timate of the settlement. From this simple example, it may be 5.3.

7 Effects o f dissimilar or defective piles within a group

concluded that the equivalent raft method provides a useful ap­ Most of the available methods of pile group settlement analysis
proach to estimating pile group settlements and can be adapted, assume that all the piles within the group are identical and that
as long as appropriate judgement is exercised in the selection of the soil profile does not vary over the plan area of the group. In
the equivalent depth (to mirror the actual load transfer mecha­ practice, piles are often dissimilar, especially with respect to
nisms), and the degree of dispersion along the pile shafts. length, and may also contain structural defects such as necked
sections and sections of poor concrete, and/or geotechnical de­
5.3.6 Applicability o f the equivalent pier method fects such as a soft toe or a section along which the skin friction
In this method, the pile group is replaced by a pier of similar is reduced because of poor construction practices. The possible
length to the piles in the group, and with an equivalent diameter, consequences of dissimilar or defective piles within a group have
df, estimated as follows (Poulos, 1993): been explored by Poulos (1997a), who has found the following
indications from theoretical analyses of defects in a single pile:
d, = ( 1 .1 3 ro l.2 7 ) .( ^) 0J (5.21) - Defects within a single pile can reduce the axial stiffness and
load capacity of the pile.
where A c = plan area of pile group.
- Structural defects such as “necking” can be characterized by a
The lower figure is more relevant to predominantly end
structural integrity factor, to which the reduction in axial
bearing piles, while the larger value is more applicable to pre­
stiffness can be approximately related.
dominantly friction or floating piles.
- Geotechnical defects, such as a soft toe, lead to a reduction in
Poulos (1993) and Randolph (1994a) have examined the ac­
pile head stiffness which becomes more severe as the applied
curacy of the equivalent pier method for predicting group settle­
load level increases. Failure, or apparent failure, of a pile is
ments, and have concluded that it gives good results. Randolph
more abrupt in piles with structural defects than for piles with
(1994a) has related the accuracy to the aspect ratio R, of the
geotechnical defects.
group, where:
For groups containing one or more defective piles, it has been
R = (ns/ L)05 (5.22) found that the reduction in axial stiffness of a group becomes
more marked as the proportion o f defective piles, and/or the ap­
where n = number of piles; s = pile centre-to-centre spacing; L = plied load level, increases. Importantly, the presence of defective
pile length. piles can result in induced lateral deflection and cap rotation in
The equivalent pier method tends to over-predict stiffness for the group, and additional moments in the piles. This induced lat­
values of R less than about 3, but the values appear to be within eral response, which can occur under purely axial applied load­
about 20% of those from a more accurate analysis for values of ing, becomes more severe as the location of the defective piles
R of 1 or more, provided that the pile spacing is not greater than becomes more asymmetric, and can compromise the structural
about 5 diameters. It would appear that the equivalent pier ap­ integrity o f the sound piles. It is not yet feasible to employ sim­
proach can be adopted for preliminary estimates of group settle­ ple methods of calculation to examine the behaviour of groups
ment. with defective or dissimilar piles, and even computer methods of
An attractive feature of the equivalent pier method is the group settlement analysis should have the ability to consider
ability to employ the closed-form equations of Randolph and both axial and lateral responses, rather than only axial response.
W roth (1978), and also to develop a non-linear load-settlement In computer programs employing the interaction factor method,
curve, for example, using the simple approach described by modifications need to be made to account for the interaction
Poulos and Davis (1980). It is also possible to estimate the rate between dissimilar piles. Such approximations have been ex­
of consolidation settlement, using solutions from consolidation plored by X u (2000).
theory for a pier within a two-phase poro-elastic soil mass.
5.3.8 The effects o f compressible underlying layers
It has been recognized for some time that the presence of soft
T a b le 5 .7 . C o m p u t e d s e tt le m e n t f o r p il e g r o u p e x a m p le .
compressible layers below the pile tips can result in substantial
A n a ly s is E q u iv a ­ A ssu m ed C o m p u te d R em ark s
increases in the settlement of a pile group, despite the fact that
le n t d e p th lo a d d is ­ s e ttle m e n t
the settlement of a single pile may be largely unaffected by the
o f ra f t p e r s io n
mm
compressible layers. Some examples of such experiences include
(m )
the chimney foundation reported by Golder and Osier (1968) and
D E F P IG - - 7.1 S o f t la y e r the 14 storey building described by Peaker (1984).
p resen t To emphasize the potential significance of compressible un­
derlying layers, a simple hypothetical problem has been ana­
E q u i v a le n t R a f t 10 1:4 16 .5 " lyzed. Square pile groups founded in a stiffer layer, overlying a
- C a s e 1) softer layer have been analyzed, using the computer program
DEFPIG, and assuming that the pile-soil response remains elas­
E q u i v a le n t R a f t 14 N one 9 .6 " tic. The settlement of the group is expressed as a proportion of
- C ase 2) the settlement of the group if the compressible layer was not pre­
sent, and is related to the number of piles in the group (with the
E q u i v a le n t R a f t 14 1:4 6 .4 spacing between adjacent piles remaining constant). The results
- C ase 3) of the analysis are shown in Figure 5.10. It can be seen that, as
( o n ly to might be expected, the larger the group (and therefore the width
10m ) of the pile group), the greater is the effect of the underlying
compressible layer on settlement. It is clear that if the presence
D E F P IG - - 7 .0 N o so ft
of such compressible layers is either not identified, or is ignored,
la y e r p r e ­ the pile group settlements can be several times those which
sent would be predicted for the group bearing on a continuous com­
petent stratum.
E q u i v a le n t R a f t 10 1:4 7 .2 "
- C a s e 1) 5.3.9 Differential settlements within a group
Most analyses o f pile group settlement make one of the two fol­
lowing extreme assumptions:

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