PRODUCTION OF FLY-ASH BRICKS

A Mini project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the

Requirement for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY

R.SATISH 12635A0105
D.SHOBHAN BABU 11631A0139
T.SREEKANTH 11631A0143

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SRI VENKATESHWARA ENINEERING COLLEGE
(Approved by AICTE – Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad)
Amaravathi Nagar,Suryapet,Nalgonda.
 SRI VENKATESWARA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Approved by AICTE – Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad)
Amaravathi Nagar,Suryapet,Nalgonda.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report title “PRODUCTION OF FLY-ASH

BRICKS”
Done By

R.SATISH 12635A0105
D.SHOBAN BABU 11631A0139
T.SREEKANTH 11631A0143
Submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of the Degree of “BACHELOR OF
TECHNOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING”. This has not been submitted to
any other University or Institution for the award of any degree/diploma/certificate.

Signature of the Head of the Dept, Signature of the Guide,

Prof.T.PRAVEEN KUMAR, Mr.B.SANDEEP REDDY,
Professor and Head, Internal Guide,
Dept.of Civil Engineering. Dept. of Civil Engineering.

2
 DECLARATION

We declare that this project entitled “PRODUCTION OF FLY–ASH IN BRICKS” has been

done by us and has not previously formed as the basis for the awards of any degree or diploma

or the similar title in this or any other institution.

R.SATISH 12635A0105
D.SHOBAN BABU 11631A0139
T.SREEKANTH 11631A0143

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank the Head of the Department of CIVIL ENGINEERING(CE),

Prof. T.PRAVEEN KUMAR, for cooperating us for making this project.

We thank the Asst.Prof. B. SANDEEP REDDY helps as a guide for completion

Of this project

Our special t hanks go to the Principal, S V E C , P r o f . SRUJANA, for giving us

such a wonderful opportunity to do this Project. Without these people, it wouldn’t have
been possible to do this project on “PRODUCTION OF FLY-ASH BRICKS”.

R.SATISH 12635A0105
D.SHOBHAN BABU 11631A0139
T.SREEKANTH 11631A0143

4
 CONTENTS
ABSTRACT

CHAPTER – 1 . INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
1.2 Utilization of fly ash in cement and bricks
1.3 Fly ash production
1.4 scope and objectives

CHAPTER – 2. FLY ASH BUILDING BLOCKS/BRICKS

2.1 General
2.2 Raw Materials Required
2.2.1 Fly Ash(pulverized fuel ash)
2.2.2 Lime
2.2.3 Gypsum
2.2.4 Sand
2.2.5 Water
2.3 Procurement of Raw Materials
2.4 Types of Fly Ash Bricks
2.5 Market Demand

CHAPTER – 3. EXPERIMENTAL WORK

3.1 GENERAL
3.2 Manufacturing process of bricks
3.2.1 Flow Chart Diagram
3.3 Characteristics of Fly Ash Bricks
3.4 Technical Specifications
3.4.1 Comparison of normal clay bricks and Fly ash bricks
3.5 Quality Standards
3.5.1 Pollution control needs
3.5.2 Energy conservation needs
3.6 Preliminary laboratory tests
3.7 Brick making machines
3.8 Advantages
3.9 Disadvantages
3.10 USES

5
CHAPTER – 4. TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 General

4.2. Compressive strength test

4.3 Laboratory process of strength test

CONCLUSION

BIBILOGRAPHY

6
 ABSTRACT

Fly ash is a fused residue of clay minerals present in coal. The high temperature
generated when coal burns in thermal power plants, transforms the clay minerals in
coal powder into a variety of fused fine particles of mainly aluminium silicate
composition.

Pulverized fuel ash commonly known as fly ash. It is a useful by- product from
t h e r m a l power stations using pulverized coal a s fuel a n d has considerable
pozzolonic activity. This national resource has been gainfully utilized for manufacture of
fly ash-lime bricks as a supplement to common burnt clay buildings bricks leading to
the conservation of natural resources and improvement in environment quality.

Fly ash-lime bricks are obtained from materials consisting of

pulverized fly ash in major quantity, lime and an accelerator acting as a catalyst. Fly
ash-lime bricks are generally manufactured by intergrading blending various raw
materials are then moulded into bricks and subjected to curing cycles at different
temperatures and pressures. On occasion as and when required, crushed bottom fuel
ash or sand is also used in the composition of the raw material. Crushed bottom fuel
ash or sand is also used in the composition as a coarser material to control water
absorption in the final product. Fly ash reacts with lime in presence of moisture from
a calcium hydrate which is a binder material. Thus fly ash – lime in presence of
moisture form a calcium – silicate hydrate which is binder material. Thus fly ash –
lime brick is a chemically ended bricks.

These bricks are suitable for use in masonry construction just like common
burnt clay bricks. Production of fly ash-lime bricks has already started in the country
and it is expected that this standard would encourage production and use on mass
scale. This stand lays down the essential requirements of pulverized fuel ash bricks
so as to achieve uniformity in the manufacture of such bricks.

7
 CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Fly ash brick First invented in 2007.....

American civil engineer Henry liu announced the invention of a new type of fly ash
brick in 2007. Lius’s brick is compressed of at 4,ooo psi and cured for 24 hrs in a
150 F(66 C) steam bath, then toughened with air entrainment agent , so that it
lasts for more than 100freeze thaw cycles. Owing to high concentration of calcium in
class c fly ash , the brick can be described as self cementing. Since method contains
no clay and uses pressure instead of heat ,it saves energy, reduces mercury pollution,
costs 20% less than traditional manufacturing techniques. This type of brick is now
manufactured under license in USA.

Fly ash bricks are constructed at least partially from the residue of burnt coal.
Depending on the type of coal that is burned, the resulting fly ash can take a number
of different forms. Some kinds of fly ash require a cementing agent, such as quicklime
or Portland cement. Other types contain a large enough percentage of lime that they
are self setting, requiring only the addition of water to be turned into fly ash bricks.
These bricks have been utilized in construction since the 1950s in some parts of the
world, and in certain configurations are able to meet or exceed specifications for clay
or cement bricks.

When coal is burned, one of the results is a fine powder known as fly ash. While other
ashes might settle at the base of the furnace where the coal is being burned, fly ash is
light and fine enough that flue gases often are able to carry it up through the chimney.
In the past, this ash was typically allowed to escape into the atmosphere, though in
many locations environmental regulations the fly ash must be captured for safe
disposal or reuse. Since toxic materials like mercury and lead may be highly
concentrated in fly ash, this can lead to environmental or health concerns.
Since the 1950s in places like the United Kingdom (UK) and the 1970s in parts of
Africa, houses and other structures have been build with fly ash bricks.
8
The construction and quality of these bricks has varied over the years, with certain
mixes being stable and others swelling or deforming when in contact with water or
other moisture. Developments in the early 21st century led to fly ash bricks that
contained a type of fly ash that is naturally high in lime and which can meet or exceed
specifications for traditional types of bricks. This technology may also be used to
create fly ash pavers and other applications.

1.2 UTILISATION OF FLY ASH IN CEMENT AND BRICKS

It has been above 70 years to research and use fly ash. With its application, the action
mechanism of fly ash had been recognized. During the initial stage, only its
pozzolanic activity is paid attention. Many researchers devoted themselves to the
research of the potential activity of fly ash and the hydration process of fly ash cement.
With the deepening of the cognition for fly ash properties, some people found that the
particles of fly ash have the morphology that is different to other pozzolanic materials.
It is the unique particle morphology to make it have the ability reducing water, which
other pozzolanic materials do not have. and In 1981, Yinji and Danshen summarized
the previous research results and put forward the hypothesis of "fly ash effects."
They considered that fly ash has three effects in concrete, i.e., morphological,
activated and micro aggregate effects. The three effects are relative each other. This
shows that the morphological effect is the important aspect of fly ash effects.

1.3 Fly Ash Production

In each country utilization of fly ash depends on the local condition and has much to
do with the fact that fly ash is multifunctional material and can be used for various
purposes. In the building industry fly ash can be used in different ways for different
products. In concrete fly ash can be used as partially replacement of cement and/or
sand to enhance workability of fresh concrete, to reduce heat of hydration and to
improve concrete impermeability and resistance to sulfate attack.

9
The properties of fly ash are varying depending on the coal kind and origin and on the
power plant mode of operation. In certain uses some kind of beneficiation is required,
either to improve its properties for the specific use or to achieve homogeneity. In
concrete, fly ash can actually be used also "as is" when its properties fall within
certain limits, but classification by particle size and/or control of the unburned coal
greatly enhance the beneficial effects of the fly ash and of course its commercial
value.

Utilization of fly ash ranged between 3-5% in the late 1980s and early 1990s. There
was no large-scale concerted effort for promoting fly ash utilization. Technologies
and research were generally isolated with little emphasis on commercialization. Although
attempts were made to use of fly ash in manufacturing bricks, cellular concrete,
prefab items, and cement as well as for reclamation of low lying areas and construction
of roads, the desired impact could not be achieved.

10
Fly Ash Mission (FAM) was created to help with ‘confidence building’ in fly ash
based technologies. Fifty-five technology demonstration projects have been
completed, as a result of which fly ash utilization has increased to 13% of the total
generation. Broad estimates of ash production and utilization in different parts of
India (Utility Thermal Power Stations) are given in Table 1.

Table 1 Fly ash production and utilization

The BIS standards related to fly ash and its utilization is being revised through
drafting a second second revision of IS: 3812, i.e., Specification for fly ash for use as
pozzolan and admixture. The minimum and maximum percentages of fly ash in PPC,
specified by IS – 456, have risen from 10% to 15% and from 25% to 35%
respectively. The government of India has issued a notification that makes it
mandatory to use at least 25% ash in the manufacture of clay bricks, blocks, or tiles
within a radius of 50 km from coal or lignite based thermal power plants.

There are some fiscal incentives to encourage the production and use of fly ash based
products, the government of India has withdrawn the 8% excise duty previously
imposed on such products. Now, no excise duty shall be levied on the manufacture of
a good in which a minimum of 25% fly ash is used.

11
1.4 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE OF STUDY

The study covers the following aspects, which are based on the following Terms of
Reference:

The relationship of fly ash bricks to construction sector, in the context of fly ash
generation by coal based thermal power plants.The present status of fly ash brick
manufacture in India, availability of fly ash, and potential of utilization of fly ash
bricks.
Status of fly ash brick technologies in India by way of research work
being done by various institutions, and technologies being used for manufacture of
these bricks.
Keeping in view, the technological status for fly ash brick manufacture,
assessment of the technologies for its relevance and suitability, keeping in view
material inputs required, energy requirements, costs, infrastructure requirements etc.

It may also be noted that various cements and mixes which can be made using fly ash,
have the potential become raw materials for fly ash bricks and blocks of various
specifications. Therefore, this aspect has also been discussed.Utilization of fly ash can
result not only in reducing the magnitude of the environmental problems, but it is also
to exploit fly ash as raw material for value added products (and conserve traditional
materials), and for extraction of valuable materials.

Amongst many uses that fly ash can be put to, that in building materials is particularly
suitable. It is also anticipated, that there would be considerable short-fall in
production of various building materials. According to a study, there would be a large
short-fall in the production of bricks – to the tune of 25 billion bricks on an estimated
demand of 100 billion bricks per year in India by the turn of the century.

Considerable work has been done in various research institutions in India for
utilization of fly ash. In spite of the recognition of the size of fly ash utilization /
disposal problem and availability of technologies appropriate for Indian fly ashes and
applications, India utilizes hardly about 3% of the total fly ash generated.

12
 CHAPTER – 2
FLY ASH BUILDING BLOCKS/BRICKS

2.1 General

Fly Ash bricks are alternative to burnt clay bricks in the construction sector in India.
At this time India is witnessing a new phase in development. With rapid economic
growth and high rate of urbanization. Construction provides the direct means for the
development, expansion, improvement and maintenance of human settlements is
particular and economic growth in general. Construction activity accounts for more
than 50% of the development outlays in India. Building construction costs are
increasing at rates which are So per cent over inflation.

This is primarily due to the increase in the cost of basic building materials like burnt
brick, steel, cement, timber, etc. As a result, the cost of construction using
conventional building materials and construction forms range from As. 40001- to As.
6000/- per sqm even for normal housing. Construction costs of this order is beyond
the affordable capacity of the economically Weaker Section and Low Income Group
and a large cross section of the Middle Income Groups, whose income levels have not
increased commensurately. This has become all the more relevant in the macro
context. due to the large volume of housing to be done in both rural and urban areas
and the limited resource of building materials and finance available.

According to the projections for the Ninth Five Year Plan, there will be a shortage of
6.6 million houses in urban areas and 12.76 million houses in the rural areas at the end
of year 2001, inspite of all the Governmental efforts and resources.

However, it also needs to be recognized that construction also adversely affect the
environment, through physical disruption. the depletion of key renewable resources
like fertile top soil, forest cover and excessive consumption of energy. Therefore,
there Is a strong need to adopt cost-effective, environmentally appropriate
technologies by upgradation of the traditional technologies and also using local
materials as well as using appropriate and intermediate technologies using modem
construction materials with efficient, effective technology inputs.
13
Building materials is an area where enormous amount of innovation for cost
reduction, can be achieved. May bricks being the most important area for innovation
as the total demand of clay bricks, as an challenged walling material in India, is
estimated at 180 billion per annum causing the depletion 540.000 metric tonnes of
fertile soil.

In the above background, Fly ash, basically a waste material, has a dear edge over the
other construction material as it can be converted to a resource with minimum amount
of investments. Further, it can help to increase the speed and quality of construction
and thereby helping in enhancing the efficiency of housing delivery mechanism.

2.1.1 Availability of Fly Ash

Total fly ash generation in India from Thermal Power Plants is estimated at about 60
million tonnes per year, which may increase to about 110 million tonnes per year by
2010 AD. India utilize only 3-4% of the fly ash generated as compared to more than
40% utilization in Europe, China and America etc. The Government has indicated a
clear willingness to achieve 50% fly ash utilization by the turn of the century at its
enlarged level of 90 million tonnes per annum. A variety of experiences are now
available to us on the scenario at different levels of manufacturing of fly ash bricks

2.2 Raw Materials Required

Fly Ash bricks are made of fly ash, lime, gypsum and sand and water. These can
be extensively used in all building constructional activities similar to that of common
burnt clay bricks. The fly ash bricks are comparatively lighter in weight and stronger
than common clay bricks. Since fly ash is being accumulated as waste material in
large quantity near thermal power plants and creating serious environmental pollution
problems, its utilization as main raw material in the manufacture of bricks will not
only create ample opportunities for its proper and useful disposal but also help in
environmental pollution control to a greater extent in the surrounding areas of power
plants.

14
2.2.1 Fly Ash(pulverized fuel ash):

pulverized fuel ash

Fly ash is the dust removed from the smoke of coal-fired power plants by using air
pollution abatement equipment. Fly ash — an industrial waste from thermal power
stations — as a useful building material. Use of fly ash has been incorporated in a
number of experimental projects

Fly ash is a waste material from thermal power stations. About30 million tonnes of
fly ash is produced annually from as many as 63 thermal power stations in the country.
This very fine industrial waste not only causes environmental pollution but also poses
problem of disposal. The need for scientific and pollution free disposal of fly ash
has become a compelling necessity.

15
Research and development efforts undertaken in many countries in the west over the
past few decades have led to the development of appropriate technology which
could help in converting this industrial waste into useful building material. As a result
of this development, fly ash could reutilized in the production of pozzolana cement,
cellular concrete in combination with lime, fly ash lime bricks and sintered
Fly ash lightweight aggregate.The level of utilization of fly ash in developed countries
like the USA, West Germany and France is about 70 percent.Unfortunately, the level
of utilization of fly ash is not encouraging in India, which is a poor 3 percent.

Large variations in the grading of fly ash from different thermal power plants, non-
availabilit y of fly ash in dry form, absence of any organized building industry in the
country, high initial investment in setting up fly ash based building material units, non
availability of indigenous plants and machinery for commercial production of
building materials from fly ash are among the major hurdles in the production of
different building products from Indian fly ash.

The work done on VTPS-fly ash has shown low reactivity and very less lime content.
The Vijayawada thermal Power station at Vijayawada has facilities of collecting fly
ash from hoppers in dry state with the help of electrostatic precipitator. Fly ash
collected from Vijayawada Thermal Power Plant at Vijayawada was a Class F fly ash.
It may also be noted that until very recent time, there has not been much efforts in
India to classify the dry-collected fly ash or to process the bulk collected dry fly ash
through separation of cenoshere, removal of carbon or further size reduction.

Fly ash was collected directly from hoppers in dry state with the help of electrostatic
precipitator are being used. From the previous study done on the same source of fly
ash [8,48], the following observations can be made.

• Fly ash fulfil the criteria for lime reactivity specified in IS 3812-1981.
• It was found that fly ash particles retained on 45 µm sieve was very small
(1.0- 1.5 percent) and 90 percent of particles have diameter between 17 and 20µm

16
2.2.2 Lime

Lime is truly a versatile material in building construction projects. Lime can be used
to prepare the construction site by stabilizing the soil or remediating brownfield sites.
Lime can be used in the construction of masonry systems as a component of mortar or
the masonry unit. Exterior (stucco) and interior plaster systems can also contain lime.
Finally, the decorative finishes can be created with lime washes.

Lime has been used in building construction for thousands of years to create durable
mortar and plaster. Though lime putty was originally used for these applications,
most modern applications utilize hydrated lime. Dolomitic Type S hydrated lime is
preferred for applications in the United States due to its exceptional water
retention capability and proven performance.

Lime provides benefits in the plastic and hardened state to mortars and plasters. In the
plastic state, lime can enhance the workability and water retention of plasters and
mortars. In the hardened state, lime products react with carbon dioxide to regenerate
calcium carbonate or limestone. This is a slow, gradual process which increases the
hardness of the finished surface and allows for the healing of hairline cracks by a
process called autogenous healing. Since initial strength is needed in most
applications, additives such as gypsum, cement or pozzollans are mixed with lime in
construction applications. Lime can react with pozzolanic materials in the mortar or
plaster to produce a cement-like product.

The strength of lime-based mixes can be modified based on the application. This is
beneficial in restoration applications where low strengths and high vapor permeability
are needed.

2.2.3 Gypsum

Gypsum is a very soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate, with
the chemical formula CaSO4· 2H2O . It is found in alabaster, a decorative stone used
in Ancient Egypt. It is the second softest mineral on the Mohs scale of mineral
hardness. It forms as an evaporite mineral and as a hydration product of anhydrite.

17
Gypsum is a common mineral, with thick and extensive evaporite beds in association
with sedimentary rocks. Deposits are known to occur in strata from as far back as the
Archaean eon. Gypsum is deposited from lake and sea water, as well as in hot springs,
from volcanic vapors, and sulfate solutions in veins. Hydrothermal anhydrite in veins
is commonly hydrated to gypsum by groundwater in near-surface exposures. It is
often associated with the minerals halite and sulfur.

Gypsum is also formed as a by-product of sulfide oxidation, amongst others by pyrite

oxidation, when the sulfuric acid generated reacts with calcium carbonate. Its
presence indicates oxidizing conditions. Under reducing conditions, the sulfates it
contains can be reduced back to sulfide by sulfate reducing bacteria. Electric power
stations burning coal with flue gas desulfurization produce large quantities of gypsum
as a byproduct from the scrubbers. Calcium sulfate, commonly known as natural
gypsum, is found in nature in different forms, mainly as the dihydrate (CaSO4 · 2H2O)
and anhydrite (CaSO4). They are products of partial or total evaporation of inland seas
and lakes. Both the dihydrate and the anhydrite occur in nature in a variety of forms.

The origin of gypsum, its genesis, varieties and properties are discussed, and the focus
is then on the most common binding material produced from it, plaster of Paris (β-
hemihydrate), known in France as ‘plâtre de Paris’, in the USA as ‘calcined gypsum’,
and in Germany as ‘Stuckgips’. Details are given of the properties of gypsum paste
(setting, expansion, and adhesion) and of hardened gypsum (strength, bulk weight,
thermal expansion, volume and linear changes under humidity fluctuations, moisture
absorption, paintability, corrosivity, thermal and acoustic insulation behaviour, and
fire resistance).

2.2.4 Sand(Fine Aggregate)

Natural River Sand was used which is locally available in Hyderabad region. The
specific gravity was found 2.57. Fineness Modulus is also determined using 10mm to
150µm and is found 2.972. The fineness modulus gives the idea about average size of

18
 particles in the fine aggregates. The value 2.972 indicates medium size sand. The details
of sieve analysis are presented in Table 2.1, and the grading curve is shown in Figure
2.1. With sieve analysis data and fineness modulus value, sand is considered as zone II
grading sand of IS: 383 – 1970, which is considered as good fine aggregate for concrete
production. The grading limits of zone II sand for fine aggregates as per IS: 383-1970
is also presented in Table 2.2.1for reference only

Table2.1: Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate

Weight Of sample: 2000gm

Sieve Weight % Weight Cumulative % % Passing

Size mm Retained(gm) Retained Weight Retained
40 0 0 0 100
20 0 0 0 100
10 0 0 0 100
4.75 36 1.80 1.80 98.20
2.36 150 7.50 9.30 90.70
1.18 560 28.0 37.30 62.70
600 476 23.80 61.10 38.90
300 554 27.70 88.80 11.20
150 202 10.10 98.90 1.10
L.P 22 1.10 100 0

Finess modulus = Cumulative %weight retained/100 =2972/100 =2.972

Grading Zone – 11

19
 98 .2
100 90.7

Percentage Passing
90
80
70
60 62 .7
50
40 38 .9
30
20
10 11.2
0 1.1

0 1 2 3 4 5
IS Sie ve Size (m m )

Figure 2.1: Grading curve for fine aggregate

Table 2.2.1: Grading limits of Fine Aggregates IS: 383-1970

IS Sieve Percentage Passing by Weight for

Designation Grading-1 Grading-11 Grading-111 Grading-1V

10mm 100 100 100 100

4.75mm 90-100 90-100 90-100 95-100
2.36mm 60-95 75-100 85-100 95-100
1.18mm 30-70 55-90 75-100 90-100
600 micron 15-34 35-59 60-79 80-100
300 micron 5-20 8-30 12-40 15-50
150 micron 0-10 0-10 0-10 0-15

Sand is an extremely needful material for the construction but this important material
must be purchased with all care and vigilance. Sand which is used in the construction
purpose must be clean, free from waste stones and impurities.It is important to know
what type of sand is beneficial for construction purpose as sand is also classified into
three different forms that make it suitable for specific type of construction.

20
Sand is classified as: Fine Sand (0.075 to 0.425 mm), Medium Sand (0.425 to 2 mm)
and Coarse Sand (2.0 to4.75 mm). However this classification of sand is further has
types of sand in particular and on that basis only they are being incorporated in the
construction.
Read out the detailing of the types of sand:

i) Pit Sand (Coarse sand)

Pit sand is classified under coarse sand which is also called badarpur in common
language. This type of coarse sand is procured from deep pits of abundant supply and
it is generally in red-orange colour. The coarse grain is sharp, angular and certainly free
from salts etc which is mostly employed in concreting.

ii) River Sand

River sand is procured from river streams and banks and is fine in quality unlike pit
sand. This type of sand has rounded grains generally in white-grey colour. River sand
has many uses in the construction purpose such as plastering.

iii) Sea Sand

As the name suggest, sea sand is taken from seas shores and it is generally in distinct
brown colour with fine circular grains. Sea sand is avoided for the purpose construction
of concrete structure and in engineering techniques because it contains salt which tends
to absorb moisture from atmosphere and brings dampness. Eventually cement also
loses its action when mixed with sea sand that is why it is only used for the local
purpose instead of structural construction.

There are different standards for the construction purpose which must be checked and
considered for the better construction. The requirement according to which sand is
chosen should be like:

21
For plastering purpose the overall fine sand used must not be less than 1.5 while silt is
preferred to not less than 4 percent.
For brick work fine sand used must not be less than 1.2 to 1.5 and silt is preferred is 4
percent generally.
Concreting work require coarse sand in modulus of 2.5 to 3.5 with not less than 4
percent silt content.

2.2.5 Water

Ordinary tap water was used in the production of bricks.

water is one of the most important elements in construction but people still ignore
quality aspect of this element. The water is required for preparation of mortar, mixing
of cement concrete and for curing work etc during construction work. The quality and
quantity of water has much effect on the strength of mortar and cement in
construction work.

Quality of Water

The water used for mixing and curing should be clean and free from injurious
quantities of alkalis, acid, oils, salt, sugar, organic materials, vegetable growth and
other substances that may be deleterious to bricks, stone, concrete or steel. Potable
water is generally considered satisfactory for mixing. The pH value of water should
be not less than 6.

Water Reducing Admixtures

The water reducer admixture improves workability of concrete/mortar for the same
water cement ratio. The determination of workability is an important factor in testing
concrete admixture. Rapid loss of workability occurs during first few minutes after
mixing concrete and gradual loss of workabilit y takes place over a period from 15 to
60 minutes after mixing. Thus relative advantages of water reducing admixture
decrease with time after mixing. These admixtures increase setting time by about 2 to

22
6 hours during which concrete can be vibrated. This is particularly important in hot
weather conditions or where the nature of construction demands a time gap between
the placements of successive layers of concrete.

2.3 Procurement of Raw materials

Fly ash is mixed with the three other ingredients available as industrial by -
products:
i) Lime from the acetylene industry, and
ii) Gypsum from chemical plants.
iii) stone dust from stone crusher (or)
iv) sand from local river areas
v) water

This is proving to be a revolutionary invention that produces bricks without the

sintering process and consequently no greenhouse gases are emitted. The ultimate
product is none other than FaL – G Brick which is well qualified as emission-abating
project to receive the benefits of carbon credits.

23
2.4 Types of Fly ash Bricks

Fly ash bricks can be divided into the following types :

i)FAL-G (fly ash-lime-gypsum) Bricks:

Fly ash-lime-gypsum bricks/blocks technology has been developed successfully by

National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), Bhanu International and
Ahmadabad Electricity Company (AEC) for manufacturing bricks/blocks which can
replace burnt clay bricks as walling material. It is also known as Fly Ash-Lime-
Gypsum (FaL-G)bricks. It is not a brand name but it is duct name,christened to the
mix for easy identification of its ingredients.

Fal-G bricks and blocks are manufactured without using thermal energy, in contrast to
the sintering involved in the production of clay bricks.
Fal-G bricks are made of a mixture of fly ash-lime-gypsum or fly ash-cement-gypsum.
In either combination, Fal-G is a hydraulic cement, which means it sets and hardens in
the presence of moisture, on the lines of ordinary portland cement, gaining strength
progressively over ageing. Nearly 200 tonnes of coal is used to sinter one million clay
bricks, a process that generates over 350 tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2). The
production process of World Bank has offered to buy 800,000 tonnes of
CO2reductions from utilization of Fly ash. Fal-G bricks eliminates harmful
emissions of this scale.

24
ii) Clay- Fly ash Bricks:

Manufacturing process of clay fly ash bricks by manual or extrusion process involves
mixing of fly ash (60 %) with clay of moderate plasticity. The green bricks are dried
under ambient atmospheric conditions or in shed to equilibrium moisture level of
below 3 percent. Dried bricks are fired in traditional brick kilns at 1000º ± 30º C with
a soaking period of 5 – 7 hours at maturing temperature. This technology has great
potential to reduce not only precious topsoil and consumption of coal in making
conventional clay bricks, but also requires minimum charges in existing set up at
kiln sites and not very much susceptible to quality of ash.

25
iii) Fly ash – Sand Lime Bricks:

In presence of moisture, fly ash reacts with lime at ordinary temperature and forms a
compound possessing cementitious properties. After reactions between lime and
flyash,calcium silicate hydrates are produced which are responsible for the high
strength of the compound.

This processes involves homogeneous mixing of raw materials (generally fly ash, sand
and lime), moulding of bricks and then curing of the green bricks. Some technologies
call for usage of chemical accelerator like gypsum. These processes are almost similar
and vary slightly from water curing to steam curing at low pressure or autoclaving at
10-14 kg/cm2.Bricks made by mixing lime and fly ash are, therefore, chemically
bonded bricks.
These bricks are suitable for use in masonry just like common burnt clay bricks. These
bricks posses adequate crushing strength as a load-bearing member and are lighter in
weight than ordinary clay bricks.

Generally, dry fly ash available from power plants meets the properties specified in
IS: 3812and is suitable for manufacture of Fly Ash – lime bricks in accordance with
the requirements of IS: 12894.

26
iv) Cold Bonded Lightweight Fly ash Bricks, Blocks and Tiles:

The material can be produced in a variety of building blocks, bricks and tiles,
depending onlocal markets and regulations. Keraton consists of cheap and ubiquitous raw
materials such as fly ash and / or other waste materials. These materials are mixed and
a cold bonding agent is added. The mixed raw material is cast in moulds, after which
the moulds are processed in a microwave oven for transportation to the building site.

The products can be applied as a lightweight material in the house building industry
and utility building, such as stables, barns, garages, etc. A surface treatment or coating
for coloring is possible. Strong points are the ability to use fly ash, the insulation
properties and the production flexibility.

27
v) Flux Bonded Fly ash Bricks Blocks and Tiles:

The process is similar to the one in the conventional tile industry: fly ash is mixed
with less than 10 % plastic clay and a few additives and tiles, bricks or blocks are
pressed. These shapes are fired in the range of 900ºC to 1000ºC to make the final
product. More than 85% of fly ash is used in the process.

The process is based on the formation of low melting fluxes at

the firing temperature, which partly react with the fly ash and form a high temperature
reactive glass binder phase. The bricks, tiles and blocks are brick red in colour, but
changing the initial composition can make a variety of colours

2.5 Market Demand

180 billion tones of common burnt clay bricks are consumed annually approximately
340 billion tones of clay- about 5000 acres of top layer of soil dug out for bricks
manufacture, soil erosion, emission from coal burning or fire woods which causes
deforestation are the serious problems posed by brick industry. The above problems
can be reduced some extent by using fly ash bricks in dwelling units.

Demand for dwelling units likely to raise to 80 million units by year 2015 for lower
middle and low income groups, involving an estimated investment 0f $670 billion,
according to the associated chamber of commerce and industry. Demand for dwelling
units will further grow to 90 million by 2020,which would requires a minimum
investment of $890billion. The Indian housing sector at present faces a shortage of
20million dwelling units for its lower middle and low income groups which will
witness a spurt of about 22.5million dwelling units by the end of Tenth plan period.
There is ample scope for fly ash brick and block units.

In Chennai alone 1 crore bricks are required for constructional activities in every day.
But good quality of bricks as well as required quantity are not available moreover

28
During the rainey seasons supply of clay bricks are very difficult. Therefore, in order
to fulfill the required demand there will be a great chance to start more units in the
field of fly ash bricks. 4

At present 20nos units are engaged and 40 lakhs no’s of bricks per month are
manufactured in our state. And there will be scope to start near about 100 units,
which will be produced more than 2 cores no of bricks per month in future.

Thus marketing of these product are well shinning.

1. India ranks as one of the largest generators of fly ash in the world, mainly from its
80 plus thermal power stations (TPS) widely distributed within the country. The low
utilization levels of fly ash in civil engineering purposes & building components,
currently is at 15% (2002-03) of the total fly ash generated annually in India.

2. Research both in India and abroad has amply proved that the building components
produced using fly ash are competitive, both in qualit y and cost, as compared to
traditional building materials. A techno-feasible study on utilization of fly ash as
building material in major cities of India, beginning with Hyderabad, initiative taken
by BMTPC is laudable.

3. The scope of the study can be broadly divided into two major aspects.
· Estimating the current consumption of bricks, blocks, pavers and the market
potential to replace the traditional material with cement-based fly ash bricks, blocks
and pavers
· Preparation of techno-economic feasibility outline for establishing a unit to
manufacture cement based fly ash bricks, blocks, pavers at Hyderabad.

29
 A. Fly Ash Products: An Overview

1. The various applications to which fly ash can be used as a replacement material in
the building component industry are
· Bricks (clay ash, fly ash sand lime, fly ash lime gypsum),
· Blocks (hollow, solid, pavers),
· Others (fly ash cellular concrete, flux & cold bonded fly ash blocks & tiles, wall
tiles, fly ash refractories, extraction of cenospheres) and
· Extensively in manufacture of cement.

2. Specific codes have been issued by BIS for utilization of fly ash as building
components. The technical & economical benefits of using fly ash in building
components, savings in raw materials, clay, energy, etc. and reduction in ecological
damage has been documented.

3. The survey of manufacturers of bricks & blocks at Hyderabad was conducted to

study various issues concerning this industry and perceptions on the fly ash products.
· Majority of the manufacturers are small-scale operators, operating in the last 5 years.
· The manufacturing units are mostly located on leased land of average size of 2 acres.
This industry in Hyderabad provides employment to around 19,200 persons with nine
out of ten persons employed in traditional brick manufacturing units.
· Survey of 17 fly ash and 10 cement block manufacturers revealed the manufacture
of 31 different types fly ash and 16 cement based products in Hyderabad. Bricks
manufactured are of 9”X4”X3” size. Blocks manufactured commonly are 11.5”, 12”
or 16” length, with varied breadth & depth.

4. Four out of 5 bricks manufactured in Hyderabad are traditional clay bricks.

Estimated total annual production of bricks in and around Hyderabad is approx. 131
crore, i.e. 4 lakh fly ash bricks, 5.1 lakh cement bricks and 43 lakh traditional bricks
per day. The share of fly ash bricks in the brick industry is around 9%.

30
B. Adoption of IS standards by manufacturers is scanty, evident from poor
quality of bricks available in Hyderabad.
1. Perceptions of brick & block manufacturers on fly ash products

· Fly ash is available continuously and of satisfactory quality. It is perceived that

technical support initially was provided by INSWAREB of Vizag, but technology
transfer & support from Government is non-existent.
· The current prices of fly ash bricks & blocks are in the same range of cement blocks
& traditional bricks. The manufacturers are equally divided on the pricing of fly ash
bricks & blocks as against traditional bricks & blocks.
· High preference for fly ash products is observed among those customers contacting
manufacturers. Increased media coverage & favourable policies are considered key to
increasing utilization of fly ash bricks & blocks.
· Very high willingness is observed among traditional manufacturers regarding use of
fly ash in their products. Technical assistance & increased product awareness among
the public are considered important for promoting the shift in the manufacturing
practices.

C. Current Market Scenario:

1. Manufacturing technologies for utilizing fly ash in building components have been
developed various research agencies in India like CFRI, CBRI, NCBM, AEC,
INSWAREB etc.

2. The survey of users in Hyderabad was conducted to study the utilization pattern and
perceptions on the fly ash products.
· Most of the bricks & blocks used are light in weight and used chiefly for
construction of buildings, and procured directly from manufacturers & suppliers alike
within Hyderabad.
· Users are of the opinion that strength, durability, finish, availability, price are the
important qualities in bricks or blocks. The number of users satisfied and dis-satisfied
with traditional products are equally divided. Awareness level among users regarding
fly ash products and willingness to adopt them in their projects is high. Despite their
low availability, 35% of the users desire to use fly ash bricks & block

31
D. COMMODITY FUTURE :Market Potential

1. The growth of households in Hyderabad Urban Agglomeration in the last decade

has increased by 32%, while the population increased by 27%, indicative of increased
household formation rate, and consequently increase demand for housing.

2. The housing stock in Hyderabad UA in 2001 is around 10,22,106. The housing

stock between 1991-2001 has increased by 33%.

3. At current growth rates, the total housing stock to be added by 2010 including
replacement for ageing & dilapidation is approx. 3,77,400. The proportion of
permanent structures in the total housing stock is likely to increase from 87% in 2001
to more than 90% in this decade, thus necessitating increased building components
into the construction industry.

4. It is perceived that current production levels of manufacturers are able to meet 70%
of the market demand. Both manufacturers and users agree an increase in the annual
requirements (between 10 to 15% current manufacturing levels) in the next 5 years.
The demand is perceived to be higher for fly ash bricks & blocks than traditional
bricks or blocks.

E. Scope for New Entrant:

1. The annual demand of bricks by 2010 studied under different scenarios is expected
to vary between 1275 million to 1495 million, while demand for fly ash bricks would
be around 318 million to 373 million. This average daily demand for fly ash bricks is
likely to increase from 0.4 million units in 2004 to anywhere between 0.87 to 1.2
million units by 2010. This calls for strengthening of current fly ash brick production
levels by 1.5 to 2 times.

2. The increased demand can be met by increased production levels of existing units
or by setting up large scale manufacturing units of 0.125 million bricks capacity.

32
 CHAPTER-3
EXPERIMENTAL WORK

3.1 General

As discussed in previous chapters, the selection of materials, judicious mix

proportioning and proper workmanship (quality control) leads to high performance
bricks, which is required exhibit enhance strength and durability. In establishing these
requirements, careful consideration of properties of local available materials has to be
accounted for. Hence in this chapter main consideration is given to the planning
Fly ash bricks are nowadays mostly used for construction and gaining
its popularity over builders and engineers because of its high strength, uniformity
and less consumption of mortar plastering. Above to this it is ecof riendly bricks
which saves environmental damage caused by burnt clay bricks and saves top
agricultural soil which was the main raw material in the burnt clay bricks.

73% power generated in INDIA is from Thermal Power and 90% of it is coal based. Ash
content is 27% to 42% of the coal used. Increase in FLYASH generation has risen from
4 crore to 11crore ton in the last decade and will rise to 1100 crore ton in coming decade.
Approximately 10,000 hectares of top soil is being lost every year for brick
manufacturing and road construction.

If we continue in this format, very soon, we will not have sufficient soil to produce
our minimum required food.

Ministry of Environment & Forest (MoEF) Had issued a Gazette Notification on 14

Sep 1999 , Stipulating that no person shall be permitted to manufacture clay bricks or
tiles or blocks for use in construction activity without at least 25% of ash (fly ash,
bottom ash, or pond ash on weight to weight basis), within a radius of 50 Km from
coal or lignite based thermal power plants in INDIA

Ministry of Environment & Forest Had amended the Gazette Notification on 27 Aug
2003 making it compulsory to use fly ash for manufacturing building material by
increasing the radius from 50 Km to 100 Km
33
Fly ash bricks are masonry units that are used in the construction of buildings. They
are considered to be a part of good and affordable building materials. They contain
Class C fly ash and water.
Fly ash bricks are made by compressing Class C fly ash and water at 4000psi and then
curing is carried on for 24 hours at a temperature of 66 degrees Celsius steam bath.
Air entrainment agent is used to toughen the bricks.

Fly ash Bricks

Since the concentration of calcium oxide is very high in class C fly ash, the brick is
described as self cementing.
It is considered to be a good alternative to traditional mud bricks since the method of
manufacture of fly ash is energy efficient that is it helps save energy, brings about
reduction of mercury pollution and plus it is cost effective.

34
3.2 Manufacturing of Fly ash Bricks

For manufacturing Fly ash bricks , most of the machine manufacturers suggest the
following two mixing ratio, you can choose profitable mixing ratio to survive in the market
if you are facing low availability of Fly ash .At the same time you should maintain the
quality too.

The fly ash bricks are comparatively lighter in weight and stronger than common clay
bricks. Since fly ash is being accumulated as waste material in large quantity near thermal
power plants and creating serious environmental pollution problems, its utilization as main
raw material in the manufacture of bricks will not only create ample opportunities for its
proper and useful disposal but also help in environmental pollution control to a greater
extent in the surrounding areas of power plants.

35
There are several techniques for manufacturing construction bricks from fly ash, producing
a wide variety of products.

• One type of fly ash brick is manufactured by mixing fly ash with an equal amount
of clay, then firing in a kiln at about 1000 degrees C. This approach has the
principal benefit of reducing the amount of clay required.

• Another type of fly ash brick is made by mixing soil, plaster of paris, fly ash and
water, and allowing the mixture to dry. Because no heat is required, this technique
reduces air pollution. More modern manufacturing processes use a greater
proportion of fly ash, and a high pressure manufacturing technique, which produces
high strength bricks with environmental benefits.

In the United Kingdom, fly ash has been used for over fifty years to make concrete building
blocks. They are widely used for the inner skin of cavity walls. They are naturally more
thermally insulating than blocks made with other aggregates.[citation needed]

Ash bricks have been used in house construction in Windhoek, Namibia since the 1970s.
There is, however, a problem with the bricks in that they tend to fail or produce unsightly
pop-outs. This happens when the bricks come into contact with moisture and a chemical
reaction occurs, causing the bricks to expand.[citation needed]

In India, fly ash bricks are used for construction. Leading manufacturers use an industrial
standard known as "Pulverized fuel ash for lime-Pozzolana mixture" using over 75% post-
industrial recycled waste, and a compression process. This produces a strong product with
good insulation properties and environmental benefits.

36
A. NORMAL METHOD

Process of Manufacture:

Fly Ash bricks are made of fly ash, lime, gypsum and sand. Fly ash, lime sand and gypsum
are manually fed into a pan mixer where water is added in the required proportion for
intimate mixing. The proportion of the raw material is generally in the ratio 60-80% of fly
ash 10-20% lime, 10% Gypsum and 10% sand, depending upon the quality of raw
materials. The mixture is slow setting pozzalona cement mix. After mixing, the mixture is
shifted to the hydraulic/mechanical presses. The specially designed machine to give high
pressure load at the slow rate in mould designed for customer requirements in the order of
280 to 350 kg/ inch. Holding the pressure at specific time gives the more strength of the finished
product. The moulded the bricks then transfer to hydraulic operated wooden pellets manually
and store in covered space for three days (minimum) for setting.

Then the bricks taken to yard for water curing for 15 to 20 days. Then it sorted and tested
before-dispatch.

These can be extensively used in all building constructional activities similar to that of
common burnt clay bricks. The fly ash bricks are comparatively lighter in weight and
stronger than common clay bricks.

62% FLY ASH

8% LIME

5% GYPSUM

25% SAND OR QUARRY DUST

37
B. PROFITABLE METHOD

Fly ash, lime sand and gypsum are manually fed into a pan mixer where water is added in
the required proportion for intimate mixing. The proportion of the raw material is generally
in the ratio 60-80% of fly ash 10-20% lime, 10% Gypsum and 10% sand, depending upon
the quality of raw materials.

After mixing, the mixture is shifted to the hydraulic/mechanical presses. The bricks are
carried on wooden pellets to the open area where they are dried and water cured for 21
days. The bricks are tested and sorted before dispatch.

20% FLY ASH

15% LIME

5% GYPSUM

60% SAND OR QUARRY

DUST

38
3.2.1 FLOW CHART DIAGRAM

Fly Ash, Gypsum, Lime, Sand

↓↓↓↓
Weighing

↓
Pan Mixer

↓
Conveyor

↓
Fly Ash Brick Making Machine
(Hydraulic (or) Power Press)

↓
Transported To Wooden Racks

↓
Kept as it is
for two days for setting

↓
Water Curing
(7 to 20 days)

↓
Drying
(one or two days)

↓
Sorting and Testing

↓
Dispatch

39
3.3 Characteristics of Fly Ash Bricks

• The standard size of the brick is 230x110x70.

• The bricks are manufactured and tested as per IS 12894-2002.
• Fly ash bricks are sound, compact and uniform in shape, size and colour. Smooth
rectangular faces of the bricks are accompanied with sharp and square corners.

Fly ash Bricks are available in various colours and shapes. The above picture shows the
bricks in dark peach colour with three holes on it. These holes are used for grouting. The
mortar is poured into these holes for proper bonding in between the bricks.

• They are free from visible cracks, warpage, flaws and organic matter.
• Economical & environment friendly.
• 28% lighter than ordinary clay bricks.
• Compressive strength: 7.5N/mm2 on an average.
• Water absorption: <8%.

40
 3.4 Technical Specifications

(1) Fly Ash Brick Size Details

Size :
[4 Inches ] :- 230 x 100 x 75 mm
230 x 100 x 100 mm
Size :
[6 Inches ] :- 230 x 150 x 80 mm
230 x 150 x 100 mm

Can be available in other suitable sizes depending on the quantity.

(2) Compressive Strength :

75 to 150 kg/cm2 (or)

Avg. 7.5 N / Sq.mm.
( As against 3.5 N/Sq. mm for handmade clay bricks )

(3) Water Absorption :

8-12 %
( As against 20 to 25% for clay bricks )

(4) Efflorescence

Nil

41
(5) Density :

1700 Kg/m3

(6) Weight:

230x100x75 mm ( Weight about 4.75 to 5.00 kgs.approx )

230x150x75 mm ( Weight about 2.75 to 3.00 kgs.approx )

(7) Load Bearing Capacity:

More than 25% as compare to clay bricks

(8) Composition :

(i) Cement : Best Quality OPC 53 Grade Cement / Gypsum Powder,Lime Powder
(ii) Thermal Station Fly Ash
(iii) Crushed Sand / Stone Dust
(iv) Chemicals

(9) Thermal Conductivity :

0.90 – 1.05 W/m2 0 C

( 0.75 – 0.90 K cal/m2 hr 0C )

(10) Drying Shrinkage :

Maximum Average drying test shrinkage 0.035-0.04 %

(11) Brick Colour :-

Gray / Dark Gray

42
 3.4.1 Comparison of Normal Clay bricks and Fly Ash Bricks:

NORMAL CLAY BRICK FLYASH BRICK

Varying colour as per soil Uniform pleasing colour like cement

Uneven shape as hand made Uniform in shape and smooth in finish

Lightly bonded Dense composition

Plastering required No plastering required

Heavier in weight Lighter in weight

Compressive strength is around Compressive strength is around 100 Kg/cm2

35 Kg/cm2
More porous Less porous

Thermal conductivity - Thermal conductivity 0.90-1.05 W/m2 ºC

1.25 – 1.35 W/m2 ºC
Water absorption 20-25% Water absorption 6-12%

43
3.5 Quality standards:

Bureau of Indian Standards formulated specifications for clay fly ash bricks,
lime fly ash bricks, common burnt clay bricks and calcium silicate bricks which can
be referred to as regards to the quality of Fal-G bricks.
• IS: 12894:1990 Specification for Fly Ash Lime bricks.
• IS:13757:1976 Specification for Burnt clay fly ash building Bricks.
• IS:4137:1989 Specification for calcium silicate bricks.
• IS:3102:1976 Classification of burnt clay solid bricks.

The other relevant BIS specifications are :

• IS:3812:1981 Specification for Fly Ash for use as Pozzolana and admixture.
• IS:712:1984 Specification for Building limes.
• IS:3495(Pt.I)1976 Methods of tests of burnt clay building bricks.

For production of good quality fly ash bricks the quality of Fly Ash should be
as follows :
i) Moisture content of fly ash should not exceed 5% .
ii) Visual appearance of fly ash should be of light steel grey or smoky grey colour.
iii) Unburnt carbon content in the fly ash be around 5% .

The typical physical requirement of Fal-G bricks as per customer’s specifications

is as follows :
a) Compressive strength 60-250 kg/cm.2
b) Water absorption 5-12%
c) Density 1.5 gms./c.c.

3.5.1 Pollution control needs :

Workmen working with Fly Ash and at the mixing area are to be provided with
protective equipment like dust masks and safety goggles.

44
3.5.2 Energy Conservation Needs :
The management has to be vigilant in ensuring higher productivity by the best utilization of
man and machine hours. Periodic checks over working stages ,functioning of machiner y
and their preventive maintenance and timely repair etc. will help in energy conservation.

3.6 Preliminary laboratory tests:

Compressive strength AS/NZS 4456.4:

Fairly obviously, this is the ability of the masonry unit (brick or block) to resist crushing loads,
e.g. the weight of the roof that the wall is supporting, plus the weight of the wall itself.
The designer of the structure needs to be sure that the masonry unit will be able to carry
the load being placed upon it, including any live loads.

Salt attack resistance AS/NZS 4456.10:

In some situations, bricks can be attacked by salts from ground water, swimming pools ,
spas etc. How resistant a given brick is to the effects of salt crystallization will depend on
things like the porosity of the paver and the strength of the material the paver is made from,
as well as the concentration and type of salt, and moisture and temperature conditions.
Bricks and blocks may be classed as Exposure Grade if they either have a history of coping
with a salty environment, or have passed a laboratory test which simulates such conditions.
Units are required to be exposure grade, according to AS 3700 Masonry Structures,
wherever they are
In contact with aggressive soils (e.g. with high concentrations of salts in the ground-water),
or
In a “severe marine environment”, i.e. within 1 km of a surf coast or 100 m of a bayside
coast.
The lab test puts small segments of the masonry units through a series of 40 cycles of
alternate soaking in a salt solution, then drying in an oven. If the specimens survive the 40
cycles with less than a specified loss in mass, they’ve passed the test.

45
 Moisture expansion AS/NZS 4456.11:
All fired clay bricks expand slowly after their manufacture, by taking up moisture out of the
atmosphere. The expansion continues for many years, and needs to be taken into account in
building design. To predict the long-term expansion, a brick length can be accurately
measured before and after a laboratory steam treatment and the change in length used to
estimate how much the brick will expand in 15 years.
Information on how far a used brick has already expanded (“past expansion”) can be gained
from re-firing the brick in a laboratory kiln, and measuring its shrinkage. How far the used
bricks still have to expand (“residual expansion”) can be assessed by the difference between
these two measurements.
These expansion characteristics depend on the clays used in making the bricks, and on the
manufacturing process itself.

Dimensions AS/NZS 4456.3:

AS/NZS 4455 Masonry units and segmental pavers calls for bricks and blocks to be
classified into dimensional categories based on their deviation from their work size, or the
size specified in manufacture. This is usually a standard size; it is important that deviations
from this be controlled to a low level so bricklayers are able to build the structure to the
designer’s specifications and with minimum joint thickness variation.
Under this standard test, 20 units can be either measured individually for length, width and
thickness, or they can be placed side by side, end to end, etc. and their cumulative
dimensions measured.

Potential to efflorescence AS/NZS 4456.6:

Efflorescence is a deposit of salts, usually white, on the surface of bricks and blocks after
being laid. The salts usually come from ground water or out of the mortar, but may come
from within the masonry units themselves.
This test predicts the likelihood that the units will display such unsightly deposits from salts
that they already contain.

46
 Water absorption AS/NZS 4456.14:

A standard soaking-in-water test can determine the porosity of bricks and blocks, which can
then be used as an indication of the potential for the development of problems related to the
penetration of salts and other materials into the units, such as salt attack and efflorescence.
Water absorption of brick is nothing but the % of water that the brick can absorbs when it is
placed in water.
It should not be more that 15 to 20 % of its weight.

During the time of manufacturing bricks, mixture of minerals like silica, clay,ash,sand,etc
this propotionate should vary in all every production and also water content plays ver y
major role in the bricks as per IS CODE and it says that 15 TO 20 % is the max limit of
water absorption in brick in 24 hrs. water absorption in bricks depend only on void ratio of
bricks and also poor compaction.

As per IS:3495,the average water absorption shall not be more than 20 percent by weight
upto class 12.5 and 15 percent by weight for higher classes in 24hrs.Bricks,which do not
conform to this requirement shall be rejected.Over or under burnt bricks are not acceptable
for use in the works. As per IS 456: 2000 If brick is submerged in water for 24
hours its weight should not more than 20 % of its own dry weight.

WATER ABSORPTION IS CALCULATED BY THIS FORMULAE

[{(W2 -W1)/W2}/100] = ?? %

Where, W1 = Dry weight of Sample

W2 = Weight after 24 hrs in water.

47
 Initial rate of absorption AS/NZS 4456.17:
As soon as the bricklayer puts the mortar on a brick, the brick starts to absorb water out of
the mortar. The microscopic pores in the brick soak up the water, which carries with it
some of the partly-dissolved cement and lime. It’s the setting of this cementitious material
within the brick pores that provides most of the bond between the brick and the mortar, and
thus gives the wall its strength.
To get the best bond, it’s important to match the “suction” of the brick to the water-
retaining properties of the mortar. If the initial rate of absorption of the brick is too high for
the mortar that’s being used, the mortar may dry out too quickly and stiffen before the next
course can be laid. If it’s too low, not enough cementitious material is drawn up into the
brick pores. In either case, the bond strength will suffer. The Initial Rate of Absorption test
measures the amount of water a dry brick can soak up during the first minute of contact
with water

3.7 Brick Making Machines:

The technology consist of regular mechanical type and hydraulic version.

The hydraulic version is latest and gives higher production output with minimal inputs like
in labour and power. The strength of bricks in hydraulic version is better than the others. It
gives the pressure of 25 to 50 Ton in lieu of 15 ton in mechanical versions. Embossing the
monogram of company on the bricks is easy. Production is high. Continuous operation is
possible.

48
The machine consist of following parts:

1.Fly ash Brick making machine, vibrator, hydraulic power pack motor and Control
panel
It is hydraulically operated automatic machine. The structure is capable of handling load up
to 100 bar. Different size of mould can be fitted with machine. Embossing on brick is easy.
It give high production at minimal power loads. Circulated water cooling ensure longer
operation.

2.Pan mixing machine with gear box and motor:

A mechanical sturdy constructed with heavy rollers to grind the raw materials efficiently.
Drive by worm reduction gear box. Easy unloading mechanism with proper door
arrangements.

3.Belt conveyer system

A fabricated belt conveyer to take the raw materials of 1.5 time more than the capacity of
machines. The raw materials can regulated according to the requirements. Rubber with
nylon coated belts.

4.Hydraulic pallot trolley

The trolley capable of transporting maximum bricks to stocking area operated

hydraulically, which reduce the manpower and cracks of bricks.
We in Agni Engg. & Industries manufacturing the following capacity machines

For production of 3000 mt per annum

PARTICULARS AEI/ABM/1000 AEI/ABM/1500
Capacity 1000 Brick Per Hr 1500 Brick Per Hr
Size of Brick 230x110x70 230x110x70
System Hydraulic Hydraulic
Working Pressure 200 Bar 200 Bar
Pressing 50 Ton 20/40 Ton
Filling And Ejection Automatic Automatic
Tank Capacity 250 Lts 250 Lts

49
3.8 Advantages:

Fly ash brick has numerous advantages:

i. Appearance

These bricks have a pleasing colour like cement, are uniform in shape and smooth in finish,
also, they require no plastering for building work. The bricks are of dense composition,
uniformly shaped with/without a frog, free from visible cracks, warp-age, organic matter,
pebbles and nodules of free lime. They are lighter in weight than ordinary clay bricks and
less porous too. The colour of fly ash bricks can be altered with the addition of admixtures
during the process of brick making. They come in various sizes, but generally are similar to
the sizes of clay bricks.

ii. Structural Capability

These bricks can provide advantages being available in several load-bearing grades, savings
inmortar plastering, and giving smart looking brickwork. High compressive strength
eliminates breakages/wastages during transport and handling, the cracking of plaster is
reduced due to lower thickness of joints and plaster and basic material of the bricks, which
is more compatible withcement mortar. Due to its comparable density the bricks do not
cause any extra load for design of structures and provides better resistance for earthquake
loads due to panel action with high strength bricks. Compressive strength of fly ash sand
lime bricks is av. 9.00 N/mm2 (as against3.50 N/mm2 for handmade clay bricks).

iii. Thermal properties

Thermal conductivity is 0.90-1.05 W/m2 ºC (20-30% less than those of concrete blocks). These
bricks do not absorb heat; they reflect heat and gives maximum light reflection without
glare.

iv. Sound insulation

It provides an acceptable degree of sound insulation.

50
v. Fire and vermin resistance

Fly ash bricks have a good fire rating. It has no problems of vermin attacks or infestation.

vi. Durability and moisture resistance

These blocks are highly durable, after proper pointing of joints, the bricks can be directly painted
in dry distemper and cement paints, without the backing coating of plaster. Rectangular
f a c e d with sharp corners, solid, compact and uniformly .Water absorption is 6-12% as against
20-25%for handmade clay bricks, reducing dampness of the walls.

vii. Toxicity and Breath-ability

There are no definite studies on the toxic fume emissions or the indoor air quality of
structures built with fly ash bricks, though claims of radioa ctive emissions by these blocs
have been made at some scientific forums.

Fly ash as a raw material is very fine and care has to be taken to prevent from being air-
borne and causing serious air pollution as it can remain airborne for long periods of time, causing
serious health problems relating to the respiratory system. Though block manufactured
from fly ash has no such problems

viii. Sustainability

Fly ash is a cocktail of unhealthy elements – silica, aluminum, iron oxides, calcium, magnesium,
arsenic, mercury, and cadmium, and poses serious environment and health hazards for a large
population. But the brick is better off, for fly ash changes into a non-toxic product when mixed
with lime at ordinary temperature as the calcium silicate hydrates and forms a dense composite
inert block. Thus having the potential as a good building material, while off setting about 100
million tonne’s of fly ash annually produced in India by the numerous thermal power plants,
which could cause serious contamination of land, groundwater and air.

51
 ix. Buildability, availability and cost

The blocks have an easy workability and high compressive strength eliminates
breakages/wastage during handling giving a neat finish, with lower thickness of joints and
plaster. The construction technique remains the same as regular bricks ensuring easy change of
material, without requiring additional training for the masons. Though these bricks are
abundantly available closer to thermal power plants all over the country for obvious
reasons, finding dealers in all major cities and towns wouldn’t be a problem.

X. Applicability

The blocks being available in several load bearing grades are suitable for use: -
• Load bearing external walls in low and medium size structures.
• Non-load bearing internal walls in low and medium size structures.
• Non-load bearing internal or external walls in high-rise buildings

Technical advantages:

- Energy Efficient

- Fire resistant

- Sound Resistant

- Structurally sound

- Strong • Durable • Versatile

- Safe • Secure • Robust

- Economical

- Will not Warp, Twist or Rot

- Traditional

- 100% Recyclable- Huge saving in foundation and structure savings up to

30% on beam costs.

- Good earth quake resistance properties.

52
 - Easy handling.

- Faster construction.

- Huge saving of lab Reduced Air conditioning expenses.

- Bricks are fire resistant.

- Nontoxic fumes in case of fire.

- Excellent acoustic barrier. More peace of living, No disturbance from your

neighbor’s home theater.

- Highly accurate and smooth walls reduction in plastering.

- Opt for any finish on walls – external plastering, tiling, cladding, internal tiling, dry

lining, spray plaster or anything of your choice.

Other advantages

• It is eco-friendly.

• It is Aging material

• Full size and shep saving cement in mortar and plaster.

• Less wastage and breakages

• Effloresce and termite free

• Reduce dead load on total Building Structure, thus saving steel and cement High

strength and light weight.

• Full size and shep saving cement in mortar and plaster.

• Less wastage and breakages

• Effloresce and termite free

• Reduce dead load on total Building Structure, thus saving steel and cement

• It can reduce 10% of water consumption.

53
• It can improve mixture of cement concrete for workabilit y.

• Compression strength improves by more than 15 %.

• It can reduce initial stage of cement heat hydration by large margin.

• It has no function of corrosion reinforcing bars.

• It increases workability, density and strength without increasing the quantity of

cement.

• Due to high strength, practically no breakage during transport and use.

• Due to lower water penetration seepage of water through bricks is considerably

reduced.

• Plaster of Paris / Gypsum Plaster can be directly applied on these bricks without a

backing coat of plaster

• These bricks do not require longer soaking in water, only sprinkling of water before

use is enough

• compressive strength is more than conventional clay bricks

• More resistant to salinity and water than conventional bricks

• More lighten than conventional bricks

• Uniform in shape & size and more durable as strength increases with passage of

time

• Less mortar consumption in masonry & saving in plastering cost.

• Fuel saving in the range of 15%-35% (coal consumption) or coal saving upto 3-7

tonne per lakh bricks.

• Drying losses are checked in case of plastic black and red soils. Excessive linear

drying shrinkage is reduced.

54
 • Higher strength.

• 30-40 tonne of fly ash per lakh bricks can be utilized in case of alluvial soils, and

100-125 tonne per lakh bricks in case of red and black soils.

• Clay, a valuable and irreplaceable economic resource, is conserved to the extent of

40% by weight.

• bricks conforming to IS:3102-1976 can be manufactured.

• Uniformly in shape and size.

• Comparatively less quantity of cement mortar by 20%-25% is required.

• Water absorption is 13% to 15% as compared to 20% for conventional bricks.

• Outside wall plastering could be avoided as these bricks are smooth.

• Fly ash lime bricks are more resistant to salinity and water seepage.

• Lower bulk density of fly ash bricks help in minimizing the resultant load on load-

bearing walls

3.9 Disadvantages :

Actually, the disadvantages listed by some people about fly ash bricks are imaginary. But
the fly ash bricks manufacturing process involves strong health hazard for the labors. The
fly ash is a very tiny particle and it penetrates in to lungs and cause serious health trouble to
the labours engaged in fly ash bricks manufacturing process.
So many reports have proved this dangerous nature of fly ash, and still no awareness is
created among the labours in the thermal power plants, cement factories, Brick
manufacturing units etc..

• Fly ash causes severe pollution of air and water, and its disposal gobbles up large
tracts of land. Well-planned programs for proper management of fly ash are
therefore being undertaken to enhance the use of fly ash in various applications, so
that our already perilously imbalanced environment can be protected

55
• Fly ash is one of the numerous substances that cause air, water and soil pollution,
disrupt ecological cycles and set off environmental hazards.
• The combustion of powdered coal in thermal power plants produces fly ash.
• The high temperature of burning coal turns the clay minerals present in the coal
powder into fused fine particles mainly comprising aluminium silicate. Fly ash
produced thus possesses both ceramic and pozzolanic properties.
• When pulverised coal is burnt to generate heat, the residue contains 80 per cent fly
ash and 20 per cent bottom ash. The ash is carried away by flue gas collected at
economiser, air pre-heater and ESP hoppers. Clinker type ash collected in the water-
impounded hopper below the boilers is called bottom ash.
• The World Bank has cautioned India that by 2015, disposal of coal ash would
require 1000 square kilometers or one square meter of land per person. Since coal
currently accounts for 70 per cent of power production in the country, the Bank has
highlighted the need for new and innovative methods for reducing impacts on the
environment.
• The process of coal combustion results in fly ash. The problem with fly ash lies in
the fact that not only does its disposal require large quantities of land, water, and
energy, its fine particles, if not managed well, by virtue of their weightlessness, can
become airborne.
• Currently, 90 million tonnes of fly ash is being generated annually in India, with
65 000 acres of land being occupied by ash ponds. Such a huge quantity does pose
challenging problems, in the form of land usage, health hazards, and environmental
dangers. Both in disposal, as well as in utilization, utmost care has to be taken, to
safeguard the interest of human life, wild life, and environment.

56
Fly ash – Hazard to Environment and Life:

FA contains trace amounts of toxic metals (U, Th, Cr, Pb, Hg, Cd etc.), which may have
negative effect on human health and on plants. Several studies have been carried out to
assess hazards caused by FA on environment and plants. SO2 and NO2 released from TPP
cause acid rain, which corrodes structural surfaces and may affect agriculture by causing
yellowing of green leaves. Thermal pollution due to disposal in surface water sources
disrupts aquatic life, whereas toxic metals leached contaminate underground water
resources. Light and continuous prolonged inhalation causes pneumonitis, allergy, asthma,
lung fibrosis, bronchitis, cancer, and silicosis.

Diseases due to the presence of heavy metals in fly ash:

Metal Content (ppm) Diseases

Nickel (Ni) 77.6 Respiratory problem, lung cancer

Cadmium (Cd) 3.4 Anaemia, hepatic disorder
Antimony (Sb) 4.5 Gastroenteritis
Arsenic (As) 43.4 Skin cancer, dermatitis
Chromium (Cr) 136 Cancer
Lead (Pb) 56 Anaemia

57
3.10 Uses :

Several factors have impeded fly ash utilization in India, while it is being extensively used
globally. Coal-based thermal power stations have been operational for more than 50 years
but the concept of developing environment-friendly solutions for fly ash utilization is only
about 15 years old. Overall fly ash utilization in India stands at a fairly low level of about
15 per cent of the quantity generated. Various possibilities for its use are under research.

Among numerous factors that account for the low level of utilization, the chief
factors are:

• Poor understanding of the chemistry of fly ash and its derivatives for proper end
applications
• Absence of standards and specifications for fly ash products
• Lack of reliable qualit y assurance for fly ash products Poor public awareness
about the products and their performance
• Non-availability of dry fly ash collection facilities Easy availability of land with
top soil at cheap rates for manufacturing conventional bricks
• Lack of proper coordination between thermal plants and ash users.
• Fly ash utilization in the country is gaining momentum owing to the stringent
regulations that the MoEF has stipulated, as also to increased awareness about
the benefits of using fly ash for various products.
• Fly ash from coal-fired thermal power stations is an excellent potential raw
material for the manufacture of construction material like blended cement, fly
ash bricks, mosaic tiles and hollow blocks. It also has other, high volume
applications and can be used for paving roads, building embankments, and mine
fills.
• Fly ash products have several advantages over conventional products. The use
of cement in the manufacture of construction products can be reduced by
substitution with fly ash. While the use of cement cannot be completely
avoided, for certain products like tiles, the substitution can go up to 50 per
cent. These products are known to be stronger and more cost-effective because
of substantial savings on raw material.
58
 CHAPTER - 4

TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

4.1 General

The results of all the tests carried out on Fly ash bricks and also the technical aspects
are presented and discussed in this chapter

4.2. Compressive strength Test:

In this research, the values of compressive strength for different fly ash contents
(0%, 30%, 40% and 50%) incorporating different temperature (40ºC, 80ºC ,100ºC,
and 120ºC ) at the end of different curing periods (28 days, 56 days) are given in
Table 4.1.The results have also been plotted in Figs. 4.1 to 4.12, which shows the
variation of compressive strength with cement replacements at different curing ages
respectively and variation of compressive strength for different fly ash percent
incorporating different degree of temperature.

59
Fig. 4.1 to 4.4 shows the variation of compressive strength with replacements with
Class F fly ash at various temperatures (40ºC, 80ºC, 100ºC, and 120ºC). The
compressive strength was calculated as the average of three cylinder tests. It is evident
from Fig. 4.1 that compressive strength of concrete mixtures with 30%, 40% and 50
% of fly ash as cement replacement was lower than the control mixture (M-0) at all
ages and that the strength of all mixtures continued to increase with the age. With the
increase in temperature, compressive strength of concrete mixes with 30%, 40% and
50 % of fly ash as cement replacement decreased.

60
Fig. 4.1 shows that compressive strength decreased with the increase fly ash at
different temperature. Compressive strength also decreased with the increase in
temperature. At 120ºC temperature, the compressive strength decreased by 11.4%,

30.1%, 28.9%, and 27.5% when compared to normal temperature for 0%, 30%, 40%,
and 50% replacement of fly ash with cement respectively at 56 days. At high
temperatures, chemical transformation of gel weakened the matrix bonding, which
brought about a loss of strength of fly as concrete.

61
and also the difference between compressive strength vs age is shown in below
figures...

62
63
64
65
4.3 Laboratory process of compressive strength test:

1) Aim

To determine the compressive strength of bricks

2) Apparatus

Compression testing machine ,the compression plate of which shall have ball seating
in the form of portion of a sphere center of which coincides with the center of the
plate.

Fig: Compression Testing Machine

3) Specimens

Three numbers of whole bricks from sample collected should be taken .the
dimensions should be measured to the nearest 1mm

66
4) Sampling

Remove unevenness observed the bed faces to provide two smooth parallel faces by
grinding .Immerse in water at room temperature for 24 hours .Remove the specimen
and drain out any surplus moisture at room temperature. Fill the frog and all voids in
the bed faces flush with cement mortar (1 cement,1 clean coarse sand of grade 3mm
and down). Store it under the damp jute bags for 24 hours filled by immersion in
clean water for 3 days .Remove and wipe out any traces of moisture.

5) Procedure

(I) Place the specimen with flat face s horizontal and mortar filled face facing
upwards between plates of the testing machine.

(II) Apply load axially at a uniform rate of 14 ( ) per minute till

failure occurs and note maximum load at failure.

(III) The load at failure is maximum load at which the specimen fails to produce any
further increase in the indicator reading on the testing machine.

6) Formulae:

The average of result shall be reported.

Result:

75 to 150 kg/cm2
Average compressive strength of the given bricks = (or)
7.5 N / Sq.mm

67
Speciation of Common Clay Building Bricks

Dimensions: The standard size of clay bricks shall be as follows

Length (mm) Width (mm) Height (mm)

190 90 90
190 90 40

Classification: The common burnt clay shall be classified on the basis of average
compressive strength as given in table.

Class Average compressive

Designation
Not less Less than
than

( ) ( )
350 35 40

300 30 35

250 25 30

200 20 25

175 17.5 20

150 15 17.5

125 12.5 15

100 10 12.5

75 7.5 10

50 5 7.5

35 3.5 5

68
 CONCLUSION
In this chapter conclusions of the so far done-study/Experimental work of this project are given. Following
conclusions are given from the present study:

There is an imperative need to produce more building materials for various elements of construction and
the role of alternative and innovative options would come into sharp focus, considering the short supply,
increasing cost and energy and environment considerations for traditional and conventional materials.
The possibility of using innovative building materials and technologies, more so covering waste material
like if ash have been considered as a felt need.

Series of institutional support for land, for land, finance, regulatory, media, marketing support, testing
support and awareness creation would be needed and some of the existing initiatives would have to
be substantially strengthened, more importantly, entrepreneurship for the production of appropriate fly
ash based walling, roofing and flooring materials including Portland Pozzolana Cement and other cements
to ad1ieve better strength, energy saving, conservation of natural resources besides cost efficiency,
would have to be increasingly supported and developed.

Fly ash utilization in the country has remained less than10% during the past 5 years and it might take
several years to reach the final goal of cent percent utilization.

Every year nearly 70 million tonnes of ash is produced in India, of which NTPC
Stations alone contribute to the extent of about 22 million tonnes.

To utilize such a huge quantity of ash, we have to take necessary actions from government side and from
nongovernment side for utilization point of view.
Based on the results for the experiments done on FaL-Gbrick prism masonry compressive strength
measured at14 days is 75.5 kg/cm2 for cement mortar (1:6) and88.83kg/cm2 for fly ash mortar (1:6).

69
As compare to conventional brick masonry prism compressive strength it is between
13.75 kg/cm2 to121.80 kg/cm2 at 28 days strength. While FaL-G brickprism strength
is 88.83kg/cm2 for cement mortar (1:6)and 85.05 kg/cm2 for fly ash mortar (1:6) just
in 14days. It can be increased up to 135 kg/cm2 to 145kg/cm2 at 28 days.

The results shows the FaL-G bricks are more safe,economical and having higher
strength compare to conventional bricks. According to case study the fly ash bricks
with Conventional masonry work have 28% saving in cost with common red brick and
conventional masonry work. The masonry work with new technology Rat-Trap bond
in fly ash bricks have 33% saving in cost as compared to common bricks.
Further Fly ash bricks have many advantages like –

Light weight
Economical
Environmental friendly
Saving of fertile land, pure water
More compressive strength
Use of wastage etc. and also…

• The compressive strength of bricks increases with lime proportion.

• The bricks made under pressure has increased compressive strength according
as the pressure was applied
• As long as the percentage between lime and fly ash is unchanged, the change
in soil percentages does not affect compressive strength significantly.
• Most of the L-S-FA bricks belong to class 3.5 and 5 in respect of strength
only. In respect of water absorption all L-S-FA bricks fail.
• Only L-FA (40: 60) brick satisfies the criterion of class 3.5 in respect of both
strength and water absorption

70
From the previous chapters it can be understood that fly ash bricks are better
alternative to conventional burnt clay bricks in structural, functional and economic
aspects. This industry has the potential to consume at least 50% of the ash production
in India. By use of this aspect we can convert waste into wealth.

After looking into all the facets of fly ash brick industry and its different applications
in the previous chapters, in the end it is a request to all the government and
nongovernment organizations involved in generation, research and development and
utilization of fly ash, to extend all possible help in terms of technology, resources or
finance to the entrepreneurs who are trying to come forward to set their plants inspite
of tough competition and numerous set back in marketing. If this much could be done,
it will prove to be a big steppingstone towards the present need of sustainable
development.

71
 BIBILOGRAPHY
[1] Priyadarshi, A. K.(1999), “ Use of fly ash as construction material”, M.Tech.
Thesis, Department of Civil Engg., IIT Delhi.

[2] Feasibility of mixing Fly ash in Manufacture of burnt clay bricks – Report by
Aligarh Muslim University

[3] Fly Ash bricks, Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council
(TIFAC), DST, New Delhi

[4] Specification for fly ash for use of pozzolana and admixture, IS 3812:1981,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New DelhI

[5] Guide to the use of fly ash and bottom ash in roads and embankments;
Ashdevelopment association of Australia, June 1997.

[6] MEHTA, P. K. and PAULO, J. M. MONTEIRO; Concrete Microstructure,

Propertiesand Materials; The McGraw Hills Companies Inc., New York, 1993.

[7] BHANUMATHIDAS N. and KALIDAS N, Portland: Fal-G - A new pozzolanic

blend,Civil Engineering and Construction Review, May 1994

[8] Watt, J.D. et al. (1965), “The composition and pozzolanic properties of pulverised
fuel ashes: II. Pozzolanic properties of fly ashes, as deter-mined by crushing strength
tests on lime mortars”, J. Appl. Chem. 15 (12), pp. 595–604.

[9] Throne, D.J. et al. (1966), “The composition and pozzolanic properties of
pulverised fuel ashes: III. Pozzolanic properties of fly ashes as deter-mined by
chemistry methods”, J. Appl. Chem. 16 (2), pp. 33– 39.

[10] MEHTA, P.K. Role of pozzolanic and cementitious materials in sustainable

development of concrete indistry, ACI Special publication SP-178, 1998

[11] Lal, A.K., Development and adoption of lightweight concrete, Standards India,
Vol.3, No.6, September, 1989, pp. 231-236

[12] Monograph on Development of Low Cost Building Materials by Utilising

Industrial and Agricultural Wastes, NBO Publication, 1987.
[13] Lal, A.K., Adoption of partial prefabrication for mass housing, The Indian
concrete Journal, Vol.64, No.7, July, 1990, pp. 331-339.
72
[14] Sengupta, J., Prospects of utilization of fly ash as a building material, Civil
Engineering and Construction Review, Vol.4, No.8, August 1991, pp. 28-31

[15] Danshen, S. Z. et al. (1981), “Inquiry of fly ash effects”, J. Ceram. 9 (1), pp.
57– 63.

[16] ZHANG Ji-ru and CAO Xing (2002), “Stabilization of Expansive Soil by
Lime and Fly Ash”, Journal of Wuhan University of Technology - Materials
Science Edition, 17(4), pp 73-77.

[17] ASTM C-618. (1993). “Specification for fly ash and raw or calcined natural
pozzolana for use as a mineral admixture in Portland cement concrete: ASTM 618.
“Annual book of ASTM standards, Vol. 4.02, West Conshoocken, Pa., 310-312

[18] Sinha, R., and Dayal, U.(1999), “Design and Maintainance of Ash Dykes”, in
V.S. Raju et.al, Management of Ash ponds, Narosa Publishing house, New Delhi,
pp.41-69.

[19]S aibulatov S. (1984), “Working Properties of Ash Ceramic Materials for

Building Purpose”, Glass Ceramics, 41(9), pp 407-409.

[20] Diamond S. (1986),”Particle morphologies in fly ash”, Cement and Concrete

Research, Volume16,Issue 4 Pages 569-579

[21] Garg M. and Singh M. (1995),” Phosphogypsum - Fly ash cementitious

binder - Its hydration and strength development”, Cement and Concrete Research,
Volume 25, Issue 4, Pages 752-758

[22] Sharma, R. C. et al., (1993),” Semi-theoretical method for the assessment of

reactivity of fly ashes”, Cement and Concrete Research, Volume 23, Issue 1,Pages
41-45

[23] Garg, M. and Singh, M, (1999),” Cementitious binder from fly ash and other
industrial wastes”,Cement and Concrete Research, Volume 29, Issue 3, Pages 309-
314

[24] V Karthikeyan and M Ponni (2006), “An Experimental Study of Utilization of

Fly Ash for Manufacturing of Bricks”, 22nd National Conference of
Architectural Engineers Trichur.

73
[25] Tuncer B. Edil, M.ASCE; Hector A. Acosta, M.ASCE; and Craig H. Benson,
M.ASCE (2006), “Stabilizing Soft Fine-Grained Soils with Fly Ash”, Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering © ASCE, pp 283-294.

[26] Dr. Robert M. Brooks (2009), “Soil Stabilization with Fly Ash and Rice Husk Ash”,
International Journal of Research and Reviews in Applied Sciences, 1(3), pp 209-217.

[27] J. N. Akhtar, J. Alam and M. N. Akhtar (2010), “An Experimental Study on

Fibre Reinforced Fly Ash Based Lime Bricks”, International Journal of the
Physical Sciences, 5(11), pp 1688-1695.

[28] Kolay, P.K., Sii, H. Y. and Taib, S.N.L. (2011), “Tropical Peat Soil
Stabilization using Class F Pond Ash from Coal Fired Power Plant”,
International Journal of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 3(2), pp 79-83.

[29] Om Prakash (1990), “Utilization of Pulverized (Fertilizer Plant) Fly Ash as

Low-Cost Bricks and Construction Material” M. Tech. Thesis Submitted to
MNREC, Allahabad.

[30] IS: 6932-1973, Methods of tests for building lime—Specification, Bureau of

Indian Standards, New Delhi.

[31] IS: 2720-1983, Methods of tests for Soils—Specification, Bureau of Indian

Standards, New Delhi.

[32] IS: 3495 (Part 1 and 2)-1992, Methods of tests of Burnt Clay Building Bricks—
Specification, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.

[33] IS: 1077-1992, Common Burnt Clay Building Bricks—Specification, Bureau of

Indian Standards, New Delhi.

[34] IS: 12894-2002, Pulverized Fuel Ash-Lime Bricks—Specification, Bureau of

Indian Standards, New Delhi.

[35] Watt, J.D. et al. (1965), “The composition and pozzolanic properties of
pulverised fuel ashes: II. Pozzolanic properties of fly ashes, as deter-mined by
crushing strength tests on lime mortars”, J. Appl. Chem. 15 (12), pp. 595–60

74
[36] Throne, D.J. et al. (1966), “The composition and pozzolanic properties of
pulverised fuel ashes: III. Pozzolanic properties of fly ashes as deter-mined by
chemistry methods”, J. Appl. Chem. 16 (2), pp. 33– 39.

[37] Hoggs, D.W. (1980), “The effect of pulverized-fuel ash upon the workability of
cement and concrete”, Mag. Concr. Res. 32, pp. 219.

[38] Jan, H. et al.(1980),“The Utilization of Fly Ash and Slag”, Proceedings of 8th
International Conference, in Chinese, pp. 214.

[39] Danshen, S. Z. et al. (1981), “Inquiry of fly ash effects”, J. Ceram. 9 (1), pp. 57–
63.

[40] Diamond S. (1986),”Particle morphologies in fly ash”, Cement and Concrete

Research, Volume16,Issue 4 Pages 569-579

75
.

76
77
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85