Anito

Anito, also spelled anitu, refers to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities
(diwata) in the indigenous animistic religions of precolonial Philippines. It can
also refer to carved humanoid figures, the taotao, made of wood, stone, or ivory,
that represent these spirits.[1][2]

Pag-anito refers to a séance, often accompanied by other rituals or celebrations,

in which a shaman (Visayan: babaylan, Tagalog: katalonan) acts as a medium to
communicate directly with the spirits. When a nature spirit or deity is
specifically involved, the ritual is called pagdiwata. The act of worship or a
Various Igorot bulul depicting
religious sacrifice to a spirit is also sometimes simply referred to as anito.[1][3][4]
ancestor spirits (c. 1900)
The belief in anito, and its southern counterpart diwata, are sometimes referred
to as Anitism in scholarly literature (Spanish: anitismo or anitería).[2]

Contents
Anito spirits
Ancestor spirits
Nature spirits and deities
Religious objects and places Taotao carvings sold in a souvenir
Taotao figures shop in Siquijor Island
Altars and sacred areas
Spirit animals
Rituals and shamans
In popular culture
See also
Notes
See also
References
External links

Anito spirits
Ancient Filipinos were animistic. They believed that everything has a spirit, from rocks and trees to animals and humans to
natural phenomena.[2][5][6] These spirits are collectively known as anito, derived from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *qanitu and
Proto-Austronesian *qaNiCu ("spirit of the dead"). Cognates in other Austronesian cultures include the Micronesian aniti,
Malaysian and Indonesian hantu or antu, Nage nitu, and Polynesian aitu and atua. As well as Tao anito, Taivoan alid, Seediq and
Atayal utux, Bunun hanitu or hanidu, and Tsou hicu among Taiwanese aborigines.[5][7][8] Anito can be divided into two main
categories: the ancestor spirits (ninunò), and deities and nature spirits (diwata).[1][2][9]

Ancestor spirits
The ninunò (lit. "ancestor") can be the spirits of actual ancestors or generalized
guardian spirits of a family. Ancient Filipinos believed that upon death, the soul
(Visayan: kalag; Tagalog: kaluluwa)[note 1] of a person travels to a spirit world,
usually by boat.[1][10][11][12][13][14]

There can be multiple locations

in the spirit world, varying in
different ethnic groups.[note 2]

Which place souls end up in

depends on how they died, the
age at death, or the conduct of
the person when they were
alive. There was no concept of
Manang carved images of household The Neolithic Manunggul burial jar
heaven or hell prior to the
guardian spirits from the Mandaya from the Tabon Caves, Palawan,
introduction of Christianity and
people depicts a soul and a psychopomp
Islam;[note 3] rather, the spirit
journeying to the spirit world in a boat
world is usually depicted as an (c. 890–710 BCE)
otherworld that exists alongside the material world. Souls reunite with deceased
relatives in the spirit world and lead normal lives in the spirit world as they did
in the material world. In some cases, the souls of evil people undergo penance and cleansing before they are granted entrance into
a particular spirit realm. Souls would eventually reincarnate after a period of time in the spirit world.[1][10][2][15]

Souls in the spirit world still retain a degree of influence in the material world, and vice versa. Pag-anito may be used to invoke
good ancestor spirits for protection, intercession (kalara or kalda), or advice. Ancestor spirits that become intercessors with
deities are known as pintakasi or pitulon. Vengeful spirits of the dead can manifest as apparitions or ghosts (mantiw)[note 4] and
cause harm to living people. Pag-anito can be used to appease or banish them.[1][2][6][9] Ancestor spirits also figured prominently
during illness or death, as they were believed to be the ones who call the soul to the spirit world, guide the soul (a psychopomp),
or meet the soul upon arrival.[1]

Ancestor spirits are also known as kalading among the Igorot;[16] tonong among the Maguindanao and Maranao;[17] umboh
among the Sama-Bajau;[18] nunò or umalagad among Tagalogs and Visayans; nonò among Bicolanos;[19] umagad or umayad
among the Manobo;[20] and tiladmanin among the Tagbanwa.[21]

Nature spirits and deities

The diwata are spirits who have never been human. These spirits can range from simple spirits like the diwata of a particular rock
or place,[note 5] to deities who personify abstract concepts and natural phenomena,[note 6] to deities who are part of an actual
pantheon.[note 7] They are also known as dewatu, divata, duwata, ruwata, dewa, dwata, diya, etc., in various Philippine
languages; all of which are derived from syncretization with Sanskrit devata or devá, meaning "deity". In some ethnic groups like
the B'laan and the Tagalogs, Diwata refers to the supreme being in their pantheon,[note 8] in which case all the other spirits,
whether human or not, are known generically as anito.[1][2] Like in ancestor spirits, diwata are referred to in polite kinship titles
when addressed directly, like apo ("elder") or nuno ("grandparent").[2][23][note 9]

There are three general types of non-human spirits. The first are the environmental or nature spirits "bound" to a particular
location or natural phenomenon (similar to genii loci). They "own" places and concepts like agricultural fields, forests, cliffs,
seas, winds, lightning, or realms in the spirit world. Some were also "keepers" or totems of various animals and plants. They have
inhuman and abstract qualities, reflecting their particular dominions. They do not normally appear in human form and are usually
gender-less or androgynous. They rarely concern themselves with human affairs. Rituals involving these spirits are almost always
conducted outdoors.[20][24]
The second type of spirits are the "unbound" spirits which have independent
existence. They appear in animal (usually as birds) or human-like forms, have
gender differentiation, and have personal names. They are most similar to the
fairies of European folklore.[note 10] These are the most common types of spirits
to become abyan (spirit guides of babaylan), as they are the most "sociable" and
can take interest in human activities. These spirits are usually referred to as
engkanto (from Spanish encanto) in modern Filipino folklore. Unlike the
"bound" spirits, these spirits can be invited into human households, and their
rituals can take place both outdoors and indoors.[20]

The last is a class of malevolent

spirits or demons, as well as
supernatural beings, generally
collectively known as aswang,
yawa, or mangalos (also
mangalok, mangangalek, or
magalos) among Tagalogs and
Visayans. There are numerous
kinds of aswang with specific
abilities, behavior, or
appearance. Examples include
sigbin, wakwak, tiyanak, and A golden anito figurine of the Igorot
manananggal. The first two people, from the mines of Suyoc,
categories of diwata can also be Mankayan, Benguet (1909)[22]
malevolent, what sets the third
Ato, a fertility god of the Bontoc
category apart is that they can
people
not be appealed to with offerings and they are utterly pitiless. Most practices
associated with them is to ward them off, banish them, or destroy them. They are
never addressed nor worshiped in religious rituals.[1][2][20][23][25][26]

Diwata are rarely spoken about openly for fear of attracting their attention. Instead they are referred to with euphemisms like
"those unlike us" (Visayan: dili ingon nato, Tagalog: hindi kagaya natin) or various names, like banwaanon or taga-
banwa,[note 11] that translate literally to "dweller of a place".[27][28][29] Among Tagalogs, non-human nature spirits are also
euphemistically referred to as lamanglupa ("[dwellers of] the bowels of the earth") or lamangdagat ("[dwellers of] the depths of
the sea"), depending on their domain.[30]

Diwata exist in both the material world and the spirit world. They can be formless or have a material body. They can also take
over a body through spirit possession (Visayan: hola, hulak, tagdug, or saob; Tagalog: sanib), an ability essential for the séances
in pag-anito. They are believed to be capable of shapeshifting (baliw or baylo), becoming invisible, or creating visions or
illusions (anino or landung, lit. "shadow"). Their powers, however, are limited to their particular domain. A diwata of a forest, for
instance, has no dominion over the sea. Most are generally benevolent or capriciously neutral, although they can cause
misfortunes and illnesses if angered, disrespected, or mistakenly encountered.[2][23][25][26] Other common characteristics of
diwata are that they are perceived as an invisible "cold" presence (in contrast to "warm" human spirits); that they leave no
footprints (unlike human spirits); and that they sense the world and "eat" by means of smelling.[20][note 12] Diwata who take
human form are said to be pale-skinned and could be distinguished from humans by the absence of a philtrum on the upper
lip.[31][20]
Diwata are often depicted as appearing to unsuspecting people in human or
animal form, sometimes causing unintentional harm. They can also deliberately
play tricks on mortals, like seducing or abducting beautiful men and women into
the spirit world.[1][20] Certain places are believed to be owned by diwata or are
borders to the spirit world. These are normally avoided or only entered with
precautions, especially during twilight when diwata are believed to cross over
from the spirit world into the material world. Harm or illness caused by diwata
are known as buyag in Visayan and usog in Tagalog.[1][20] People who were
Ifugao hogang in the Banaue Rice
harmed by interactions with diwata are euphemistically described as having been
Terraces, guardian spirits carved
"greeted" (Visayan: gibati, Tagalog: nabati) or "played with" (Visayan gidulaan, from tree fern trunks usually placed
Tagalog: napaglaruan or nakatuwaan) by diwata.[30] along pathways and in village
outskirts
To avoid inadvertently angering a diwata, Filipinos perform a customary
pasintabi sa nuno ("respectfully apologizing or asking permission from
ancestors for passing").[note 13] This is done by saying the phrases "tao po" ("a human [is passing], elder), "tabi po" or "tabi apo"
("by your permission, elder")[note 14] when passing by a place believed to be inhabited by a diwata.[6][30]

Diwata are also believed to be able to mate with humans. People born with congenital disorders (like albinism or syndactyly) or
display unusual beauty or behavior are commonly believed by local superstition to be the children of diwata who seduced (or
sometimes raped) their mothers.[32][33]

During the Spanish period, diwata were syncretized with elves and fairies in European mythology and folklore, and were given
names like duende (goblin or dwarf), encantador or encanto ("spell [caster]"), hechicero ("sorcerer"), sirena ("mermaid"), or
maligno ("evil [spirit]").[1][30][34] In Islamized ethnic groups of the Philippines, these nature spirits are usually called jinn or
saitan, due to the influence of Islamic mythology.[30][35][36]

Religious objects and places

Taotao figures
Ancestor spirits were usually represented by carved figures. These were known
as taotao ("little human", also taotaohan, latawo, tinatao, or tatao),[note 15] bata-
bata ("little child"), ladaw ("image" or "likeness"; also laraw, ladawang,
lagdong, or larawan), or likha ("creation"; also likhak) in most of the
Philippines. Other names include bulul (also bulol or bul-ul) or tinagtaggu (also
tinattaggu) among the Igorot;[note 16] manaug among the Lumad; and tagno
among Bicolanos.[1][2][6][23][37][38] Among Tagalogs, taotao were also
sometimes referred to as lambana ("altar" or "sacred place"),[note 17] after the
location in which they are usually kept.[6][38]

Taotao were usually austere roughly-carved figures made from wood, stone, or
ivory. Some taoatao encountered by the Spanish were made from precious 15th century bulul with a pamahan
metals or ornamented with gold and jewelry, but these were very rare.[1][39] (ceremonial bowl) in the Louvre
Taotao were almost always depicted in the squatting position with the arms Museum
crossed over the knees, which is reminiscent of the fetal position, the everyday
conversing posture, and the position bodies are arranged during death among
Ancient Filipinos. Some figures, however, are depicted standing or doing everyday activities like dancing, pounding rice, or
nursing infants.[40][41]
 Most taotao represent an actual
deceased person, usually carved
by the community upon their
funeral. As such, there can be
hundreds of taotao in a single
village, some of them centuries
old.[41][42]
Igorot hipag depicting war deities A balaua, a large spirit house used
In very rare cases, diwata can for community rituals to anito among
(c. 1900)
be depicted as taotao in the Itneg people (1922)[16]
anthropomorphic form, as
chimeras or legendary creatures, or as animals.[6][41] These include a special
class of figures called hipag among the Igorot which depict war deities, as well
as kinabigat (carved houseposts) and hogang (carved tree fern posts used as
boundary markers and as wards against harm).[41] As a rule, however, diwata are
not usually depicted as taotao or by any man-made representations.[2]

Taotao were not intrinsically sacred. They were representations of the spirits, not
the actual spirits themselves. They only became sacred during their use in a pag-
anito ritual. Without the spirit they represent, they are treated as mundane carved
pieces of wood or sculpted stone. The anonymous author of the 1572 Relación
de la conquista de la isla de Luzón describes pag-anito rituals of the Tagalog Salako (left) and palaan (right)
people as such:[43] ceremonial altars among the Itneg
people (1922)[16]
When any chief is ill, he invites his kindred and orders a great
meal to be prepared, consisting of fish, meat, and wine. When
the guests are all assembled and the feast set forth in a few plates
on the ground inside the house, they seat themselves also on the
ground to eat. In the midst of the feast (called manganito or
baylán in their tongue), they put the idol called Batala and
certain aged women who are considered as priestesses, and some
aged Indians—neither more nor less. They offer the idol some of
the food which they are eating, and call upon him in their tongue,
praying to him for the health of the sick man for whom the feast
is held. The natives of these islands have no altars nor temples
whatsoever. This manganito, or drunken revel, to give it a better
name, usually lasts seven or eight days; and when it is finished
they take the idols and put them in the corners of the house, and
keep them there without showing them any reverence.

Regardless, very old taotao handed down through generations are prized as family heirlooms. Among the Igorot, pieces of taotao
may also be chipped off and boiled into a medicinal tea.[41]

Taotao were commonly kept in corners or small shelves inside houses or granaries. Spanish missionaries recorded that taotao
were present in every Filipino household, no matter how poor.[1][2][37][38]
When Spanish missionaries arrived in the Philippines, the word "anito" came to be associated with these physical representations
of spirits that featured prominently in pag-anito rituals. During the American rule of the Philippines (1898–1946), the meaning of
the Spanish word idolo ("a thing worshiped") was further conflated with the English word "idol". Thus in the modern Filipino
language, anito has come to refer almost exclusively to the carved taotao figures, instead of the actual spirits themselves.[1][44]

Altars and sacred areas

Ancient Filipinos did not have temples or permanent buildings of
worship.[1][2][38] However, they did have semi-permanent spirit houses. They
can range in size from small roofed platforms to structures similar to a small
house (but with no walls). These were known as magdantang in Visayan and
ulango or simbahan in Tagalog.[note 18] They can also be used as places to store
taotao. Among Bicolanos, taotao were also kept inside sacred caves called
moog.[1][23][16][42]

During certain ceremonies, anito are venerated through temporary altars near
Diwata are believed to inhabit this
sacred places. These were called latangan or lantayan in Visayan and dambana
400-year old balete tree in Lazi,
or lambana in Tagalog.[note 19] These bamboo or rattan altars are identical in
Siquijor with a natural spring
basic construction throughout most of the Philippines. They were either small between its roots
roof-less platforms or standing poles split at the tip (similar to a tiki torch). They
held halved coconut shells, metal plates, or martaban jars as receptacles for
offerings. Taotao may sometimes also be placed on these platforms.[1][23]

Other types of sacred places or objects of worship of diwata include the material manifestation of their realms. The most widely
venerated were balete trees (also called nonok, nunuk, nonoc, etc.) and anthills or termite mounds (punso). Other examples
include mountains, waterfalls, tree groves, reefs, and caves.[1][2][6][45][46]

Spirit animals
Some animals like crocodiles, snakes, monitor lizards, tokay geckos, and various
birds were also venerated as servants or manifestations of diwata, or as powerful
spirits themselves. These include legendary creatures like the dragon or serpent
Bakunawa, the giant bird Minokawa of the Bagobo, and the colorful Sarimanok
of the Maranao.[1][2][6][45][31]

Omen birds were particularly important. The most common omen birds were
doves with green or blue iridescent feathers called limokon (usually the common
emerald dove, imperial pigeons, or brown doves).[note 20] Other omen birds
Bakunawa hilt from a Visayan
include fairy-bluebirds (tigmamanukan, balan tikis, balatiti, or bathala among
tenegre sword
Tagalogs; and batala among Kapampangans); kingfishers (salaksak among the
Ilocano, Igorot, and Sambal); and flowerpeckers (pitpit, ichaw, ido, or labeg
among the Igorot).[6][23][47]

Rituals and shamans

Anitism was not a religion about worship. Aside from good ancestor spirits and the few benevolent diwata, most anito were
feared, not venerated. To an ordinary person, diwata were regarded as dangerous beings to be avoided or appeased. When
interaction was necessary, they performed a ritual known as pag-anito (also mag-anito or anitohan). These are usually directed at
ancestor spirits. When the pag-anito ceremony is for a diwata, the ritual is
known as pagdiwata (also magdiwata or diwatahan).[1][2]

Minor pag-anito rituals like praying for better weather or banishing minor ill
luck can be performed by any householder. However, major pag-anito rituals
required the services of the community shaman (Visayan babaylan or baylan;
Tagalog katalonan or manganito).[1][note 21]

These shamans were believed to have been "chosen" by a specific diwata who
become their spirit guides.[note 22] This was presumed to happen after they pass A 1922 photograph of an Itneg
the initiation rites of an older shaman they were apprenticed to (usually a shaman making an offering to an
apdel, a guardian anito of her village.
relative). In some cases, some shamans acquire their status after they recover
Apdel are believed to reside in the
from a serious illness or a bout of insanity.[1][19][28][20][36][48] In most Filipino
water-worn stones known as
ethnic groups, shamans were almost always female. The few males who gain pinaing.[16]
shaman status were usually asog or bayok,[note 23] men who dressed as women
and lived as women (even marrying men).[1][23][20][48]

Major pag-anito rituals are centered around a séance. Because of their special
relationship with their companion spirits, shamans can act as mediums for other
anito, allowing spirits to temporarily possess their bodies. This possession
happens after the shaman goes into a trance-like state. This allows the spirit to
communicate verbally with the participants as well as physically act out events
in the spirit world. At the moment of possession, shamans display a change in
behavior and voice. They can sometimes go into seizures and become violent
Itneg people launching spirit boats enough that restraints are required. The ritual ends when the spirit leaves and the
(taltalabong) bearing offerings for
shaman is awakened.[1]
anito (1922)
Spirits were invited into the ritual through offerings and sacrifices during and
after the ceremonies. These depended on what spirit was being summoned, but
offerings are usually a small portion of the harvests, cooked food, wine, gold ornaments, and betel nut. Blood from an animal was
also usually part of the offerings, poured directly on the taotao or in a bowl before them. These commonly come from chickens or
pigs, but can also be from carabaos or dogs.[1][2] Salt and spices are usually avoided, as they are believed to be distasteful to
anito.[20] There is no record of human sacrifices being offered to anito during the Spanish period of the Philippines,[1][37][31]
except among the Bagobo people in southern Mindanao where it was prevalent until the early 20th century.[49][50][note 24]

Another common pag-anito ritual throughout most of the Philippine ethnic groups involves the use of spirit boats. These were
usually miniature boats laden with offerings set adrift from riverbanks and shorelines.[2][5][16]

Pag-anito can be conducted on its own or in conjunction with other rituals and
celebrations. They can be personal or family rituals or seasonal community
events. They can vary considerably between different ethnic groups. The most
common pag-anito were entreaties for bountiful harvests, cures for illnesses,
victory in battle, prayers for the dead, or blessings.[1][23]

Different ethnic groups had different diwata pantheons and rituals associated
with them, though sometimes deities are shared in neighboring ethnic groups.
Moreover, different communities also each have their own local patron A performer depicting a shaman in
diwata.[2][note 25] the 2015 Babaylan Festival of Bago,
Negros Occidental
In popular culture
The Babaylan Festival of Bago, Negros Occidental, with the accompanying Diwata sang Bago beauty pageant, is
a street dancing festival celebrating the Visayan traditions of anito and shamans[51]
The Kamarikutan Pagdiwata Arts Festival of Puerto Princesa is inspired by the preserved ritual of pagdiwata
among the Tagbanwa people of Palawan.[52]
Anito: Defend a Land Enraged is a role-playing game released in 2003 by Anino Entertainment. It was the first
video game to be produced and designed entirely by a team of Filipino game developers, and is credited for
helping spawn the birth of the game development industry in the Philippines.

See also
Diwata - the equivalent of anito in central and southern Philippines
Kami - the equivalent of anito in Japan
Philippine mythology
Hantu (supernatural creature)

Notes
1. Among most Filipino ethnic groups, a person is believed to be composed of at least two souls - the breath of life,
will, or awareness (ginhawa or hininga, which stays with the living body) and the astral soul (which can travel to
the spirit world). Kalag and kaluluwa refer to the latter. The concept of soul dualism is sometimes referred to as
"twin souls" or "double souls" and is a common belief in Austronesian cultures and other shamanistic cultures.
Other names for the astral soul include kaluha, dungan (Visayan); kalag (Bicol); linnawa (Igorot), kaduwa (Isneg),
ab-abiik (Kankanaey), karurua (Ilocano), ikaruruwa (Ibanag), karaduwa (Mangyan), kiyaraluwa (Tagbanwa),
makatu (Bukidnon), and kadengan-dengan or gimokud (Manobo). (Scott, 1994; Tan, 2008; Mercado, 1991) Most
of the terms for the astral soul literally translate to "twin" or "double", from PAN *duSa, "two". (Yu, 2000; Blust,
2010)
2. Compare with the Greek underworld
3. After Spanish contact, various spirit worlds were syncretized into the Christian concept of heaven and hell in
dictionaries and Bible translations. They struggled in determining which terminology to use because of the
absence of the heaven and hell dichotomy in the Filipino concept of the spirit world. Spanish missionaries and
European authors usually equated heaven with maca and calualhatian; and hell with casan (also casanaan,
casauaan, or catanaan; sometimes misread as kasamaan). However, in the Boxer Codex maca and casan were
synonyms for the Visayan and Tagalog underworlds. The 1754 version of Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala used
casanaan for both heaven and hell; with casanaan nang hirap as hell, and casanaan nang tova as heaven.
Calualhatian (modern spelling: kaluwalhatian) was simply a region in the Tagalog spirit world that souls can enter
by crossing a torrential river on a narrow plank. (Rath, 2013)
4. Also mua, mamaw, mamanhig, pamahoy, mamamahoy (McCoy, 1982); later multo. from Spanish muerto, "dead
person" (Tan, 2008)
5. e.g. Nuno sa punso, a dwarf-like anito that lives in anthills; and Dayang Masalanta, the Tagalog diwata of Mount
Makiling
6. e.g. Mayari, the Tagalog goddess of the moon; and Makapatag, the Visayan god of vengeance
7. e.g. Bathala, the chief deity of the Tagalogs; Magbabaya, the supreme creator of the Lumad people; and
Pilandok, trickster spirit of the Maranao
8. Tagalogs differentiated between Diwata, the universal supreme being, and Bathala, the supreme deity exclusive
to them (Hislop, 1971)
 9. The most widespread names for these spirits in various Philippine ethnic groups are diwata or anito. Other
names of diwata or specific types of diwata include fieu awas, kahoynon (B'laan); mahomanay, tahamaling
(Bagobo); panya'en (Batak); tawong lipod, magindara (Bikol); magtitima, tawo sa talonan (Bukidnon); aled
(Gaddang); annani (Ibanag); bakayauwan, monduntug, palasekan, pili, pinading (Ifugao); mangmangkit,
katataoan/katawtaw-an, kibaan, litao (Ilocano); apdel, sasailo (Itneg); tumungaw (Kankana-ey); laman labuad,
manglilili (Kapampangan); kama-kama/kamakaon (Karay-a); tuglinsau, tagbusau, mandangum (Mandaya);
andagaw (Mangyan); tawagenen, manaog (Manobo); karibang (Maranao); kaybaan (Pangasinan); kamanan-
daplak (Sambal); dayamdam, piritay (Tagalog); tawo sa talonan (Tagbanwa); lewenri, bawa, katao/kataw,
tumawo/tamawo, tawong lupa (Visayan); and guban-on, digkusanon, dalaketnon (Waray).
10. With strong parallels to human-like beings like elves and aos sí, as well as diminutive human-like beings like
brownies and pixies. (Buenconsejo, 2002)
11. Not to be confused with the Tagbanwa and Mamanwa ethnic groups, all derived from PAN *banua, "home" or
"homeland". In modern Filipino languages, banwa has been supplanted by Spanish lugar, thus taglugar is used
in place of tagabanwa (Hislop, 1971; Tan, 2008).
12. Diwata can cause harm by "eating" (smelling) the "vital force" or "breath" (ginhawa) of human beings. They are
also said to be annoyed by perfume, as well as salt and spices. (Buenconsejo, 2002)
13. From sintabi, "to respectfully ask permission" or "to give due respect", cf. "excuse me"
14. In Ilocano, the traditional phrase is "bari bari, apo", with the same meaning (Tan, 2008)
15. From Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *tau, ultimately from Proto-Austronesian *Cau, "human" or "person"; compare
with Toraja tau tau statues
16. Tinagtaggu is a cognate of taotao in the Tuwali language; from tagu, "human"
17. The term lambana was later syncretized with fairies, commonly depicted as tiny winged beings in modern
illustrations, even though no similarly winged beings existed in native Filipino folklore (Potet, 2017). Conversely,
the alternate term dambana has come to mean "shrine" or "chapel" in modern Tagalog
18. Among the Itneg, spirit houses are known tangpap, pangkew, or alalot (for various small roofed altars); and
balaua or kalangan (for larger structures). In Mindanao, spirit houses are known among the Subanen as maligai ;
among the Teduray as tenin (only entered by shamans); and among the Bagobo as buis (for those built near
roads and villages) and parabunnian (for those built near rice fields).(Kroeber, 1918)
19. Also saloko or palaan (Itneg); sakolong (Bontoc); salagnat (Bicolano); sirayangsang (Tagbanwa); ranga
(Teduray); and tambara, tigyama, or balekat (Bagobo)
20. Limokon in most of Visayas and among the Lumad; also almúgan (Blaan), alimúkun (Cebuano), alimúkeng
(Ilocano); limoken (Maranao); muhen (T'boli); lemuguen (Teduray); and limukun (Subanen)
21. Other terms include balyana, paraanito, or paradiwata (Bicolano); balian, balyan, or mabalian (Lumad); balian or
tanguilin (Subanen); bawalyan or babaylan (Tagbanwa); beljan (Palaw'an); baglan, mangoodan, or manilao
(Ilocano);bahasa (Yakan); dukun, kalamat, or papagan (Sama-Bajau); mandadawak, dawak, insupak, mon-lapu,
tumunoh, alpogan, or mumbaki (Igorot); anitu (Aeta); and ma-aram (Karay-a)
22. Terms for spirit guides of shamans include bantay, abyan (Visayan); alagad, gabay (Tagalog); abyan, umli,
sugujen, or inajew (Lumad); saro (Bicolano); and jinn (Sama-Bajau)
23. Asog is the term used for transvestite male shamans in most of the Visayas and in the Bicol Region. In the rest of
Luzon, they are known as bayok (bayoc), bayog, or bayogin (bayoguin or bayoquin). Notably among the Sambal,
the highest-ranking shaman was a bayok. They are also known as labia among the Subanen, though they were
not necessarily shamans (Kroeber, 1918). There are also similar male shamans who behave as women among
the Dayak people of Borneo (Baldick, 2013). Also see Bakla
24. Some anthropologists consider the headhunting traditions of the Igorot as a form of human sacrifice. In the
funeral rites for celebrated warriors or nobles among Visayans and Tagalogs, favorite slaves may also sometimes
be executed and buried (hogot) to accompany the deceased into the spirit world (Scott, 1994; Benedict, 1916)
25. In modern Christianized Filipinos, this practice was transferred unto community patron saints and religious icons,
which are often celebrated and worshiped in a very similar way (Hislop, 1971), cf. Ati-Atihan, Obando Fertility
Rites

See also
 Gabâ
Genius loci
Daemon (classical mythology)
Hyang
Kaharingan
Kami
Kodama
Kupua
Moai
Nuku-mai-tore
Soul dualism
Taotao Mona
Toraja
Tiki
Yōkai
Yorishiro

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External links
Pagdiwata Ritual (http://www.ichcap.org/eng/contents/ich.php?mode=view&code=H0000184) of the Tagbanwa in
the ICH Digital Archives (http://www.ichcap.org/eng/contents/arc_main.php), ICHCAP, UNESCO

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