Answer Q1(c)

The nervous system has two main parts:

 The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord.
 The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves that branch off from
the spinal cord and extend to all parts of the body.

The nervous system transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body,
including internal organs. In this way, the nervous system’s activity controls the
ability to move, breathe, see, think, and more.1
The basic unit of the nervous system is a nerve cell, or neuron. The human brain
contains about 100 billion neurons. A neuron has a cell body, which includes the
cell nucleus, and special extensions called axons (pronounced AK-sonz)
and dendrites (pronounced DEN-drahytz). Bundles of axons, called nerves, are
found throughout the body. Axons and dendrites allow neurons to communicate,
even across long distances.
Different types of neurons control or perform different activities. For instance,
motor neurons transmit messages from the brain to the muscles to generate
movement. Sensory neurons detect light, sound, odor, taste, pressure, and heat and
send messages about those things to the brain. Other parts of the nervous system
control involuntary processes. These include keeping a regular heartbeat, releasing
hormones like adrenaline, opening the pupil in response to light, and regulating the
digestive system.
When a neuron sends a message to another neuron, it sends an electrical signal
down the length of its axon. At the end of the axon, the electrical signal changes to
a chemical signal. The axon then releases the chemical signal with chemical
messengers called neurotransmitters (pronounced noor-oh-TRANS-mit-erz) into
the synapse (pronounced SIN-aps)—the space between the end of an axon and the
tip of a dendrite from another neuron. The neurotransmitters move the signal
through the synapse to the neighboring dendrite, which converts the chemical
signal back into an electrical signal. The electrical signal then travels through the
neuron and goes through the same conversion processes as it moves to neighboring
neurons.
The nervous system also includes non-neuron cells,
called glia (pronounced GLEE-uh). Glia perform many important functions that
keep the nervous system working properly. For example, glia:
  Help support and hold neurons in place
 Protect neurons
 Create insulation called myelin, which helps move nerve impulses
 Repair neurons and help restore neuron function
 Trim out dead neurons
 Regulate neurotransmitters

The brain is made up of many networks of communicating neurons and glia. These
networks allow different parts of the brain to “talk” to each other and work
together to control body functions, emotions, thinking, behavior, and other
activities.1,2,3
Answer Q1(d)

The James Lange Theory of Emotion

The James Lange theory of emotion states that emotion is equivalent to the range
of physiological arousal caused by external events. The two scientists suggested
that for someone to feel emotion, he/she must first experience bodily responses
such as increased respiration, increased heart rate, or sweaty hands. Once this
physiological response is recognized, then the person can say that he/she feels the
emotion.
This is the opposite of the typical common-sense way of thinking about the cause
and effect relation between the experience of emotion and its manifestation. James
and Lange emphasized that the autonomic activity and actions that are induced by
emotional stimuli generate the feeling of emotion, not the other way around.

For example, you’re walking in a dark alley in the middle of the night. Suddenly
you hear some strange noises, and your heart rate increases. According to James-
Lange Theory of Emotion, you will conclude that you’re scared because your heart
is beating really fast.

When the cortex of our brain receives stimuli that can induce emotions, our
autonomic nervous system and somatic nervous system trigger our visceral organs
and skeletal muscles respectively. These systems will then stimulate our brain,
which will interpret the response as an experience of emotion.
Answer Q2 (a)

Noses are used to smell scents. They get a sense for what particles are traveling
through the air, which can help us identify if dangerous chemicals are nearby.
Smell also has the strongest connection to memory; a familiar smell can remind us
of things long forgotten.

Ears allow us to hear sound - to detect vibrations in the air particles around us. But
the inner ear also helps us maintain balance and regulate sinus pressure. This is
especially useful when you change altitude (like, for example, when you are flying
in an airplane).

Tongues are used to taste foods, allowing us to figure out if something is going to
be useful to our bodies or poisonous. They also allow us to sense hot and cold in
food and liquids.

Last of all is the skin, which is responsible for what may be the most important
senses in the human body. The skin performs a huge number of functions. These
include: Perspiration (sweating) to cool the body protection from the elements

Answer Q2 (b)

Gestalt psychology was founded by German thinkers Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang

Kohler and Kurt Koffka and focused on how people interpret the world. The
Gestalt perspective formed partially as a response to the structuralism of Wilhelm
Wundt, who focused on breaking down mental events and experiences to the
smallest elements. Max Wertheimer noted that rapid sequences of perceptual
events, such as rows of flashing lights, create the illusion of motion even when
there is none. This is known as the phi phenomenon. Motion pictures are based
upon this principle, with a series of still images appearing in rapid succession to
form a seamless visual experience. According to Gestalt psychology, the whole is
different than the sum of its parts. Based upon this belief, Gestalt psychologists
developed a set of principles to explain perceptual organization, or how smaller
objects are grouped to form larger ones. These principles are often referred to as
the "laws of perceptual organization."However, it is important to note that while
Gestalt psychologists call these phenomena "laws," a more accurate term would be
"principles of perceptual organization." These principles are much like heuristics,
which are mental shortcuts for solving problems. Follow the links below to find
more information and examples of the different Gestalt laws of perceptual
organization.

Answer Q3

There are three main factors influencing personality development. Such as-

Biological Factors:
By and large, the influences of biological factors on personality structure are
limited and indirect.

The biological factors include genetic, hereditary factors, physical appearance and
physique and rate of maturation.

Most of these factors have been elaborately discussed in the chapter on

development in this book. For personality development, the characteristics such
as—aggressiveness, nervousness, timidity and sociability are strongly influenced
by genetic endowment.

Cultural Determinants of Personality:

From the point of view of personality development the most significant aspect of
the individual’s world is his social environment. All human beings live in a
society, an interacting group of people and each society has a distinctive culture, a
body of stored knowledge, characteristic way of thinking, feeling attitudes, goals,
ideals and value system.

Culture regulates our lives and influences the development of personality at every
turn, primarily by prescribing and limiting what he will be required to acquire for
the development of his personality. Such culture expects and trains its members to
behave in the ways that are acceptable to the group. Each culture has its own
concepts, needs and specific techniques of child rearing as well as a set of
expectations regarding patterns of approved behaviour.

There are cultural variations in the methods of achieving such goals as to

perpetuating the group and maintaining solidarity, or for satisfying basic needs of
its members. There are cultural prescriptions for different types of child-rearing
according to the necessity of the various groups. Again, there are social class
differences—children from different socio-economic backgrounds differ in
personality structure, behaviour and attitudes.

Family Influences on Personality Development:

The ultimate aim of personality development is the development of social
behaviour in children. Socialization is the process by which the individual infant
acquires the behavioural potentialities and, eventually, those behaviour patterns
that are customary and acceptable according to the standards of his family and the
social group. He starts acquiring those patterns of social behaviour from the
immediate environment and gradually from the wide range of extended
environments.

The child’s first social learning occurs at home, and his earliest experiences with
his family, particularly his mother, are critical in determining his attitude toward—
and his expectations of—other individuals. The mother remains most important to
him because she gratifies his primary needs for food, for alleviation of his pain and
source of pleasure, for warmth. The infant soon learns to search for and approach
his mother whenever he is hungry, in pain and uncomfortable.

If the mother is nurturant and gratifies his needs promptly and effectively, she
rewards the child’s “approach” responses and these are likely to be repeated.
Positive approach responses then, gradually, generalize to other people as well and
the child develops positive social attitude. As we have seen in Erikson’s theory that
the earliest interactions between mother and child lay the ground-work for child’s
development of trust and mistrust in the world. This leads to the trust and mistrust
to be generalized to trust others when the child grows up.

Answer Q4

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed

by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human
Motivation" in Psychological review Maslow subsequently extended
the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity.
His theories parallel many other theories of
human developmental psychology, some of which focus on
describing the stages of growth in humans. He then decided to
create a classification system which reflected the universal
needs of society as its base and then proceeding to more
acquired emotions.[3] Maslow's hierarchy of needs is used to study how humans
intrinsically partake in behavioral motivation. Maslow used the terms
"physiological", "safety", "belonging and love", "social needs" or "esteem", and
"self-actualization" to describe the pattern through which human motivations
generally move. This means that in order for motivation to occur at the next level,
each level must be satisfied within the individual themselves. Furthermore, this
theory is a key foundation in understanding how drive and motivation are
correlated when discussing human behavior. Each of these individual levels
contains a certain amount of internal sensation that must be met in order for an
individual to complete their hierarchy.[3] The goal in Maslow's theory is to attain
the fifth level or stage: self-actualization.[4]
Maslow's theory was fully expressed in his 1954 book Motivation and
Personality.[5] The hierarchy remains a very popular framework
in sociology research, management
training[6] and secondary and higher psychology instruction. Maslow's
classification hierarchy has been revised over time. The original hierarchy states
that a lower level must be completely satisfied and fulfilled before moving onto a
higher pursuit. However, today scholars prefer to think of these levels as
continuously overlapping each other.[3] This means that the lower levels may take
precedence back over the other levels at any point in time. Others criticized its
strict assumption on hierarchy in needs, fails to explain how behavior can be
affected within the hierarchy, 3) its weak empirical foundation [7] .