Comparison of results from the two analyses show that the The above equations can be used to develop
used to develop a tri-linear load-
continuum approach (finite layer method) overestimates the de­
flection of the piled raft although the deformed shape is the same
along section A -A ' (see Figure 6.6). Because the deformed shape
is the same, the moments per unit length in the raft are very
similar. This may be seen from Figure 6.7 where the moment in
the x-direction and in the y-direction are shown for the section
A-A'. (Mx = I mi . P. My = IMy.P where P is the total vertical load).
It may therefore be concluded that if the soil is treated as an
elastic continuum, the errors introduced are not large when com­
pared to more rigorous solutions such as those computed using
the finite element method.
6.8 A simplified method o f estimating load-settlement
behaviour o f a piled raft
For preliminary estimates of piled raft behaviour, a convenient
method of estimating the load-settlement behaviour may be de­
veloped by combining the approaches described by Poulos and
Davis (1980) and Randolph (1994). As a consequence, the
method to be described below w ill be referred to as the Poulos-
Davis-Randolph (PDR) method. The method involves two main
steps:
1. Estimation of the ultimate load capacity of the foundation.
2. Estimation of the load-settlement behaviour via a simple tri-
linear relationship.
For assessing vertical bearing capacity o f a piled raft founda­
tion using simple approaches, the ultimate load capacity can
generally be taken as the lesser of the following two values:
- The sum o f the ultimate capacities o f the raft plus all the piles
- The ultimate capacity o f a block containing the piles and the
raft, plus that of the portion of the raft outside the periphery
of the piles.
For estimating the load-settlement behaviour, an approach
similar to that described by Poulos and Davis (1980) can be
adopted, but extending it by using the simple method of esti­
mating the load sharing between the raft and the piles, as out­
lined by Randolph (1994). The definition of the pile problem
considered by Randolph is shown in Figure 6.8. Using his ap­
proach, the stiffness of the piled raft foundation can be estimated
as follows:
Kpr= (K p + K , { \ - a cp) ) l { \ - a c; K rI K p) (6.2)
where Kpr = stiffness o f piled raft; Kp = stiffness o f the pile
group; K, = stiffness of the raft alone; = raft - pile interaction
factor.
The raft stiffness Kr can be estimated via elasticity theory, for
example using the solutions of Fraser and Wardle (1976) or
Mayne and Poulos (1999). The pile group stiffness can also be
estimated from elasticity theory, using approaches such as those
described by Poulos and Davis (1980), Fleming et al. (1992) or
Poulos (1989). In the latter cases, the single pile stiffness is
computed from elasticity theory, and then multiplied by a group
stiffness efficiency factor, which is estimated approximately
from elasticity solutions.
The proportion o f the total applied load carried by the raft is:
PrIP, = K , ( \ - a cp)l(K p + K r( \ - a cp)) = X (6.3)
where P, = load carried by the raft; P, = total applied load.
The raft - pile interaction factor acp can be estimated as fol­
lows:
a.', = l- ln ( r c/ r0)/C (6.4)
where rc = average radius o f pile cap, (corresponding to an area
equal to the raft area divided by number of piles); r0 = radius of
pile; £ = 1n ( r m/ r 0 )■ rm = 0.25 + \ [2.5 p (1-v) - 0.25] * L; 4 =
E,i / E&, p = E ^/E sC , v = Poisson’s ratio of soil; L = pile length;
£j<= soil Young’s modulus at level o f pile tip; E!b = soil Young’s
modulus of bearing stratum below pile tip; £ „» = average soil
Young’s modulus along pile shaft.
2578
settlement curve as shown in Figure 6.9. First, the stiffness of the
piled raft is computed from Equation (6.2) for the number of
piles being considered. This stiffness w ill remain operative until
the pile capacity is fully mobilized. M aking the simplifying as­
sumption that the pile load mobilization occurs simultaneously,
the total applied load, P\, at which the pile capacity is reached is
given by:
/; = V ( i - x ) (6.5)
where Pup = ultimate load capacity of the piles in the group; X =
proportion of load carried by the piles (Equation (6.3)).
Beyond that point (Point A in Figure 6.9), the stiffness of the
foundation system is that of the raft alone ( K r), and this holds
until the ultimate load capacity of the piled raft foundation sys­
tem is reached (Point B in Figure 6.9). At that stage, the load-
settlement relationship becomes horizontal.
The load - settlement curves for a raft with various numbers
of piles can be computed with the aid of a computer spreadsheet
or a mathematical program such as M AT H C AD . In this way, it
is simple to compute the relationship between the number of
piles and the average settlement of the foundation. Such calcula­
tions provide a rapid means of assessing whether the design
philosophies for creep piling or full pile capacity utilisation are
like ly to be feasible.
6.9 Comparison o f simple methods
Some simple models are able to produce accurate solutions that
are particularly useful in the design concept stage, particularly at
working load levels. It is of interest to evaluate the accuracy of
these simple models, and this was carried out by analysis of the
problem of a piled raft shown in Figure 6.10 by using 3 simpli­
fied methods.
1. The Poulos-Davis-Randolph (PDR) method - as described
above
2. GASP Analysis (strip on continuum). In this analysis, the raft
was divided into three strips in each direction. A pseudo-
three-dimensional analysis is then carried out by considering
the free fie ld movements of the other strips on the strip being
analysed. The stiffness of the piles is computed by using the
equations o f Randolph and W roth (1978).
3. GARP analysis (Plate on continuum). A finite difference so­
lution is used to evaluate the behaviour of the raft that is
treated as a thin plate using 273 nodes in the grid. The stiff­
ness of the piles and the pile-pile interaction factors are cal­
culated using the program DEFPIG that is based on a bound­
ary element analysis.
The results of the three simplified analyses are presented in
Figure 6.12, where it can be seen that the simplified methods
give a load deflection behaviour that is similar for each of the
methods. The elastic part of the load deflection curve is also in
good agreement with the results of a full 3-dimensional analysis
(that is described in the following section) but the simple tech­
niques deviate from the 3-D results once plastic failure begins to
dominate at higher load levels.
6.10 Two-dimensional analysis
Some designers in the past have treated a piled raft as being two
dimensional, and have carried out finite element analysis of the
piled raft with the rows of piles treated as a continuous strip. The
piles are given equivalent elastic properties so as to approximate
the stiffness of the actual row of piles.
This approach was used by Desai et al. (1974) for the design
of a gravity lock constructed on piles. These authors used a stiff­
ness in the two dimensional model that was equal to the total of
the axial stiffnesses o f the individual piles, and they reported
reasonable correlations between predicted and measured settle­
ments and average load in the piles. Lin et al. (1999) also used