Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics

Impact of religion on the effectiveness of the promotional aspect of product packages in

Muslim countries
Mohammed M. Almossawi,
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Impact of religion on the Product

packages in
effectiveness of the promotional Muslim countries
aspect of product packages in
Muslim countries 687
Received 24 November 2013
Mohammed M. Almossawi Revised 15 January 2014
Department of Management & Marketing, College of Business Administration, 22 March 2014
University of Bahrain, Sakheer, Bahrain Accepted 6 April 2014
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Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the influence of religion on the effectiveness of
product packages in attracting customers’ attention, and forming their attitudes, preferences, and
buying decisions. In other words, the study aims at finding out how do Muslims respond to product
packages including elements believed to disagree with the Islamic values, in this study referred to as
“contentious packages.”
Design/methodology/approach – To test the five hypotheses, the study recruited 300 young
Muslims in Bahrain, chosen from the population of 14,000 students of the University of Bahrain aged
between 20 and 25, 26 percent male and 74 percent female. The primary data were collected through
personal interviews with the selected sample, using a specially designed questionnaire. The
questionnaire included ten questions covering two personal questions for age and gender and eight
other questions attempting to find out Muslims’ responses to contentious packages in terms of
attention, attitudes, buying intention, company image, and word-of-mouth.
Findings – Findings indicate that use of contentious packaging runs a high risk of tarnishing
a company’s reputation and appeal. Muslims who live by Shari’a and the dictates of the Kuran will
consider such companies to be promoters of fornication, and will therefore boycott such companies in
order to prevent them from corrupting the purity and piety of the community. If advertising firms
continue to fail in recognizing the profundity of these beliefs within Muslim communities, both their
fiscal success and reputation run the risk of suffering substantial damage.
Practical implications – The findings of this study send six important messages to multinational
companies doing business in Islamic countries. First, Islam governs all aspects of Muslim life,
including consumer behavior. Second, to prosper in Islamic countries, choose packaging that does not
contradict or offend the principles and values of Islam. Third, recognize that much packaging that
has proven to be effective in Western countries will not be successful in Islamic countries due to vastly
different cultural environments. Fourth, a contentious package may result in a steep drop in the sales.
Fifth, using contentious packages may damage the reputation. Sixth, you can attract more Muslims by
using non-contentious packages.
Originality/value – This paper is of great value to companies who wish to expand their practice in
Muslim countries. Its findings promise to improve advertising standards and to increase both company
profits and customer satisfaction.
Keywords Advertising, Cross-cultural marketing, Environmental management, Consumer ethics,
Customer satisfaction, Contentious packaging, Immodest packaging, Islamic marketing,
Halal markets, Advertisements and promotions to Muslims
Paper type Research paper

Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and

Introduction Logistics
Vol. 26 No. 5, 2014
Nowadays, especially with the emergence of online shopping and the spread of pp. 687-706
© Emerald Group Publishing Limited
self-service giant retail shops, packaging serves as an important promotional tool to 1355-5855
inform, attract, and persuade customers. One way to increase the promotional DOI 10.1108/APJML-11-2013-0137
 APJML effectiveness of products’ packages in Islamic countries is to consider and to respond to
the target market’s socio-cultural forces. Said forces have a great influence on the
26,5 Muslim members of these countries and on the way that they respond to a product, in
terms of the attention given to it, their attitude toward it, and, ultimately, their buying
decision. Primary among these socio-cultural forces is religion. Literature indicates that
the Muslims’ religious commitments and convictions have a significant influence on
688 their perception of promotional material (Bari and Abbas, 2011; Saeed et al., 2001). This
study seeks to investigate the influence of religion on the effectiveness of product
packages in attracting customers’ attention and forming their attitudes, preferences,
and buying decisions. Put differently, the study’s goal is to find out how Muslims
respond to product packages, and in particular, those elements that they believe not
to be in accordance with their religious values. Said elements are herein referred to as
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“contentious packages.” A contentious package is one that contains elements that

are not in accordance with Islamic principles, such as imagery that may be deemed
immodest, women or men in seductive poses or revealing what may be considered
a fare amount of skin and so on. Such elements are strictly prohibited in Islam.
In a sizable number of Islamic countries, one notices that a subset of products do in fact
have contentious packages. These products include perfumes as well as women’s
socks, stockings, lingerie, shirts, and shorts.

Literature review
Literature indicates that package labels play an important role in influencing
buyers’ attitudes and buying decisions. For instance, some studies have investigated
the impact of labeling when it conveys nutritional information (Kasapila and Shawa,
2011; Hieke and Taylor, 2012; Ippolito, 1999; Wansink and Huckabee, 2005; Garde,
2008; Seiders and Petty, 2004), ingredients (Lafebvre and Aynne Cook, 2013; D’souza
et al., 2008), safety information (Tavernier, 2012; Boyce et al., 2013; Diamond, 2011;
Schneider, 1977), and environmental information (Purohit, 2012; Sorqvist et al., 2013;
Esther et al., 2004; Docecalova and Strakova, 2011). Other studies have investigated the
impact that images, which are shown on a package have on consumers’ buying
decisions (Hoek et al., 2013; Romer et al., 2013; Kees et al., 2010), while others found that
consumers associated the quality of a package with the quality of the product
(Sehrawet and Kundu, 2007). Despite the fact that much of the information on a
package is promotional (Mackey and Mitz, 2009), there appears to be a lack of studies
that have investigated the impact of a package’s promotional elements, such as design
and label, on consumers’ buying decisions. This study attempts to partially fill that gap
by focussing on the impact of religion on the effectiveness of a package’s promotional
elements. Hence, this study’s hypotheses are drawn from the literature, detailed below,
along with pertinent Islamic principles from the Kuran and Sunnah.
Boddewyn (1982) reported that religion is one of the forces that affects the
regulation of advertising around the world. “Religious values include a set of beliefs,
attitudes and activities to which a culture subscribes and is reinforced by rewards and
punishments for those who follow or deviate from these guidelines” (Kalliny et al.,
2008, p. 217). According to Luqmani et al. (1989), in Saudi Arabia, one of the major
factors influencing advertising is religion, and all promotions must be compatible with
religious standards. This is because Shari’a (Islamic Law) is viewed as a comprehensive
code governing all areas of Muslims’ lives (Luqmani et al., 1989; Coualon, 1964). In
Islamic countries, the role of religion in peoples’ daily life should not be overlooked
given that Muslims’ cultural value system is derived from and guided by their religious
 beliefs (Salzman, 2007; Bari and Abbas, 2011; Anastos et al., 1980; Kavoosi, 2000; Product
Lawrence, 1998). Indeed, Almossawi (1992) found an inverse relationship between
Muslims’ religious convictions and their perception of contentious ads.
packages in
The importance of religion, as a contributing factor to the effectiveness of Muslim countries
promotion, is emphasized by a considerable number of researchers (for example,
Marriott, 1986; Kline, 1982; O’guinn and Belk, 1989; Luqmani et al., 1980). Religion
can also play an important role in peoples’ buying decisions, as reported by Wilkes 689
et al. (1986) who stated that religion is an important criterion in the study of consumer
behavior. A similar result was also found by Hoge et al. (1987) who reported that the
value trends of the youth in the USA is moving in a conservative direction as compared
to the 1950s. In the same respect, a number of studies that focus more on advertising
have reported that a promotional material’s background features might have a
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considerable influence on the target market’s attitude toward the promoted brand
(Engel et al., 1978; Schiffman and Kanuk, 1978). Therefore, when designing their
product packages, it is imperative that companies opt for background features that
are acceptable to their target audience. In other words, the effectiveness of a product
package partially depends on whether it is presented in a favorable or an unfavorable
context (Gorn, 1982).
In Arab countries, one of the major forces determining people’s perception of
product packages as well as other promotional tools, is religion. This is because Arab
culture is for the most part based on Islam, which as it happens, is the majority
religion in all Arab countries (Kalliny et al., 2008). In this respect, Stone (2002, p. 3)
stated “whatever is happening in the Islamic world whether in its collective
manifestations or in individual Islamic countries and populations is a product of the
commonality of attitudes and sentiments which Islam imposes.” For Muslims, the main
two sources of Islamic Law are Kuran – scripture – and Sunnah – the documented
traditions of the prophet Mohammed (Al-Qaradawi, 1960; Mutsikiwa and Basera, 2012).
In his book “Know your Islam,” Yousuf Lalliji reported that Islam influences the
daily life of Muslims through their holy book, the Kuran. He stated, “the Kuran is the
general code of the Muslims world; a social, civil, commercial, military, judicial,
criminal, penal and yet religious code; by it everything is regulated – from the
ceremonies of religion to those of daily life, from the salvation of the soul to the health
of the body, from the rights of the general communities to those of each individual, from
the interests of man to those of the society, from morality to crime, from punishment
here to that in the life to come” (Lalliji, 1987). The importance of the Kuran to Muslims
is also emphasized by Kabasakal and Bodur (2002) who stated that the Kuran is
respected by all Muslims and considered to be a holy book, which has helped foster
among the Arabs a common culture. It is on the basis of Islamic Law that Muslims
decide which elements of a promotion are contentious and, hence, must be avoided.
In this respect, the prophet Mohammed said:
What Allah has made lawful in His book is halal and what he has forbidden is haram and that
concerning which He is silent is allowed as His favor (Al-Qaradawi, 1960, p. 15).
The theoretical framework of this study’s hypothesis is based on the main source
of the Islamic Law: the Kuran.
Religion not only defines what is universally proper, but also includes a set of
prohibitions of attractions that it deems vices, such as materialism, immodesty,
indecency, and so on. Therefore, any promotion that is perceived as contentious is
unlikely to be effective in capturing buyers’ attention or changing their attitudes
 APJML toward the promoted product (Rice and Almossawi, 2002; Bari and Abbas, 2011;
Kelman, 1961; Howard and Sheth, 1969; Newcomb, 1963; Saeed et al., 2001; Rice, 1998).
26,5 With regards to nudity, Islam’s call is for men and women topurify their eyes
and hearts by refraining from looking at things that are prohibited to look at (Kiran and
Karande, 2000). In this respect, the Kuran indicates that God has commanded believing
men and women to lower their gaze and guard their sexual parts:
690 Tell the believing men that they should lower their gaze and guard their sexual organs; that is
purer for them. Indeed, Allah is well-aquatinted with what they do. And tell the believing
women that they should lower their gaze and guard their sexual organs, and not display their
adornments except that which is apparent of it (Kuran 24, pp. 30-31).
Lowering the gaze in this context means not looking at a member of opposite sex with
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lust. The prophet Mohammed described such looks as the adultery of eyes, given that it
leads to unlawful sexual pleasure:
The eyes also commit adultery, and their adultery is the lustful look (Al-Bokari, 1978).
The points discussed above lead us to the formation of H1:

H1. Muslims pay minimum attention to contentious packages, which are those
packages that including nudity or immodest imagery.

Here it is necessary to clarify that “minimum attention” is used as committed Muslims’

worse possible response to the contentious package. The reason for not using “no
attention” is that even committed Muslims have no way around not seeing a package
before they pass judgment on it. Sometimes, that minimum attention is enough to
influence a buyer’s attitude and their buying intention.
Literature indicates that religion has a significant influence on attitude. Essoo and
Dibb (2004) found that religion has a strong impact on consumers’ attitudes toward
owning and using products. This observation is also emphasized by McDaniel and
Burnett (1990) who concluded that “religious beliefs tend to be causally related to
different attitudes and/or behavior among individuals in the population.” Literature
provides evidence that religious affiliation influences people’s attitudes toward
advertising (Walker et al., 2005). For example, some studies found that strict Muslims
have negative attitudes toward advertisements containing nudity, songs, and dance
(Rice and Almossawi, 2002; Michelle and Almossawi, 1999). This finding was
supported by Chittithaworn et al. (2011) who studied the impact of people’s religious
beliefs on their attitudes toward TV advertising in Thailand and found that ads with
negative contents led to negative attitudes. Other studies found that consumers’
religious commitment has a significant influence on their lifestyle as well as on their
attitudes toward goods and services (Wilkes et al., 1986). Luji et al. (2003) concluded
that religion has an impact on people’s social and economic attitudes. Ramasamy et al.
(2010) conducted a study in Hong Kong and Singapore and found a significant positive
relationship between religiousness and corporate social responsibility. A similar result
was also reported by Conroy and Emerson (2004) who surveyed university students in
USA and found that religiousness has a significant impact on students’ responses to a
number of ethical issues. In this respect, Gerlich et al. (2010) reported that religious
adherence has no impact on ethical attitudes but religious intensity has a positive
significant influence on people’s moral judgement. Al-Makaty et al. (1996) studied the
attitude of people toward advertising in Saudi Arabia and found that religion plays an
 important role in forming such attitudes, as many Saudi Arabians appeared to have Product
a negative attitude toward ads that did not comply with their religious values and
principles.
packages in
In light of the discussed literature, and per Islamic Law, Muslims are expected to Muslim countries
have a negative attitudes toward products with contentious packages. In this respect,
the Kuran instructs women to remain modest:
That they should not display their adornment, except that which is apparent of it 691
(Kuran 24:31).
In the above verse, adornments refers to both natural features, such as the face and
hair, as well as artificial enhancements of beauty, such as clothing, ornaments, make-up
and so on. This verse reveals the importance that Islam places on the type of clothing
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that women are expected to adorn and hence the parts of their bodies that they may
reveal in public, which are the hands and face. Based on this, packages that show
women in seductive poses or that depict them with some level of nudity would be
considered sinful according to Islam. In this respect, the Kuran asks of Muslims to
avoid partaking in sinful acts. These acts are referred to by various names in scripture,
such as foul deeds, immorality, evil and so on, as shown in the following verses:
Say My Lord has only forbidden foul deeds, whether open or secret […] (Kuran 7:34).
And when they commit a foul deed, they say we found our fathers doing it, and Allah has
enjoined it upon us. Say, Allah never enjoins foul deeds. Do you say of Allah what you know
not? (Kuran 7:29).
Those who love that immorality should spread among the believers, will have a painful
punishment in this world and the Hereafter. And Allah knows, and you know not (Kuran 24:20).
[…] and that you approach not foul deeds, whether open or secret […] (Kuran 6:152).
O ye men! eat of what is lawful and good in the earth; and follow not the footsteps of
Satan; surely, he is to you an open enemy. He only enjoins upon you what is evil and what is
foul, and that you say of Allah what you do not know (Kuran 2:169-170).
Satan threatens you with poverty and enjoins upon you what is foul, whereas Allah promises
you forgiveness from Himself and bounty. And Allah is Bountiful, All- Knowing (Kuran 2:26).
Aye, whoso does evil and is encompassed by his sins — those are the inmates of the Fire;
therein shall they abide (Kuran 2:82).
Or do those who commit evil deeds think that they will escape Us? Evil is what they judge
(Kuran 29:5).
It shall not be according to your desires, nor according to the desires of the People of the Book.
Whoso does evil shall be rewarded for it; and he shall find for himself no friend or helper
beside Allah (Kuran 4:124).
Verily, Allah enjoins justice, and the doing of good to others; and giving like kindred; and
forbids indecency, and manifest evil, and wrongful transgression. He admonished you that
you may take heed (Kuran 16:91).
And those who do evil, shall be thrown down on their faces into the Fire: Are you not
rewarded for what you have been doing? (Kuran 27:91).
Considering the discussion hitherto, the second hypothesis is as follows:

H2. Muslims have negative attitudes toward contentious packages.

 APJML Literature reveals that religion has an influence not only on people’s attitudes toward
products and advertising, but also on their buying behavior (Terpstra and David, 1991;
26,5 Taylor et al., 2010; Essoo and Dibb, 2004; Wilkes et al., 1986). Given that their attitude and
behavior are positively associated, a negative attitude that arises as a result of religious
convictions is expected to lead to negative behavior. Such a finding was reported by a
noticeable number of studies such as Delener (1990), McDaniel and Burnett (1990), Mckee
692 (2003), Mutsikiwa and Basera (2012) Schiffman and Kanuk (2010). Other studies observed
the influences of Hinduism, Islam, and Buddhism on consumers’ behavior (Essoo and
Dibb, 2004; Baily and Sood, 1993). Taylor et al. (2010) found that religious advertising has
a significant effect on the buying behavior of religious Christians. Some studies reported
that religion has an impact on the consumers’ decisions to buy food related products
(Pettinger et al., 2004; Delener, 1994). In this respect, Mutsikiwa and Basera (2012) studied
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the attitudes of Muslims in Zimbabwe toward consuming halal food and found a positive
correlation between Muslims’ religious affiliation and their consumption of halal products.
Religious people consume products that are in accordance with their religious values
because they consider such acts to be ethical acts (Bell et al., 2011; Patwardhan et al., 2012;
Robert and Jurkiewicz, 2003; Longenecker et al., 2004). This positive relationship between
religiousness and ethics is supported by a number of studies that found religion to have a
significant influence on people’s ethical judgements and behavior at work (Corner, 2009;
Kolodinsky et al., 2008; Parboteeah et al., 2008; Walker et al., 2012). Schneider et al. (2011)
conducted a comparative study on Christian and Muslim consumers in Germany and
Turkey and studied the impact of intrinsic religiousness on consumers’ ethical belief.
They found that their subsample of Muslims indicated a stronger connection between
religiousness and consumers’ ethical behavior than their subsample of German Christian
consumers. Such a strong relationship between religiousness and purchase behavior is
also emphasized by Ilyas et al. (2011) who found that religious commitment plays
a significant role in determining the buying decisions of graduate students in Pakistan.
For Muslims, religion has an influence even on the clothes that they wear in public (Sobh
et al., 2008; Abu Odeh, 1993; Gole, 2002; Tarlo, 2005; Ruby, 2006).
Companies that choose not to respond to their target market’s religious values and
principles when developing their products’ design, packaging, and advertising are
vulnerable to adversely impacting their reputation and image. In this respect, Rogers et al.
(1995) reported that “ignoring the Islamic perspective while advertising in Muslim countries
can indulge multinational companies not only in risk of conflict with the local consumers
but also in risk of alienation with a remarkable proportion of their target audience.”
Furthermore, Islam urges Muslims not to contribute to the spread of immorality and
to avoid those products and that may aid in the spread of vices. Indeed, Islamic law is
rich in this regard and stresses on the importance of qualities such as fearing God and
being obedient to God, as shown in the following verses:

And Allah will deliver the righteous and lead them to a place of security and success; evil shall
not touch them, nor shall they grieve (Kuran 39:62).

And the recompense of an injury is an injury the like thereof; but whoso forgives and his act
brings about reformation, his reward is with Allah. Surely, He loves not the wrongdoers
(Kuran 42:41).

Whoso does evil will be required only with the like of it; but whoso does good, whether male or
female, and is a believer — these will enter the Garden; they will be provided therein without
measure (Kuran 40:41).
 He who does a good deed shall have better reward than that; and as for him who does an Product
evil deed — those who do evil deeds shall not be rewarded but according to what they did
(Kuran 28:85). packages in
These are the limits set by Allah; and whoso obeys Allah and His Messenger, He will make
Muslim countries
him enter Gardens through which streams flow; therein shall they abide; and that is a great
triumph (Kuran 4:14).
And whoso disobeys Allah and His Messenger and transgresses His limits, He will make 693
him enter into Fire; therein shall he abide; and he shall have a humiliating punishment
(Kuran 4:15).
In this respect, Rogers et al. (1995) reported that multinational companies must take
into consideration the role of Islam when advertising in Muslim countries, otherwise
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they run the risk of adversely impact their image and creating conflict with their
consumers. This is partly because according to Islam, Muslims are accountable for
their actions and are hence their behaviors and actions are constrained by Islamic Law
(Rice, 1998; Bari and Abbas, 2011). Furthermore, Islam demands from Muslims to be
righteous. In this respect, the Kuran says:
You are the best people, evolved for mankind, enjoying what is right, forbidding what is
wrong, and believing in Allah (Kuran 3:116).
In light of the above discussion, we develop the third and fourth hypotheses:

H3. Muslims avoid buying products that have contentious packages.

H4. Muslim consumers tend to have a negative image of companies that use
contentious packaging.

H3 can also be justified through the positive relationship between consumers’ attitude
(H2) and their intention to buy and even their actual buying (H3). In this respect, some
studies stress the importance of ad attitude as a mediator of brand attitudes (Gardner,
1985; Mackenzie et al., 1986; Park and Young, 1986; Rossieter and Percy, 1980) and as a
mediator of buying intention (Mitchell and Oslon, 1981; Shimp and Yokum, 1982; Moore
and Hutchinson, 1983).
From all the above discussion, it is evident that the relationship between attitude
and image on one hand and word-of-mouth on the other is a positive one. In other
words, if a consumer has a negative attitude toward a product, then he or she will
certainly convey a negative message about it to others. This is emphasized by Bari and
Abbas (2011) who pointed out that “in Islam everyone is accountable to Allah for his
actions. Individuals are not free in their will rather they are bound to do everything
including business by keeping themselves in the limits of Sharia’h.” Some researchers
reported that Muslims tend to spread negative word-of-mouth about products or
advertisings that considered to be against their Islamic values, an act that is in line with
a saying by the prophet Mohammed:
God likes that when someone does something; it must be done perfectly well (Rice and
Almossawi, 2002).
Muslims consider it their duty not only to stop buying products that have contentious
packages, but they also feel a sense of responsibility in urging others not to buy them.
In Islamic law, this behavior of spreading negative word-of-mouth about prohibited
 APJML things is well rooted in the concept of virtue propagation and abomination enjoining,
as stated in the following verses from Kuran:
26,5
The hypocrites, men and women, are all connected one with another. They enjoin evil and
forbid good, and keep their hands closed. They neglected Allah, so He has neglected them.
Surely, it is the hypocrites who are the disobedient (Kuran 9:67).
And the believers, men and women, are friends one of another. They enjoin good and forbid
694 evil and observe Prayer and pay the Zakat and obey Allah and His Messenger. It is these on
whom Allah will have mercy. Surely, Allah is Mighty, Wise (Kuran 9:71).
You are the best people raised for the good of mankind; you enjoin what is good and forbid
evil and believe in Allah. And if the People of the Book had believed, it would have surely been
better for them. Some of them are believers, but most of them are disobedient (Kuran 3:111).
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They believe in Allah and the Last Day, and enjoin what is good and forbid evil, and hasten,
vying with one another, in good works. And these are among the righteous (Kuran 3:115).
You are the best people, evolved for mankind, enjoying what is right, forbidding what is
wrong and believing in Allah (Kuran 3:116).
The above Kuranic verses help develop the fifth hypothesis:

H5. Muslims find themselves responsible to advise others not to buy products with
contentious packages.

Given the importance of religion in determining consumers’ attitude, interest, and

buying decisions, some studies suggest that it is important to integrate religiousness
into consumer research (Delener, 1994; Essoo and Dibb, 2004; Mokhlis, 2009; Delener
and Schiffman, 1988).

Methodology
The sample and the data collection procedure
In order to test the five hypotheses, this study recruited 300 young Muslims in Bahrain,
chosen from the population of 14,000 students enrolled at the University of Bahrain. The
students are between the ages of 20 and 25; 26 percent of them are male and 74 percent are
female. The primary data were collected through personal interviews using a questionnaire.

The questionnaire
The questionnaire has nine questions including two that are demographical, namely age
and gender, and six that aims to determine how the sample reacts to contentious packages
in terms of attention, attitude, buying intention, company image, word-of-mouth, and
customers’ relationship with the firm. The last question asks the respondents to give some
reasons for their negative responses. The questionnaire begins with the statement:
Suppose you are seeking a product with no loyalty to a specific brand. Suppose you found the
product you seek and noticed that its package containing some immodest pictures or women
or men in a seductive position. How would you treat such a product? Circle the answer of
your choice.
It is important to point out that the questionnaire does not specifically reference
any particular product, but is rather more abstract when talking about products.
In the personal interviews, and prior to eliciting respondents’ answers, respondents are
 briefed about the study’s purpose and are told the precise definition of what a Product
contentious package is.
packages in
Variables of interest and how they are measured Muslim countries
The study’s aim is to find out how Muslims respond to contentious packages in terms
of six variables, as explained below, showing the formatting of the question and the
scale used to measure each variable: 695
(1) Attention paid to the contentious package
“How much attention would you pay to a product with a package containing
immodest pictures or pictures of women/men in a seductive position?”
The variable is measured on a three-point scale: (full attention, some attention,
minimum attention).
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(2) Attitude toward the contentious package

“Please express your attitudes toward a package containing some immodest
pictures or women/men in a seductive position?”
The variable is measured on a three-point scale: (positive, indifferent, negative).
(3) Buying decision
“Would you buy a product with a package containing some immodest pictures
or women/men in a seductive position?”
Respondents are given three options to choose from: (would buy the product,
may buy the product, would avoid the product).
(4) Word-of-mouth
“How would you promote (tell others about) a product with a package
containing some immodest pictures or women/men in a seductive position?”
The variable is measured on a three-point scale: (will promote the product
positively, none of my business, will promote the product negatively).
(5) Company’s image and reputation
“How using a contentious package may affect a firm’s image and reputation?”
The variable is measured on a three-point scales: (positively, no effect, negatively).
(6) Customer’s relationship with the firm
“What is the impact of using a contentious package on your relationship with
the firm?”
A three-point scale is used to measure this variable: (despite using contentious
package I would continue dealing with the firm, I may boycott the firm, I will
certainly boycott the firm).

Findings
The first question intended to identify the amount of attention paid by Muslims to
contentious packages. We found that 60 percent of the respondents claimed that they
would give minimum attention to such packages, while only 10 percent stated that
package contentiousness would not stop them from looking at the packaging of the
product that they intended to buy. The remaining 30 percent reported that they would
give such products some attention, that is, the attention needed to identify the product
or read some necessary information on the label. A χ2 goodness-of-fit test indicates that
the responses of Muslims related to their attention for contentious packages are
significantly different at o 1 percent level, as shown in Table I.
 APJML When attention data was analyzed based on gender, it was found that women
scored lower: 66 percent said “minimum attention” whereas it was 43 percent.
26,5 In general, it seems from the findings that the packages containing more contentious
elements would capture less of the attention of Muslim buyers. This finding is in
agreement with a study conducted by Almossawi (1992) which indicated that
commercials containing fewer contentious elements could capture more of the attention
696 of strict Muslims and would increase their positive attitude toward the product.

The above findings support H1

The questionnaire’s second question intended to find out the influence of contentious
elements on Muslims’ attitudes toward the package. The findings indicate that 76 percent
of Muslims reported to have negative attitudes toward a package that includes
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contentious labels. On the other hand, only 23 percent said that package contentiousness
has no influence on their attitudes, while only 1 percent of the respondents claimed to
have positive attitudes toward such packages. Splitting by gender, we found the results
to be almost in the same direction as the overall one: 75 percent of male and 77 percent of
female reported negative attitudes. A χ2 goodness-of-fit test indicates that the responses
of Muslims related to their attitudes toward contentious packages are significantly
different at o1 percent level, as shown in Table II.
The attitude results reported above is very much in line with the literature. Zinkhan and
Martin (1982) found that a message containing elements that are enjoyed by an audience
has a positive effect on the audience’s attitude toward the message and the brand. This
finding was supported by other studies, which found that the content of a message plays
an important role in forming people’s attitude and buying decisions (Bettman, 1974;
Holbrook and Maier, 1978; Holbrook, 1975; Wright, 1974; Wilkie, 1976; Paul et al., 1990).

The above findings strongly supports H2

With regards to buying decisions, results indicate that 63 percent of the respondents
said that they would avoid buying products with contentious packages, while 34

Responses Observed n Percentage

Minimum attention 179 60

Table I. Some attention 91 30
Attention Muslims Full attention 27 10
pay to contentious Total 297
packages Notes: χ2 ¼ 117.657, df ¼ 2, Asymp sig ¼ 0.000

Responses Observed n Percentage

Table II. Negative attitude 226 76

Attitudes of Indifferent attitude 67 23
Muslims toward Positive attitude 4 1
contentious Total 297
packages Notes: χ2 ¼ 264.424, df ¼ 2, Asymp sig ¼ 0.000
 percent said they may buy them and the remaining 3 percent said they do not mind to Product
buy a product they like regardless of its contentious package. Looking at gender,
one notices that although package contentiousness has a significant influence on the
packages in
buying decisions of both genders, its relative influence on women is stronger than on Muslim countries
men (65 percent of women responded “will not buy” compared to 58 percent of men).
The responses of Muslims related to their buying decisions for products with
contentious packages was found to be significantly different at o 1 percent level, as 697
indicated by the χ2 goodness-of-fit test shown in Table III.

These results give full support to H3

Some studies examined the impact of the content of a message on attention, attitudes
and buying decision through the audience’s mood state. Messages which induce
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negative moods are likely to be unfavorably evaluated while messages inducing

positive moods are likely to be favorably evaluated by customers (Gardner, 1985;
Gardner and Raj, 1983; Sudnam and Schwarz, 1989).
By looking at the findings reported above, one can observe the negative influence
of contentious packages on the sales of products and brands. However, would such
contentious packages also influence the overall image of the company behind those
products? According to this study’s findings, the answer is yes. In total, 87 percent of
the respondents said that such contentious packages would certainly have a negative
effect on the image and reputation of the company, while 9 percent said that it would
have no effect and only 4 percent claimed that such packages may have a positive
effect. On the other hand, most respondents (90 percent) reported that the resulted
negative image of the company may make them boycott the company as a whole and
the remaining 10 percent said that it would have no effect on their business with the
company. Muslims consider it a duty to confront companies considered to be against
their religious values and those which they view as promoters of depravity and
debauch in the society. When we looked at gender, we found that majority of both
genders (89 percent of women and 82 percent of men) claimed that package
contentiousness would have a negative effect on the company’s image and reputation.
This indicates that a difference in gender has no effect on the responses of Muslims
when it comes to the effect of contentious packages on the image of the company,
as confirmed by a χ2 test at even a 10 percent or higher significance (χ2 ¼ 3.204, Asymp
sig ¼ 0.201). On the other hand, gender analysis also revealed that most member of
both genders (90 percent of women and 92 percent of men) reported that contentious
packages would not only have a negative effect on the company’s image, but may
actually result in Muslims boycotting that company as a whole. So, here also, difference
in gender had no effect on their response as shown by a χ2 test at even a 10 percent
significance (χ2 ¼ 1.218, Asymp sig ¼ 0.544).

Responses Observed n Percentage

Will not buy 179 63 Table III.

May not buy 91 34 How contentious
Will buy 27 3 packages affect the
Total 297 buying decisions of
Notes: χ2 ¼ 156.505, df ¼ 2, Asymp sig ¼ 0.000 Muslims
 APJML The opinions of Muslims related to the effects of contentious packages on the image of
the company, as well as on the long-term relationship of Muslims with the company,
26,5 was found to be significantly different at o 1 percent level, as revealed by the χ2
goodness-of-fit test, shown in Tables IV and V.

The above argument supports H4

698 For testing H5, the respondents were asked whether their Islamic commitment
mandates them to spread negative word-of-mouth about a product that includes a
contentious package. In total, 46 percent of the respondents said that Islam does indeed
require them to do so in order to stop such companies from spreading unethical values
and adversely impacting Muslim youth. The remaining 51 percent of the respondents
said that they felt that it was none of their business to spread negative word-of-mouth
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about such products, while only 3 percent stated that regardless of the product’s
package, they would still spread positive word-of-mouth about the company if they
liked its products. Here, the responses of males and females were found to be almost
compatible with the overall picture: 43 percent and 47 percent, respectively. The
responses of Muslims related to their word-of-mouth for products having contentious
packages were found to be significantly different at o 1 percent level, as revealed by
the χ2 goodness-of-fit test shown in Table VI.
The above results strongly support H5.

Responses Observed n Percentage

Table IV. Negative effect 260 87

Effects of No effect 27 9
contentious Positive effect 11 4
packages on a Total 297
company’s image Notes: χ2 ¼ 391.094, df ¼ 2, Asymp sig ¼ 0.000

Responses Observed n Percentage

Table V.
Effects of
contentious Will boycott the company 108 36
packages on May boycott the company 161 54
Muslims’ Will continue with the company 29 10
relationships with Total 297
the company Notes: χ2 ¼ 88.839, df ¼ 2, Asymp sig ¼ 0.000

Responses Observed N Percentage

Table VI.
Muslims tendency Negative word-of-mouth 136 46
to spread bad Do not care 151 51
reviews of products Positive word-of-mouth 9 3
with contentious Total 297
packages Notes: χ2 ¼ 123.372, df ¼ 2, Asymp sig ¼ 0.000
 Conclusion Product
The role of packaging has expanded in contemporary society. The purpose of a
package is no longer just to protect a product from damage, but also to promote it.
packages in
Packaging has become a form of advertising, and companies around the globe are Muslim countries
using packaging to catch the attention, and hopefully long-term patronage, of
customers. The promotional aspect of package design has become extremely
competitive, and firms must maintain a high standard of aesthetic appeal to ensure the 699
triumph of a product or brand. Successful packaging requires including much more
than the necessary product information. Superior packaging requires attractive
graphics, eye-catching design, and labels that appeal to the tastes of the target market.
It must be modern, and speak to the current trends, and it must be professional in order
to assure potential consumers that this is a product or brand that they can trust. In
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short, effective package has a big role to play. It must attract customers’ attention,
generate positive attitudes toward the package and the brand, and convince customers
to buy the product and even inspire long-term brand loyalty.
While the above research examines how brand and product popularity is directly
affected by packaging and visual presentation, it also points to a larger picture,
illuminating how belief systems and cultural backgrounds inform consumers’ opinions
and reactions toward what they encounter in the market. These findings suggest that
the job of marketing firms has expanded to unprecedented heights. A firm cannot
simply design a package that they believe accurately represents their product; they
must have a comprehensive understanding of the target market, and must speak to
the values and tastes of that market. In a sense, advertising works as a dialogue with
society, responding to consumer demands instead of aiming to influence and control
consumer demands.
Literature indicates that customers’ perceptions depend on many factors, especially
their religious background (Wilkes et al., 1986; Hoge et al., 1987; Engel et al., 1978; Gorn,
1982; Rice and Almossawi, 2002; Kelman, 1961; Saeed et al., 2001; Rice, 1998. Therefore,
to be effective and generate positive feedback, product packaging should be designed
in a way that respects rather than contradicts the religious principles and beliefs
of the target market. In this study, we examined how devout Muslims perceive
packages containing immodest pictures that are considered unlawful by Islamic law.
Findings indicate that from the Islamic point of view, such contentious packages
will not only attract minimum attention, but will also propagate negative attitudes
toward both the product and the brand within the Muslim community. On the other
hand, this study’s findings show that there is a portion of Muslims who are not
particularly bothered by the issues presented by contentious packages. This finding
may have been expected because not all Muslims have the same degree of religious
commitment: Some are strict and tend to attempt to apply Islam to all aspects
of their lives, whereas others are lenient and do not care as much about Islamic
principles such as those of halal (permissible to consume or do) and haram (prohibited
from consuming or doing). Such a difference in Muslims’ responses to the contentious
package was also emphasized by the results of the χ2 which shows that at a 1 percent
significant level, there is a considerable difference between the responses of various
Muslims, in the sample, to the examples of contentious packages that they were
presented with.
Although gender comparison is not one of the objectives of this study, the findings
in this study suggest that further analyzing this dimension of the data would be
a worthwhile endeavor.
 APJML Practical implications
Our findings indicate that the use of contentious packaging runs a high risk of
26,5 tarnishing a company’s reputation and appeal. Devout Muslims whose lives are
governed by Islamic Law and the teachings of Kuran have a high propensity to
consider such companies as promoters of vice, and will therefore likely boycott
such companies in order to prevent them from, as they see it, corrupting the
700 community. If advertising firms continue to fail in recognizing the profundity of these
beliefs within Muslim communities, both their fiscal success and reputation run the risk
of suffering substantial damage.
The findings of this study send six important messages to multinational companies
doing business in Islamic countries. First, Islam governs all aspects of Muslim life,
including consumer behavior. Second, to prosper in Islamic countries, choose
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packaging that does not contradict or offend the principles and values of Islam. The
prophet Mohammed considered looking at sexual or indecent images to be “adultery of
the eyes,” so in order to respect this precept, it is necessary to avoid using sexualized
images on packaging. Third, recognize that much of the packaging that has proven to
be effective in Western countries is unlikely to be successful in Islamic countries due to
a vastly different cultural environments. Just as a company would not include the
image of a woman in a burq’a on a label designated for Western consumers, it is unwise
to include the image of a woman in a bathing suit on a label that targets Muslim
consumers. Fourth, a contentious package may result in a steep drop in sales not only
of the product responsible for that package, but for a company’s other products as well.
Muslims consider it a religious duty to boycott haram, and to eradicate its influence
within Muslim society. The packaging of a single product implicates the brand itself.
Fifth, using contentious packages may damage the reputation it took you many years
and much money to build. Part of boycotting a product or brand includes spreading the
word that it is a contentious product by way of mouth. Sixth, use simple logic. Not all
Muslims will avoid contentious packaging, and you will be able to sell products by way
of such packaging to some Muslims, but the number of Muslims that will purchase your
products and spread positive feedback about your brand will triple if you use appropriate
packaging that appeals to the tastes and values of the Islamic community. It is the same
simple strategy that firms have been using to their advantage for decades.
The Muslim community has been overlooked by many Western companies for
a long time. However, as society begins to integrate and the global market continues
to expand, Islamic countries are playing a much more important role in the global
economy. Islamic countries are a growing market, and once this fact is fully
acknowledged, a new era of advertising will evolve. It will demand new aesthetic
standards and a wealth of creativity. It is an exciting challenge, and one that will reap
great financial and moral benefits worldwide.

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26,5
Further reading
Schiffman, L., Kanuk, L. and Hansen, H. (2008), Consumer Behavior: A European Outlook,
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
706 About the author
Dr Mohammed M. Almossawi is an Associate Professor of Marketing at the University of
Bahrain. He obtained his doctorate in 1993 from Manchester Business School, the University
of Manchester (UK). His research interests include the cultural dimensions of marketing,
advertising effectiveness, and services marketing. Dr Mohammed M. Almossawi can be
contacted at: mosawimh@gmail.com
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