See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/291348908

A review on the inclusion of wind generation in power system studies (Elsevier-

Impact Factor- 9.184)

Article  in  Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · June 2016

DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.009

CITATIONS READS

27 861

1 author:

Neeraj Gupta
National Institute of Technology, Srinagar
16 PUBLICATIONS   111 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Uncertainty quantification of Power Systems View project

Probabilistic power system: Analysis and New techniques. View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Neeraj Gupta on 31 October 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 A review on the inclusion of wind generation in power system studies
Neeraj Gupta∗
Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, Himachal, India

Abstract

In this paper, an extensive review on power system studies with inclusion of wind generation has been
attempted. The various basic aspects of wind generation including basics of wind power statistics,

wind farm, wake-effect, and environmental effects on wind generation have also been discussed.
For the practical analysis of power system with wind generation, accurate wind generation models
must be developed with load flow methods that can be integrated in to the normal power system
algorithm to cater the need of inclusion of uncertainty in power system. So, various wind turbine
generator models and deterministic load flow methods for transmission and distribution system have

also been reviewed. The intermittent and fluctuating nature of wind power injected into the grid
causes variations in bus voltages and line power flows of transmission system which is going to be
quite significant in the future. So, for the successful integration of wind generation in the grid, these
variations need to be analyzed, estimated and quantified, which can be achieved through probabilistic

load flow. The various probabilistic load flow methods along with application and extension have also
been reviewed. The correlation between wind generators in a wind farm has also been discussed. For
the successful operation of power system with wind, it is mandatory to have power system planning
and contingency analysis with uncertainty. The different methods used in power system planning and

contingency analysis have also been reviewed. For the integration of wind generation to be viable, it
must be cost effective and free of technical abnormalities. A review on the technical and economic
issues related to the integration has also been done. Finally, with the increase in installation of
offshore wind farms, HVDC application with wind farms has also increased. So, HVDC techniques
with wind generation have also been reviewed in detail.
Keywords: Power system, Wind generation, Distributed generation, Load flow, Probabilistic load
flow, Wind turbine generator.
Acronyms and nomenclature

BCBV Branch-current to bus-voltage matrix c Scale parameter

BIBC Bus-injection to branch-current matrix ct Turbine thrust coefficient
CDF Cumulative distribution function k Shape parameter
CF Cornish-Fisher kw Wake decay constant
CSI Current source inverters PR Rated power of turbine
DFAG Doubly fed asynchronous generator Q Reactive power consumed by WTG
DFIG Doubly fed induction generator R1 Stator resistance
DG Distributed generation R2 Rotor resistance
DLF Deterministic load flow s Rotor slip
FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Vt Terminal voltage
FFT Fast Fourier transform Vw Wind speed
GA Genetic algorithm Vc Cut-in wind speed
GC Gram-Charlier VF Cut-out wind speed
GHG Green house gas VR Rated wind speed
GTO Gate turn-off thyristor V Wind speed at the height H
HVAC High voltage alternating current Vo Wind speed at the height Ho
HVDC High voltage direct current Xc Reactance of capacitor bank
IGBT Insulated-gate bipolar transistor Xm Magnetizing reactance
IGCT Integrated gate-commutated thyristor zo Roughness length
LCC Line commutated converters α Frictional coefficient
LF Load flow
MCS Monte Carlo simulation
MTDC Multiterminal HVDC
NPC Neutral point clamped
ORPP Optimal reactive power planning
OWF Offshore wind farm
PDF Probability density function
PEM Point estimate method
PLF Probabilistic load flow
PMSG Permanent magnet synchronous generator
PWM Pulse width modulation
RES Renewable energy sources
RV Random variable
T-PSO Tribe particle swarm optimization
VSC Voltage source converters
VSWT Variable speed wind turbines
WFSG Wound field synchronous generator
WTGS Wind turbine generator system

∗
Corresponding author
Email address: neeraj5822@gmail.com, dr.neerajphdiitr@gmail.com (Neeraj Gupta∗ )

2
1. Introduction

Energy security and environmental concerns are high in the global agenda due to volatile energy
prices, high demand for energy security, and concerns over the global climate change. The only
viable option to meet the challenge of achieving sustainable development while conserving natural

resources are the renewable energy sources (RES) . As per Renewables 2014 Global Status Report
[1], renewable electricity generation capacity reached an estimated 1560 GW worldwide in 2013. The
largest component of renewable generation capacity is wind power, which reached an estimated 318
GW. The urgent need to combat global climate change (due to Green House Gas (GHG) emissions)

to avoid environmental catastrophe is the motivating factor behind wind power expansion, as the
wind energy offers both a power source that does not emit carbon dioxide and any other pollutants
associated with either fossil fuel or nuclear generation. Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 show the global installed
capacity of wind power till 2013 and wind power capacity and additions for top ten countries in 2013
[1].

Gigawatts
World Total
350
318 Gigawatts
300 283

250 238
8

198
8
200
159
9
150
121
1
100 94
74
59
9
50 48
31 39
17 24
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Figure 1: Wind power global capacity, 2000-2013

As the amount of wind generation is growing rapidly and wind farms are growing in size and
complexity, proper modeling of wind energy projects in system studies is becoming increasingly
important to system operators and transmission system owners. Wind farms are being installed
consisting of hundreds of units, with wind farm capable of producing hundreds of MW. The location of

wind farm is selected primarily based on good wind conditions (favorable economic and environmental
conditions). Thus, the operation of wind farm and its response to disturbances or other changing
3
 Gigawatts
100
+ 16.1

Added in 2013
80
2012 total

+ 1.1
60

40
+3

+ 0.2
+ 1.7
20
+ 1.9 + 0.4 + 0.6 + 1.6 + 0.6
0
China United Germany Spain India United Italy France Canada Denmark
States Kingdom

Figure 2: Wind power capacity and additions, top ten countries, 2013

condition on power system is becoming important, especially in cases where wind farms represent a

significant portion of local generation. These concerns will continue to grow in importance as the
amount of wind generation increases.
In this paper, a review of inclusion of wind generation in power system studies has been done
covering various techniques and methods which is important for the researchers and engineers.

The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, basics of wind generation have been explained
in detail. In Section 3, the wind turbine generator system (WTGS) has been discussed. In Section
4, the deterministic load flow methods (in transmission and distribution system) along with WTGS
modeling have been discussed. In Sections 5, 6 and 7, probabilistic load flow (PLF) methods,

application and extension of PLF and technical and economic issues related to the integration of
wind generation have been discussed in detail, respectively. Lastly, in Sections 8 and 9, high voltage
D.C. (HVDC) transmission with wind generation and conclusion of this work is presented.

4
2. Basics of wind generation

2.1. Wind power statistics

In the recent years, renewable energy sources like wind have become important part of electrical
generation and its importance is continuing to increase. For the successful integration of wind energy
to the grid, adequate models must be used to analyze the effects of wind power which depend on the
wind speed. The wind speed is unpredictable, but the probability of a particular wind speed can be

estimated.
The wind speed (m/s) and hours/year wind is blowing (obtained from the site data), is repre-
sented by the discrete histogram. The information displayed in discrete histogram can be represented
as a continuous probability density function (PDF) (as shown in Fig. 3). The defining feature of

0.12
Area under the curve =1

0.1

0.08
f(Vw)

Area = probability that the wind is

0.06 between Vw1 and Vw2

0.04

Average windspeed
0.02
Vw1 Vw2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Wind speed (m/s)
Figure 3: PDF of wind speed

such a PDF is that the area between any two wind speeds is the probability that the wind is between
those two speeds.

The starting point for characterizing the statistics of wind speed is the Weibull PDF and is given
by "   #
 k−1 k
k Vw Vw
f (Vw ) = exp − (1)
c c c

where, Vw1 is the wind speed, k is the shape parameter and c is the scale parameter. The shape
5
parameter k changes the shape of PDF (as shown in Fig. 4) . For k = 2, the weibull PDF is named
as Rayleigh PDF (given by eq. (2)) and is generally preferred distribution function for the wind
speeds, as it has periods of low wind and good high speed wind.

0.2
k=3

k=1

0.15
probability

k=2

0.1

0.05

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Wind speed (m/s)
Figure 4: Weibull PDF with different shape parameters

"  #
2
2Vw Vw
f (Vw ) = 2 exp − (2)
c c

2.2. Windfarms

When a good wind site has been found, a large number of wind turbines have been installed on
that site, which is called the wind farm or a wind park. Wind turbines are installed in the wind park
in rectangular arrays (on water or flat lands) with only few long rows perpendicular to the winds,

with each row having many turbines. Recommended spacing is 3-5 rotors diameters separating
towers within a row and 5-9 diameters between the rows [2] as shown in Fig. 5 .

2.3. Wake effect

If wind turbines are connected in two rows, separated by an appreciable distance so that when
the wind is perpendicular to them there is no interaction between wind turbines and wind speed is

same for all the machines. However, if wind is considered flowing parallel to the rows of generation,
the speed valid for first wind turbine is not used for second wind turbine due to wake effect.
6
 Prevailing
wind

5-9 times of rotor

diameter

3-5 times of rotor

diameter

Figure 5: Wind farm with optimum spacing

The wake effect on farm efficiency using Lissaman and the Riso model was performed in [3]
using extensive measurements. In [4], Satellite SAR data have been used to quantify wake velocity
deficits near two large offshore wind farms. The performance of a downstream wind turbine was

investigated experimentally for the wake interference in [5]. The impact of the wake effect on both
the steady-state operation and dynamic performance of a wind farm is studied in [6]. In [7], wake
effect is explicitly incorporated in the reliability evaluation of wind farm and in [8] time sequential
Monte Carlo simulation technique is used to evaluate adequacy of a wind farm with the combined
effect of terrain, wake and wind turbine reliability. In [9], for the second wind turbine, the wind

speed is calculated as [9]:

   
√ d
V 2 = V 1 K = V 1 1 − 1 − 1 − ct (3)
d + 2kw X

For the ith turbine the wind speed can be approximated by Vi = K i V1 , where, V1 is the wind speed
for first turbine, V2 the wind speed for the second turbine, ct is the turbine thrust coefficient, d is
the rotor diameter, X is the axial distance between both wind turbines and kw is the wake decay

constant. kw is calculated as kw = (A/ ln (h/z0 )), h is the hub height, and z0 is the roughness length

7
and A is a von Karman constant and is ≈= 0.5 [9]. Roughness length is the extrapolated height at
which the mean wind speed becomes 0, if the vertical wind profile is assumed to have a logarithmic
variation with height. As an approximation, the roughness length is approximately one-tenth of the
height of surface roughness elements.

If the wind turbine rotor has length of 30 meters, with a hub height of 31 meters and distance
between them 75 metres, the roughness length is assumed to be 2 × 10−3 , ct = 0.2, then the value of
kw becomes 0.051. If the wind speed has a value of 15 m/s for first WTG, the wind speed of second
turbine calculated using eq. (3) is given by 15K. Where, in this case K = 0.93 and this constant
(for a particular scenario) will be used to calculate wind speed for all turbines.

2.4. Effect of temperature pressure and tower height

In the wind power data, it is assumed: the air density of 1.225 kg/m3 at the temperature and

pressure of 15 0 C and 1 atmosphere respectively. Since, power output is directly proportional to the
density, any change in the temperature effecting the density of air ρ can be obtained by using [2]:

P × Mw × 10−3
ρ= (4)
RT

where, P is the absolute pressure (atm), Mw is the molecular weight of the gas (g/mol), R is the
ideal gas constant (8.2056 × 10−5 m3 .atm.K −1 .mol−1 ) and T is the absolute temperature.

Since, pressure is the function of altitude i.e. with the increase in altitude, the pressure decreases
which in turn decreases the density (eq. (4)). However, with the increase in altitude there is a
decrease in temperature also. So, in this case a correction factor for temperature and altitude is
suitably added.

The impact of roughness of earth surface and height of tower on wind speed is given by

   α
V H
= (5)
V0 H0

where, V is the wind speed at the height H, V0 is the wind speed at the height H0 (often taken a
reference height of 10 meters), and α is the friction coefficient, which is a function of terrain over
which a wind blows.
8
2.5. Idealized wind turbine power curve

For the specific wind turbine, the most important technical information can be obtained from
the power curve, which is a relationship between the wind speed and generator electrical output.
A typical turbine curve with quadratic approximation is shown in the Fig. 6. The corresponding
power output expressions are given in eq. (6) [10].

PR (Rated power) Shedding the wind

Power delivered (kW)

Furling
or cut out
wind
Cut in wind speed speed
Rated wind speed

VC VR VF
Wind speed (m/s)

Figure 6: Idealized Power Curve

 


 0 Vw ≤ Vc 



 

V 2 − Vc2

 

 PR w2 Vc < Vw ≤ VR 

 

P = VR − Vc2 (6)
 
PR VR < Vw ≤ VF 

 

 


 


 

 0 VF < Vw 

where, PR is the rated power of turbine, Vc , VR , and VF are cut-in, rated and cut-out speeds of
turbine respectively.
Cut-in wind speed (Vc ) is the minimum speed needed to generate the power. Rated speed (VR ) is

the speed when a generator is delivering as much power as it is designed for i.e rated power (PR ). If
the wind speed is more than the rated, the active-pitch control system, a passive stall control design
or the combination of two must be used to shed some of the wind’s power, else there is a possibility
of damaging the generator. The wind speed above the Cut-out wind speed (VF ) is so strong that
there is a possibility of damaging the generator. So, for the wind speed above cut-out, the machine

must shut down and the power output above cut-out speed is obviously zero.
9
 Increasing the rotor diameter shifts the power curve upwards so that the rated power is reached
at lower wind speeds and increasing the generator size increases the rated power. The power curve
is generally provided by the manufacturer.

3. Wind turbine generator

Since, the wind is highly variable source, which cannot be stored. The energy present in the
wind can be transformed to the electrical energy using wind turbine generator system, whose general

scheme is shown in Fig. 7 [11].

Wind energy Mechanical energy Electrical energy

B
G

Control System

Figure 7: Wind turbine generator system

A wind turbine generator system either use synchronous or asynchronous generators, with direct
or indirect grid connection of the generator. In direct grid connection, generator is connected directly

to the (usually 3-phase) alternating current grid and in this case, most wind turbines run at almost
constant speed. In indirect grid connection, the current from the turbine passes through a series
of power electronic devices which adjust the frequency of the current to match that of the grid. In
this case, it is possible to run the turbine at variable rotational speed, as the wind turbine generator

runs on its own and the frequency of the alternating current in the stator of the generator may be
varied. Commercially available wind generators installed at present are:

• Squirrel cage induction generator.

• Doubly fed induction generator.

10
 • Wound field synchronous generator (WFSG) and

• Permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG).

Based on rotational speed, in general, the wind turbine generator systems can be classified into
three types:

• Fixed speed WTG.

• Semi variable speed WTG.

• Variable speed WTG.

3.1. Fixed speed WTG

It consists of a squirrel cage induction generator driven by a wind turbine having turbine blade
angle fixed [12] (stall regulated fixed speed WTG) or a pitch controller to regulate the blade angle

(pitch regulated fixed speed WTG). In both the types of WTG, the induction generator is directly
connected to the grid. As in both types of WTG, the operating range of rotor speed varies within a
very small range (approx 5% of the nominal), so these are called as fixed speed WTG. To establish
the rotating magnetic field of the stator, reactive power must be supplied from the network to the
stator winding of the induction generator, which is undesirable, particularly for large turbines and

weak grids. So, the reactive power compensation is nearly or fully provided by the fixed shunt
capacitors.

3.2. Variable speed WTG

Variable speed wind turbines (VSWT) can be categorized into two types:

• WTG having Doubly fed induction generator (DFIG): It consists of a pitch controlled wind
turbine and an induction generator, whose rotor circuit is connected to the grid through a

back to back voltage source converter, while, the stator winding is directly connected to the
grid. The voltage source converter (connected to the rotor) is regulated by two rotor current
controllers and applies voltage across the rotor.

11
 • WTG with front end converter having synchronous generator: In this case, the generator
(permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) or wound field synchronous generator
(WFSG)) is completely decoupled from the grid by a frequency converter. The variable-
frequency ac power produced by synchronous generator is transformed to fixed-frequency ac

power by using a power converter connected in series. The grid side of this converter is a
voltage source converter and the generator side can either be a voltage source converter or a
diode rectifier. The generator is excited using either an excitation winding (in the case of a
WFSG) or permanent magnets (in the case of PMSG).

3.3. Semi variable speed WTG

It consists of a pitch controlled wind turbine and a wound rotor induction generator, whose
rotor circuit is connected to an external variable resistance which can be varied by using power

electronic devices. In this case, the reactive power compensation is normally provided by a fixed
shunt capacitor and two controllers (pitch and rotor resistance), which are designed to operate in a
coordinated manner.

4. Load flow with WTGS

The primary tool for accessing the operation of system in steady state is load flow, whose main
objective is to determine power flows through transmission lines, transformers and voltage on power
system buses, which is essential in the planning and design of the interconnection of wind farm to the
system and to ensure that existing equipment is operated within its capabilities and new equipment

is properly sized. Such calculations are performed under base case (normal conditions), contingency
conditions (one or more power system elements out of service) and under different system conditions
such as peak load, light load, or different power transfer conditions. These studies are primarily
used to determine if the generated power can be transmitted successfully to loads without loading or

voltage problems. With the integration of WTGS in power systems, the existing load flow techniques
have to be suitably modified to incorporate WTGS models. A review of various WTGS models for
load flow studies and load flow techniques with WTGS is provided next.

12
4.1. WTGS models for load flow studies

4.1.1. Wind Generation Models

For each of these models, the active power can be obtained from the power curve provided by
the manufacturer for a given wind speed Vw . The equivalent circuit of induction generator is shown
in Fig. 8, in which I1 is the stator current, I2 is the rotor current, Im is the magnetizing current, Vt
is the terminal voltage magnitude, s is the slip, R1 is the stator resistance, R2 is the rotor resistance,

Xl1 is the stator leakage reactance, Xl2 is the rotor leakage reactance and Xm is the magnetizing
reactance of induction machine.

R1 X l1 Xl2
I1 I2

Im

R2
Vt Xm s

Figure 8: Induction machine equivalent circuit

Feijoo and Cidras [9] proposed two models based on the steady state equivalent circuit of the

induction generator. In this study, wind farms with asynchronous generators are modeled as PQ
or RX buses in the load flow analysis. When the WTGS node is modeled as a PQ-bus, produced
active power is obtained from the power curve having set of equations given in eq. (6) and consumed
reactive power Q is obtained by the following expression [9].

Xc − Xm X
Q ≈ Vt2 + 2P2 (7)
Xc Xm Vt

where, X is the sum of stator and rotor leakage reactances, Xc is the reactance of capacitor bank.
13
The other model is called RX bus model in which active and reactive powers are calculated by using
equivalent circuit parameters of the induction machine. While active power is defined by eq. (8)
(which is based on slip formulation), consumed reactive power is again expressed as a function of
the rotor slip (s) .
1−s
P = Ir2 Rr ; Q = f (s) (8)
s

Both are solved iteratively using a Newton type algorithm. Implementation of RX model into
distribution system load flow analysis is found to be problematic as it requires two iterative processes.

Divya and Rao [12] developed models of various types of WTGS based on the steady-state model
of the electrical machines.
The models proposed in [12] are synchronous generator model, pitch regulated induction generator
and semi variable speed induction generator model. In synchronous generator model, either Q is
specified or power factor cos φ is specified. If Q is specified, then Q = Qsp (specified value), else Q

is calculated as. s
1 − cos2 φ
Q=P (9)
cos φ

. In pitch regulated induction generator model, according to the wind speed variations, the pitch

angle controller regulates the wind turbine blade angle [12]. In this model, for any given value of P ,
a quadratic equation (as2 + bs + c = 0) involving induction generator slip (s) is solved to compute
the slip. Where, a, b and c are the function of parameters of generator.
Subsequently, Q can be computed as [12];

Xm Xl2 s2 (Xm + Xl2 ) + Xl1 s2 (Xm + Xl2 )2 + R22 (Xm + Xl1 )

Q=  Vt2 (10)
2
2
+ [R2 (Xm + Xl1 ) + sR1 (Xm + Xl2 )]2


R2 R1 + s Xm − (Xm + Xl2 ) (Xm + Xl1 )

Semi variable speed induction generator model consists of pitch controlled wind turbine and
wound rotor induction generator, the rotor circuit of which is connected to variable resistance whose

value is varied by power electronic devices. Thus, the rotor resistance is unknown and determined
2
by the controller. To overcome this problem, the quadratic equation (aReq + bReq + c = 0) is recasted
in terms of R2 /s (denoted as Req ). Hence, even when the R2 and s are unknown the quantity R2 /s
can be computed by solving the quadratic equation in Req . Where, a, b and c are the function of
14
parameters of generator. Now, the reactive power Q can be computed as

2 2


Req (Xm + Xl1 ) − (Xm + Xl2 ) Xm − (Xm + Xl2 ) (Xm + Xl1 )
Q=  Vt2 (11)
2
2
+ [Req (Xm + Xl1 ) + R1 (Xm + Xl2 )]2


Req R1 + Xm − (Xm + Xl2 ) (Xm + Xl1 )

In [13], various types of induction machine modeling, based on slip relation, have been proposed.
Two different Thevenin equivalent circuits are formed by using the general equivalent circuit of the
induction machine given in Fig. 9 (a).

R1 Xs Xr Rs+Re(s) Xs+Xe(s) R1 Xs X1+Xr

A B A B
I Ir I Ir

V Xm Rs/s V V R2/s

A’ B’ A’ B’
a b c
Figure 9: Equivalent circuit of induction machine [13]
Thevenin circuits are driven, firstly, as seen from the terminal (AA’) and then from the rotor
(BB’). Both equivalent circuits are given in Fig. 9 (b) and (c) respectively. Then, the equivalent

circuit parameters are used to calculate the active and reactive powers of the machine as given in
eq. (12), assuming that the slip is already known.

(Re + Rs )V 2 (Xe + Xs )V 2
Pe = ; Qe = (12)
(Re + Rs )2 + (Xe + Xs )2 (Re + Rs )2 + (Xe + Xs )2

However, models developed by using equivalent circuit of generator [9, 13, 12] require the value
of rotor slip to compute generator output powers in each iteration, which increases computational

complexity and the computation time in load flow analysis. In [14], two models for wind turbine
generating units are developed by using well-known bi-quadratic equation. In model-I the referred
rotor voltage can be obtained by solving well-known bi-quadratic equation of IG with reactive power
equal to zero and neglecting the short-circuit losses. Model- II is based on simple algebraic recursive
equation of receiving end voltage of radial distribution system. The main advantage of the developed

analytical models for WTGS is that they facilitate the computation of real and reactive power outputs
for a specified mechanical power input and terminal voltages, in a simple way such that it does not
require computation of any system parameters (i.e., rotor slip). They require only wind power
15
(mechanical power input) and terminal voltage, which are available in each iteration and easily
incorporated in sweep-based load flow algorithms.
Model 1

Vs Vr r Vs2 Xsc Pm2 2

Vs
s Xsc Rsc Qs = + 4
Xm Vs − 2Pm Rsc Vs2 + Pm2 (R2 + X 2 )
sc sc
2 2 2
(13)
Vs Rsc Pm Vs
(s) (r)
Ps = Pm + 4
Rm Vs − 2Pm Rsc Vs2 + Pm 2 (R2 + X 2 )
sc sc
Ps Xm Rm Pm
Qr=0 Model 2
Qs
Vs2 2
2Xsc Pm
Qs = + p
Xm Vs2 − 2Pm Rsc + Vs4 − 4Pm Rsc Vs2 − 4Pm
2 X2
sc
Vs2 2
2Rsc Pm
Figure 10: Induction machine equiva- Ps = Pm + + p
Rm Vs2 − 2Pm Rsc + Vs4 − 4Pm Rsc Vs2 − 4Pm
2 X2
lent circuit [14] sc
(14)

In [15], a fuzzy model is developed to perform forecasting of wind speed and electrical power up to

2 hour ahead. The model is trained using a GA-based learning algorithm whose inputs are wind data
collected from neighboring meteorological stations at a radius up to 30 km, while fuzzy wind power
generation model is used for the cost assessment of an isolated power system in [16]. In [17], a simple
multistate wind generation model for reliability evaluation is proposed, in which the data required

are wind farm site annual mean and standard deviation, and the power-curve data for wind turbine,
while in [18], wind turbine is modeled as a two-state Markov process. When it is in the operative
state, the value of power generation is determined by the wind speed and by its characteristics
and the transitions between operative and failed states are characterized by the failure and repair

rates. In [19], a dynamic wind generation model for power systems studies is proposed, while an
ARIMA-Based time series model of stochastic wind power generation is proposed in [20]. The
energy-based probabilistic reliability assessment models are proposed in [21] in different stochastic
characteristics in wind energy integration, including resource availability, generation facility outage,
and transmission availability.

The three phase mathematical steady-state fundamental-frequency model of Type-3 wind driven
unit, i.e., a doubly fed asynchronous generator (DFAG) and its associated converter system, for three-
phase power-flow analysis has been proposed in [22] and its model validation and application is given
in [23]. The impact of probabilistic modeling of photo voltaic modules and wind power generation on

16
distribution networks using point estimate method has been studied in [24]. In [25], a methodology is
proposed, which allows to analyze wind generation at all scales of implementation, including highly
dispersed micro and small scale individual wind turbines connected at low voltage, as well as small
to medium size wind farms connected to distribution networks at medium voltage. Publicly available

information as on date on wind and wind generation is incomplete for deep understanding of their
characteristics, to overcome this drawback, a method is proposed in [26] for the calibration of a wind
farm, wind speed model with incomplete wind data.
For systems with wind generation both type of load flow analysis, i.e., deterministic and proba-
bilistic have been used.

4.2. Deterministic load flow methods with WTGS

The Deterministic Load Flow (DLF) is used to analyze and assess the planning and operation
of power system on a daily basis. DLF uses specific values of power generations and load demands

of a selected network configuration to calculate system states and power flows. However, with the
incorporation of WTGS in transmission and distribution systems the existing methods for load flow
have to be suitably modified. A review of deterministic load flow techniques with WTGS is provided
next.

4.2.1. Deterministic load flow methods with WTGS for distribution system

Distributed Generation (DG) (wind generation) is an important part of electrical generation in

many countries. Since, the cost of serving commercial and residential consumers is higher than the
cost of serving industrial consumer, the most significant changes for deregulated power systems will
occur in distribution business. Conventionally, electrical power in distribution feeders always flow
from substations to the end of feeders in planning and operation. However, the utilization of wind

turbine generating systems might cause reverse power flow in the feeders. Different methods used
for load flow with WTGS for distribution system are:

• Matrix based method

• Power summation method

• Current summation method

17
 Matrix based method: A direct-approach technique for solving the three-phase distribution power
flow which exploits network characteristic of distribution feeder was proposed by Teng [27]. Two
developed matrices, the bus-injection to branch-current matrix (BIBC) and the branch-current to
bus-voltage (BCBV) matrix, and matrix multiplications are utilized to obtain power flow solution.

The BIBC matrix represents the relation between bus current injections and branch current and is
given by [27]; The BCBV matrix represents the relation between branch current and bus voltage.
BIBC and BCBV are upper and lower triangular matrices respectively and therefore computation
time is also reduced. The integration of this load flow method with WTGS was proposed by Teng
in [28]. When induction generators are used as the power conversion devices, it will act mostly like

variable reactive power generators. By using the induction generator based WT as an example, the
real power output can be calculated by the WT power curve. The reactive power consumed by a
WTGS can be represented as a function of its real power [9] as;

2
Qi,g = −Q0 − Q1 Pi,g − Q2 Pi,g (15)

where, Qi,g is the reactive power function consumed by WTGS installed at the bus i and Q0 , Q1 , Q2

are experimentally obtained. The consumed reactive power cannot be fully provided by the distri-
bution system, and therefore capacitor banks are installed for power factor correction which can be
the single-step bank without switching or the multiple-step banks which are programmable. The
reactive power output can be expressed as:

Qi,g = Qi,g + Qci,g (16)

where, Qci,g is the reactive power supplied by the capacitor i.

Power summation method: WTGS are modeled as PV or PQ nodes in power flow studies in
distribution systems. Determining a suitable model requires knowledge of the WTGS operation and
type of connection to the grid. Moghaddas-Tafreshi and Mashhour [29] gives the list of different
distributed generation (DG) models for power flow studies and an unbalanced three phase power

flow algorithm for radial distribution networks considering DGs based on power summation method
in backward forward sweep technique. In the power flow algorithm as proposed by [29] root node
18
be the slack node with known voltage and angle, and initial voltage of all other nodes be equal to
root node voltage and initial power loss of all branches be equal to zero. The iterative algorithm
for solving system consists of four steps. First is the nodal power calculation. Since the absorbed
powers by some loads (constant current and constant impedance loads) and injected reactive power

by the capacitors vary due to the variation of nodal voltage in iterative process, they should be
recalculated at all iterations. Second is the backward sweep to sum up branch power starting from
the branches connected to end buses and moving towards root node. Third is the forward sweep
to update nodal voltages starting from first branch, which is connected to slack bus and moving
towards end branches and lastly voltage mismatch calculation.

The WTGS which are modeled as PQ nodes can be treated as negative PQ loads in power flow
solution without any problem. In order to handle the PV nodes, the backward/forward sweeps
are performed considering them as negative PQ loads. When the power flow is calculated, a check
is performed to verify that the voltage magnitude mismatches at PV nodes are below a specified

tolerance and if so the PV node has converged to the specified value. Otherwise reactive power
compensation Q needed at this PV node, in order to maintain the voltage at specified value, should
be calculated as:
X.∆Q = ∆V (17)

where, X is (n×n) positive sequence sensitivity reactance matrix, ∆Q is the reactive power injection
and ∆V is the vector of positive sequence voltage mismatches corresponding to the non converged
PV nodes and n is its number of nodes.

Current summation method: Sarita et.al.[30] proposed a method for three phase unbalanced
power flow using PV and PQ models for distributed generation (DG), which is capable of switching
the DG mode of operation from constant voltage to constant power factor. The method proposed
by [30] involves two sweeps of calculations. In the forward sweep, the end voltages are initialized
for the first iteration, and currents are calculated starting at the buses at the load end of the radial

branch and solved up to the source bus by applying the current summation method. The backward
sweep starts at the source bus and calculates voltages using the current calculated from the forward
sweep until the load end of the radial branches. The voltages from the backward sweep are used for

19
the next iteration in the forward sweep calculations. Convergence occurs when the calculated source
voltage (V c) is compared with specified voltage at source node (V s).
Generators are modeled in single-phase power flow programs by specifying voltage-angle (V), real
power-voltage (PV) or real and reactive power (PQ) at the generator buses. For three-phase analysis

just extending these specifications to each phase of a generator bus may lead to incorrect results.
The generator connections can be wye or delta. Depending on its particular control parameters, a
DG may be set to output power at either constant power factor for limited reactive power DG or
small DG, or constant voltage for large DG. In other words, some DG are modeled as constant PQ
loads with currents injecting into the node and others are modeled as PV nodes. The second type of

DG cannot be handled directly by a radial power flow program. The power flow solution determines
the machines terminal voltages, and the currents injected by the machine will be a function of the
terminal voltages when modeled as PV bus. Considered in this form, the DG is looked upon as
a voltage-dependent current source. Since, the terminal voltages may be unbalanced, the injected

currents may also be unbalanced. If there is a large imbalance in the injected currents the machine
may be shut down by its protection system. Generator terminal voltage is typically controlled by
the specification of positive sequence component. Thus, injected power of each phase, under an
unbalanced terminal voltage condition, can be calculated and two types of DG models developed by

[30] i.e. constant PQ, modeled as negative load with currents injecting into the node, and PV nodes.
However, the current summation method is more convenient and faster than the power summation
method because it uses only voltage and current instead of active and reactive power.

4.2.2. Deterministic load flow methods with WTGS for transmission system

Electrical transmission systems operate in their steady state mode under normal conditions.

The aim of power flow calculations is to determine the steady state operating characteristics of
a power generation/transmission system for a given set of bus bar loads. The main information
obtained from load flow study consists of: magnitude and phase angle of load bus voltages, reactive
power and voltage phase angle at generator bus, real and reactive power flow in transmission lines

and power at reference bus. This information is essential for continuous monitoring of the current
state of the system. The information is also important for analyzing the effectiveness of alternative

20
plans for future, such as adding new generator sites, meeting increased load demand and locating
new transmission sites. The most efficient method of load flow solution for large power system is
Newton-Ralphson [31]. However when the WTGS is included in the Newton-Ralphson method as
proposed in [9], wind farms with asynchronous generators are modeled as PQ or RX buses in the load

flow analysis. When the WTGS node is modeled as a PQ bus, generated active power is expressed
as a function of the wind speed. On the other hand, consumed reactive power is calculated with a
quadratic equation that depends on active power. The advantage of the PQ model is that the real
power is calculated as a function of the wind speed for the first iteration of the power flow analysis,
and thereafter its value remains constant. The reactive power depends on the real power and the

bus voltage. Since, the power is assumed constant, the only variable is the bus voltage, there are two
possibilities for calculating the reactive power. The first consists of considering the voltage as having
a constant value. In this case, the specified real and reactive powers are known in the first iteration
and remain unchanged and the bus behaves as a conventional PQ bus. With this simplification the

error is not significant. The second way consists of calculating the reactive power as a function of
the voltage. In this case, value of the specified reactive power must be updated in each iteration.
Either way, the convergence characteristics, when the PQ bus model is used, are similar to the case
of the conventional PQ model. The other model is called RX bus model in which active and reactive

powers are calculated by using equivalent circuit parameters of the induction machine. While active
power is based on slip formulation, consumed reactive power is again expressed as a function of the
rotor slip. When the RX model is used, there are two iterative processes. One of them is due to the
load flow analysis and the other calculation is due to slip of the asynchronous generator. From the
point of view of the load flow analysis, the RX bus behaves as a PQ bus, where real and reactive

powers are zero. Due to this, no additional load flow iterations are necessary. Nevertheless, obtaining
the final slip usually involves between 2 and 6 iterations [9]. The above method has been used on
an equivalent wind farm of 50 WTGS connected to an infinite bus.

5. Probabilistic Load flow methods

The deterministic load flow is used to undertake the planning exercise and assess the system
operation of a power system on a daily basis. DLF uses the precise values of power generations and
21
load demands for a particular network configuration to calculate the bus voltage magnitudes, angles
as well as line power flows. Therefore, DLF discounts uncertainties in the power systems, e.g. load
demand variations, generator outage rates and the change in network configurations. Furthermore,
with the integration of intermittent distributed generation units [32], such as wind turbine generator

and photovoltaic systems in the modern power systems, additional power fluctuations are introduced
into the system due to uncertain generation from the DGs. Therefore, for the analysis of present
day power system, the deterministic approach alone is not adequate and the results of the system
performance studies based on DLF may not be sufficient for proper system planning. Probabilistic
approach for computing load flow can take into account all the uncertainties discussed above and

has been applied to address various issues in power system operation and planning [33]. Such an
approach is called probabilistic load flow (PLF). The main information obtained by carrying out
PLF of a power system is:

• The probability that the voltage at any bus would be outside its operational limits.

• The probability that the flow in a line exceeds thermal rating of the line.

• The probability that the reactive power injection at a generator bus would be between the
specified limits.

These information can then be used to evaluate the system performance in the presence of uncer-
tainties.

By performing probabilistic load flow studies, system planning engineers can anticipate the prob-
able system operating conditions in a better way and therefore gain more confidence in making
judgments concerning investment in an uncertain future. Further, the introduction of deregulation
and competitive power markets has led to increase in the uncertainty even more, as the well-known

generation patterns cease to exist, the paths of supply are more diverse, and the injection of power
into system nodes becomes more unpredictable. Consideration of uncertainty in power system plan-
ning (for long term studies) may lead to a more secure and less expensive network. Further, a
proper assessment of the system variables under uncertain operating conditions may lead to a better

management of congestion in daily operation.

22
 The PLF was first proposed in 1974 by Borkowska and Allan [34, 35] and has been further
developed and applied for addressing various operational and planning issues for both transmission
[34, 35] and distribution systems [36, 37]. The inputs to the PLF are probability density functions
(PDF) of active and reactive power injections at different buses and the outputs are the PDF or

cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the bus voltages and power flows in the lines. The PLF
can be carried out by using either a numerical or an analytical approach.

5.1. Classification of PLF methods:

PLF methods can be broadly classified into three categories:

1. Simulation based PLF methods

2. Analytical approach based PLF methods

3. Moment based PLF methods

5.2. Simulation based PLF methods

In the simulation based approach, Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) method [38] is widely used
for the PLF analysis. In MCS, initially the bus active and reactive power injections are randomly
generated (within a specified range and as per given PDF) and subsequently a deterministic load flow

is carried out with these randomly generated power injections. This process is repeated thousands
of times to get the probability distributions of the quantities of interest [33]. The results obtained
from MCS are accurate, as it uses exact non-linear load flow equations, and are used as a benchmark
for quantifying the effectiveness of other approximate PLF methods [39]. However, due to the large
number of load flow calculations, the MCS method requires fairly large amount of computation time

[33]. To reduce the computational burden, techniques such as Latin hypercube sampling technique
based methods and Cholesky decomposition method has been proposed [40, 41, 42, 43] for improving
the computational efficiency of Monte Carlo simulation. Further, for this purpose, uniform design
sampling based MCS method has also been proposed in the literature [44].

5.3. Analytical-approach based PLF methods

In the analytical-approach, the PDF of system states i.e. voltage, angle and line power flows are
obtained analytically through convolution of the PDFs of input quantities. However, non-linearity of
23
load flow equations and interdependence of power system variables make it difficult to solve the PLF
equations by the convolution of PDFs of the input variables [33, 45, 46]. Therefore, to perform PLF
using an analytical approach, a number of assumptions are usually made, such as, totally independent
or linearly-correlated variables and usually a constant network configuration. Further, the load flow

(LF) equations are linearized with the first-order Taylor series expansion around estimated mean of
the input variables and the output system states are expressed as a linear combination of the input
variables.
In the analytical approach based PLF methods, linearization of non-linear LF equations is carried
out around the mean value. Consequently, accuracy of the results is adversely affected when values

of the input variables are far from their corresponding mean values i.e. for input variables with large
spread or standard deviation. Errors in the resulting PDF (due to large value of standard deviation
of input variables) are usually reflected in the tail regions, i.e. two ends of the probability distribution
curve of an output variable [47]. Therefore, to mitigate the error caused by the linearization of the

LF equations, different methods have been proposed in the literature. Two typical solutions are:
PLF using multi-linearization [48, 49] and the quadratic PLF [50, 51].
PLF using multi-linearization involves linearization of LF equations around several other points
besides the mean value. Around each linearization point, a suitable convolution technique can be

used to obtain the probability distributions of the desired output variables, which are then properly
combined to obtain the final probabilistic representation of the results.
In quadratic PLF, second-order term of the Taylor-series expansion of LF equations is used. As
a result, quadratic expressions for the LF equations are obtained due to the inclusion of second
order terms in the Taylor-series expansion. Contribution of the quadratic terms is generally small.

A technique for performing an efficient convolution using Laplace transformation of discrete and
continuous stochastic variables has been given in [50], while, fast fourier transform (FFT) used in
[51] for convolution shows a better efficiency. Further, if input variables are modelled as discrete
random variables, then the convolution involves heavy computational burden [52]. Hence, for a

power system with large number of load buses, the convolution method becomes computationally
very expensive.

24
5.4. Moment based PLF methods

The use of moments and resulting cumulants of the input variables to estimate PDFs and CDFs
of the output variables is an attractive choice, because of accuracy of the results and the convenience
to include dependence between the input random variables [52, 53, 54, 55]. These methods are
based on the concept that cumulants of a sum of random variables are equal to the sum of individual

cumulants of random variables. Using cumulants, the convolution of random variable (RV) is reduced
to addition of the cumulants of RV. As is well known [52], the first four cumulants denote the mean,
variance, skewness and kurtosis respectively. In the methods based on cumulants, cross cumulants
are zero for independent RV and also higher order cumulants (>4) can be neglected if distribution

of RV is near Gaussian.
Another method namely the point estimate method (PEM) as proposed in [56, 57, 58, 59], is
an efficient method for estimating the moments of the variables of interest. The point estimate
method computes the moments of a random variable ‘z’ which in turn is a function of several other

random input variables. This is achieved by approximating the PDF of an input random variable
by ‘h’ discrete points and their associated weights. The pair comprising of a point and its associated
weight is called a concentration. By this approximation, the contribution of each input random
variable to the output variables is considered independently. The method can be applied either to
continuous or discrete random variables [58, 59]. The advantages of PEM are [58] : (i) it requires

smaller amount of information and (ii) it needs reduced computational effort. After the moments or
cumulants of the output variables are obtained, the corresponding PDF and CDF can be determined
by using Gram-Charlier (GC) series expansion [46, 54], and Cornish-Fisher (CF) series expansion
[60, 61], Gaussian mixture model [62, 63] and Kernel density estimator [64].

6. Application and Extension of PLF

6.1. PLF integration with DG

Due to random behavior of the wind speed, which follows either a Weibull or Rayleigh distribution
[65], the power output of a WTG is also a random variable and therefore, the steady state analysis

of the systems with such DG units requires a probabilistic approach. As a result, various approaches

25
have been proposed in the literature for carrying out probabilistic analysis of power system with
WTG units.
In [60, 61, 66], cumulant based convolution in conjunction with CF series has been used for
calculating the PDF and CDF of the quantities of interest while in [67], cumulant based convolution

and GC series have been used for the same purpose. In [10], DC load flow and Fourier transform
(FT) based convolution have been used for calculating the PDFs. In [68, 69, 70], different PEM
based methods have been proposed for probabilistic analysis of a power system in the presence of
WTGs. In [68], PEM along with Nataf transformation has been used while in [69] and [70], discrete
PEM and extended PEM have been employed respectively. Further, in majority of these works,

the results obtained from PLF have also been compared with the results obtained by Monte-Carlo
simulation studies.

6.2. Correlation in PLF

The generated power from the renewable energy systems such as wind are essentially intermittent,
random [61] and also spatially correlated in a significant manner [66] within a given geographical
area, as they are influenced by the same physical phenomena [71]. The different methods to generate

the statistically dependent random variables (wind speeds and the load) are given in [72, 73, 74, 75].
The significance of interdependence in modeling the stochastic generation is also demonstrated in
[76]. The inclusion of correlation in wind generation and the loads for point estimate method is
explained in [70]. Further, in [41, 42, 43, 44, 62, 66, 10, 68] the correlation among the wind generator
has also been considered. Moreover, since certain type of loads have similar behavior, input power

variables are not completely independent from each other. A linear dependence was assumed in
[77, 78], for modeling the correlation among the loads connected at different buses and between the
active and reactive power of the loads.

6.3. Power system planning

Probabilistic power flow analysis of a power system is an important tool for planning and decision
making for an electric grid under uncertain environment [79, 80]. Now, for the successful operation of

the power systems, it is mandatory to keep the voltage of the system within the desired limits under
various operating conditions. For this purpose, power system operators use a number of reactive
26
power control devices such as shunt capacitors and transformer taps [81, 82]. The optimal adjustment
of these control devices has a significant influence on the security and economic operation of power
systems. The optimal values of the control devices are determined through optimal reactive power
planning (ORPP). The setting and dimensioning of these control devices should be determined in a

more realistic way than the traditional deterministic approach [83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89]. In [90],
optimal VAR Planning Considering Intermittent wind power using Markov Model and Quantum
Evolutionary Algorithm has been proposed. In [91], a cumulant based stochastic reactive power
planning technique for distribution system has been proposed while considering high wind penetra-
tion in the distribution grid. However, in this paper, a simple power injection model of the wind

generation has been considered. In [92], a probabilistic dynamic multi-objective model for renew-
able and non-renewable distributed generation planning has been proposed. In [93], an optimization
framework for distribution system planning with incorporating DG reactive capability and system
uncertainties is presented, in which the integrated solution algorithm with Tribe Particle swarm

optimization (T-PSO) and OO has been developed to determine optimal and near-optimal solution.
The theory and algorithm incorporating large-scale distant wind farms in probabilistic transmission
expansion planning is given in [94, 95]. In [96], a methodology for long-term power transmission ex-
pansion planning is proposed, which is considered as a mixed-integer linear problem that incorporates

the costs associated with the operation of wind power plants. In [97], a sequential approximation
approach is used for transmission planning under uncertainties of wind and load. The stochastic
reactive power planning, considering the uncertainty is given in [98, 99, 100].
A method for reactive power planning using chance-constrained programming has been proposed
in [98], which can accommodate uncertain factors and handle constraints easily. A model for long-

term reactive power planning where a deterministic non-linear model is expanded into a multi-stage
stochastic model under load uncertainty and N-k contingency is proposed in [99]. A method for
reactive power planning combining PLF and genetic algorithm (GA) is proposed in [100]. In this
method the transformer taps and capacitor MVARs are considered as the decision variables.

A methodology for controlling the voltage using the system control devices through the PLF
analysis has been investigated in [101]. The basic idea is to include a control variable, such as
transformer taps, shunt compensation devices and voltages at PV buses, in a constrained LF analysis,
27
so that some or all the elements of system states and line flows are within operating limits. In
addition, operating constraint violations are obtained together with the probability of each violation.
With the increase in penetration of WTGs in the system, the reactive power planning has to
be carried out considering the uncertainties of the wind power generation. In [91, 102], stochastic

reactive power planning techniques for distribution system have been proposed while considering
high wind penetration in the distribution grid.

6.4. Network outage rates

In all the works described above, the outages of the power system components (generator, trans-
mission line etc.) have not been considered. However, for realistic planning exercise, the outages
also need to be taken into account. The algorithm of the PLF considering network outage rates are
discussed in [103], in which the network configuration is considered as a discrete stochastic variable

with specified probability of each network component. Finally, the PDFs or CDFs of voltage, angle
and line power flows are obtained from a weighted sum of the PDFs or CDFs obtained under each
network configuration, respectively.
Another method of dealing with network outages is proposed in [104], where the line outage is

simulated by modifying the injected powers at both ends of the line, so that the total power leaving
the line is same as in the case of actual line outage.
Another issue is random variation of network parameters due to variation of temperature, which
is considered as a continuous stochastic variable and is not treated in the conventional PLF [59]. In

this method line resistance and reactance are assumed to have uniform distributions with different
mean values, while line susceptance is assumed to have a binary distribution. The line parameters
are simulated to different degrees of variations and the results are compared with those obtained
from the corresponding MCS study.

7. Technical and economic issues with the integration of wind generation

Though the wind power is a highly variable source but if it is connected to large power system
then their integration is much less complicated. An increased geographical spreading of wind power

28
will increase predictability, reduce variability and decrease to minimum the occasions of near-zero
or peak output [105].
Size of the power system, capacity of generation and load variations have an effect on how wind
generation is assimilated into the system. As wind penetration increases above 10%, there is an

economic impact on the operation of power system and measures have to be taken to ensure that
wind power variations do not reduce the reliability of power systems [105].
As the wind plant output depends on the wind speed (which is a highly variable source), electric
utility system planners and operators are concerned that the variations in wind plant output may
increase operating costs of the system due to the fact that system must maintain balance between

the aggregate demand for electric power and the total power generated by all power plants feeding
the system. The costs associated with maintaining this balance are referred to as ancillary-services
costs [106] and operating cost impacts are small at low penetration levels and moderate at higher
penetration levels.

The location and intermittent nature of wind turbine machines can cause power quality problems
such as voltage dips, frequency variations, and low power factor due to the absorption of reactive
power by wind generators from the system. Power quality problems caused by wind power are best
solved at the point of interconnection of the wind generator to the utility grid [107]. New state-

of-the-art wind generators utilize power electronics and variable-pitch turbines that allow the wind
turbine to produce energy at various wind speeds [108].
Many utilities are concerned that wind power may cause power flow imbalances on their systems
due to which some utilities charge an extra imbalance penalty. For example, the Bonneville Power
Administration (BPA) used to charge all generators, including wind developers, 100$/MW h when

they failed to deliver scheduled power over the transmission grid and caused power imbalances.
However, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) approved removal of the penalty in
2002 [109].
The dynamics of a power system are governed mainly by the generators. Thus, if conventional

power generation is on a large scale replaced with wind turbines that use either asynchronous squirrel
cage induction generators or variable-speed generation systems with power electronics, dynamics of
the power system will at some point be affected, which in turn affects the stability. By taking
29
adequate measures, the stability of a power system can be maintained while increasing the wind
power penetration. The constant-speed wind turbines are equipped with pitch controllers in order
to reduce the amount of over-speeding that occurs during a fault and also by combining them with
a source of reactive power to supply the large amount of reactive power consumed by a squirrel cage

generator after a fault [110].

New wind forecasting techniques have improved scheduling of wind energy and such forecasts
can have substantial value even if they are not perfectly accurate [111, 112]. Using real-time wind
and energy data from the wind plants, physics-based forecasting models and computational learning
systems such as artificial neural networks [113] or support vector machines, it is possible to provide

forecasts of wind energy delivery that are significantly better than simplistic forecasts based on
climatology (historic values) or persistence (assuming that what is currently happening will continue
without change).
In most of the European countries, wind power should be on top in merit order due to its

marginal price of almost zero i.e. RES have priority access to the grid. However, at certain times,
constraining of wind generation could reduce the overall system integration costs [114]. Curtailment
of wind power production could arise because of network limitations or system aspects.

8. HVDC with wind generation

In spite of the challenges of building wind farm in sea, offshore wind farm (OWF) is expected to
be a major source of energy and Europe leading in it with its first OWF installed in Denmark in
1991. In the late 1990’s single wind turbine with power ratings less than hundreds of kilowatts were
installed but today, OWFs are planned with capacities even above 1000 MW. Thus, it can be said

that OWF have generation capacities which are comparable to existing conventional power plants
[115].
Due to location and stochastic nature of power produced, interconnection of these units represents
a technical challenge. The OWFs which are operating today are connected to the onshore grid

through high voltage alternating current (HVAC) or high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission
system. Of the two, HVDC transmission system is preferred due to high power losses, resonance
problems and predominant capacitance effect of AC cables in case of HVAC [116]. The technical
30
and economic analysis to evaluate the benefits and drawbacks of grid connecting offshore wind
farms through a HVDC has been done in [117], in which it is shown that HVDC appears to be the
cheapest option to connect a 100 MW wind farm at distances greater than 90 km to the shore. The
comparative evaluation of the HVDC and HVAC links Integrated in a Large Offshore Wind Farm is

given in [118].
Currently, two converter technologies are commonly used for marine HVDC links, namely voltage
source converters (VSCs) or line commutated converters (LCCs). VSCs are based on Insulated-gate
bipolar transistor (IGBTs), gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs) or integrated gate-commutated thyristor
(IGCTs), whereas LCCs are based on thyristors [119]. In [120], LCC-HVDC connection of offshore

wind farms with reduced filter banks is presented. To cope with the challenge of fluctuations of large
scale wind power injected into power systems, a three terminal LCC-HVDC system is proposed in
[121], to connect wind farms, remote conventional power plants and receiving grid. The integration
of offshore wind farm using a hybrid HVDC transmission composed of a pulse width modulated

(PWM) current-source converter and line-commutated converter is proposed in [122].

An integrated design of an offshore wind farm and an interconnection circuit based on a series
multi-terminal HVDC (MTDC) link with current source inverters (CSI) is presented in [123], in which
transmission converters are used to achieve variable speed operation for a group of generators which

enables use of very simple generators and the series converter connection eliminates offshore trans-
formers. In [124], a coordination control strategy for wind farms using HVDC with line commutated
converter (LCC) is presented, which is based on the pitch controllers. The operation and control of
dc-bus-based offshore wind farm topology is investigated in [125], which is connected with an HVDC
system through the 3L neutral point clamped (NPC) based VSC stations and XLPE (cross-linked

polyethylene) cables. The feasibility of using HVDC transmission technology, particularly MTDC,
as one of the preferable solutions to solve the grid interconnection issue of wind generation has
been explored in [126]. The operation and control of a MTDC for connecting offshore wind farms,
installed with squirrel cage induction generators is investigated in [127]. A smart operation strategy

was proposed in [128] for economic and stable operation of the Jeju system, taking into consideration
the multiple HVDC lines and the wind generation capacity, while in [129], the integration of offshore
wind farm using a hybrid HVDC transmission composed of PWM based current-source converter
31
and line-commutated converter has been investigated.

9. Conclusion

In this work, an extensive review of inclusion of wind generation in power system studies has been
done. This review gives an overview of different WTGS models, various algorithms and methods

used for the analysis of wind integration with power system. The main review carried out in this
work includes:-

• The basics of wind power generation including wind farms, wake-effect, wind turbine power
curve, effect of temperature, pressure, height etc. on wind generation to get an overview of

wind generation system.

• The wind turbine generator models for integration into the algorithm for an accurate analysis.

• The various deterministic load flow methods for transmission and distribution systems.

• The different probabilistic load flow methods to cater the uncertainty in the wind.

• Application and extension of probabilistic load flow, i.e. PLF with correlation, PLF with
planning and contingency analysis.

• Technical and economic issues related to the integration of wind into the power system.

• Various techniques and problems associated with the integration of HVDC with generation for

offshore wind farms.

10. References

[1] R. REN, global status report, 2013, Renewable energy policy network for the 21st century: Paris: REN21
Secretariat.
[2] G. M. Masters, Renewable and efficient electrical power systems, Wiley-Interscience, 2004.
[3] H. G. Beyer, T. Pahlke, W. Schmidt, H.-P. Waldl, U. de Witt, Wake effects in a linear wind farm, Journal of
Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 51 (3) (1994) 303–318.
[4] M. B. Christiansen, C. B. Hasager, Wake effects of large offshore wind farms identified from satellite sar, Remote
Sensing of Environment 98 (2) (2005) 251–268.
32
 [5] M. Adaramola, P.-Å. Krogstad, Experimental investigation of wake effects on wind turbine performance, Re-
newable Energy 36 (8) (2011) 2078–2086.
[6] F. González-Longatt, P. Wall, V. Terzija, Wake effect in wind farm performance: Steady-state and dynamic
behavior, Renewable Energy 39 (1) (2012) 329–338.
[7] H. Kim, C. Singh, A. Sprintson, Simulation and estimation of reliability in a wind farm considering the wake
effect, Sustainable Energy, IEEE Transactions on 3 (2) (2012) 274–282.
[8] X. Han, J. Guo, P. Wang, Adequacy study of a wind farm considering terrain and wake effect, IET generation,
transmission & distribution 6 (10) (2012) 1001–1008.
[9] A. Feijoo, J. Cidras, Modeling of wind farms in the load flow analysis, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems
15 (1) (2000) 110 –115.
[10] D. Villanueva, J. L. Pazos, A. Feijoo, Probabilistic load flow including wind power generation, IEEE Transactions
on Power Systems 26 (3) (2011) 1659–1667.
[11] S. M. Muyeen, J. Tamura, T. Murata, Stability Augmentation of Grid Connected Wind Farm, Springer, 2009.
[12] K. Divya, P. N. Rao, Models for wind turbine generating systems and their application in load flow studies,
Electric Power Systems Research 76 (9-10) (2006) 844 – 856.
[13] T. Van Cutsem, C. Vournas, Voltage stability of electric power systems, Vol. 441, Springer, 1998.
[14] U. Eminoglu, Modeling and application of wind turbine generating system (wtgs) to distribution systems,
Renewable energy 34 (11) (2009) 2474–2483.
[15] I. G. Damousis, M. C. Alexiadis, J. B. Theocharis, P. S. Dokopoulos, A fuzzy model for wind speed prediction
and power generation in wind parks using spatial correlation, Energy Conversion, IEEE Transactions on 19 (2)
(2004) 352–361.
[16] M.-S. Kang, Generation cost assessment of an isolated power system with a fuzzy wind power generation model,
IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion 22 (2) (2007) 397–404.
[17] R. Karki, P. Hu, R. Billinton, A simplified wind power generation model for reliability evaluation, Energy
conversion, IEEE Transactions on 21 (2) (2006) 533–540.
[18] A. P. Leite, C. L. Borges, D. M. Falcao, Probabilistic wind farms generation model for reliability studies applied
to brazilian sites, Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on 21 (4) (2006) 1493–1501.
[19] A. I. Estanqueiro, A dynamic wind generation model for power systems studies, Power Systems, IEEE Trans-
actions on 22 (3) (2007) 920–928.
[20] P. Chen, T. Pedersen, B. Bak-Jensen, Z. Chen, Arima-based time series model of stochastic wind power gener-
ation, Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on 25 (2) (2010) 667–676.
[21] Y. Zhang, A. Chowdhury, D. Koval, Probabilistic wind energy modeling in electric generation system reliability
assessment, Industry Applications, IEEE Transactions on 47 (3) (2011) 1507–1514.
[22] M. Z. Kamh, R. Iravani, Three-phase steady-state model of type-3 wind generation unitpart i: Mathematical
models, Sustainable Energy, IEEE Transactions on 2 (4) (2011) 477–486.
33
[23] M. Z. Kamh, R. Iravani, Three-phase steady-state model of type-3 wind generation unitpart ii: Model validation
and applications, Sustainable Energy, IEEE Transactions on 3 (1) (2012) 41–48.
[24] A. Soroudi, M. Aien, M. Ehsan, A probabilistic modeling of photo voltaic modules and wind power generation
impact on distribution networks, Systems Journal, IEEE 6 (2) (2012) 254–259.
[25] B. P. Hayes, S. Z. Djokic, Modelling of wind generation at all scales for transmission system analysis, IET
Generation, Transmission & Distribution 7 (10) (2013) 1144–1154.
[26] S. H. Hosseini, C. Y. Tang, J. N. Jiang, Calibration of a wind farm wind speed model with incomplete wind
data.
[27] J.-H. Teng, A direct approach for distribution system load flow solutions, Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions
on 18 (3) (2003) 882–887.
[28] J.-H. Teng, Modelling distributed generations in three-phase distribution load flow, Generation, Transmission
& Distribution, IET 2 (3) (2008) 330–340.
[29] S. Moghaddas-Tafreshi, E. Mashhour, Distributed generation modeling for power flow studies and a three-phase
unbalanced power flow solution for radial distribution systems considering distributed generation, Electric Power
Systems Research 79 (4) (2009) 680–686.
[30] S. Khushalani, J. M. Solanki, N. N. Schulz, Development of three-phase unbalanced power flow using pv and
pq models for distributed generation and study of the impact of dg models, Power Systems, IEEE Transactions
on 22 (3) (2007) 1019–1025.
[31] G. W. Stagg, A. H. El-Abiad, A. El, Computer methods in power system analysis, Vol. 2, McGraw-Hill New
York, 1968.
[32] W. El-Khattam, M. M. A. Salama, Distributed generation technologies, definitions and benefits, Electric Power
Systems Research 71 (2) (2004) 119–128.
[33] G. J. Anders, Probability Concepts in Electric Power Systems, New York: Wiley, 1990.
[34] B. Borkowska, Probabilistic load flow, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems PAS-93 (3) (1974)
752 –759.
[35] R. Allan, B. Borkowska, C. Grigg, Probabilistic analysis of power flows, Proceedings of the Institution of
Electrical Engineers 121 (12) (1974) 1551 –1556.
[36] N. D. Hatziargyriou, T. S. Karakatsanis, M. Papadopoulos, Probabilistic load flow in distribution system con-
taining dispersed wind power generation, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 8 (1) (1993) 159–165.
[37] A. C. Melhorn, A. Dimitrovski, K. Tomsovic, Three phase probabilistic load flow in radial distribution networks,
in: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Probabilistic Methods Applied to Power, Istanbul,
Turkey, 2012.
[38] W. El-Khattam, Y. G. Hegazy, M. M. A. Salama, Investigating distributed generation systems performance
using monte carlo simulation, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 21 (2) (2006) 524–532.
[39] R. Allan, A. Leite da Silva, R. Burchett, Evaluation methods and accuracy in probabilistic load flow solutions,
34
 IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems PAS-100 (5) (1981) 2539 –2546.
[40] H. Yu, C. Y. Chung, K. P. Wong, H. W. Lee, J. H. Zhang, Probabilistic load flow evaluation with hybrid latin
hypercube sampling and cholesky decomposition, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 24 (2) (2009) 661 –667.
[41] Y. Chen, J. Wen, S. Cheng, Probabilistic load flow method based on nataf transformation and latin hypercube
sampling, IEEE Transactions sustainable energy 4 (2) (2013) 294–301.
[42] D. Cai, D. Shi, J. Chen, Probabilistic load flow computation with polynomial normal transformation and latin
hypercube sampling, IET Generation Transmission Distribution 7 (5) (2013) 474–482.
[43] D. Cai, D. Shi, J. Chen, Probabilistic load flow computation using copula and latin hypercube sampling, IET
Generation Transmission Distribution 8 (9) (2014) 1539–1549.
[44] D. Cai, D. Shi, J. Chen, Probabilistic load flow with correlated input random variables using uniform design
sampling, International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems 63 (2014) 105–112.
[45] R. Allan, M. Al-Shakarchi, Probabilistic a.c. load flow, Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers
123 (6) (1976) 531 –536.
[46] A. P. S. Meliopoulos, G. J. Cokkinides, X. Y. Chao, A new probabilistic power flow analysis method, IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems 5 (1) (1990) 182–190.
[47] R. N. Allan, C. H. Grigg, M. R. G. Al-Shakarchi, Numerical techniques in probabilistic load flow problems,
International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering 10 (4) (1976) 853–860.
[48] R. N. Allan, A. M. Leite da Silva, Probabilistic load flow using multilinearisations, Proceedings of the Institution
of Electrical Engineers 128 (5) (1981) 280–287.
[49] A. M. Leite da Silva, V. L. Arienti, Probabilistic load flow by multilinear simulation algorithm, Proceedings of
the Institution of Electrical Engineers 137 (4) (1990) 276–282.
[50] M. Brucoli, F. Torelli, R. Napoli, Quadratic probabilistic load flow with linearly modeled dispatch, International
Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems 7 (3) (1985) 138–146.
[51] X. Li, X. Chen, X. Yin, T. Xiang, H. Liu, The algorithm of probabilistic load flow retaining nonlinearity,
International Conference on Power System Technology 4 (2002) 2111–2115.
[52] X. Wang, Y. Song, M. Irving, Modern Power Systems Analysis, Springer, 2009.
[53] P. Zhang, S. Lee, Probabilistic load flow computation using the method of combined cumulants and gram-charlier
expansion, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 19 (1) (2004) 676 – 682.
[54] T. Williams, C. Crawford, Probabilistic load flow modeling comparing maximum entropy and gram-charlier
probability density function reconstructions, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 28 (1) (2013) 272–280.
[55] D. Villanueva, A. E. Feijo, J. L. Pazos, An analytical method to solve the probabilistic load flow considering
load demand correlation using the dc load flow, Electric Power Systems Research 110 (2014) 1–8.
[56] H. P. Hong, An efficient point estimate method for probabilistic analysis, Reliability Engineering and System
Safety 59 (3) (1998) 261–267.
[57] C.-L. Su, C.-N. Lu, Two-point estimate method for quantifying transfer capability uncertainty, IEEE Transac-
35
 tions on Power Systems 20 (2) (2005) 573–579.
[58] J. Morales, J. Perez-Ruiz, Point estimate schemes to solve the probabilistic power flow, IEEE Transactions on
Power Systems 22 (4) (2007) 1594 –1601.
[59] C.-L. Su, Probabilistic load-flow computation using point estimate method, IEEE Transactions on Power Sys-
tems 20 (4) (2005) 1843–1851.
[60] J. Usaola, Probabilistic load flow with wind production uncertainty using cumulants and Cornish-Fisher expan-
sion, International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems 31 (9) (2009) 474–481.
[61] J. Usaola, Probabilistic load flow in systems with wind generation, IET Generation, Transmission and Distri-
bution 3 (12) (2009) 1031–1041.
[62] G. Valverde, A. T. Saric, V. Terzija, Probabilistic load flow with non-gaussian correlated random variables using
gaussian mixture models, IET generation, transmission and distribution 6 (7) (2012) 701–709.
[63] C. Carmona-Delgado, E. Romero-Ramos, J. Riquelme-Santos, Probabilistic load flow with versatile non-gaussian
power injections, Electric Power Systems Research 119 (2015) 266–277.
[64] N. Soleimanpour, M. Mohammadi, Probabilistic load flow by using nonparametric density estimators, IEEE
Transactions on Power systems 28 (4) (2013) 3747–3755.
[65] J. Carta, P. Ramirez, S. Velazquez, A review of wind speed probability distributions used in wind energy
analysis: Case studies in the canary islands, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13 (5) (2009) 933 –
955.
[66] J. Usaola, Probabilistic load flow with correlated wind power injections, Electric Power Systems Research 80 (5)
(2010) 528–536.
[67] Y. Yuan, J. Zhou, P. Ju, J. Feuchtwang, Probabilistic load flow computation of a power system containing
wind farms using the method of combined cumulants and Gram- Charlier expansion, IET Renewable Power
Generation 5 (6) (2011) 448–454.
[68] C. Chen, W. Wu, B. Zhang, H. Sun, Correlated probabilistic load flow using a point estimate method with
nataf transformation, International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems 65 (2015) 325–333.
[69] X. Ai, J. Wen, T. Wu, W. Lee, A discrete point estimate method for probabilistic load flow based on the
measured data of wind power, in: IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, 2012, pp. 1–7.
[70] J. Morales, L. Baringo, A. Conejo, R. Minguez, Probabilistic power flow with correlated wind sources, IET
Generation, Transmission and Distribution 4 (5) (2010) 641 –651.
[71] J. Morales, R. Minguez, A. Conejo, A methodology to generate statistically dependent wind speed scenarios,
Applied Energy 87 (3) (2010) 843 – 855.
[72] A. E. Feijoo, J. Cidras, J. L. G. Dornelas, Wind speed simulation in wind farms for steady-state security
assessment of electrical power systems, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion 14 (4) (1999) 592–598.
[73] A. Feijoo, D. Villanueva, J. L. Pazos, R. Sobolewski, Simulation of correlated wind speeds: A review, Renewable
and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (6) (2011) 2826 – 2832.
36
[74] P. Correia, J. Ferreira de Jesus, Simulation of correlated wind speed and power variates in wind parks, Electric
Power Systems Research 80 (5) (2010) 592–598.
[75] Z. Qin, W. Li, X. Xiong, Generation system reliability evaluation incorporating correlations of wind speeds with
different distributions, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 28 (1) (2013) 551–558.
[76] G. Papaefthymiou, P. H. Schavemaker, L. Sluis, W. L. Kling, D. Kurowicka, R. M. Cooke, Integration of
stochastic generation in power systems, Electrical Power and Energy Systems 28 (2005) 655–667.
[77] R. N. Allan, A. shakarchi, Linear dependence in nodal power in probabilistic ac load flow, Proceedings of the
Institution of Electrical Engineers 124 (6) (1977) 529–534.
[78] A. M. Leite da Silva, V. Arienti, R. N. Allan, Probabilistic load flow considering dependence between input
nodal powers, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems 103 (6) (1984) 1524–1530.
[79] R. N. Allan, C. H. Grigg, D. A. Newey, R. F. Simmons, Probabilistic power-flow techniques extended and
applied to operational decision making, Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 123 (12) (1976)
1317–1324.
[80] A. M. Leite da Silva, S. M. P. Ribeiro, V. L. Arienti, R. N. Allan, M. B. Do Coutto Filho, Probabilistic load
flow techniques applied to power system expansion planning, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 5 (4) (1990)
1047–1053.
[81] S. K. Parida, S. C. Srivastava, S. N. Singh, A review on reactive power management in electricity markets,
International Journal of Energy Sector Management 5 (2) (2011) 201–214.
[82] S. K. Parida, S. N. Singh, S. C. Srivastava, A hybrid approach toward security-constrained reactive power
planning in electricity markets, Electric Power Components and Systems 36 (6) (2008) 649–663.
[83] K. Iba, H. Suzuki, K. I. Suzuki, K. Suzuki, Practical reactive power allocation/operation planning using suc-
cessive linear programming, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 3 (2) (1988) 558 566.
[84] M. K. Mangoli, K. Y. Lee, P. Y. M., Optimal long-term reactive power planning using decomposition techniques,
Electric Power Systems Research 26 (1) (1993) 4152.
[85] D. Chattopadhyay, K. Bhattacharya, J. Parikh, Optimal reactive power planning and its spot-pricing: an
integrated approach, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 10 (4) (1995) 2014 2020.
[86] J. R. S. Mantovani, A. Garcia, A heuristic method for reactive power planning, IEEE Transactions on Power
Systems 11 (1) (1996) 68 74.
[87] L. L. Lai, J. T. Ma, Application of evolutionary programming to reactive power planning-comparison with
nonlinear programming approach, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 12 (1) (1997) 198–206.
[88] Y. T. Hsiao, C. H. D., Applying network window schema and a simulated annealing technique to optimal var
planning in large-scale power systems, International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems 22 (1) (2000)
18.
[89] W. Zhang, F. Li, L. M. Tolbert, Review of reactive power planning: Objectives, constraints, and algorithms,
IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 22 (4) (2007) 2177 2186.
37
 [90] Y.-Y. Hong, K.-L. Pen, Optimal var planning considering intermittent wind power using markov model and
quantum evolutionary algorithm, Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on 25 (4) (2010) 2987–2996.
[91] M. Dadkhah, B. Venkatesh, Cumulant based stochastic reactive power planning method for distribution systems
with wind generators, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 27 (4) (2012) 2351 2359.
[92] A. Soroudi, R. Caire, N. Hadjsaid, M. Ehsan, Probabilistic dynamic multi-objective model for renewable and
non-renewable distributed generation planning, IET generation, transmission & distribution 5 (11) (2011) 1173–
1182.
[93] K. Zou, A. P. Agalgaonkar, K. M. Muttaqi, S. Perera, Distribution system planning with incorporating dg
reactive capability and system uncertainties, Sustainable Energy, IEEE Transactions on 3 (1) (2012) 112–123.
[94] M. Moeini-Aghtaie, A. Abbaspour, M. Fotuhi-Firuzabad, Incorporating large-scale distant wind farms in prob-
abilistic transmission expansion planningpart ii: case studies, Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on 27 (3)
(2012) 1594–1601.
[95] M. Moeini-Aghtaie, A. Abbaspour, M. Fotuhi-Firuzabad, Incorporating large-scale distant wind farms in prob-
abilistic transmission expansion planningpart i: Theory and algorithm, Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on
27 (3) (2012) 1585–1593.
[96] C. Muñoz, E. Sauma, J. Contreras, J. Aguado, S. De la Torre, Impact of high wind power penetration on
transmission network expansion planning, Generation, Transmission & Distribution, IET 6 (12) (2012) 1281–
1291.
[97] H. Park, R. Baldick, Transmission planning under uncertainties of wind and load: Sequential approximation
approach.
[98] N. Yang, C. W. Yu, F. Wen, C. Y. Chung, An investigation of reactive power planning based on chance
constrained programming, International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems 29 (9) (2007) 650–656.
[99] J. Lopez, J. . Contreras, J. Munoz, J. Mantovani, A multi-stage stochastic non-linear model for reactive power
planning under contingencies, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 28 (2) (2013) 1503 1514.
[100] Z. Hua, X. Wang, G. Taylor, Stochastic optimal reactive power dispatch: Formulation and solution method,
International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems 32 (6) (2010) 615–621.
[101] T. S. Karakatsanis, N. D. Hatziargyriou, Probabilistic constrained load flow based on sensitivity analysis, IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems 9 (4) (1994) 1853–1860.
[102] S. A. Arefifar, A. Y. I. Mohamed, Probabilistic optimal reactive power planning in distribution systems with
renewable resources in grid-connected and islanded modes, IEEE Transactions on industrial electronics 61 (11)
(2014) 5830–5839.
[103] A. M. Leite da Silva, R. N. Allan, S. Soares, V. Arienti, Probabilistic load flow considering network outages,
IEE Proceedings on Generation Transmission and Distribution 132 (3) (1985) 139–145.
[104] Z. Hu, X. Wang, A probabilistic load flow method considering branch outages, IEEE Transactions on Power
Systems 21 (2) (2006) 507–514.
38
[105] P. S. Georgilakis, Technical challenges associated with the integration of wind power into power systems, Re-
newable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 12 (3) (2008) 852–863.
[106] J. C. Smith, E. A. DeMeo, B. Parsons, M. Milligan, Wind power impacts on electric power system operating
costs: Summary and perspective on work to date; preprint, Tech. rep., National Renewable Energy Lab., Golden,
CO.(US) (2004).
[107] B. W. Kennedy, Integrating wind power: Transmission and operational impacts, Refocus 5 (1) (2004) 36–37.
[108] F. D. Kanellos, N. D. Hatziargyriou, The effect of variable-speed wind turbines on the operation of weak
distribution networks, Energy Conversion, IEEE Transactions on 17 (4) (2002) 543–548.
[109] M. Ed., Wind farms get a boost from bpa. portland, oregon: Bpa press release; 2002.
[110] V. Akhmatov, H. Knudsen, A. H. Nielsen, J. K. Pedersen, N. K. Poulsen, Modelling and transient stability of
large wind farms, International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems 25 (2) (2003) 123–144.
[111] M. Ahlstrom, L. Jones, R. Zavadil, W. Grant, The future of wind forecasting and utility operations, Power and
Energy Magazine, IEEE 3 (6) (2005) 57–64.
[112] A. G. Tsikalakis, Y. Katsigiannis, P. S. Georgilakis, N. D. Hatziargyriou, et al., Determining and exploiting the
distribution function of wind power forecasting error for the economic operation of autonomous power systems,
in: Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 2006. IEEE, IEEE, 2006, pp. 8–pp.
[113] Y. A. Katsigiannis, A. G. Tsikalakis, P. S. Georgilakis, N. D. Hatziargyriou, Improved wind power forecast-
ing using a combined neuro-fuzzy and artificial neural network model, in: Advances in Artificial Intelligence,
Springer, 2006, pp. 105–115.
[114] P. B. Eriksen, T. Ackermann, H. Abildgaard, P. Smith, W. Winter, J. R. Garcı́a, System operation with high
wind penetration, Power and Energy Magazine, IEEE 3 (6) (2005) 65–74.
[115] R. Perveen, N. Kishor, S. R. Mohanty, Off-shore wind farm development: Present status and challenges, Re-
newable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 29 (2014) 780–792.
[116] H. Weigt, T. Jeske, F. Leuthold, C. von Hirschhausen, take the long way down: Integration of large-scale north
sea wind using hvdc transmission, Energy Policy 38 (7) (2010) 3164–3173.
[117] P. Bresesti, W. L. Kling, R. L. Hendriks, R. Vailati, Hvdc connection of offshore wind farms to the transmission
system, Energy Conversion, IEEE Transactions on 22 (1) (2007) 37–43.
[118] C.-J. Chou, Y.-K. Wu, G.-Y. Han, C.-Y. Lee, Comparative evaluation of the hvdc and hvac links integrated in
a large offshore wind farman actual case study in taiwan, Industry Applications, IEEE Transactions on 48 (5)
(2012) 1639–1648.
[119] N. Kirby, M. Luckett, L. Xu, W. Siepmann, Hvdc transmission for large offshore windfarms, in: AC-DC Power
Transmission, 2001. Seventh International Conference on (Conf. Publ. No. 485), IET, 2001, pp. 162–168.
[120] R. Blasco-Gimenez, N. Aparicio, S. Ano-Villalba, S. Bernal-Perez, Lcc-hvdc connection of offshore wind farms
with reduced filter banks, Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions on 60 (6) (2013) 2372–2380.
[121] W. Lin, J. Wen, J. Liang, S. Cheng, M. Yao, N. Li, A three-terminal hvdc system to bundle wind farms with
39
 conventional power plants.
[122] R. E. Torres-Olguin, M. Molinas, T. Undeland, Offshore wind farm grid integration by vsc technology with
lcc-based hvdc transmission, Sustainable Energy, IEEE Transactions on 3 (4) (2012) 899–907.
[123] D. Jovcic, Offshore wind farm with a series multiterminal csi hvdc, Electric Power Systems Research 78 (4)
(2008) 747–755.
[124] L. Fan, Z. Miao, D. Osborn, Wind farms with hvdc delivery in load frequency control, Power Systems, IEEE
Transactions on 24 (4) (2009) 1894–1895.
[125] S. Muyeen, R. Takahashi, J. Tamura, Operation and control of hvdc-connected offshore wind farm, Sustainable
Energy, IEEE Transactions on 1 (1) (2010) 30–37.
[126] X. Chen, H. Sun, J. Wen, W.-J. Lee, X. Yuan, N. Li, L. Yao, Integrating wind farm to the grid using hybrid
multiterminal hvdc technology, Industry Applications, IEEE Transactions on 47 (2) (2011) 965–972.
[127] J. Liang, O. Gomis-Bellmunt, J. Ekanayake, N. Jenkins, W. An, A multi-terminal hvdc transmission system
for offshore wind farms with induction generators, International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems
43 (1) (2012) 54–62.
[128] D. H. Yoon, H. Song, G. Jang, S. Joo, Smart operation of hvdc systems for large penetration of wind energy
resources.
[129] R. E. Torres-Olguin, A. Garces, M. Molinas, T. Undeland, Integration of offshore wind farm using a hybrid hvdc
transmission composed by the pwm current-source converter and line-commutated converter, Energy Conversion,
IEEE Transactions on 28 (1) (2013) 125–134.

40

View publication stats