ELSEVIER Nuclear Engineeringand Design 156 (1995) 147- 158

Moisture propagation and resulting stress in heated

concrete walls
P. Majumdar, A. Gupta, A. Marchertas
Deparfmeni of Mechanical Engmeering, Northern Illinois Vniversiry, DeKalb, IL 60115, USA

Abstract

A mathematical model to simulate the coupled heat and mass transfer in heated porous media, as well as the
r~~lting stress, is described. A finite element analysis, assuminghomogeneouselastic material, is used to study the
temperature and pore pressure distribution, and the rate of moisture propagation through a concrete containment
wall under different time-dependent temperature boundary conditions. Results are also presented for the internal
stresses caused by the presenceof temperature gradients, pore pressure and the release of chemicailybound water at
high temperatures, Stress analysiscalculationsare superimposedover the calculationsof the moisture propagation.
The temperature,porepressureand volume change resultingfrom the loss of bound water, as derived by the thermal
mass transport calculation, are used as input for rhe stress analysis.

1. Introduction through pores. These induced pare pressures,

Recent studies have shown considerable inter-
est in the problems of moisture propagation and
the resulting stress in heated porous media, such
as concrete structures. Some investigators are
concerned with the structural integrity of nuclear
reactor containment structures, typically made of
concrete, when subjected to severe physical phe-
nomena during accidents. Others are concerned
with explosive spalling of concrete during rapid
heating. Concrete and other containment materi-
als contain extremely fine pores with large
amounts of water in various forms, such as free
or capillary water, adsorbed and chemically
bound water, High temperatures or other severe
thermal environmental conditions cause the re-
lease and evaporation of significant amounts of
water, and induce pressure gradients, under
which water is transported towards the surface
the thermal stress resulting from the tempera-
ture gradient and the shrinkage stress resulting
from the release of water may cause internal
stress above the maximum allowable tensile
stress of the containment structure, and may
cause cracks and explosive spalling of the
structure.
Bazant and Thonguthai (Bazant, 1978) studied
the magnitude of the pore pressure and loss of
moisture caused by heating of concrete, using
finite element techniques, and developed the
finite element computer wde TEMPOR?. Huang
and Ahmed (Huang, 1991) studied the effect of
the concrete slab thickness on the responses of
concrete walls under fire. A heat and mass trans-
fer model was solved using the finite difference
method, and a discussion on the pore pressure
and temperature distribution in the media was
given.

W9-5493/95/$09.50 0 1995 ElsevierScienceS.A. All ri&htsreserved

SSDI 0029-5493(94)00940-6
148 P. Majwndaf et al. / Nuclear
Dayan and Gluekler (Dayan, 1982) studied
heat and moisture transport in surface-heated
concrete slabs, in the context of the structural
integrity of nuclear reactor containment struc-
tures. A heat and mass transfer model, based on
an evaporation and recondensation mechanism
(excluding the release of non-evaporable water),
was solved numerically. Results were presented
for the water release, temperature and pore pres-
sure distribution.
Dhatt et al. presented details on the pore pres-
sure and temperature distribution during drying
of refractory concrete (Dhatt, 1986), using the
finite element mode1 of Bazant and Thouguthai,
and compared it with experimental results of the
temperature distribution. The effects of perme-
ability and the heat rate also were investigated.
Schneider and Herbst presented experimental
resul?s for the loss of weight, moisture distribu-
tion and pressure development for heated con-
crete samples subjected to a slow heating rate (up
to 600 “C), for plain and prestressed concrete,
using different types of aggegate (Schneider,
1987). Witakowski and Pietreyk analyzed the
thermal stressesinduced by the temperature gradi-
ents caused during hydration (Witakowski, 198?).
Wu and Ouyang presented a finite element tech-
nique for computation of the shrinkage stress in
prestressedconcrete containment (Wu, 1989).Nu-
mao and Mihashi presented experimental results
of drying shrinkage caused by water loss in con-
crete at certain constant temperatures up to 95 “C
(Numao, 1991).
Takiguchi and Hotta published results on the
thermal and shrinkage stresses of concrete, deal-
ing with the hydration reaction which occurs at
low temperatures(Takiguchi, 1991).The degreeof
hydration was formulated experimentallyand the
stress analysis method dealing with the hydration
reaction was formulated numerically. Results for
the normal stress distribution caused by drying
were presented.
Majumdar et al. used the finite element formu-
lation to estimate the stress resulting from the
thermal and pore pressure loadings during mois-
ture migration, occurring on heating of concrete
walls (Majumdar, 1993).The present study is an
extension of that work, to investigatethe heat and
Engineeringand Design I56 (19951 147- 158
moisture propagation and induced stressescaused
by temperature, pore pressure and shrinkage in a
concrete wall subjected to different time-depen-
dent heating rates.
2. Mathematical model
The state of water in concrete is categorizedas
free or capillary water, adsorbed or chemically
bound water. Fig. l(a) shows a schematicview of
the state of water in the pore system. Water in a
chemicallybound form is strongly adhered to the
surfaces and is considered to be an integral part
of the solid. Adsorbed water covers the pore
surface in several monolayers. The amount of
adsorbed water (or the number of monolayers of
adsorbed water) decreaseswith the decreasedrela-
tive humidity in the pore system. At the pore wall,
the innermost adsorbed water is considered to be
less accessible for motion. The rest of the pore
space is assumed to be filled by free water, which
is removable by heating. Titus+the cqillary water
is considered to be part free water and part ad-
sorbed water. A distinction is also made in terms
of evaporable and non-evaporable water. Part of
the evaporable water is the same as free water,
and the rest of the evaporable part includes the
outer layer of adsorbed water.
When concrete structures are subjected to high
temperatures or heating, as shown in Fig. l(b), a
significant amount of bound water is releasedand
pressure is induced in the pores. This causes the
transport of capillary water through the pores.
Therefore, heat and mass transport in the con-
crete structure are coupled, and are described by
energy and mass conservation equations.
2.1. Heat and mass transfer analysis
The mathematical mode1 used for the coupled
heat and mass transport is based on the model of
Bazant and Tbonguthar (Bazant, 1978). The
model is based on the foIlowingassumptions:
(1) the Dufour flux is negligible;
(2) the material is homogeneous and isotropic,
and all the physical properties can be expressedas
effective properties;
 P. Majumdpr el 01.1 Nuclear Engineering and Design 156 (1995) 147-158 149

MoIstweflow
f--

_--- _c--
_----- bound water
-----
---c-__
-- ---
- - - -\ water
* . . , ’a. Ft-~e
’* . * .
i------- 03
3

*
4 t
z
L
w2
t

GIL 2
I . u2
INSlOE SURfACE OUTSIDE SuRrACE'
1 r_ i
w (4
Fig. I. (a) State of water in pore system. (b) Physical model of a concrete slab. (c) Discretization of the analytical model.
(d) Quadrilateral element used in stress analysis.

(3) normal Darcy law applies. q= -kgradT (4

The set of governing equations and boundary For the moisture boundary conditions, we have
conditions are as follows. the sealed case at the heated end (no moisture flux
For the governing equations, the conservation at the surface), i.e. J= 0 at the surface. For the
of mass is represented by unsealed case at an unheated end, we have (a)
aw
-= -&vJ+T
perfect moisture transfer at the boundary, i.e.
P = PO at the surface, and (b) the moisture flux
at
from the surface to the environment given as
where the n!ass flux of moisture is nJ= K,(P- PO)

J= -igradp (2) For the temperature boundary conditions, we

have at an unheated end that (a) there is perfect
heat transfer from the surface, i.e. T= TOat the
surface, and (b) there is convective transttr from
aT
aw
PC;i;’ ca ,I+CWJgradT-divq
the surface, i.e.

where the heat transfer rate is

-Kg=h,(T- To)
150 P. Majwndar et al.
2.1.1. Sorption isotherms
Governing Eqs. (l)-(4) are complemented by
sorption isotherms, relating the free water content
(W), pressure (P) and temperature (T), The sorp
tion isotherms used for this study are similar to
those given by Bazant and Thonguthai (Bazant,
1978),with some modification.For analytical pur-
poses, the treatment was subdivided into three
parts, depending on the magnitude of the water
pressure P with respect to the saturation pressure
P,, Estimation of the free water content was as
follows.
Unsaturatedregion(P/P, 6 0.96). In this region,
the water content is given as
where the expression for m(T) is
Saiuruied ix@i {D/D
(8 IAsxv 1
. .-f7Ai In S_.."
.,. a..thiprp&n
--o----7
the equation of state is based on the bhermody-
namic properties of water, as given in the steam
tables. The amount of water is given by
volume or available pore space E
w=
specificvolume 0
The pore space available for such water is
estimated by taking into account the increase in
pore space resulting from elastic volume expan-
sion, decrease in adsorbable water and/or partial
dehydration. The expression used for this avail-
able pore space is
E_
- IL
??
0
PO J
1
+ WdvJ- WdQ
P(h)
where P(h) is a function used to include the effect
of elastic expansion resulting from the pore pres-
sure, and the difference W,(T) - WQ represents
the decreasein weight of adsorbable water above
the reference temperature T, = 25 OC.
Trarrsitionregion (0.96 f P/P, d 1.04). As a re-
sult of the unreliable and poorly reproduced data
from references, Bazant and Thonguthai repre-
/ Nuclear Engineering and Design 156 (1995) 147- 158
sented the transition region artificially by a linear
straight line between two limits, with the lower
limit given by the unsaturated region expression
and the upper limit given by the saturation region
expression (Bazant, 1978).
Inflection points at the two limits may cause
computation difficulty or instability. To avoid
such computational difficulties or instabilities
during the running of the program, a more accu-
rate and smoother transition region is developed,
using a so-called “S-shaped equation”, which
matches the coordinates and slopes of the transi-
tion limits
50.96 and ;== 1.04
S S
(5) The equation of this S-shapeci ,r;ze is
w= i$,ol,x’-’ 6%
where
# = [X,‘& - 2X&(3& - s, - $2) + $5, j
2
(x2 - XI )*
(6)
o! _ w2,-s1 -S2)
4
(x2 - Xl J2
and xl = (P/P,), = 0.96, x2 = (P/P,), = i .04, S, is
the slope at point (x,, W,), S, is the slope at
point (x2, W,) and S,, = (W, - W,)/(x2 -xl).
Fig. 2 sh>s; the sorption isotherms used for
this study. The set of equations, i.e. Eqs. (l)-(4),
(7)
for coupled heat and moisture transport is solved
using the finite element code TEMFORZ (Bazant,
1978)with some modifications.
2.2. Stress analysis
One of the major objectives of this study is to
n~m~~*tactr_PCPF rmmltino
ti”lrryuc* Y.._Y”IV D frnm
.I” I.____ --____vpl+jl~seffects
caused by heating of the concrete, and to develop
a stress code as an extention to the modified
TEMPORZ. Since heating COnCreteCawcs t!iCmd
 P. Majunldar Ed al. 1Nuclear Engineering and Design I56 (lW5) 147-158 151

expansion, pore pressure and shrinkage resulting
from the release of bound water, the stresses
resulting from these three effects are computed
together, and the total elF:t is observed.
Stress analysis formulations are superimposed
over existing heat and mass transfer solutions, so
that the nodal temperatures and pore pressure
values calculated are used as input to perform
stress analysis. It is assumed that the structure
Fig. l(c). The material is assumed to be homoge-
neous and elastic. Four-node quadrilateral ele-
ments (as shown in Fig. l(d)) are used, with a
displacement vector given as (UjT = [u, wl uz w2
u3 w3 u, w4j. The displacements u and w are re-
lated to the nodal displacements U, and wi by
u= c NiUi
i=l

analyzed could be in a plane stress, plane strain or 4

an axisymmetric configuration. This means that a w= C Niwi

i=l
corresponding stiffness matrix formulation is pro-
vided for the respective cases. Hence, formula- where the shape functions Ni are bilinear.
tions are presented in cylindrical coordinates of P The governing equation for stress analysis is
obtained by applying the principle of minimum
The imposition of internal strain for stress anal- potential energy as
ysis was derived, taking into account element ?c=A+Rt,+R, W-4
volumetric thermal strain and volume changes
resulting from the loss of bound water. Implicit The strain energy A is given by
calculation of the displacement (and stress) is
performed in turn by the finite element method, A=; MT{4 dCI’ (11)
using the same model discretization as shown in I”
The stress (~1 is related to the elastic strain {E)
through material matrix [D] by {a} = [D](E), and
the elastic strain vector {E}is related to the total
sirairi VWiOi {C) bjj

where (f+) is the thermal *,train vector and {ew)

is the strain vector resulting from moisture
change. Thus, the strain energy can be expressed
as

0 1

Relative vapor pressure P/Ps (Torrl The total strain {e} is related to the nodal
Fig. 2. Sorption isotherms. displacement {I/) by matrix [B], using
id = WC W (14) where the individual component terms of the
force vector {F) correspond to the changes in
On combining Eqs. (13) and (14), we obtain
temperature, moisture content, body force and
A= ; ( U)T[B]T[D][B]{U) dV pressure force respectively. For axisymmetric ge-
IY ometry, the stress and strain components are
(o}T= [ar a, a,, ere] and {.c}~= [E,E,qz ~1. The
remaining symbols in the force vector of Eq. (21)
are the r and z components of the body force
(R, Z), and those of the surface force (P,, P_)
respectively.
& is the potential energy of the body forces The nodal pressure calculations are used to
formulate the volumetric pressure loading equiva-
and is given by
lent to the body forces, which results in the calcu-
%= -IvWWIT{;]d~- (16)
lation of the equivalent force components R and
2. The surface force components (P,, P, ) result
Also, f& is the potential energy of the pressure from imposed pressures at the boundaries of the
analytical model.
forces and is given by
The volumetric strain components of .5r corre-
spond to the effect of the temperature change,
(17)
and ew corresponds to the effect of the change
in moisture. The thermal strain vector {sr}T =
On combining Eqs, (lo), (15)-(17), the potential
energy (II) of each element of the structure can be CIAT[l 1 0 l] and the change in nodaf tempera-
expressed as ture values (AT) are utilized to formulate ihe
element volumetric thermal strain components.
UllllllQlly,
~L’L’-- ihe strain vector resulting from the
change in volume because of moisture loss is
(&$Jr=CJl 1 0 11.
The strain resulting from dehydration (aw)is esti-
mated as the change in the volume of concrete per
unit volume of concrete. The change in the vol-
ume of concrete is assumed to be equal to the
volume of water released by dehydration. It is
expressed as
Using the principle of minimum potential en-
ergy, we have the global system of equations (22)

wlw1- iF) = WI (19) where j? is the coefficientof shrinkage, represent-

The element contributions to global stiffness
matrix [KJ and force vector {P} in Eq. (19) are
expressed as
ing the ratio of the change in concrete vohrme to
the volume of water released by dehydration.
Also, n is the porosity, W. is the change in
adsorbed or dehydration water used in the mass
transport calculation, and pW is the density of
water as a function of temperature.
The value of the coefficient of shrinkage is very
important, because it would make the stress re-
sulting from moisture lass proportional to the
loss. It is important to state that this coefficient
must be determined experimentally.
 P. Majumdar CI al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 156 (1995) 147-158

Table !
input parameters for rmwoR2
--_ --
Number of elements 100
Age of concrete 40 days
Initial humidity of concrete 0.95
Humidity of environment 0.70
Initial temperature 20 “C
Thickness of cOncrete 0.35 m
Saturation water content IOOkgm-
Mass of cement per unit concrete
volume 300kgm13
Density of concrete M10kgm-3
Waterxernent ratio 0.5
Volume of specimen 210m
Inner radius IOOOm
Thermal conductivity 1.674 J m-’ s-’ OC-’
Permeability IO-” m s-’

3. Numericalillustration

Heat-mass transport and stress analysis of a

concrete wall subjected to a sudden increase in
temperature is performed. The geometry of a 00
0 20 40 60 80 lot
I
1 0
one-dimensional illustrative example of the con-
Time (mini

0.11p
Fig. 4. Temperature input at the inside surface.

Cretewall is shown in Fig. 1. The input parameters

for the problem under consideration are given in
Table 1. The amount of physicallybound water as
a function of temperature for this concrete sampIe
f 0.08 is shown in Fig. 3. The temperaturecondition at the
E inside boundary of the wall is shown in Fig. 4.
2 0.07 The thermal input at the inside boundary of the
$ wall is approximated by three dierent arbitrary
= 0.06
3 ! types of input condition. Type I represents a very
rapid increase in the surface temperature from 25
to 400 “C. Type II representsa rate closeto a linear
rate of increasein the surfacetemperature.Type III
representsan increasein temperature to 175“C at
a slow rate and then a rapid increase to 400 OC.
Figs. 5 and 6 show the temperature and pore
pressure distributions resulting from varying rates
of temperature increase at the inside boundary
respectively. As expected, the temperature front
penetrates the concrete Sk5 at a faster rate for the
type I input condition. For type III, the tempera-
0 100 200 300 400 500 @xl 700 800 9 ture in the media started to increase rapidiy at
Teea watufe V’Q
about 120min. The peak value of the pore pressure
Fig. 3. Bound water content. is also high in the case of the type I input condition.
 P. Majumdar et al. / Nuch
------~min
. . . . . . . .. .._..... - 40 mifl
.-+-.-.- 50 min
-__--__--_.--‘a min
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.201
(a)TYPe 1 Distance (ml
Fig. 5. Temperature distributions in the slab for different temperature conditions at the inside surface: (a) type I; (b) type II; (c) type
III.
The pore pressure in the type III case is lower than
that in the type II case in most of the heating
periods. However, the peak value of the pore
pressure at 120min in the type III case is higher
than that in the type II case. This is because of the
iqid increase in iiX im:aringrate in the iatter hait
of the heating period for the type III case.
Fig. 7 shows the variations of the free water
content in the slab. The results show that, as the
heating progresses,moisture migrates towards the
outer surface, increasing the free water content in
the region near the heated region. The peak values
of free water content in this region also increase,
as a result of the releaseof bound water. The shape
of the plot and appearance of the peak are affected
by the release of bound water with an increase in
temperature above a threshold of 100*C; this
corresponds to the temperature variation shown in
Fig. 5, and the amount of bound water content
shown in Fig. 3. Also, it can be noticed that, as the
heating continues, the region near the heating
surface dries up and the peaks move toward the
outer surface, from which moisture is lost to the
environment.
Figs. 8-10 show the variations in total tensile
stress for differentheating conditions subject to the
input data given in Table 2. This total stress
includes contributions from the thermal stress,
pore pressure loading and the contribution from
dehydration. It was assumed in this illustrative
examplethat the coefficientof shrinkage was /3 = 1,
Engineering and Design 156 (1995) 147- IS8
500
-40min
------E3;&,
..__. .._._.-..-... 80 min
.-.-.--- 1w min
W-t -..-._-..- 120mj”
\
Q 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
(b) wpe 11 Distance (rn) Distance (rn)
i.e. that the loss of all bound water causes
a decreasein the total change in volume. While the
relationship between these two variables (water
content and /I) is not fully known, this is consid-
ered to be a good first approximation, from e
conservative point of view. More accurate estima-
tion of these values would need to be determined
experimentally. Since only tensile stress can cause
cracking, representative caszs of tensile stressesfor
locations at 0.175, 0,875, 1.575 and 2.275cm,
corresponding to the centroid of the first, third,
fifth and seventh elements, are shown in Figs.
8- 10.
It should be mentioned here that the magnitudes
of the stresses resuttingfrom shrinkage are consid-
erably higher than those caused by pore pressure
or the temperaturechange. The total stress that is
presented here is almost of the same magnitude as
that given by the shrinkage stress component. Fig.
8 shows stress plots for the type I case and shows
very high peaks soon after dehydration starts, near
the element at r = 0.175cm. For the remaining
elements, multiple peaks appeared, starting with
smaller peaks. Similar trends are also noticed for
the type II and type III cases, as shown in Figs. 9
and 10 respectively.
However, peaks started appearing at a later
time when dehydration started based on the heat-
ing rate shown in Fig. 4. Also, the magnitudes of
the induced tensile stresses are lower in cases II
and III, as a result of the lower rate of heating,
 P. Majutndar el al. I Nudeor
i
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Distance (ml
Ww 1 (W Type 11
Fig. 6. Pore pressure distributions in the slab for different temperature conditions at the inside surface: (a) type I; (b) type II; (c)
type111.
which eventually gives lower rates of release of
dehydration water. It may be noticed that the
induced tensile stresses in all three cases are above
the tensile limit of around 3 MI% for concrete.
Also, the stresses mused by the release of mois-
ture are by far the largest, and are several orders
of magnitude greater than the contributions from
thermal stress and pore pressure. It appears that,
even if the strains and stresses or coefficient were
to decrease by a factor of 10, they still would be
large enough to cause cracking. Then, only the
time of cracking would change, as depicted in
Figs. 8- 10. Because the stresses resulting from the
change in moisture are so large, the coefficientof
shrinkage /? and other factors that affect this
volume strain must he evaluated by preciseexper-
iments. The present analysis is limited to ideal
elastic materials without cracking, and the stress
distribution is not limited by the shortest peak
that reaches the tensile limit, i.e, weakening of
cracked elements is not accounted for, since
cracking is not modelled in the stress program.
4. Conclusions
The comp’dter simulation provides a convenient
tool to calculate the state of stress in a homoge-
Engineering and Design 156 (19951 147-158 155
v-!r-
-6Clmin
_____-mmjn
. . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. . . 100 mi”
.-.-.-_- 110 min
G
3ow ‘1
\\ _..-..__.._
120min
B \
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0 0.05 0.10 0.15
Distance (m) (c)%w 111 Distance (ml ??
neous concrete wall subjected to temperature and
moisture prnpag+?iorr The rrra~lt~!ol of ?!K ten-
sile stress can be monitored to seek indications of
crack openings. The example illustrated showed
stress primarily dominated by shrinkage, and
showed stress values above the tensile stress limits.
However, the magnitude and appearance of the
stress peak with respect to space and time were
significantly affected by the heating rate or time-
dependent temperarare boundary conditions at the
heated surface. The numerical values of the stress
shown illustrate the qualitative variation with time
and space. More meaningful results could he ob-
taineJ when accurate values of the modulus of
elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, coefficient of thermal
expansion, coefficientof shrinkage and other prop
erties are utilized in the calculation. The accuracy
also should reflectthe variation of these properties
with the temperature and moisture content.
The present analysis is limited to ideal elastic
materials without cracking, and the stress distri-
bution is not limited by the shortest peak that
reachesthe tensile limit. Also, if it is assumed that
cracks exist in the original material, then any
tensile stress would tend to open those cracks.
Then, the formulation for temperature and mois-
ture propagation would need to be altered. A
further improvement of the computational model
 Free water content

2 - 3’5’=5s
33333
1 P
a ,g
Free water content

Total tensile stress (MPa)

Free water content

g g g g
 P. Mqjumdnr et 01.1Nuclear
Engineering wrd De& 156 (1995) 147-158 157

Appendix G: Nomenclnme
- r = 0.175 cm a permeability
------ r P 0.875 cm
_....-. __.++
. . . . . . r 3 I.575 cm strain displacement matrix
PI
.-----_- r = 2.275 cm c specificisobaric heat capacity of concrete
-.A-.--+-- r -2.975 cm
ca heai of sorption of free water
heat capacity of isobaric water
ii material matrix
E modulus of elasticity
iF1 force vector
g acceleration resulting from gravity
h convective heat transfer coefficient
J moisture flux
k thermal conductivity
mass transfer c&Ecient
Ei
n
stiffness matrix
porosity
N shape function
P pressure
PO pressure in environment *
Y heat flux
: ---rrl;n*t-
Y”“.U...ti*l &I
. . . rwGo1
.““.W. Air4;nn
W.-I--.-C.
0 10 20 30 40 so 50 70 90 90 100 110 120
lime (min) R body force in r direction
Fig. IO. Variation of total tensile stress in the slab for type III
s surface
temperature conditions at the inside surface. i :imc
T temperature
TO temperature in environment
U displacement in r direction
Table 2 V VOhW
Input parameters for stress analysis
W displacement in z direction
Thermal moisture flux 0.0 W all free water
Modulus of elasticity 36 MPa Wd dehydration water
Poisson’s ratio 0.2 WWchange in dehydration water
Coefficient of thermal expansion 9.5 x lo-"*Cm' Z coordinate in axial direction
Cross-sectional area l.0m2
Caefficient of shrinkage I.o z body force in z direction

Greek letters

would be to include the effect of cracking in the coefficientof thermal expansion

analysis. coefficientof shriukage
incremental change
available pore space
Aeknowledgenmt thermal strain
strain resulting from dehydration
Part of the work described in this paper was density of concrete
supported by the Shimizu Corp., Nuclear Reactor density of water
Division, through a subcontract of the Argonne stress
National Laboratory. circumferential direction
 P. Majumdur e/ al. I Nuclear Engineering and Design 156 (1995) 147-158
References
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