
sprayed on the fresh local failure performed as a result of a CAPO-Test. It can be used for
monitoring the effect of re-alkalinization of the cover layer as well as for evaluation of the
cause of the corrosion around the reinforcement in concrete.

Fig. 8 Rainbow-Test

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IMPACT-ECHO
The Impact-Echo method was invented and many practical applications developed in a
relatively short period of time (1983-1997) by researchers and engineers at the U.S. National
Bureau of standards and Cornell University. Several papers focusing on the different aspects
of this phenomenon have been published. Reference can be given here to significant
contributions by Sansalone, Carino and Hsu [12,13,14]. The potentialities of the method have
also been investigated in Poland. Some interesting test results can be found in [15]. Several
practical applications of Impact-Echo „in-situ” measurements can be mentioned as an
example:
 measurement of thickness, e.g. of asphalt overlays, roads and pavements,
 location of craks, voids and honeycombing,
 delamination surveys of slabs, shotcrete, tunnel lining elements, cooling towers, etc.,
 integrity testing of a protective membrane below an asphalt overlay,
 debonding between reinforcement and concrete, caused for example by corrosion,
 presence of air in injected cable ducts,
 evaluation of the depth of surface opening cracks.
In general, Impact-Echo is based on the use of transient stress waves. A short-duration
mechanical impact, produced by tapping a small steel ball against a concrete surface, is used
to generate low frequency stress waves that propagate into the structure and are reflected by
flaws or external surfaces. P-waves are of primary importance in Impact-Echo testing of
concrete plate structures, because the displacement caused by P-waves are much larger than
those caused by S-waves at points located close to the impact point. The frequency of P-wave
arrivals at the transducer is determined by transforming the recorded time-domain signal into
the frequency domain using the fast Fourier transform technique (FFT). The frequencies
associated with the peaks in the resulting amplitude spectrum represent the dominant
frequencies in the waveform. These frequencies can be used to determine the distance to the
reflecting interface. To determine the thickness of a concrete element the P-wave speed
should be known. In many application the wave speed in concrete is determined from an
Impact-Echo test made on an area of known thickness. This wave speed is then used to test
other areas of the structure. However, in many cases thickness is unknown and independent
direct P-wave speed measurement must be applied.
Impact-Echo test systems consist of three components: impactors, a receiving transducer
and a portable computer with a data-acquisition card (Fig.9). The impactors are hardened steel
spheres attached to spring steel rods. The receiving transducer is a broadband displacement
transducer. A portable, computer-based, data acquisition system is used to capture the output
of the transducer, store the digitized waveforms and perform signal processing and analysis.
The following three figures present characteristic results usually obtained by means of
Impact-Echo measurements. The spectrum of the solid part of a testing plate (Fig.10) is
dominated by a single large-amplitude peak at a value of 6.45 kHz – the plate thickness
frequency. On the other hand, the next figure (Fig.11) shows a typical example of the test
results obtained in the case of delamination. The waveform is dominated by only one large
amplitude peak at a frequency of 25.5 kHz. Because of the reciprocal relationship between
depth and frequency this value, corresponding to the depth of the delamination, is
significantly higher than the thickness frequency obtained from a solid section of the plate

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(6.45 kHz). It is visible that this characteristic frequency (plate thickness frequency) is not
observed at all. It means that the generated stress wave does not propagate to the bottom of
the testing plate. All energy is reflected by wide delamination.

Fig. 9 Overview of Impact-Echo test system

Fig. 10 An example of test results typical for a solid section of examined plate

Fig. 11 An example of test results typical for delamination

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For comparison the last figure (Fig.12) presents test results characteristic for the area where a
small flaw exists. The waveform in this case exhibits a more complicated displacement
pattern. There are two distinct frequencies in the spectrum. The first one (4.8 kHz) is
associated with the existence of a void between the impact point and the bottom surface. As a
result, the stress wave has to go around the defect and travel time in this case is longer than
the corresponding travel path, and period of P-wave reflections through a solid plate (6.45
kHz). This „shifted” thickness frequency is a key indicator of the presence of a small flaw in a
plate. In analogy with Fig. 11, a lack of plate thickness frequency (6.45 kHz) is also visible.
The second peak of frequencies (17.2 kHz) corresponds to the P-wave thickness mode of
vibration for the section of plate between the impact surface and the upper surface of the void.
This value represents a depth of void frequency.

Fig. 12 An example of test results typical for the section where a void is found

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
 An integrated NDT approach has been proposed for testing and evaluating serviceability
conditions of existing concrete structures. Several non-destructive techniques have been
presented. Details concerning BOND-Test, Rainbow-Test, Rapid Chloride Test and GWT
have been discussed with special attention paid to the possibilities of applying such
methods for determining parameters which are crucial for estimating concrete durability.
 It has also been shown that the CAPO-Test seems to be a direct, reliable and less time-
consuming NDT method for determining compressive strength of concrete. The test results
can be obtained „in-situ” and rather quickly.
 Among other methods, Impact-Echo appears as a system particularly promising for non-
destructive location of cracks, voids and other defects in concrete structures.

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REFERENCES
[1] Somerville, G. The design life of concrete structures, Structural Engineer, vol. 64A, No
2, Feb. 1986, pp.60-71.
[2] Clifton, J.R. Predicting the service life of concrete, ACI Materials Journal, vol. 90, No
6, Nov./Dec. 1993, pp.611-617.
[3] Schickert, G. A concluding review, NDT-CE Symposium Berlin 1995, International
Symposium Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering, Berlin, 26-28 Sept. 1995.
[4] Peng, X., Moczko, A., Stroeven, P. Application of modern testing methods for non
destructive inspection of concrete structures, Delft University of Technology, Faculty of
Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Report 03.21.1.32.01 (1999).
[5] Krenchel, H., Shah S.P. Fracture analysis of the pullout test, Materials and Structures,
RILEM, 1985, vol.18, nr 108.
[6] Krenchel, H., Bickley, J.A. Pull-out testing of concrete, Historical background and
scientific level today, The Nordic Concrete Federation, No.6, 1987.
[7] Petersen, C. G., Poulsen, E. Pull-out Testing by LOK-test and CAPO-test with particular
reference to the in-place concrete of the Great Belt Link, Revised Edition Nov., 1993.
[8] Long, A>E>, Murray, A.McC., The pull-off partially destructive test for concrete, Spec.
Publ. SP 82-17, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1984, pp.327-350.
[9] Bungey, J.H., Madandoust, R., Factors influencing pull-off tests on concrete, Magazine
of Concrete Research, vol.44, No 158, March 1992, pp.21-30.
[10] Cleland, D. J., In-situ methods for assessing the quality of concrete repairs, Proc. ICE,
Structures & Buildings, vol.99, Feb. 1993, pp.68-70.
[11] Feldman, F.F., Chan, G.W., Brosseau, R.J., Tumidajski, P.J., Investigation of the Rapid
Chloride Permeability Test, ACI Materials Journal, vol. 91, May-June 1994, pp 246-
255.
[12] Sansalone, M., Carino, N. J., Hsu, N. N., Flaw detection in concrete by frequency
spectrum analysis of impact-echo waveforms, International Advances in Nondestructive
Testing, Gordon&Breach Science Publishers, New York, 1986, pp.117-146.
[13] Sansalone M.J., Carino N.J., Detecting delaminations in concrete slabs with and without
overlays using the Impact-Echo method, ACI Materials Journal, vol.86, No 2, 1989,
pp.175-184.
[14] Carino, N.J., Sansalone M.J., Void detection in grouted ducts using the Impact-Echo
method. ACI Materials Journal, vol. 89, No 3, 1992, pp. 296-303.
[15] Moczko A., Moczko M., Stroeven P., Impact-Echo – New Generation of Nondestructive
In-Situ Test Systems for Concrete Structures, Proceedings of MCCI’2000, International
Symposium on Modern Concrete Composites & Infrastructures, vol.I, Beijing, China,
Nov.30–Dec.2, 2000, pp. 75-80.

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