Characteristics of Life: E.

Pass along Hereditary traits

A. Made up of cells -genes carry hereditary information
-smallest unit capable of all life function. -genes are composed of DNA
Types: Cell -Heredity: reason children resembles their
1. Unicellular Organism parents
-entire organism is made up of one F. Respond to their environment
single cell React to stimuli:
Ex. Bacteria and Protis o Light
2. Multicellular Organism o Temperature
-made up of many cells o Odor
-cells: have specialized functions o Sound
B. Can Reproduce o Gravity
Types: o Heat
1. Asexual Reproduction o Water
-offspring arise from single parent o Pressure
2. Sexual Reproduction G. Grow and Develop
-offspring arise from two parents Grow- get bigger
C. Obtain and use energy Develop- change in physical/psychological
-need energy to grow, develop, repair H. Adapt to their environment through evolution
damage, and reproduce Adaption
1. Anabolism -process that enables organisms to become
-process of building up complex better suited to their environment
substances from simpler substances -obtains through evolution over great periods
 Building up cells and cellular of time
components
 Photosynthesis Cell Theory
2. Catabolism
Level of Organization
-process of breaking down complex
substances into simpler substances to Atoms » Molecules » Cells » Tissues » Organ » Body
release energy system » Organisms
 Digestion
 Cellular respiration Cytology- study of cells
3. Metabolism
SCIENTISTS
-total of all chemical reaction
 Robert Hooke
 Anabolism + Catabolism
-1st to identify cells and named them (1665)
=Metabolism
-first to call spaces in „cork‟ cells
D. Maintain Homeostasis
 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
-stable state of conditions in the body that
-made better lenses for microscopes (1668)
are necessary for life
-observed living cells through simple
 Body temperature
microscope
 Blood volume
-when he discovered bacteria, he called
 pH balance
them „animalcules‟
 water balance
  Matthias Schleiden -internal compartments that carry out specific cell
-1st to note that plants are made of cells functions
(1838) -they allow the cell to grow larger and become more
 Theodor Schwann specialized
-concluded that all living things are made of
cells (1839)
-animals are also made of cells
 Rudolph Virchow
-proposed that all cells came from another
cells (1855)
 Hans & Zacharias Janssen
-produced 1st compound microscope (1590)

3 Domains of Life

bacteria Archaea Eukaryote

(types of (fungi, animals, Nucleus
bacteria w/ protists, plants) - largest organelle in the cell
no nucleus) -dark and round
-surrounded by a double membrane called nuclear
envelope/membrane
Prokaryotes -contains genetic information (DNA) to special strands
called chromosomes
Cell Theory:
-it is the control center
1. All living things are composed of cells -It directs activities of the cell for cell metabolism and
2. Cells are the basic units of structure and reproduction
function in living things -it spots the nuclear envelope fuses to form pores
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells which are selectively permeable

Nucleolus
-producing ribosomes
Nuclear envelope
-encloses the nucleus and it contents
Nuclear pore
-pore in nucleus
-can allow substances (RNA) to leave

Cell Structures

Cell Organelles
Cell Membrane/ Plasma Membrane
-regulates substances in and out of the cell
-bilipid membraneous layer composed of proteins and
carbohydrates
-fluid like
-protects the cell and provides stability
-separates the cell from its external environment
-selectively permeable (controls what gets in and out)
-proteins are found embedded within the plasma
membrane with some extending all the way trough in
order to transport materials
-carbohydrates are attached to proteins and lipids on
the outer lipid layer
Cytoplasm
-fluid portion of the cell
-jelly like
-composed mainly of water
-found between the cell membrane and nucleus
-makes up most of the „body‟ of a cell and is
constantly streaming
-organelles are found here and substances like salts
may be dissolved in the cytoplasm
Vacuole
-it stores food or any variety of nutrients a cell might
need to survive.
-membrane-bound sacs within the cytoplasm of a cell
-very large and are extremely important in providing
structural support, as well as serving functions such
as storage, waste disposal, protection, and growth.
-store waste products so the rest of the cell is
protected from contamination.
Vesicle
-it moves organic molecules within the cells
-consisting of liquid enclosed by a lipid bilayer
-form naturally during the processes of secretion,
uptake and transport of materials within the plasma
membrane.
Nucleoid
- irregularly shaped region within the cell of a
prokaryote that contains all or most of the genetic
material, called genophore.
-not surrounded by a nuclear membrane.
-also contain RNA, proteins, and enzymes that can be
used for cellular processes.
Cytoskeleton
-made up of microtubules, actin filaments, and
intermediate filaments.
-present in all cells of all domains of life
-gives a cell its shape, offers support, and facilitates
movement through three main components:
microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and
microtubules.
-complex network of interlinking filaments and tubules
that extend throughout the cytoplasm, from the
nucleus to the plasma membrane.
Ribosomes
-make proteins
-they bind messenger RNA and transfer RNA to
synthesize polypeptides and proteins
-small particles
-factories of the cell
-found individually in the cytoplasm
-help in the synthesis of proteins
-made up of two parts called subunits
-when two units are locked together with a special
info unit called messenger RNA, they make proteins
-while attached to the endoplasmic reticulum,
ribosomes make proteins that the cell needs and also
ones to be exported from cell for work elsewhere in
the body
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
-synthesizes steroids
-defoxites poisons (alcohol)
-transports substances
-regulates calcium levels for muscle contraction
-make cellular products like hormones and lipids

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
-transports proteins
-it plays a central role in the synthesis and export of
proteins and glycoproteins
Golgi Apparatus
-named after an Italian physician, Camillo Golgi
-modifies molecules and packages them into small
membrane bound sacs callled vesicles.
-temporarily stores protein which can them leave the
cell via vesicles pinching off from the Golgi
-responsible for sorting and correctly shipping the
proteins produced in the ER
-gathers simple molecules and packages them in
vesicles, and either stores them for later use or sends
them out of the cell
-If Golgi makes a mistake, certain functions in the cell
may stop
- slender protuberances that project from the much
larger cell body
-move fluids for aquatic species such as clams, to
allow for food and oxygen transport.
Flagella
-cellular movement (allows a cell to move)
THEIR FUNCTIONS:
-to move locomotion for one-celled organisms
-move substances over cell surfaces in multi-clled
organisms.
Cell wall
-a tough, flexible and sometimes rigid structural layer
surrounding the cell
-give the cell strength and structure, and to filter
molecules that pass in and out of the cell.

Lysosome
-also known as suicide sac
-digest waste materials and food withn the cell
-used to digest foodor break down the cell when it
dies
-breaks down molecules into their base components
w/ strong digestive enzymes
-surrounded by a single membrane and containing
strong digestive enzymes which when released can
break down work out organelles or food

Mitochondria
-powerhouse of the cell
-it converts oxygen and nutrients into adenosine
triphosphate
-energy production for cells (ATP) BIOENERGETICS
-sites of aerobic respiration -refers to the intake processing and expenditure of
-packages the energy from the food you eat into ATP energy
molecules
Sun
PLANT CELL -main source of energy in an ecosystem
Cilia -though, only plants can utilize this energy
-shorter than flagella
-cover the entire surface of the cell
Plants LIGHT REACTION
-autotrophs (produce their own food)
-produce glucose (sugar) NADPH
-Nicotinamide adenine dinudeotide phosphate
Humans and plants are heterotrophs (depend on ATP
plants and the organisms that consume the plants in -adenosine triphospate
order to obtain energy
Light
Photosynthesis
The chlorophyll in the
photosystems capture
water sugar oxygen light energy to
Carbon dioxide
energize the electrons

The electrons from photosystem 1

passes through an electron transport
chain and combines w/ NADP+ to form
NADPH

Electrons from Photosynthesis 2

passes through another transport
chain towards photosynthesis 1 to
replenish the energy utilized to
pump H+ to the thylakoid
compartment

Light-dependent reaction Light-independent reaction

(Light Reaction) (Dark Reaction) Water molecule splits into

𝑂 and 𝐻 to replenish the
electrons in photosystem II

The energy from the build up of H+ is

harvested by ATP synthase to combine
ADP and P to form ATP

FINAL PRODUCTS:
NADPH and ATP
(to be used for Dark
Reaction)
Site of Light
Reaction
Questions and Answers The cycle repeats again and the two G3P
1. What is the role of the chlorophyll in the molecules that are set aside will combine to form
process? the glucose.
The chlorophyll traps the sunlight
RuBP-ribulose bisphosphate
3PGA- 3-phosphoglyceric acid
2. How is NADPH formed?
G3P- Glyceraldephyde 3-phosphate
NADP+ combines with electron and
hydrogen ion

3. Where does the oxygen gas generated by

photosynthesis come from?
From the water that has split into oxygen
and hydrogen molecules

4. How is ATP produced?

When the ATP synthase combines a
phosphate group with ADP

5. What are the final products of the light

Three 𝐶𝑂 molecules combine with
reaction and where will they be used?
three RuBP to form six 3-PGA molecules
NADPH and ATP, for the dark reaction

DARK REACTION
Questions and Answers
1. What happens during the Carbon Fixation stage?
three CO2 molecules combine with three 5-
carbon molecules (RuBP to form six 3-carbon
molecultes (3-PGA)
2. How are the ATP and NADPH utilized in this
process in the Reduction stage?
Six ATP molecules donate a phosphate group to
each 3-PGA then six NADPH molecules reduces
the compounds to produce highly energized G3P
molecules
Six ATP molecules donate a phosphate group
to each 3-PGA molecule then six NADPH
reduces the compound formed to produce
highly energized G3P molecules.
Five G3P molecules will be rearranged to
regenerate the RuBP molecules while
one G3P molecule will be set aside for
the formation of glucose
Two G3P molecules
will combine to form
GLUCOSE

3. What is being regenerated in the Regeneration Cellular Respiration

stage? How is it regenerated?
The five G3P molecules will be used to
Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
regenerate the RuBP while the other one will be
set aside to form the glucose.

4. How is the glucose formed?

Aerobic Respiration
Glucose is converted to two pyruvate
molecules. There‟s also a net product of
2 ATP molecules and 2 NADH
molecules.
Pyruvates are converted to Acetyl-CoA
and oxidized to produce six carbon
dioxide, two ATP, six NADH and two
FADH molecules.
Electrons pass through an electron transport
chain to create a proton gradient which will
power the ATP synthase to produce ATP. The
oxygen will accept the electrons and will
combine with protons to form H2O
Anaerobic Respiration
Anaerobic Respiration occur when there is no oxygen
Two types of anaerobic respiration/ fermentattion
-Lactic Acid
-Alcohol Fermentation
THEORIES
THE PRIMORDIAL SOUP THEORY
-life began in a pond or ocean as a result of
combination of chemicals frm the atmosphere and
sme form of energy to make amino acids, the building
blocks of proteins, which would then evolve into all
the species.
-happen at least 3.8 to 3.55 billion years ago
-Russian Chemist A.I Oparin and English Geneticist
J.B.S. Haldane first conceived of this idea
-both individually developed the theory in 1920
- In this theory, the basic building blocks of life came
from simple molecule which formed in the
atmosphere (w/o oxygen). This was then energized
by lightning and the rain from the atmosphere created
the "organic soup". The first organisms would have to
be simple heterotrophs in order to survive by
consuming other organisms for energy before means
of photosynthesis. They would become autotrophs by
mutation. Evidence now suggest the first organisms
were autotrophs
Chemist Stanley Miller and physicist Harold Urey did
a famous experiment in 1950 to test this theory. They
mixed gases thought to be present on primitive earth:
Methane (CH4)
Ammonia (NH3)
Water (H2O)
Hydrogen (H2)
No Oxygen
They then electrically sparked the mixture to signify
lightning. The results were amino acids, the building
blocks of proteins. It was later discovered that other
energies also can excite gases and produce all 20
amino acids:
Electricity
Ultraviolet light
Heat
Shock
PANSMERMIA THEORY
-Scientists believe this meteorite was probably
blasted off of the surface of the planet Mars about 16
million years ago by an impact with an asteroid and
traveled through space to the earth, where it landed
on Antarctica about 13,000 years ago. Some
scientists believe that the rod-shaped structures
across the top and center of this image may be tiny
fossilized bacteria. Many other scientists believe that
the structures were formed by processes other than
life.
-suggests that life seeds came from outer space and
planets exchanged life. Panspermia literally means
seeds everywhere.
-suggests that life could have existed on another
planet and moved to Earth. Statistics have showed
7.5% of rocks from Mars reach Earth. The rocks
would travel between less than 100 years to 16,000
years and more to get to earth.
Some of the proponents include Sales Gyon de
Montlivant, who proposed life came from moon, H.E.
Richter, who suggested life came from
meteorites/comets, and Svante Arrhenius, who came
up with Panspermia.
Evidence for Panspermia
1. Bacteria can survive harsh environment of space
2. Evidence that meteorites contain life
3. Bacteria can live for a long time in sleeping state
until awakened
4. Mars safer than Earth (less bombardments and
less gravity)
5. Mars not as hot as Earth in early development
6. Mars had have had oxygen back then when earth
did not
THEORY OF SPONTANEOUS GENERATIONS
-abiogenesis
-assumes that non-living material in a spontaneous
manner give rise to life.
There are several observations supporting this theory,
which are as follows:
• Hair of horse tail dipped in the water gives rise to
horsehair worm, gordius.
• Fly larvae develops on rotten meat.
• In ancient Egypt, it was believe that frog, snake,
crocodiles in the mud of nile river warmed with sun.
• Van Helmont claimed that he can produce mice from
the dirty shirt and hadful of wheat grains kept in dark
cupboard in 3 weeks.
-was criticized by Lazzaro spallanzani, Francisco redi
and Louis Pasteur.
Redi‟s experiment
-He placed meat and fishes in 3 separate jars. Jar No.
1 was left open, No. 2 was covered with gauze and
the third one was covered with paper. The
meat/fishes decayed in all three jars and attracted
flies. In Jar No. 1, flies entered and layed eggs which
eventually gave birth new larvae. Whereas in Jar No.
2, flies couldn‟t be able to enter and no larve was
found inside the jar. But flies laid eggs on gauze that
produced larvae. This has conclusively proves that
organisms arise from the pre-existed organism rather
than non-living matter. 2. Spallanzani‟s Experiment:
The experimental setup is given in the Figure 3.3. In
the designed experiment to test the validity of theory
of spontaneous generation. In this experiment,
spallanzani has prepared animal or vegetable broth
and boiled them for several hours and then either
remained open or sealed immigately. These broth
remained free from microorganism growth. He
concluded that high temperature boiling had killed all
microorganisms and in the absence of microorganism
life could not appear. The broth left open or exposing
of sealed broth shows growth of microorganisms.
Louis Pasteur Experiment:
In another conclusive experiment, Pasteur had
designed experiment in a flask with “S” shaped curve
tube (Figure 3.4). He took hay infusion in the flask
and boiled for several minutes. After cooling, the
steam condensed into the lower part of tube and act
as barrier to stop the entry of microorganisms. No life
appeared in the flask for several months. Analysis of
condensed water indicates appearance of
microorganism in the neck of the tube. Breaking of “S”
tube allowed the growth of microorganisms in the
flask.
THEORY OF CATASTROPHISM
This is the extension of the theory of special creation.
This theory assumes that life is originated by the
creation and it is followed by catastrophe due to
geographical disturbances. Each catastrophe
destroyed the life completely whereas each creation
forms life different from the previous one. Hence,
each round of catastrophe/creation is responsible for
evolvment of different types of organisms on earth.
The critism of the current theory is same as previous
one, No scientific experiment to support the
hypothesis and mostly be based on imaginery
concepts.
THEORY OF COSMOZOIC
This theory was put forward by Richter and strongly
supported by Arrhenius. The theory assumes that life
was present in the form of resistant spores and
appeared on earth from other planet. Since the
condition of earth was supporting the life, these
spores grew and evolved into different organisms.
This theory was also known as “theory of panspermia
or spore theory”. The theory initially got the support
from the fact that fossils of microorganism were found
in meteorites in 1961. But no mechanism is known
about the transfer of spores from other planet or
whether these spores could survive the journey in
space. The absence of life forms on any planet
except earth and no details about the spores, its
origin and mechanism of crossing interplanetary
space and reaching earth. In addition, this theory
doesn‟t add much into the fundamental details about
origin of life. No scientific experiment were given to
support the theory. As a result, the hypothesis didn‟t
receive much attention.
THEORY OF ETERNITY OF LIFE
This theory assumes that life had no beginning or
end. It believes that life has ever been in existence
and it will continue to be so ever. It further believe that
there is no question of origin of life as it has no
beginning or end. The theory is also known as steady
state theory.
BODY SYSTEM
Circulatory System
- also called the cardiovascular system or the
vascular system is an organ system that permits
blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as
amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon
dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the
cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in
fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH, and
maintain homeostasis.
- Describes how good & bad materials travel through
our body

-Removes carbon dioxide & wastes from our body
-Moves food & oxygen to our cells
The Human Heart
The Aorta: this is the largest artery in the human
body. Arteries are tubular branching elastic-walled
muscle vessels that carry blood away from the heart
through the body. The main function of the aorta is to
take oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the
rest of the body.
Oxygenated blood: the word “oxygenated” simply
means that it carries oxygen. So, oxygenated blood is
the blood that carries oxygen.
Deoxygenated blood: the word “deoxygenated”
simply means that it carries very little or no oxygen.
So, deoxygenated blood is the blood that carries
either very little or no oxygen.
The Right Atrium: this part of the human body is
tasked with receiving deoxygenated blood from the
rest of the body.
The Left Ventricle: A ventricle is any of the cavities of
a bodily part or organ. This ventricle is the chamber of
the heart that gets blood from a corresponding atrium.
The essential function that the left ventricle carries out
is pumping oxygenated blood into the aorta.
The Right Ventricle: the right ventricle is tasked with
pumping deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary
artery.
The Arteries: the arteries are tasked with carrying
blood away from the heart. These blood vessels are
muscular tubes. The aorta is the largest artery.
The Veins: the veins are tasked with carrying blood
toward the heart.
The Vena Cava: this is the largest vein in the human
body (vena is Latin for vein). Its essential function is
to carry blood from all around the body all the way to
the heart.
Types of Circulatory System
-Open System
-Closed System
Cells use food and oxygen to make energy to keep us
alive
Blood
-food, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and waste is caried
throughout our bodies within a fluid
Blood travels through tubes called Blood Vessels
There are 3 types of blood vessels:
-Arteries
-Veins
-Capillaries
When we breathe in, our lungs take oxygen.
The oxygen passes into our blood through our blood
vessels
BLOOD, with fresh oxygen is pushed through our
blood vessels by a muscular pumpthe size of our fist
known as the HEART
HEART
- A hollow muscular organ that pumps the blood
through the circulatory system by rhythmic contraction
and dilation.
- Responsible for: contraction, rxpulsion of blood to
the tissues, reception of blood tissues
Right Atrium
- receives deoxygenated blood from the body through
the vena cava and pumps it into the right ventricle
which then sends it to the lungs to be oxygenated.
Right Ventricle
- receives deoxygenated blood from the body through
the vena cava and pumps it into the right ventricle
which then sends it to the lungs to be oxygenated.

Left Atrium
- Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs enters the left
atrium through the pulmonary vein. The blood is then
pumped into the left ventricle chamber of the heart
through the mitral valve. From there, the blood is
ready to be pumped into the body to deliver
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Left Ventricle nose / nasal c warms, moistens, & filters air as it is
avity inhaled
- the thickest of the heart's chambers and is pharynx (throa passageway for air, leads to trache
responsible for pumping oxygenated blood to tissues t) a
all over the body. By contrast, the right ventricle solely Larynx the voice box, where vocal chords
pumps blood to the lungs are located
Trachea (wind keeps the windpipe "open" and is lin
pipe) ed with fine hairs called cilia which fi
Red Blood Cells lter air before it reaches the lungs
- Also known as erythrocytes are responsible Bronchi two branches at the end of the trach
for carrying oxygen from the lungs to the rest ea, each lead to a lung
Bronchioles a network of smaller branches leadi
of the body
ng from the bronchi into the lung tiss
ue & ultimately to air sacs
White Blood Cells Alveoli the functional respiratory units in the
- Also known as leukocytes help fight lung where gases are exchanged
infections and aid in the immune process
The human respiratory system allows one to obtain
Platelets oxygen, eliminate carbon dioxide.
- Help in blood clotting. They are smaller than Breathing consists of two phases, inspiration and
RBC and WBC expiration.

Respiratory System Inspiration - the process of taking in air

Expiration - the process of blowing out air

Other factor controls the rhythm and rate of breathing: Neuron
Medulla oblongata – controls rhythm and depth of - the Message-Carrying Unit of the Nervous System
breathing - an electrically excitable cell that processes and
Pons – controls the rate of breathing transmits information through electrical and chemical
signals.
Organs of Respiratory System - It carry information through the nervous system in
o Nose the form of NERVE IMPULSE
o Larnyx - It cannot divide and replace themselves.
o Pharnyx
o Trachea PARTS OF NEURON
o Bronchial tree
o Lungs

4 Processes of Respiration
o Pulmonary Ventilation
o External Respiration
o Transport of Respiratory Gases
o Internal Respiration

External Respiration
Dendrites
-at the level of the lungs (alveoli)
- Transmits information to the cell body.
-between enviornment and lungs
Cell body (soma)
- Supports and maintains the functioning of
Internal Respiration
the neuron.
-at the level of the rest of the body
- Contains numerous organelles which are
-between the blood and cells
mostly made of up endoplasmic reticulum.
- Contains a cell nucleus that produces RNA
Respiratory System
that supports important cell functions.
-pulmonary ventilation
Axon
-external respiration
- Transmit information away from the cell
body.
Circulatory System
Myelin Sheath
-Transport
- It facilitates the conduction of electrical
-Internal Respiration
impulses through the nerve cells.
- made out of a modified plasma
membrane that is wrapped around
the nerve axon in a spiral pattern
Nervous System
Axon Terminal
- a complex network of nerves and cells that carry
- It transmits a neurotransmitter from one
messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to
neuron to another.
various parts of the body.
Cytoplasm
- includes both the Central nervous system and
- The watery and salty fluid with a potassium-
Peripheral nervous system
rich solution inside the cell containing
 enzymes responsible for the metabolism of
the cell. Types and Structures of Neurotransmitters
Nucleus
- Contains the genetic material in the form of
chromosomes.

TYPES OF NEURON
Sensory
- AFFERENT NEURONS
- receive initial stimuli from the sense organs

Interneurons Divisions of Nervous System

- CONNECTOR/ASSOCIATION NEURON CENTRAL Nervous System
- “read” impulses received from the sensory neurons - It processes information and sends instructions to
- found in the SPINAL CORD and the BRAIN other parts of the body
- command center for the entire body
Motor
- EFFERENT NEURONS PERIPHERICAL Nervous System
- transmit impulses from the brain and the spinal cord
to the effector cells (muscles, organs, or glands)

Responding to a Stimulus
Signals
- They carry information that tells us to listen, relax,
stop or be alert.

Nerve Impulse
- A wave chemical and electrical charge that is
conducted along the membrane of a neuron

Synapse
- a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to
pass an electrical or chemical signal to another
neuron

Neurotransmitters
- a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to
pass an electrical or chemical signal to another
neuron