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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
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INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1
enhancing grain boundary strength. However, these two elements have an extremely
damaging effect on weld hot cracking resistance.
Most Ni-base alloys also contain appreciable levels of carbon, which forms
various types of carbides with elements such as chromium, molybdenum, tungsten,
titanium, niobium, and tantalum. The carbon content is usually held to an ‘as low as
possible’ level in corrosion-resistant alloys, typically below 0.01 wt%. Lower carbon
levels hinder the formation of carbides in the heat-affected zone (HAZ), which act to
impair the overall corrosion resistance of these alloys by depleting the austenite
matrix of critical alloying elements, namely chromium and molybdenum. Carbon
levels are intentionally higher in high-temperature alloys, typically in the range of
0.05 -0.1 wt%, to form strengthening carbides. Aluminum is also added to high-
temperature alloys to provide corrosion protection by the formation of a tenacious
Al2O3 oxide film on the surface of the alloy. Even though impurity elements such as
sulfur, phosphorus, and lead are held to very low levels in Ni-base alloys, they can
have a significantly adverse effect on weldability since they are essentially insoluble
in nickel and promote hot cracking by forming low-melting-point eutectic phases.
Magnesium and manganese are added to control the effects of sulfur.
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alloys are gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), gas metal arc welding (GMAW), and
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). For all welding processes, weld parameter
selection, as it relates to heat input, is extremely important due to the greater
possibility of hot cracking as heat input increases. the welding characteristics of Ni-
base alloys are similar in many ways to those of the austenitic stainless steels .Since
Ni-base Weldmetal is comparatively ‘sluggish,’ meaning it is not as fluid compared to
carbon or stainless steel, and does not flow out as readily and ‘wet’ the sidewalls, the
welding arc and filler metal must be manipulated to properly place the molten metal.
In addition to the sluggish nature of the weld pool, the shallow penetration
characteristics of Ni-base alloys compared to that of stainless steel increase the
possibility of incomplete fusion. Proper preparation of the weld joint region is
considered a very important part of welding Ni-base alloys. Furthermore, the welding
surface and adjacent regions should be thoroughly cleaned with an appropriate
solvent, such as acetone, prior to any welding operation. All greases, cutting oils,
crayon marks, machining solutions, corrosion products, paints, scale, dye penetrant
solutions, and other foreign matter should be completely removed.
Distortion characteristics of Ni-base alloys are similar to those of
austenitic stainless steels. However, the lower coefficient of thermal expansion
(CTE) of Ni-base alloys, compared to austenitic stainless steels, makes them less
susceptible to distortion and residual stresses for a given weld geometry. Heating of
Ni-base alloys prior to welding (‘preheat’) is generally not required. Preheat is usually
specified only as room temperature. The base material may require warming to raise
its temperature above freezing or to prevent condensation of moisture. Warming
should be accomplished by indirect heating if possible, such as infrared heaters or
natural warming to room temperature. If oxyacetylene warming is used, the heat
should be evenly applied over the base metal rather than being concentrated in the
weld zone. The torch should be adjusted so that the flame is not carburizing. It is
recommended that a ‘rosebud’ tip be used to evenly distribute the flame.
Care should be taken to avoid local or incipient melting as a result of the
warming process. The temperature between weld passes (‘interpass temperature’)
should be maintained at relatively low levels, such as being maintained below 100–
150°C. To achieve this condition, auxiliary cooling methods can be used. Water
quenching or rapid air cooling are preferred to cool the assembly; natural cooling is
also permissible, although in some cases the weld zone will be in a deleterious
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segregation during solidification. This results in the formation of a liquid film and a
low-melting Laves phase precipitating in the interdendritic region, leading to a
greater susceptibility to hot cracking. Research has revealed that the hot cracking
sensitivity is considerably influenced by the dendrite arm spacing and the quantity,
size, morphology, and distribution of the low-melting phase and carbides. Ahn et al.
(2002) reported that the solidification cracking of Inconel 617 was closely related to
the γ/NbC and γ/Laves eutectic constituents formed along the grain boundaries,
minor variations in the Nb, Mo, and Ti quantities can have a strong influence on the
solidification temperature range and the type and amount of eutectic phases formed
during solidification; whereas the solidification cracking was closely related to the
carbides and Laves eutectic.
FIGURE 1.3.1 . Parameters used for pulsed GTAW: peak current (Ip), base current
(Ib) , peak time (Tp) and base time (Tb).
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