Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx

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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/petrol

Wax deposition and prediction in petroleum pipelines

⁎
Fadi Alnaimat , Mohammed Ziauddin
Department of Mechanical Engineering, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 15551, United Arab Emirates

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Wax prediction is crucial because accumulation of wax in the crude oil pipelines is a wide concern in the
Wax prediction petroleum industry. In the subsea pipelines, the cold temperature of the pipeline walls causes the wax particles in
Wax deposition the oil to crystalize over time and deposit on the inner surface. It can even cause a complete blockage of pipe
Wax appearance temperature affecting the supply. The process of cleaning the wax buildup is called pigging in which the shutdown and
Non-destructive testing
maintenance cost is extremely prohibitive. Wax prediction can assist in avoiding such blockage. Hence, it be-
Single phase flow
Neural networks
comes crucial to monitor the wax deposition thickness to determine when cleaning process is necessary or not
and avoid blockage issue. This article presents various wax prediction methods that are implemented to estimate
the wax deposition.

1. Introduction
Petroleum industry is a well-established industry that is operating to
serve large amount of energy demands. The maintenance of oil pipe-
lines or distribution network is a tedious job alone and the associated
cost is very highly (Wang et al., 2016). The crude oil contains wax and
the percentage of paraffin wax that can go up is as much as to half of the
crude oil content (Ajienka and Ikoku, 1991). Accumulation of the wax
layer on the inner curved surface region in the oil pipelines is con-
sidered to be a complex and expensive issue (Sun et al., 2016; Aiyejina
et al., 2011). The gauges and sensing probs used in the reservoirs can
also get affected from the deposited wax (Jaworski and Meng, 2009). In
the pipeline flow, wax molecules crystallize when encounter cold
temperature condition of the pipe wall, particularly for the subsea pi-
pelines. The higher thickness crystallization causes complete blockage
of oil supply (Oh et al., 2009). For example, Fig. 1 shows the segment of
pipeline consisting of deposited paraffin which drastically decreased
the effective flow cross section. The crystallization process starts once
the temperature of the crude oil drops below the Wax Appearance
Temperature (WAT) (Pedersen and Rønningsen, 2003; Theyab and
Diaz, 2013). With time, the solubility of wax is affected, and deposition
rate increases causing reduction in effective flow region or cross-sec-
tional area of the pipeline (Chala et al., 2014, 2018). There are three
layers of deposited wax: 1) upper layer which is mostly granular and
soft; 2) middle layer contains more mechanical impurities and wax
content; and 3) closefitting sedimented layer near to wall having high
strength (Guozhong and Gang, 2010). When the temperature of the
crude oil is between WAT and gelation temperature, the fluid viscosity
can be modelled using virial equation of state (Mansour et al., 2012).
When the temperature of oil goes below the value of WAT, the oil be-
haves as non-Newtonian fluid where the viscosity and viscoelasticity
are affected by shear thinning process. Time and temperature de-
pendency must be considered for analysis (Ahmadpour et al., 2014).
Wax molecules which are dissolved in the crude oil change its phase
and solidify with respect to provided enthalpy of crystallization and as
function of temperature, this phenomenon is referred to as wax pre-
cipitation. It occurs below the WAT. Temperature versus wax content
(solid fraction) can be obtained as Wax Precipitation Curve (WPC).
Whereas, wax deposition is referred to the molecular diffusion (domi-
nant mechanism) of crystalized wax particles that gets deposited on the
pipe wall. With time and flow conditions, the wax deposited layer get
thick and its accumulation then becomes a concern as it can sig-
nificantly impact on the effective flow cross-section. Hence, wax pre-
cipitation is dependent on the thermodynamic factors like temperature,
pressure, and composition of the oil (Wang and Huang, 2014).
On the other hand, wax deposition is dependent on the heat and
mass transfer, solid-solid and surface-solid interaction, and flow hy-
drodynamics. The information about the WAT ad WPC are essential
parameters for predict wax deposition. The coupled measurement
techniques discussed in this review (illustrated in Fig. 4) provide in-
formation about the WAT and wax precipitation, whereas, the indirect
observational measurement are methods classified as monitoring/sen-
sing wax deposits (Wang and Huang, 2014). Insight to recent literature,
study conducted by Struchkov & Rogachey (Struchkov and Rogachev,
2017) explored impact of external parameters such as cooling rate,
pressure, and mechanical impurities on wax precipitation and observed

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: falnaimat@uaeu.ac.ae (F. Alnaimat).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2019.106385
Received 5 April 2019; Received in revised form 12 August 2019; Accepted 13 August 2019
0920-4105/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Fadi Alnaimat and Mohammed Ziauddin, Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2019.106385
F. Alnaimat and M. Ziauddin
Fig. 1. Section of the pipeline affected from deposited paraffin (Venkatesan
et al., 2005).
WAT. The experimental results showed that WAT increased with high
pressure, shear rate, and with addition of mechanical impurities. Ac-
cording to Struchkov & Rogachey (Struchkov et al., 2018), wax pre-
cipitation is affected from thermobaric conditions, operating condi-
tions, and composition of the oil. The laboratory experiments were
conducted through grainsize analysis microscopy, volumetric analysis,
and light-scattering techniques. The WAT was observed with respect to
high pressure degassed oil. Results show that once the pressure falls
lower than bubble point, WAT increases. However, this study focused
on wax precipitation in oil wells. Similarly Struchkov & Rogachey
(Struchkov and Rogachev, 2018) explained the process of wax crys-
tallization in the oil reservoir by determining the thermodynamic state,
maintaining operating conditions of well, and with the use of wax in-
hibitors. The results were observed in terms of WAT and WAT was
found to decrease with increasing cooling rate and depressurization
(Pedersen and Rønningsen, 2003). Cold Finger (CF) testing is used
widely for screening paraffin inhibitors (Peng et al., 2018). According
to Correra et al. (2007), the cold finger device with stirring provided
solubility and wax diffusivity values that provide significant informa-
tion for wax deposition prediction. CF device is capable of thermally
controlling the conditions and simulating wax deposition in static and
Fig. 2. Flow Loop Testing for wax deposition (Valinejad and Naza, 2013).
2
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx
dynamic conditions. Considering the wax deposition driven by mole-
cular diffusion only, the cold probe is inserted parallel co-axially in the
bath near the wall. With application of Fick's law and mass transfer, the
wax particles dispersed near and towards the cold finger is considered
as deposited wax. This experimentation was achieved using a cylind-
rical thermostatic bath rather than flow loop setup which implicates
weakly toward actual operating conditions which include the hydro-
dynamics and pressure conditions. For examining the wax inhibitors,
the experimental study conducted by Perez et al. (2015) covered both
cold finger testing as well as flow-loop testing using a small scale de-
position rigs. Both results showed that inhibitors affected the wax
precipitation, however, did not assurance significant decrease in rate of
wax deposition.
Using the cold finger devices and flow-loop testing, the deposition
under the static and the dynamic conditions can be simulated
(Weispfennig and Jennings, 2004). Jennings and Weispfennig (2005)
have observed cold finger testing not fully represented flow-line wax
deposition data. However, the information about variations in the wax
deposition with respect to operating conditions was comprehensively
attained through cold-finger testing. In the literature, most of the stu-
dies are carried out using single phase. Creek et al. (1999) investigated
the wax deposition for single phase with jacketed flow loop testing and
the setup supported the wax thickness measurement using pressure
difference, ultrasonic transit time, energy balance, volume difference,
and direct measurements. With flow-loop apparatus, Theyab and Diaz
(2016) have investigated spiral flow which affected the pipe walls with
high shear stress and reducing wax deposition. Flow-loop apparatus
used for wax deposition investigations are effective in observing de-
position rates, and the flow assurance issues (Kelechukwu et al., 2010;
Lu et al., 2012).
The process of cleaning wax is carried out initially with scanning or
imaging inner layer using non-destructive methods like radiography
with X-Ray or Gamma-Ray. Radiograph provides image of accumulated
wax; however, it requires knowledge of many parameters related in-
tensity and equipment control because deposited wax property differs
from one oilfield to another (Cheng et al., 2017; Brower et al., 2005).
Most of the research explorations in this field are examining methods to
study the wax thickness with apparatus that are smaller, indoor, and
with less equipment to study the thickness, profile, and morphology of
deposited layer (Lei et al., 2016). Many recent studies have focused on
developing testing equipment to either examine the wax deposition or
gelation. The inhibited components of deposited wax are mainly poly-
mers, and asphaltenes. The deposited layer testing apparatus used are
Cold Finger Testing (CFT)/Flow Loop Testing (FLT) as shown in Fig. 2.
F. Alnaimat and M. Ziauddin
Fig. 3. Cleaning using pigging device (Døble, 2018).
The experiments conducted using CFT includes the immersion of cold
pipe in circulated working fluid bath. Whereas, FLT includes the outer
section of the pipe cooled as covering jackets inducing coolness on the
pipe surface and studying wax deposition from the working fluid
moving in the pipe. There are different methods that are based on
pressure or heat transfer assessment (Tinsley and Prud'homme, 2010).
The shutdown cost and maintenance cost are considered very high
expenses (Shafquet et al., 2015). The significance of wax thickness es-
timation with application of non-destructive testing can reduce the cost
of frequent cleaning process to know when cleaning is required or not.
The process of wax removal is called ‘Pigging’ in which the pig device is
sent though the pipe length to remove the wax as shown in Fig. 3.
However, there is a significant risk of wax plugging or the flow
blockage due to a stuck pig (Huang et al., 2016). Conventional external
inductive heating is also used to melt the wax layer to simplify the
pigging process, but it is typically applied externally to melt the inner
wax (Sarmento et al., 2004).
In the case of bulk wax precipitation, lower bound to the range of
carbon numbers contributes to wax deposition. If the bulk temperature
is maintained below the respective WAT, upper critical carbon number
becomes relevant. With the declination and convergence of bulk fluid
temperature towards deposition surface temperature, the upper critical
carbon number value decreases and converges towards lower critical
Fig. 4. Classification of wax thickness estimation methods.
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx
carbon number. The deposited wax is characterized by thickness,
hardness, flow regime, and deposited profile (Paso and Fogler, 2004).
Prediction of the wax layer thickness is complex and very difficult.
Hence, there is a need to adopt new techniques which may include
timely monitoring or instantaneous detection of wax layer inside
(Abdul-Majid, 2013). Flow pattern plays an important role in the
buildup of deposited wax layer. The characteristics of wax thickness,
hardness, and cross-sectional profile must be taken into account when
estimating the deposited layer. In addition, the superficial velocity of
the waxy crude oil, and the temperature gradient between the oil
temperature and pipe walls must also be considered when analyzing
wax deposited thickness in the pipelines (Piroozian et al., 2017).
Conventional methods used in the industry for wax prevention/re-
moval can be summarized as mechanical, chemical, thermal, microbial,
and other techniques. The mechanical method includes use of physical
and mechanical tools for wax removal and it is the oldest method im-
plemented. The wax is removed using a pigging device which is pushed
through the pipe as shown in Fig. 3. The device cleans through cir-
cumferential scraping action. The advantage of this method of cleaning
is that it is faster with less labor. But, in case the pig device gets stuck,
retrieving the device can be very expensive. The chemical treatment
methods are carried out using chemicals that can act as wax inhibitors,
fused chemical reactions, and chemical solvents. Chemicals used as wax
inhibitors are either wax-crystal modifiers, detergents, or dispersants.
All of them are added to oil to avoid the oil transport issues when the oil
has high wax content. These additives to oil decrease the ability of wax
crystals to interact with the pipe walls reducing viscosity of the oil.
However, it has the disadvantage the inhibitors must be added above
the WAT (White et al., 2017).
On the other hand, using fused chemical reactions include exo-
thermic reaction emitting large amount of heat to remove the wax
deposition or may delay the deposition. Chemical catalyst is injected in
the oil in encapsulated form, once the capsule dissolves, the catalyst
react with solution and generate heat. Other method applied is using
addition of chemical solvents. However, it depends on the crude oil
which must be sensitive to surfactants forming emulsions (White et al.,
2017).
Some of the commonly used chemical solvents are kerosene and
diesel oil. The advantage is that its cheap method, but its impact is weak
for larger masses. Thermal treatment techniques are many which are
F. Alnaimat and M. Ziauddin
also implemented for wax mitigation. Some of the commonly used
techniques are hot oiling or hot watering, surface coating, and cold
flow. Hot oiling or watering treatment includes use of hot oil from 65 to
105 °C is pumped to melt the deposited wax. This method is simple, but
heat capacity of used hot fluid makes it limited. Use of surface coating
with thermal insulation material such as plastic is observed to reduce
the wax deposition by 30 wt%. New polymers such as ethylene-terta-
fluoroethylene (ETFE) also showed good results of wax inhibition.
However, it is highly expensive. Cold flow is another method to reduce
the deposition of wax which uses slurry of solid resin particles with
melting point greater than crystallization temperature of wax acting as
sites of nucleation. This prevents the wax to go towards walls (White
et al., 2017).
Using microorganisms for wax inhibition is referred as microbial
treatment in which the bacterial culture in the oil added through the
biosurfactants. The bacterial species (such as Pseudomonas ad
Actinomyces) have aided in reducing the heavy hydrocarbon fractions
through breakdown and increasing the C15 and C20 fractions. This
breakdown of hydrocarbons improved crude oil properties lowering the
WAT. However, the bacterial growth is degraded in presence of less
oxygen and nutrient contents. Other methods include magnetic fluid
conditioning which uses magnetic fields to alter the wax particle mo-
tion in the oil (White et al., 2017).
Non-destructive monitoring or testing is important to avoid any
sudden shutdown or blockage in the flow that can eventually become
extremely costly. Hence, this article reviews the wax estimation
methods and numerical models exist in the literature exploring the non-
destructive testing methods. The methods discussed in this study are
categorized as direct measurements and indirect observational mea-
surements methods as illustrated in Fig. 4.
Modelling coupled to direct measurement methods are classified
into two categories, modelling approaches and coupled scientific
measurements. The modelling approaches are discussing about the
numerical models dominating in the literature. On the other hand, the
coupled scientific measurements are discussing about the use of scan-
ning and imagining techniques and others including sample testing
techniques which are discussed in the following sections. Further, the
indirect observational measurement methods consisting of external
non-destructive measurement techniques are discussed. Each technique
is discussed based on equipment, resources, and the parameters of in-
terest observed in experimental or numerical modelling. The modelling
approaches are discussed at the end. The objectives of this study are: to
identify the direct and indirect methods for wax prediction, to signify
the outcomes and limitations of identified methods, and the wax de-
position models.
2. Coupled scientific measurements
The coupled scientific measurement methods which are used to
capture wax layer thickness are mainly implemented using scanning or
imaging techniques using X-ray radiography such as Near Infrared
Scattering (NIR), Small Angle X-Ray Scattering (SAXS), X-Ray
Diffraction (XRD), Controlled Stress Rheometer (CSR), and Cross
Polarized Microscope (CPM) (Chala et al., 2014, 2018). These techni-
ques were implemented by for investigating structure of gel by Cazaux
et al. (1998). The image obtained is function of structure and density of
the wax-oil crystals developed from temperature gradient and rate of
cooling from surrounding (Chala et al., 2014; Cazaux et al., 1998;
Aiyejina et al., 2011). Table 1 illustrates the benefits and limitations of
each methods discussed throughout the article.
2.1. Near Infrared Scattering
The light scattering phenomenon of colloidal solutions provides
information about the physical properties using NIR. NIR attenuation
spectra at lower wavelength provides helps in better evaluation of
4
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx
WAT. According to study conducted by Paso et al. (2009a), NIR scat-
tering technique is capable of detecting the wax crystals with high re-
solution up to less than 55 nm size a given IR wavelength measurement
of 1100 nm particularly for waxy gas condensate fluid. When applying
to opaque crude oils, the delineation of radiation attenuation is needed
for determining the WAT. NIR is applied for obtaining WAT for fluids
operating under non-quiescent and thermal equilibrium conditions and
effectively measures time to melt solid wax particles under these con-
ditions subcooling effects are avoided. The WAT results obtained from
the NIR scattering were compared to with cross-polarized microscopy
and values of WAT were in close agreement within ± 2.5 °C.
2.2. Small Angle X-Ray scattering
The study conducted by Dwiggins (1965) investigated X-ray scat-
tering to observe the colloidal growth or precipitation of crude oil. The
radii of gyration were measured for different weight fractions of crude
oil and at different surrounding temperatures. The results showed that
colloidal molecular weight increases with decreasing temperature
(Dwiggins, 1965; Bardon et al., 1996). A typical SAXS experiment is
conducted as shown in Fig. 5 in which the X-ray radiation source in-
itiates a primary beam that passes the solution and gets scattered. The
scattered intensity is isotropic and function of scattering angle which is
obtained by the X-ray detector (Petoukhov and Svergun, 2013). SAXS
can have low intensity issues when scattering, however getting in-
formation in determining the polydispersity estimate the particle size or
can be significant in calculate the radii of gyration. Eyssautier et al.
(2011) compared the calculated scattered length density from chemical
composition with the experimental values and had good agreement.
According to Cosultchi et al. (2003), the contact time affects the col-
lection of information about radius of gyration. This technique was
investigated by Morante et al. (2017) to study crude oil asphaltenes
aggregates through the physical properties using radius of gyration and
power-law exponents. The results showed that increasing concentration
of the asphaltenes increases scattering (Morante et al., 2017; Martyanov
et al., 2017; Yen et al., 1961).
2.3. X-ray diffraction
The X-ray beam is transmitted to the respective medium of in-
vestigation to hit the atoms. The electrons of the medium scatters the
beam. The deviation of the beam scattered with an angle can help in
measuring the crystal structure (Siljuberg, 2012; Johnson and Cowie,
2007). Investigating the wax deposition, X-ray diffraction technique
was effective in capturing the crystallites sizes with respect to time. The
wax deposition and ageing or hardening of wax was clearly shown
Ostwald Ripening through increase in the average size of crystals. When
the crystallites sizes were more than 0.1 μm, they innate Darwin width
with diffraction peak at given diffraction angle. Crystal sizes smaller
than 0.1 μm, the diffraction peaks are broadened and observed at twice
the given angle (Coutinho et al., 2003). XRD can be used in char-
acterizing the paraffin waxes with n-alkanes (19 < n < 53) with
continuous distribution forming orthorhombic solution with solid-li-
quid equilibrium or solid-solid transitions (Siljuberg, 2012; Paso et al.,
2005). This method is powerful in obtaining the details on crystal
structure, however it is limited in identifying the crystallization un-
derstanding the liquid-solid equilibrium (Chevallier et al., 1999a,
1999b; Li et al., 2011; Alcazar-Vara and Buenrostro-Gonzalez, 2013).
The drawback of this technique is associated with radiation hazard at
the field, it needs accessing front and back sides of the pipelines which
is practically not possible, and it need high energy. All of these dis-
advantages restrict this technique for practical implications in the in-
dustry (Rostron, 2018).
F. Alnaimat and M. Ziauddin Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx

Table 1
Assessment of direct methods.
Methods Advantages Disadvantages

NIR • Can provide physical information in

nanometers.
• Sensitive to low intensity. Paso et al. (2009a)

• Can overcome subcooling effects.

SAXS • Provides information on the shape, size, ad • Sensitive to low intensity scattering. (Petoukhov and Svergun, 2013; Dwiggins, 1965; Cosultchi
fractal geometry. • Ifparticles
the contact time is not enough, the oil et al., 2003; Morante et al., 2017)
• Radii of gyration provides information
about wax particle size.
can affect the results.

XRD • Captures particle size with time. • Limited in identifying crystallization (Rostron, 2018; Siljuberg, 2012; Chevallier et al., 1999a,
• Wax aging process can be studied. understanding liquid-solid equilibrium. 1999b)
• Need access on both sides of the pipeline.
CSR • The viscoelastic properties of the waxy • Slip can occur when measuring the strain. (Venkatesan et al., 2005; Isono et al., 1991; Singh et al., 1999;
crude oil can be measured. • Need to consider thermal history of sample. Magnin and Piau, 1990; Japper-Jaafar et al., 2018),
• Obtaining cloud point temperature.
CPM • Used to determine the WAT and observe
optically.
• Limited
used.
to detection size based on magnification (Venkatesan et al., 2005; Fakroun, 2017; Lee et al., 2007;
Coutinhoa and Daridonb, 2005)
• Impact of cooling rate on the wax structure
formation can be studied.
• Uses very small volume of sample.

surfaces. According to Magnin and Piau (1990), slipping of surface

plays significant role when the roughness is below 250 μm and above
which the effect is insignificant. Hence, it is important to ensure there is
no slip of the rheometer when taking the measurement. To assure no
slip, the upper surface is roughened and was visually observed (Japper-
Jaafar et al., 2018). Recent work of Rodriguez-Fabia et al. (2019), in-
formation about the roughness is not enough to obtained results pre-
venting slippage if the wax fraction is more than 5 wt% wax and cross
the actual threshold. Hence, there is a need to have fixtures which is
large enough to prevent the slippage. It will also help in predicting the
threshold that considers the delineation between adhesive breakage
and cohesive breakage.
Fig. 5. Small angle X-ray scattering experimental setup (Petoukhov and
Svergun, 2013). 2.5. Cross polarized microscopy

2.4. Controlled Stress Rheometer
CSR is a tool which is used in determining the strain resulting from
application of controlled stress and by testing the sample between
parallel plates arrangement (Wang et al., 2017). The measurement is
taken through angular deflection noted by the instrument. The vis-
coelastic properties of the waxy crude oil can be obtained by subjecting
steady stress to dynamic and observing the steady deformation (Isono
et al., 1991; Singh et al., 1999; Petrus and Azuraien, 2014). As an ex-
ample, the study conducted by Singh et al. (1999) used rheometer
consisting of 40 mm diameter cone with 0.04 rad cone angle and Peltier
plate was used to control the sample temperature effectively uniform
(Silva and Coutinho, 2004; Chen et al., 2007). The CSR is consisting of
lower and upper plates and motion is controlled form top. The strain
sensor is connected on the top head (Fakroun, 2017). Singh et al.
(1999) found that appearance of the wax particles is observed when the
temperature of the solution gets below the cloud point. Dalla et al.
(2018) have highlighted that not necessarily the yield stress of rhe-
ometer be true because of the inconsistencies of data collected by
rheometer. In order to confirm that rheometer giving good information,
it is important to ensure that oil goes through a thermal history in-
cluding the starting cooling temperature, take into consideration radial
temperature distribution, shrinkage of oil due to cooling, adhesive/
cohesive failures of sediments.
Rheometer yield stress measurements were used to study the impact
of wax content by Venkatesan et al. (2005). The reading was taken at
the point of interest where it was expected to have increase in strain
and Venkatesan et al. (2005) considered the shear and thermal history
of the sample to ensure more reliable results. However, the difficulty in
obtaining results using a rheometer is the chances of slipping the flat
CPM is used to measure the WAT and can be used assess the for-
mation of wax layer with increasing rate of cooling (Fakroun, 2017).
After testing 15 different waxy crude oils, Kok et al. (1996) compared
the CPM results with Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). Ac-
cording to Lee et al. (2007), the adhesion failure occurs with decreasing
in cooling rate and that is breakage of the wax particle interlocks.
Observing the sample under the cross polarized microscopy helps in
understanding the morphology and crystallization process of wax by
controlling the cooling or heating rate (Fakroun, 2017). The CPM setup
is consisting of the manly thee sections: cross polarized microscope, the
Peltier thermal stage kept under microscope, and the controlled
cooling/heating pumping unit (on left) connected to the stage. The
microcrystal wax sample viewed under the cross polarized microscope
is shown in Fig. 6 when obtaining the WAT for crude oil samples. The
polarized light is passes through the sample. There are two prisms on
both sides of the sample, the oil fails to permit the polarized light
through, however the precipitated wax crystals appear white (Fakroun,
2017).
Venkatesan et al. (2005) used CPM for comparing the rheometric
results. The CPM results provided an insight on the cooling rates af-
fecting the wax buildup, larger sized wax molecules were formed at low
cooling rate (1.8 °F/min) whereas smaller wax crystals were observed at
higher cooling rate (10 °F/min) as shown in Fig. 6. This tool is limited to
size of crystal detecting size in few microns such as in the range of 0.5
and 1 μm based on the magnification used. It is also sensitive to film
thickness of the sample, and it accompanies very small sample volume
(Coutinhoa and Daridonb, 2005).
Coupled Scientific measurement methods are essentials for the
modelling approaches because it provides the information about the
input parameters such as the WAT and crystal size. Scientific mea-
surements are obtained testing the crude oil sample and identifying the

5
F. Alnaimat and M. Ziauddin Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx

Fig. 6. Appearance of wax crystal upon cooling viewed under CPM: (a) Cooling rate at 1.8 °F/min and (b) Cooling rate at 10 °F/min (Venkatesan et al., 2005).

wax characteristics of the crude oil. The physical information provided

these methods can feed data for wax prediction models as a part of
characterization of the wax content in the crude oil. Selecting appro-
priate scientific measurement method can impact on characterization of
wax and consequently affecting the accuracy of numerical model out-
puts.

3. Modelling approaches

Wax deposition rates are typically estimated based on numerical

models that are incorporated in commercial software for forecasting
with time. There are many variables that affect in the settlement of wax
which includes conditions of heat and mass transfer, shear sloughing
and other surface properties, precipitation kinetics, and both homo-
geneous and heterogenous nucleation kinetics (Paso et al., 2009b). The
observed models in literature are single-phase flow and two-phase flow
models (Creek et al., 1999; Piroozian et al., 2017; Halstensen et al.,
2013; Jalalnezhad and Kamali, 2016). Work of Farina and Fasano
(1997) adopted mathematical modelling to explain the wax deposition
with respect to low temperature exposure based on experimental data
analysis. At low temperatures, the behavior of waxy crude oil is con-
sidered as highly non-Newtonian. Hence, main physical assumptions
included are low, constant, and uniform temperature, laminar flow, and
incompressible fluid. The rheological model considered was modelling
based on experimental observations and explained as Bingham fluids.
Quasi-steady approximation and planar geometry is considered to en-
sure simple as compared to cylindrical geometry. The flow was assumed
as between two parallel plates. The following mathematical relation-
ship was derived to govern the spontaneous aggregation of crystals and
fragmentation of agglomerates (Farina and Fasano, 1997):
dα
= k1 (1 − α ) − k2. α. W
dt
fo ⎡ 1 1 τo 2 R2 τ 3R 5 τo 4 ⎤
W = −2 ⎢ fo R 4 − τo R3 − +2 o 2 −
2
R ⎣ 16 2 fo fo 3 fo3 ⎥⎦
1 τo 2 ⎡ τ 2
− R−2 o ⎤
4 Rη ⎣ ⎢ fo ⎥
⎦ fundamentally assist in developing complex multi-phase models (Ismail
In a single-phase turbulent flow study conducted by Jalalnezhad
and Kamali (2016), the wax deposition was examined using experi-
mental measurements and numerical modelling. The results are shown
in Fig. 7 with high correlation (0.9929) between the model prediction
and experimental data. The Adaptive Neural-Fuzzy Interface System
(ANFIS) model was used to predict the deposited thickness of wax to
increase accuracy and reduce input data noise sensitivity. The fuzzy
based models were developed based on if-then rules and input variables
which can be mapped with respect to relevance of output variables of
interest. The developed ANFIS model is combined with neural network
and Takagi-Sugeno-Kang (TSK) fuzzy model. This model has the
learning algorithm consequent of neural network theory as the input
Fig. 7. Correlation of ANFIS and experimental data (Jalalnezhad and Kamali,
2016).
variable are feed from the training process data. The input variables
considered were Re, T, ΔT+, and WC. The deposition temperature was
obtained from TWAT, TWall , and TOil . The output variable studied was
WTD with following relationships (Jalalnezhad and Kamali, 2016):
WTD = fANFIS (R e , T,ΔT+,WC) (3)
Δ T+ =(TWAT − TWall)/TOil (4)
Another study reported that the thickness was measured based on
pressure method for cylindrical test section, however findings exhibited
that thickness increases with flowrate for small initial period and then
decreases with increasing flowrate (Panacharoensawad and Sarica,
2013). It was defined as the crossover period. The reason provided to
(1) support the finding was that it is due to the smaller diameter selections.
However, it is claimed as lack of mechanistic understanding and
shortcoming of wax deposition models by Soedarmo et al. (2017) as a
part of experimental testing. In accordance to Huang et al. (2015), flow
loop testing is crucial in identifying the model for industrial applica-
tions. Identifying accurately the single-phase flow wax deposition can
(2)
et al., 2005). Developed model must be effectively providing two im-
portant factors as per the model proposed by Singh et al. (2000):
quantifying the mass flux diffusing towards the cold interface or pipe
wall, and the way this mass flux is distributed, growing, and aging.
There are two main tasks which are to be performed by wax deposition
models: 1) the quantified amount of wax mass flux accumulated to-
wards the cold interface; and 2) the distribution of this quantified
amount of mass flux as deposit aging and growth. The first factor has an
input to second which increases propagation of error from the first step
to the second. Hence, it is crucial to determine the wax mass flux with
higher accuracy as a priority to strengthen the model for validation. So,
finding out accurate mass of deposited wax per deposition area is

6
F. Alnaimat and M. Ziauddin Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx

focused intensively in the study carried out by Soedarmo et al. (2017). mathematical formulae of the models FMT, EM, MM, and VM are listed
The comparison of the models from literature with experimental data below:
analysis is carried out. Mainly four models proposed from literature +
were analyzed: the Matzain's Model (MM), Equilibrium Model (EM), dC dT d (πri2)
kL. 2πri L [Cb − Ci (Ti )] = De (2πri L) + − ρw . L. Fw
Film Mass Transfer (FMT) model, and Venkatesan Model (VM). These dT Ti dr dt
ri
were compared with 70 experiments data set obtained with various oils
(5)
and different flow loop arrangements conducted in previous studies
(Panacharoensawad and Sarica, 2013), (Agarwal, 2016; Singh, 2013; Dwo
De =
Rittirong, 2014; Chi, 2015). F 2
1 + α 2 (1 −wF (6)
w)
The experimental work of these authors could be effectively com-
pared as the oil characterization was done using High Temperature Gas α = 1 + K α . Fw (7)
Chromatography (HTGC) and the data is available with carbon numbers
as well as fluid properties. The carbon numbers assist in identifying the ‘K α ’ is used as fitting parameter. All these are calculated for tur-
aging of wax deposition with time (Quan et al., 2015). The assumption bulent flow as a part of heat transfer correlation. The above governing
considered by FMT model is that the processes of mass transfer and heat equations are from FMT model and are similar to model explained by
transfer takes place independently resulting in super-saturation and Singh et al. (2000). The estimation of wax mass transfer from bulk to
wax deposition on the wall subjected to cold temperature. Whereas, cold interface is from heat and mass transfer analogy. Consequently, the
thermodynamic equilibrium condition is assumed by EM that precisely mass balance is applied to study the distribution of wax through
addresses with smaller concentration gradient as compared to FMT growing and aging. The effective diffusivity toward deposition is ex-
model (Quan et al., 2015). plained by Cussler et al. (1988) and all these concepts are defined from
The EM is made more effective by modification towards MM along Equations (5)–(7). Equations (6) and (7) are used in the EM and VM to
with consideration of the empirical correlation in the diffusion equation describe the aging concept. The mass balance concept is used among
by adding the shear stripping and trapped oil factors in the deposit both models FMT and EM. However, EM differs from FMT in quanti-
model. On the other hand, VM uses shear effect considering with two fying the incoming wax mass as it assumes the development of the
coefficients and quantifying the reduction in mass flux (Quan et al., concentration profile based on thermodynamic equilibrium using
2015). These models were assessed by Soedarmo et al. (2017) using Equation (8) to model. Though, for both Equations (5) and (8), the left-
customized (Tulsa University WAX) software incorporated with these hand side terms are designated for wax mass flux from bulk to interface,
four models considering the assumptions: 1) the test section flow is and the right-hand side terms are for wax aging rate plus wax growth
considered fully developed both hydrodynamically as well as thermally; rate.
2) aspect ratio proportionality constant for EM, FMT, and Venkatesan's − +
dC dT dC dT d (πri2)
Models is assumed to be 5 and the changes in this ratio are assumed Dwo . (2πri L) = De (2πri L) + − ρw . L. Fw
dT Ti dr dT Ti dr dt
negligible with respect to overall inbound flux quantity; 3) the shear ri ri
stripping coefficient values are assumed (m = 0.8e−12 and n = 1.9); (8)
and 4) mass transfer coefficient is evaluated from FMT Model. As the
The MM was found self-sufficient as it accounted for empirical
four models were incorporated when developing the software, as-
correlation of oil entrapment in deposition responsible for increasing
sumptions and coefficients were also taken from the same models. The
thickness growth and correlation of shear stripping effect through in-
Matzain's Model was found self-sufficient as compared to other models
corporation of π1 and π2 in the model. These correlations add to con-
in observation because it does require any kind of subjective fitting
sideration of trapped oil and estimate the wax content which was not
coefficients.
included in the work of Singh et al. (2000). For the single-phase flow
According to Fig. 8, the results of comparing the Matzain's Model
applications, the effective model is described in the following Equations
with experimental data of the MO-02 (as reported by Agarwal (2016))
(9)–(13):
shows that model predicts significantly close estimations of was thick-
ness for early periods. The ‘Fw (%)’ shown in Fig. 8 is the wax content +
dδ π1 Dwo ⎡ dC dT ⎤
percentage that is varied, and best fit is observed at 5% of wax content. =− ⎢ ⎥
dt 1 + π2 ρo ⎢ dT Ti dr
Therefore, the results obtained by MM reflected that it is the best ⎣ ri ⎥
⎦ (9)
model to its performance using the oil used in the South Pelto crude
experiment, hence it must be explored for other oils in future. The 15.0
π1 =
1 − COil/100 (10)
1.4
π2 = 1 + 0.055 NSR (11)

Re0.15 ⎞
COil = 100 ⎛⎜1 − ⎟

⎝ 8 ⎠ (12)

ρo vo δ
NSR =
μo (13)
On the other hand, the predictive incoming wax in VM is addressed
through in-situ shear stress and that can be applied to either EM or FMT
model. Governing equation of VM is shown below Equation (14).
m˙ w = kL. 2πri L [Cb − Ci (Ti )] − m τWn (14)
−12
where, coefficients m and n as 0.8 × 10 and 1.9 respectively. For
multiphase flow analysis of wax deposition, research study of
Giacchetta et al. (2017) provided insight on the sensitivity of the
models incorporated in the two commercial codes, OLGA and Leda-
Fig. 8. Wax deposition thickness using Matzain's Model (Yen et al., 1961). Flow. OLGA is a standard tool (developed by Schlumberger Company)

7
F. Alnaimat and M. Ziauddin Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx

in the industry to simulate the petroleum production with transient include kr , and kr is the precipitation rate constant and the mass
response of multiphase. There are three wax deposition model in- transfer coefficient from the bulk individual surface respectively.
corporated: (Rugg, Rydahl and Ronningsen) RRR Model, MM, and Heat
r = kr [C − C sat (T )] (27)
Analogy (HA) Model. The prediction of multiphase flow wax deposition
in wells and pipelines can be achieved using the RRR model. This model 1
is not applicable to laminar flow analysis as it is considered as semi- Shp. Dwo ⎞ ⎛ 2 + 0.6Re 0.5Scp3 . Dwo ⎞
kr = kd Ap ρn = ⎜⎛ ⎟ Ap ρn = ⎜ ⎟ Ap ρn
stationary. These are the two mechanisms influencing wax deposition: dp ⎜ dp ⎟
⎝ ⎠ (28)
molecular diffusion and shear dispersion effect. The governing equa- ⎝ ⎠
tions of volume rate of deposited wax for both mechanisms are given in This model supports the melting on wax in the bulk, and it is more
Equations (15) and (16), and the increase in total rate of wax thickness effective in prediction as this factor can be taken in account for the wax
is given by Equation (17). (Hayduk and Minhas, 1982) dissolved in oil. When results obtained from both LedaFlow and OLGA
Nwax
Dwo, i (Cwb, i − Cws, i ) Swet Mwax , i compared to experimental data obtained from sensors with respect to
diff
Vol wax = ∑ δlam ρwax , i
(2πrs L) pressure, neither produces proper field data. The shortcoming of
i=1 (15)
LedaFlow software is that it does not take into consideration influence
shear k ⁎C ˙
ws γA
of pressure on WAT. However, it depends on user inputted Wax
Vol wax = Precipitation Curve (WPC). Contrastingly, OLGA needs two inputs: the
ρwax (16)
pre-calculated wax table and WPC along with details of temperature
diff shear and pressure. In the modelling, the controlled temperature centrifuga-
Vol wax + Vol wax
δ˙ =
(1 + ∅wax ). 2πrs L (17) tion, considering occluded oil by subtraction, are important to obtain
solid fraction curves illustrating model result. This can help in over-
According to Giacchetta et al. (2017), the RRR model takes into coming the ability of the DSC which need high cooling rates to provide
account the dissolution model of wax deposition instead of assuming real solid fraction curve signifying the thermodynamic input in the
the removal of wax from walls at high flowrates due to shear stress. The model.
model estimates the dissolved wax concentration with respect to tem- A very recent study conducted by Geest et al. (2018) explored wax
perature (dCw / dT ) at respective WAT and adjusted with WDT as shown deposition and reported that wax does not start building up unless the
in Equations (18) and (19). pipe wall temperature reaches WAT based on molecular diffusion. From
WDT = WAT + ΔTDissolution (18) the experimental study, it was found that crude oil with high wax
content takes certain period of time to start depositing. According to
dCw observation of pressure drop, it took roughly 5 h and in worst case it
Cws = Cw, Ts + (Ts − WDT )
dT WAT (19) took even 24 h after reaching the WAT to observe initiation of wax
deposition. WAT was obtained from analyzing wax precipitation and
The second model included in the OLGA's code is the MM which was
heat flow curves using DSC. HTGC was used to crosscheck the mole-
discussed previously in accordance with Soedarmo et al. (2017).
cular content deposited. Rheometer was used to control the tempera-
However, further details on the MM Reynolds consideration for each
ture and cooling rate. Test rig consisting of copper wire and sensors was
case are shown in Equations (20)–(22), and thermal gradient of laminar
kept in water bath controlling the water temperature between 90 and
sub-layer given by Equation (23):
5 °C. Both single-phase laminar flow and turbulent experiments were
ρoil voil δ considered. Pressure method was applied to calculate the wax thickness
NSR = [Single − phase and stratified wavy flow]
μoil (20) by firstly determining the friction factor from information obtained
using pressure sensors. The most crucial part of apparatus was pressure
ρmix voil δ sensors (PT100) to obtain differential pressure for both heat transfer
NSR = [Bubble and slug flow]
μoil (21) boundary layer and hydrodynamic boundary layer. The analysis was
done for two cases of isothermal flow and non-isothermal flow (Geest
ρmix ρoil voil δ et al., 2018; Kumar et al., 2015). The deposited wax thickness calcu-
NSR = [Annular flow]
μoil (22) lated experimentally using the differential method is shown in Fig. 9.

dT (T − Tws )
= b hh
dr koil (23)
The third model in OLGA code is the HA model which estimates the
wax deposition based on the heat and mass transfer rate of wax. The
following governing equations were used in developing the model
(Giacchetta et al., 2017):
Q˙ = h (Twb − Tws ) (24)

M˙ i = mi (Cwb, i − Cws, i ) (25)

λNNu
h=
2R (26)
The wax deposition model used by LedaFlow v2.1 software (de-
veloped by Kongsberg Gruppen Company) is a simulation tool similar to
OLGA that accounts mainly for two functions: observing wax crystal-
lization (wax particles suspended in oil) and wax deposition (wall de-
posit). This model uses kinetic precipitation term instead of using
thermodynamic equilibrium conditions in order to account for dis-
solved wax molecules on the fluid boundary layer. Hence, the model
includes the following governing Equations. (27) and (28). These Fig. 9. Wax deposition with time (Isono et al., 1991).

8
F. Alnaimat and M. Ziauddin
Fig. 10. Experimental and simulation model comparison (Isono et al., 1991).
Simulation study was done based on the heat transfer equation given
below that comprises of the wax deposition and latent heat of solidi-
fication.
q = Utot Aact (T∞ Oil − T∞ Water ) − 2 π k wax [Cwb − Cws (Ti )] ΔH (29)
For simulation, the model proposed by Sign et al. (Singh et al.,
2000) was compared with experimental results. The model uses ther-
modynamic equilibrium condition applied radially underlining solution
of diffusion equation neglecting supersaturation. The comparison is
shown in Fig. 10, and results illustrated show that the model can predict
wax deposition in the beginning and end of the pipeline. The wax
thickness buildup in the beginning is not significant, however with time
the model predicts considerably matching the experimental results. The
DSC data helped in plotting the solubility curve which also acted as an
input to the model because input variables solubility is a function of
temperature and its derivative with respect to temperature need to be
included. Both inputs were collected as a part of experimental data.
This model was effective in comparing the experimental results as it
also highlighted that initially the deposition is less and increases with
time, deposition decreases with increasing flowrate, and the increase
deposition rate follows the pressure drop increase. A study carried out
by Panacharoensawad and Sarica (2013) examining wax deposition in a
mini-setup also used DSC and HTGC for characterizing.
4. Indirect observational measurements
Among the earlier studies, work of Creek et al. (1999) experimen-
tally explored wax deposition with proposed explanation of wax de-
position occurring in the laminar and turbulent flow. In the low velocity
region, the deposition occurs in presence of laminar flow, whereas the
deposition occurs in the laminar boundary layer in presence of turbu-
lent flow. The deposition scenario is illustrated in Fig. 11. Some of the
Fig. 11. Radial diffusion scenario in the pipeline.
9
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx
main techniques utilized for studying wax precipitation and measuring
the wax deposition experimentally: 1) pressure difference method; 2)
internal volume change method; 3) temperature-based energy balance
method; and 4) ultrasonic transit time measurement. The results ob-
tained in this study indicates that pressure difference and temperature-
based methods were close for two days observations and then got di-
verged.
Ultrasonic measurements results matched with other methods ex-
cept the temperature-based thickness measurement. The results showed
higher wax deposition and harder with less oil content for the turbulent
flow cases. The finding from this study is that higher the temperature
difference between the pipe wall and oil, the higher is the deposition
rate, and deposition rate decreases with increasing flowrate. However,
the conventional methods such as pressure difference method, and in-
ternal volume change method are intrusive which limits its use in
practical terms. Further, these conventional methods cannot signal the
exact location where plugging is present (Brower et al., 2005; Mei et al.,
2016). In the following sections, non-intrusive methods Electric Capa-
citance Tomography (ECT), temperature-based method, and ultrasonic
transit time measurement method are discussed (Mei et al., 2016).
Next, the wax deposition models are discussed, and main models
highlighted in the literature are compared in Table 2.
4.1. Electric Capacitance Tomography
ECT is another technique widely observed in literature and utilized
to examine the flow regimes and spatial resolution. It effectively pro-
vides information to observe the void distribution by reducing dis-
turbances of flow pattern, and the results can be based on both quali-
tative and quantitative manner. For higher resolution images, the
generated algorithms become complex and the reconstruction of the
high-quality images consumes large time duration (Sardeshpande et al.,
2015). The experimental setup illustrated in Fig. 12 shows measure-
ment system using ECT method that determined the implementation of
wax deposition detection in the non-metallic pipes (Li et al., 2016).
The study compared both experimental and simulation results with
less variations in the results. The experimental setup consists of earthed
shieling plate, sensor electrodes, the data acquisition unit, and pc
control. The sensor electrodes (copper) are covered with earthed
shielding plate around the pipe as the arrangement shown in Fig. 12.
The ECT technique was studied for online monitoring by Shafquet et al.
(2015) and the inspection was done for studying the gas voids. This
conventional technique is applicable as non-destructive and assist in
inspecting the pipeline prior to the pigging process. According to results
obtained by Mei et al. (2016) showed that it can be suitably applied for
real time monitoring using a precision pumping of crude oil (using gear
pump), a reference instrument to compare the ECT results, and in-
tegration of data acquisition units into one and monitoring the quan-
titative information of the installed system.
4.2. Temperature-based method
Investigation carried out by Hoffmann et al. (Hoffmann et al., 2011)
and Halstensen et al. (2013) in which an online monitoring technique is
developed. Work of Hoffmann, Amundsen & Schüller (Hoffmann et al.,
2011) was based on heat pulse sensing to determine measurement
parameters for model and develop a numerical model. One dimensional
steady state model and two-dimensional axisymmetric transient model
was developed. The experimental apparatus is shown in Fig. 13. In
addition, an investigation by Halstensen et al. (2013) comprised of
using acoustic chemometrics to predict the deposited wax thickness in
single-phase flow pipeline. Benefit of using this technique is to online
monitor and predict the wax thickness in real-time (Alnaimat et al.,
2019). However, it adopts point measurement and needs reference
measurements that results in two drawbacks. The experimental setup
included flow loop of crude oil blanketed with water annulus to provide
F. Alnaimat and M. Ziauddin Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx

Table 2
Comparison of wax deposition models.
Models Attributes Studies

Film Mass Transfer (FMT) • Considers independent heat and mass transfer. (Soedarmo et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2000; Lee,
Model • Overpredicts the mass and deposition rate. 2008; Venkatesan and Fogler, 2004)
• Sensitive to oil type than EM and MM Models.
Equilibrium Model (EM) • Considers thermodynamic equilibrium conditions. (Soedarmo et al., 2017; Lee, 2008; Huang et al.,
• May overpredict the wax deposition rate depending on the oil type. 2011)
Venkatesan's Model (VM) • Considers shear stress in finding out the flux reduction. (Soedarmo et al., 2017; Venkatesan and Fogler,
• Predicts with less error under higher shear stress. 2004; Venkatesan, 2004)
• Sensitive to oil type than EM and MM Models.
Matzain's Model (MM) • shear
Considers thermodynamic equations, but with empirical coefficients that justify the
stripping and thickness variations from trapped oil deposits.
(Soedarmo et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2000;
Venkatesan, 2004; Matzain, 1999)
• Overpredicts early fluxes and under predicts the late time fluxes.
sub-sea condition, acoustic sensors (accelerometers) connected ex- Observing the weight measurements in terms of frequency, the wax
ternally, and following the heating coils. The acoustic signals were thickness can be calculated. In this study, the wax thickness obtained
applied with Principal Component Analyzes (PCA) and Partial Least experimentally was compared to reference data sets of experiments
Square Regression (PLSR) for online estimation. The heating coils were conducted previously by Hoffmann and Amundsen (2010). Wax de-
used to provide the heat pulse causing the turbulent flow and these position was found inversely proportional to the flowrate of the waxy
signals were collected from the sensors and addressed with PCA to re- crude oil and the relationship existed was not linear.
cognize the signals in terms of estimating the wax thickness. The score
plots were generated and score vector was plotted against time in hours 4.3. Ultrasonic transit time based method
to observe the wax deposition. The signals were transformed to fre-
quency domain from time domain with Fourier transformation. Ultrasound techniques are non-destructive, but techniques just as

Fig. 12. (a) Measurement System and ECT sensors, (b) Parameters of ECT Sensors (Li et al., 2016).

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F. Alnaimat and M. Ziauddin Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx

Fig. 13. Heat Pulse Monitoring Setup (heating element on right) (Chevallier et al., 1999b).

time-of-flight cannot be directly applied for wax prediction (Leighton, the neural network. For prediction of wax, the dependent and in-
2007; Yim and Leighton, 2010). The main reasons for that are: the dependent variables are selected and Obanijesu and Omidiora (2008)
sound speed within the wax deposits is unknown, and ultrasound waves considered viscosity as the dependent variable (Y), and pressure as
coupled with pipe can go in echo at the bottom wax boundary leading independent variable (X) and mathematical model is determined sta-
to difficulties in tracing time data. Observing the decay timing of the tistically including empirical parameters (β0 and β1). The model also
ultrasonic signals can provide information in predicting the wax de- incorporated the reservoir temperature variations as mentioned below:
position. The decaying patterns were observed by Gunarathne and
Y = β0 + β1 (Xi − Xm ) (30)
Keatch (1996).
Experimental investigation carried out by Towler et al. (2007) using Yi
Y=
ultrasonic waves to reduce wax deposition showed less impact on wax Tcf (31)
deposition. Due to the heating from transducers, predicting effect be-
tween ultrasonic waves and wax deposition becomes complex. ⎡ (Tr − Tf ) ⎤
Tcf = e⎢⎣ Tr ⎥
⎦ (32)
N
4.4. Role of machine learning and artificial intelligence Xi
Xm = ∑ n
i=1 (33)
Currently, the oil and gas industry, Artificial Intelligence (AI) al-
gorithms are utilized for solving problems. AI is all about adopting the
⎡ ⎤
general capabilities of intelligent agent with respective set of activities ⎢ ⎥
and operating environment for continuous machine learning. Wide used ⎢ ⎥
⎢ Pt ⎥
algorithms are Swarm Intelligence (SI), Evolutionary Algorithms (EA), β0 = ∑ ⎢ ⎡⎛ ⎥
⎞⎤
Fuzzy Logic (FL), and Artificial Neural Networks (ANN). SI is used for ⎢ ⎢ ⎝Tr − Tf ⎠ ⎥ ⎥
⎜ ⎟

optimizing when the activity is carried out in group, and it uses Particle ⎢ ⎢⎢ Tr ⎥⎥ ⎥
⎢ ⎢ ⎥⎥
Swarm Optimization (PSO) technique. It is implemented in the oil and ⎣ Vr e⎣ ⎦⎦ (34)
gas industry for oil recovery optimization and uses sequence of opera-
tion to optimize. There are two types of EA algorithms: Genetic ⎡ ⎤
Algorithm (GA) and Differential Evolution (DE). From literature, DE ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
algorithms are observed to be used in optimizing performance of dril- ⎢ Pt ⎥ (X − X )
∑
ling operation, and cost and maximizing the quantity of production ⎢ ⎡ ⎛T − T ⎞ ⎤ ⎥ i m
r
⎢ ⎢⎢ ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎥ ⎥⎜ ⎟

from smart wells. FL uses uncertain data in two values, completely true
and completely false. FL is simple and robust which can be applied to
changing conditions. The use of FL is increasing as there are wide range
of applications where FL can be implemented in the oil and gas in-
dustry. It is applied for predicting multiphase flow, understanding the
relationship between parameters, and obtaining the details about the
influencing parameters. The use of ANN with FL is also observed as
adaptive neural-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS). ANN is consisting of
intelligent agents when communicate and pass information. Use of ANN
in the oil and gas industry is seen in the best gas condensation ratios,
wax deposition modelling optimizing with continuous assessment
(Jalalnezhad and Kamali, 2016; Rahmanifard and Plaksina, 2018).
For wax deposition prediction, the algorithms applied through ANN
are based mathematical modelling, computer processing, and training
of neural networks. The Backpropagation Neural Networks (BNN) is
used for continuous evaluation as this algorithm consists of two loops of
networks, first a forward loop and then a backward loop. In the forward
loop, the input information is processed from input parameters to
output variables. In the backward loop, it is vise-versa. The backward
loop passes information along with error for weighted correction for
forward loop. Both of these loops operating in continuous manner trains
the neural network. Therefore, the backpropagation algorithm is called
the learning algorithm as it systematically modifies the weights within
⎢ ⎢ Tr ⎥ ⎥
⎢ V e⎢⎢⎣ ⎥
⎥ ⎥
β1 = ⎣ r ⎦⎦
∑ [Xi − Xm ]2 (35)
Obanijesu and Omidiora (2008) discussed their results plotting the
wax pressure/viscosity versus pressure graphs with predicted upper and
lower limits. When the curve exhibits the trend within the range of
upper and lower limits, the crude oil is concluded to have higher po-
tential of wax deposition as illustrated example in Fig. 14 for crude oil
sample (Ebocha 15LS).
Qiyu and Jun, 2008 have investigated wax deposition rate by de-
veloping neural network mathematical model. Experimental observa-
tion showed the non-linear behavior of wax deposition rate with respect
factors such as wall shear stress of the pipeline, concentration of wax,
and temperature gradient subjected on the pipe wall. To overcome the
drawbacks of using the linear regression model and study the com-
plexity, Kolmogorv theorem is applied which explains any non-linear
through approximation virtually and using two-layer networks (hidden
layer and sigmoid transfer function providing the linear transfer func-
tion on the output layer). On conditional basis, the error set is provided
for training such that if ‘e’ error is 10% wrong output is allowed, then
value of ‘e’ is set as 1/10. The following relation is used to set the order
(O) with respect to the number of training samples (J) by setting the

11
F. Alnaimat and M. Ziauddin Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx

Fig. 16. Structure of ANFIS model for prediction of wax deposition thickness.

‘Bi’, then output function ‘fi’ can be represented as the combination of ‘x’
and ‘y’ and parameters determined in the training process, ‘pi’, ‘qi’, and
‘ri’ as shown in Equation (37). The first layer membership degree ( μ )
for ‘Ai’ and ‘Bi’ given labels can be calculated through Equations (38)
and (39):
fi = pi x + qi y + ri (i = 1, 2, …, n) (37)
Fig. 14. Wax deposition potential prediction plot (Ebocha 15LS crude oil) Oi1 = μ Ai (x ) (i = 1, 2, …, n) (38)
(Obanijesu and Omidiora, 2008).
Oi1 = μ Bi (y ) (i = 1, 2, …, n) (39)
network's weight (w) and error (e):
For the second layer or the product layer, the given labels are
w combined. Hence, the product is calculated with multiplication of the
J=O⎛ ⎞
⎝e⎠ (36) membership degrees calculated in the first layer: as shown below
(Jalalnezhad and Kamali, 2016):
The following structure shown in Fig. 15 of BNN is considered by
Qiyu and Jun, 2008with one hidden layer having four input vectors and Oi2 = Wi = μ Ai (x ) μ Bi (y ) (i = 1, 2, …, n) (40)
one output vector. The input vectors include viscosity, shear stress,
The third layer is identified as the normalized layer at which the
temperature gradient, and concentration gradient. The output vector
weight ratio is calculated, that is obtaining the ratio of every weight
selected is wax deposition rate. The sigmoid transfer function is applied
with respect to total weight using Equation (41) (Jalalnezhad and
to the hidden layer and pureline transfer functions for the output layer .
Kamali, 2016):
The results obtained were compared statistically using correlation
coefficient observing the training set and prediction set through linear wi
Oi3 = wi = n (i = 1, 2, …, n)
regression (LR) model and ANN model. The correlation coefficient of LR ∑i = 1 wi (41)
model was 0.78 and ANN model was 0.97 indicating ANN to predict
The fourth layer or the defuzzification layer is consisting of adaptive
precisely (Qiyu and Jun 2008). Moving a step further, Jalalnezhad and
nodes. These are identified as adaptive because the output is dependent
Kamali (2016) applied the ANFIS model for predicting the wax de-
on the values applied to the parameters at these nodes. Hence, this layer
position thickness considering flow conditions as single-phase turbulent
is critical by specifying the change in the parameter in order to mini-
flow as shown in Fig. 16. Fuzzy inference system was used as earlier
mize the error, which is specifying the learning rule on this layer. The
discussed it is consisting of mapping approach from given input to
adaptive node relation with output is determined as given in Equation
output. Five layers structure of ANFIS model was developed by con-
(42). The summation of all information from fourth layer provides the
sidering input vectors as Reynolds number, time, wax content (%),
output as given by Equation (43) (Jalalnezhad and Kamali, 2016).
temperature of surrounding, temperature of oil, temperature of pipe
wall, deposition temperature driving force (ratio of temperature gra- Oi4 = wi fi = wi (pi x + qi y + ri ) (i = 1, 2, …, n) (42)
dient between wall and surrounding to temperature of oil). n
Jalalnezhad and Kamali (2016) have used first-order type of fuzzy Oi5 = ∑ wi fi (i = 1, 2, …, n)
logic in which if-then rule is applied. If considering ‘x’ is ‘Ai’ and ‘y’ is i=1 (43)
The results indicate that the ANFIS model is effective in wax de-
position thickness prediction for ckdata with low mean square error of
0.00077034 and high correlation value of 0.9858 (Jalalnezhad and
Kamali, 2016).

5. Research gap

The main research gap identified from extensive literature study is

the need for a reliable and accurate prediction technique that enables
online sensing and monitoring for assessment of the real-time wax
conditions including thickness, hardness, and roughness inside the oil
pipeline. This entails to research gaps pinpointed as listed below:

• The current industrial methods used must be improved significantly

adopting for online monitoring purposes.
Fig. 15. Structure of BNN for prediction of wax deposition rate.
• Additional investigations for the non-destructive techniques in the
12
F. Alnaimat and M. Ziauddin Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx

field are needed to assess accuracy and reliability which allows XRD X-Ray Diffraction
better design improvements. Notations
• Field data investigations is crucial for precise measurements for
different operating conditions including types of oils, flow condi- Kα Aspect ratio proportionality constant used for fitting
tions such as pressure, temperature, velocity etc. The field data must Tb Bulk fluid temperature, K
be examined in the research practice to be used for validation of lab Cb Bulk soluble wax concentration, kg/m3
based experimental testing and modelling. k1 Constant
k2 Constant
6. Conclusions Cwb Constant
Cws Constant
This manuscript evaluated different techniques that have been kL Convective mass transfer coefficient, m/s
adopted to estimate and predict the wax thickness deposited either dp Critical nucleus size, μm
using conventional techniques or using numerical models validated NSR Dimensionless shear number in Matzain's correlation
experimentally. Some of the main conventional techniques for wax ΔT+ Dimensionless Deposition Temperature Driving Force
prediction noticed were X-ray radiography and Electric Capacitance Dwo Diffusivity coefficient, m2/s
Tomography. Most of the wax deposition models highlighted in the Dwo, i Diffusion coefficient, m2/s
literature are based on pressure method of determining deposited wax ΔTDissolution Dissolution temperature difference, K
layer thickness. Matzain's Model was found to be more effective in es- Aact Entropy of activation (constant)
timating the wax deposition as compared to other models. Hence, there Tf Fluid temperature, oF
is a need of producing more experimental testing and improving on the Y Fluid pressure/viscosity ratio, psia/cp
prominent wax deposition model available in the literature such as Vr Fluid viscosity at reservoir temperature, cp
Matzain's Model. The studies on neural networks and with im- h Heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2K)
plementation of artificial intelligence are taking the lead with useful hh Heat transfer coefficient of inner wall, W/(m2K)
algorithms either to use for optimization or to find out the most af- TWall Inner wall temperature of the pipe, K
fecting factor. rs Inner radius, m
Ci Interface soluble wax concentration, kg/m3
Acknowledgments L Length of the pipe, m
mi Mass transfer coefficient, m/s
The authors acknowledge financial support received from the UAE Xm Mean value of set of reservoir fluid pressure at measured
University from Grant no. 31N265, and Grant no. 31R168. viscosity, psia
Cwb, i Molar concentration of dissolved wax components, M
Nomenclature Cws, i Molar concentration of dissolved wax components, M
Nwax Number of wax components
Abbreviations NNu Nusselt number
n n-alkanes
AI Artificial Intelligence W Power dissipated in the flow, W/m3
ANN Artificial Neural Networks fo Pressure gradient, Pa/m
ANFIS Adaptive Neural-Fuzzy Interface System R Radius, m
BNN Backpropagation Neural Networks Xi = Pt Reservoir fluid pressure at measured viscosity, psia
CFT Cold Finger Testing Tr Reservoir Temperature, oF
CPM Cross Polarized Microscope Re Reynolds number
CSR Controlled Stress Rheometer Scp Schmidt number
DE Differential Evolution k⁎ Shear deposition rate, s−1
DSC Differential Scanning Calorimetry Shp Sherwood number
EA Evolutionary Algorithms Ap Surface area of the nucleus, μm2
ECT Electric Capacitance Tomography A Surface area of wax deposit, m2
EM Equilibrium Model Ts Surface deposit temperature, K
FL Fuzzy Logic TOil Temperature of the oil, K
FLT Flow Loop Testing Tcf Temperature correction factor for viscosity
FMT Film Mass Transfer model T Time, s
GA Genetic Algorithm koil Thermal conductivity of oil, W/(mK)
HA Heat Analogy model k wax Thermal conductivity of wax, W/(mK)
HTGC High Temperature Gas Chromatography Utot Total heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2K)
MM Matzain's Model COil Trapped oil coefficient
PCA Principal Component Analyses Cws Volume fraction of wax precipitated in oil due to inner wall
PLSR Partial Least Square Regression temperature
PSO Particle Swarm Optimization TWAT Wax Appearance Temperature, K
RRR Rugg, Rydahl and Ronningsen model Twb Wax bulk temperature, K
SAXS Small Angle X-Ray Scattering Cw, Ts Wax concentration at surface deposit temperature, kg/m3
TSK Takagi-Sugeno-Kang Mwax , i Wax molar weight, g/mol
VM Venkatesan Model Fw Wax fraction percentage, %
WAT Wax Appearance Temperature Swet Wetted fraction of pipe circumference, m
WC Wax Content Tws Wax surface deposit temperature, K
WDT Wax Dissolution Temperature Greek Symbols
WTD Wax Thickness Deposition
WPC Wax Precipitation Curve α Ratio of density of agglomerated paraffin and density

13
F. Alnaimat and M. Ziauddin Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering xxx (xxxx) xxxx

crystallized paraffin (function of space and time, and it value
varying between 0 and 1)
ρo Density of oil, kg/m3
ρwax, Density of the wax (average value), kg/m3
ρwax , i Density of wax component, kg/m3
β0 Estimated intercept in the linear model
δlam Laminar sub-layer thickness, m
π1 Matzain's model empirical coefficients-1
π2 Matzain's model empirical coefficients-2
ρn Number density of the nuclei, m−3
∅wax Porosity of the wax deposit
β1 Slope of a linear model
γ̇ Shear rate, s−1
λ Thermal conductivity, W/(mK)
δ Thickness of deposited wax, m
μo Viscosity of the oil, cP
ρw Wax density, kg/m3
τW Wall shear stress, N/m2
τo Yield stress, N/m2
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