HFL CPL

Human Performance
& Limitations
(~ ~J o_a_re_:_J_u l_y_.2
_____I_s_st-Ie_7______________ _0_I_l______
FOR THE CPL & ATPL

CASA CYBER EXAMINATIONS
Thanks to Warren Mcivor and Nathan Higgins of

Advanced Flight Theory, Maroochydore for their valuable
assistance in providing material presented in this book.
Cyber Examination Series by

Bob Tait.
Other books in the series are:
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CPL G1<oeraJ Kuowledge
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CPL Meteorology
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CPl. Navigation
..,..
CPL Air Law CPL Aerodynamics
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ON LINE EXAM PREPS
Our online Exam Preps have been created to allow students who have completed the ir study of
the book atld its many exercises and progress tests, to have access to a final set of exams that
closely follow the presentation and content of the actual CASA examination.
These Exam Preps contain four full length examinations which cover the full scope of the
CASA syJJabus in this subject. The final exam in each set is timed to allow you to test both your
speed and accuracy before you commit to the actual CASA examination.
The Exam Preps are compatible with all computer platforms and can by used on your desktop
[PC or Apple], iPad iPhone or othere pottable devices.
One set of online Exam Preps has been prepared for PPL, each of the CPL subjects and IREX.
All you need is a desktop or laptop computer, or any portable device such as iPad or iPhone.
You will also need an internet connection, preferably broad band.
On receipt of your order, we will set up your account and you will receive an e-mail giving
you a user name and password. You then simply access Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School-
Online and you're off on a full dress rehearsal for the CASA exam.
For more information, see our web page at www.bobtait.com.au

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0
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Ph one: 07 3204 0965

F ax: 07 3204 1902
'
bobtair@bobtai t. com .au
www.bobla it.co m .au
Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School

PO Box 2018
Redcliffe North Post Office
Queensland 4020
Warren Melvor and Nntban Higgins
Ad vanced Flight T heory
ATPL theor y specialis1s
1800 000767
warrcn@afl.com.au
Kitty Hnwk Close

Sunsh ine Coas t Aiq>Orl
~ludjlmba
Queensland 4564
WHAT TIDS BOOK IS
This book has been written to help prepare students for the CASA cyber examinations in Human Perform-
ance & Limitations for both the CPL and ATPL levels. Students who are studying at the CPL level should
study all of the material presented since there is almost no difference between the CPL and ATPL cyber
examinations.
Tbe book does not pretend to be a text on human performance. It does not set out to compete with the many
excellent publications available on the topic.lt has been written to present as simply as possible and at an
appropriate depth, every item of aeronautical k'llowledge training required by the:
VFR [DAY] AEROPLANE SYLLABUS

SECTION 11
Ar amended on 1st November 1999
Tbe various sections of the book follow the syllabus items as they are presented in the CASA syllabus.
Care has been taken to ensure that every item is covered. My priority has been to keep the text simple and
each item has been presented at a level appropriate to the flying training stage indicated by the syllabus
Revision exercises containing examination type questions with answers are provided at appropriate places
throughout the book to allow for self assessment and to indicate the depth of knowledge Likely to be re-
quired in CASA cyber examination questions. Two practice examinations, with answers, are provided at
the end of the book.
You are not alo11e ..

Preparing for the CASA exams by home study can
be a long lonely slog. Bob Tait's Aviation Theory
School's web site at www.bobtait .com.au features
a forum for students doing home study.
You are encomaged to use this forum to post

questions relating to ally subject area. Also we'd
like to encourage those who have completed their
theory subjects to keep us all posted on their prog-
ress in the big bad world of aviation.
Contents
PART ONE ...................................................................... .........................T he Human Condition.
PART TWO ................................................................... Pi lot Medical Drugs & Scuba Diving.
PART THREE .................................................................................................... The Human Ear.
PART FOUR ..................................................... The Human Eye- its Function and Limitations.
PART FIVE ............... ............................. ................ ............................... Disorientation in F light.
PART SIX ....................................................................The Effect of G Loads & Toxic Hazards
PART SEVEN ................................................................... Circulation, Respiration and Hypoxia
PART EIGHT ................................................ Human Decision Making, Personality & Attitudes
PART NINE .................. .. .................. Human Error, Human Behaviour, Sleep , Stress & Fatigue
PART TEN ...................................................................... Cockpit Design & Crew Relationships
PART ELEVEN ........................................................................................ Practice Examinations

THE W EAK LINK lN THE CHAiN
Back in the infancy of aviation. it was frequently the lack of technology and engineering 'know-how' that led to
aviation accidents. Now in the span of a single human lifetime, the fantastic advances made in these areas have
delivered aircraft and associated systems which are far safer than almost any other means of transport. The only
item which has remained unmodified and unimproved is the pilot and yet it is his/her judgment which finally decides
the fate of even the most sophisticated modem aircraft.
In spite of all the advances made in pilot training. more than 80% of all aircraft accidents are now caused by pilot
error. While low-time pilots feature more often in accidents caused by handling errors, the likelihood of accidents
caused by poor judgement and/or poor decision making appears to be almost independent of the aeronautical expe-
rience of the pilot.It is not surprising then. that countries all over the world are beginning to focus more attention
on human perfom1ance and limitations.
FITNESS AND FLYiNG. While conversation among pilots invariably settles on the condition and performance
of the aeroplanes they fly, it rarely includes the physical condition and fitness of the pilot. While we aU acknowl-
edge the need to perform a thorough daily inspection of the 'hardware', it would be wise to occasionally direct our
attention to the condition of the 'livewm·e' i.e. the pilot.
DIET AND BODY WEIG HT. An inappropriate diet almost always results in an inappropriate body weight. How
do you measure up?
The Body Mass index IBMI] is an attempt to relate weight to height by means of the following formula . BMI =
Weight in kilos ~ Height in meters squared. So a person whose height is 180cm and whose weight is 75kg has a
BMI of 75 ~ [1.8 x 1.81 = 23.15 or 15 ~ 1.8 ~ 1.8 = 23.15. If your BMl is above 25 you are considered over weight-
if it is above 30 you are considered obese. In spite of all the hype we hear about magic diets that promise 'results
without eff011', your body weight is simply the re>'S ult of the ratio of food intake to energy expenditure. To lose
weight effectively you must either reduce your food intake or increase your energy expenditure through increased
exercise- or both. The National Heart Foundation recommend that your follow these seven basic rules.
1. Reduce your fat intake. Most people eat far more fat than is necessary.
2. Reduce your sail intake. Too much salt can lead to high blood pressure and hem problems
3. Reduce your s ugar intake.
4. Eat m ore fruit. cereals. vegetables and wholemeal bread.
S. Eat a wide variety of foods to ensure a balanced diet.
6. Eat proper meals at regular intervals. Try not to skip breakfast or lunch.
7. E xercise more regularly. Twenty minutes of brisk walking three or four times a week is sufficient exercise to
keep your body in good physical condition.
THE PiNC H TEST Pinch yourself just above the hip. The fold of skin in your grasp should be no more than
12nun thick. If it is more than 20mm thick you should think seriously about improving your fitness level. Many
diseases are diet related. Gout, which leads to arthritic type pain. is caused by an imbalance in uric acid in the body
and can be aggravated by poor diet and high alcohol intake.
THE HEART OF THE MATTER. Your heart is a tmly re;:nmkable pump. Every day it pumps about 7600 litres
of blood around your body. [1f that were AVGAS it would be enough to fly a Cessna 152 around the world!]. Even
though there is strong evidence to indicate that heart problems are to some extent a part of our inherited genetic
make-up. there is no doubt that a good diet and regular exercise together. greatly reduce the risk of heart problems
in <my one individual. High blood pressure is most directly linked to heart disease.
FOOD AND DRINK POISONING. The most common single cause of pilot incapacitation during llight remains
gastro-intestinal upsets caused by bacterial contamination of food or drink. It is the nature of flying that pilots are
moving about the country. and meals are frequently eaten 'on the run'. Because this is unavoidable. pilots should
be especially careful of the food or drink they take in dw·ing the day.
You should avoid prepared hot foods that are kept for some time before sale e.g. pies. Avoid seafood. especially
oysters and shellfish. Avoid creamy pastries cakes or custards or creamy sauces. You should choose fresh fruit or
vegetables, salads, bread. or hot freshly cooked meals. Canned food is usuall y safe providing it is freshly opened.
All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limitations Page 1.1
OPERATING IN H OT E NVIRONMENT S. Although it is rare for it to have a significant impact on performance
while flying, it is useful to know about the effects of temperature if you ever find yourself in an abnormal si tuation.
The human body is most comfortable when operating in a temperature range of about 21 •c to 21•c with a relative
humidity of approximately 50%. When the ambient temperature strays too far from this. the body becomes stressed
by being either too hot or too cold.
The fir~t type of heat stress is likely to occur when your operating environment is too hot , defined as in excess of
32•c. The mos t noticeable effect will be tiredness, and it will become inc reasingly difficull for you to concentrate.
You may also suffer from heat exhaustion, which occurs when your circulatory system cannot compensate for blood
vessels that have dilated to inc rease flow of heat out of your body via the skin. Drinking water is a good antidote
for heat stress.
A second type of heat stress that can affect your performance can occur if you have had too much sun prior to a
flight, through sun bath ing or being outside without adequate protection. It can also occur when you have not had
sufficient liquid intake. The effects may be su btle and more difficult to notice, bec<luse your environment may be
comfo rtable and you may feel well. However, your concentration may be lowered, leading to a decline in your
dec ision-mak ing abi lity.
A third type of heat stress can occur when the temperature falls below about I o•c. Tf the temperalllre is very low.
it is poss ible for your body to lose more heat than it can produce. fn extreme cases, this will cause sh ivering (a
heat producer), drowsiness, and poor concentration. All of these wi ll have an adverse effect on your performance.
Hypothermia occurs when the body can no longer maintain its core temperature and its symptoms include impair-
ment of thinking , apathy and eventually unconsciousness and death. The most likely cause of hypothennia is long
immersion in cold water o r unprotected exposure to very cold environmental temperatures.
The best way to deal with potential problems from extreme temperatures is to be sensible. Tf it is very hot, drink a
lot of water and keep your skin protected and wear light.lose fitting clothes. Tf it is very cold, make sure you are
warmly clothed. a number of layers of fairly light clothes is much more effective than one thi ck coat because air
trapped between the layers is a very good insu lator. Do not rely on the heating system of the aircraft. Tf it fails,
you could be in serious trouble.
If you are flying in extreme temperatures, you should also have an appropriate survival kit on board in case o f an
emergency landing or c rash. Tn summer. plastic bottles of water are essential. In winter, you should have warm
clothes, matches, and high-energy food .Aicohol is not recommended because it gives a false sense of wam1Lh whi le
actually lowering your res istance.
DE HYDRATION Because the air at altitude is usually much drier than that at sea-level, a great deal of water can
be lost from the body due to perspiration. The pi lot is usually unaware of thi s loss because the s kin remains dry
with no noticeable 'sweaty' feeling. Dehydration eventually leads to a malfunction of almost every bodily process
including emotional disturbances and irrational decision making. The solution is simple - drink more water! As a
general rule when operating in environments where dehydration is likely. you should make a conscious effort to
drink more water than your thirst alone dictares.
Pilots often simply forget to drink enough water during the day. The early symptoms of dehydration include drying
of the nasal passages and a prickly sensation in the eyes. The low relative hum idity of air at h igh altitude can be
avoided by the use of air conditioning.
Research has shown that humans are most comfortable when the relative humidity is between40 and 60% and the
air conditioning systems in large passenger a ircraft are usually set to maintain the relative humidity somewhere
between those va lues.
F LY ING AN D BLOOD DONATIONS The CASA has recommended a period on the ground of at least 24 hours
after making a blood donation. In some individua ls a blood donation can cause tiredness and a lowering of blood
pressure.
S MOK ING Every packet of cigarettes carries a health and fitness warning. Apart from the well publicised risk
of cancer of the lungs. tongue.larynx. oesophagus and pancreas. other health risks attributed to smoking are s um-
marised on the page opposite.
Page 1.2 Human Performance & Lim itations Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School
HEALTH RISK EFFECT OF SMOKING
Heart attack Risk increased by I 00%

If you have high blood pressure or high cholesterol , make that 200%.
If you are a woman on the contraceptive pill. make that 1000%
Stroke Risk increased by 100%
Gangrene Risk increased by 500%
Also the carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke reduces the blood's oxygen carrying capacity. Because of this, a
moderate to heavy smoker is effectively several thousand feet higher than his/her actual level. The smoker's brain
suffers the effects of oxygen deprivation. [hypoxia] . at a lower level than a nonsmoker. The initial effecL~ include
reduced visual sensit ivity and reduced mental ale1tness.
BAROTRAUMA. The outer ear or ear cru1al is exposed to the outside atmosphere. Its function is to collect sound
waves and direct them to the eardrum. The eardrum is a membrane stretched tightly across the ear cana l [like the
ski n of a dn1m]. Tt separates the outer ear from the delicate balance and heru·ing apparatus of the inner ear. During
a climb, the outside air pressure drops and the eardrum beg ins to bulge outwards. The eustachian tube provides a
passage to allow the air behind the eardrum to leak out into the nasal cavity to equalise the pressure on either side
of the eardrum.
GO£NGUP GOING DOWN
Eardrum Eardrum
Eustachian tube Eustachian rube
During a descent the air pressure rises and the eardrum bulges inwards. The eustachian tube allows air to flow from
the nasal cavity back to the inside of the eardrum to equalise the pressure. When the eustachian tube is blocked by
mucus due to colds or flu, air no longer flows freely along this passage way. Unequal pressures cause the eardrum
to stretch. causing severe pain and even rupture of the eardrum!
Air flows out of the eustachian tube much more eas il y than it flows back in. [Ever tried to put the toothpaste back
imo the tube??]. For this reason. the pressures can equalise more eas ily during a cl imb th<m during a descent. Also
light aircraft are capable of descending much more rapidly than they can climb. Avoid high rates of descent when
you or your passengers are suffering from head colds. The pain and discomfort associated with these pressure
d ifferences is known as barotrauma.
Another effect of barotrauma that can be dangerous for pilots is pressure vertigo - dizziness caused by pressure
affecting the ear's balance mechanism. Clearly a pilot who is already suffering from painful ears could do without
dizziness as well. Especially in the case of an TFR pilot on an instrument approach in poor weather!
The valsalve manoeuvre may assist to relieve the discomfort of unequal pressure during descent. This is achieved
by pinching the nose and closing the mouth and blowing gently. thus building up pressure in the mouth and nasal
cavity. This action forces air to enter the eustachian tube to increase the pressure in the middle ear cavity allowing
it to become equal to the outside atmospheric pressu re.
STNUSm S AND HAY FEVER The sinuses are simply
holes in the skull which reduce the weight of bone and provide
resonance for the voice. The interior of each sinus is lined with
sinus a mucus membrane and is nonna lly vented to the nasal cavity.
During the course of colds or flu,the mucus membrane can swell

and block the venting action. This causes a build up of pressure
elhmoid sinu.., within the sinus cavity which can be greatly aggravated by changes
in outside air pressure associated with climbing or descending in
an unprcssurised aircraft.
maxillary sinus
The resulting pain can be so intense as to seriously impair a pilot's
abi lity to concentrate on nonnal cockpit duties.
Hay fever. [which has nothing to do wirh hay or fever}. is a related condition which is triggered by an allergic
reaction to airborne pa11icles. It causes irritation of the nose, sinuses and eyes. causing them to itch, swell and
become runny. [t should be noted that, apart from the direct effects of such conditions. many of the medications
used to relieve the symptoms will themselves disqualify a pi lot from flying during the course of treatment. Other
general health conditions such as headaches and migraines clearly restrict the ability to function effectively in the
cockpit.
INJURY CASR 67 265 requires that if you suffer any injury or any other condition that may impair your ability
to fly. you should advise the CASA or a DAME as soon as possible of the cond ition or injury. You should not fly
until you arc advised by a DAME that you fully meet the prescribed medica l standards.
AGE Provided that general health remains good. the effects of ageing are noticed mainly in a deterioration in
hearing [especially in the higher frequencies in men] , and presbyopia. or long sightedncss. This is a natural age
related change caused by the weakening of the muscles controlling the eye's lens. Most ten year old children can
easily focus on objects as close as 80 mm. By the age of forty.this has increased to about 200 mm.
After the age of forty. there is usually a fairly rapid increase in the distance at which focusing is possible. Neither
of these is likely to pose a problem since hearing usually remains above the minimum requirement and visual
acuiry can be easi ly corrected satisfactorily with glasses. Glasses. including sunglasses. should be properly speci-
fied. preferably by an aviation ophthalmologist. Special care should be taken if you rcc1uirc bifocal or trifocal
lenses. or if your aircraft has an overhead panel.
PREGNANCY A normal pregnancy will not be affected in any way by flying. However a DAME or obstetrician
should be consulted if there is any reason to believe that the pregnancy will be other than normal. Because preflight
checks in some aeroplanes often involve some bending and climbing, it is generally recommended that flying should
stop after the sixth month. Consideration should also be given to the possibility that. for some individuals in some
aeroplane types , there may be some degree of restriction to full and free operatjon of controls.
AIR SICKNESS Confusing or ambiguous signals arriving at the brain during flight in turbulence cause the physi-
cal symptoms of air sickness. These include a pale face. sweating. nausea and vomiting. There seems no doubt
that anxiery or stress increases the Likelihood of airsickness. Many pilots experience some degree of airsickness
early in their training but this usually stops after they learn to relax and become accustomed to the new environ-
ment of flight. Fresh air on the face. looking at the horizon or becoming occupied with other thoughts or tasks can
sometimes help.
Jt should be remembered that in many light aircraft. the piJot sits almost exactly at the centre of gravity and may
therefore be unaware of the greater displacement suffered by the occupants of other sears in turbulence. Pilots can
assist airsick passengers by flying as smoothly as possible and limiting the degree and rare of attitude changes
[especially in pitch].
Over-the-counter medications for airsickness arc available. but pilots who are prone ro airsickness should check
with a DAME before using them.
Page 1.4 Human Performance & Limitations Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School
EMOTIONAL C ONSIDERATIONS There is more to general health than the physical condition of the body.
The emotional state is far more difficult to detem1ine but it must be inc luded in any assessment of overall fitness.
II shou ld be remembered that emotional states often play a constructive role. A pilot who never experiences anxiet y,
d ep ression or fear wou ld be likely to have a fairly short career in aviation!
Athletes experience anxiety in the moments before the start of a race. l t can heighten the body's responses to stimuli
and assist concentration by allowing the individual to disregard the irrelevant and focus on the immediate task.
Everyone feels some degree of test arLriety before a written examination or flight test; this is a perfectly nonnal
response. Depression is the body's way of taking 'time out' during periods of disappointment or g rief. 11 should be
accepted as a nom1al emotional response provided the reason for such feelings can be identified.
Fear is the result of millions of years of evolution. Tt is nature's way of alerting us 10 situations which are threaten-
ing. Anxiety depression or fear become destructive when there is no rational reason for such emotions. A pilot
who continuously experiences feelings of anxiety. depression or fear that have no foundation in the real world. is
not in a fit emotional state to fly.
Obesity can be a contributing factor in hypertension. gout. diabetes and heart disease- but most of all
to heart disease.
The most common cause of pilot incapacitation in nigh t has been traced to gastro-intestinal upsets
caused by consuming contaminated food or drink.
On an average day your body loses about one litre of water, bu t on a hot dJ)' day you can lose as much
as 5 Litres!
Ingestion of too much salt can lead to hype11ension fhigh blood pressure].
G reen vegetables such as cabbage release gases during digestion wh ich can cause pain or discomfort
when they expand in the lower ambient pressure at high alti tude.
Too linle iron in the diet leads to blood disorders such as anaemia.
Tn most individuals, deterioration of c lose vision and hearing in the higher frequencies is a natural
con seq ucnce of ageing.
All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limita~ions Page 1.5
REVISION T EST NO l
Question No 1
The type of human etTOrs which feature most commonly in aircraft accidents are
[a] errors in manipulating the Hying controls [handling errors]
[b] errors of judgement or poor decision making
[c] errors caused through lack of theoretical knowledge
l d] errors caused through lack of experience on type
Question No 2
The most common cause of pilot incapacitation during flight is
[a] heart attack
lbI dehydration
lc J blocked sinus passages
[dl food or drink poisoning [gastro-intestinal disorders]
Question No 3
Dehydration is more likely to be experienced after several hours at
[a) high altitude on a dry day
[b J at low altitude on a humid day
l c] at high altitude on a humid day
ld] at low altitude on any day
Question No 4
The symptoms of dehydration include
[a] profuse sweating
[b I drying of the nasal passages and a prickly sensation in the eyes
[c) 'runny' eyes and nose
[d] stomach cramps and a high temperature
Question No 5
The CASA has recommended a period on the ground after making a blood donation of at least
[aj six hours
[b) twenty-four hours
(c] twelve hours
[dl forty-eight hours
Question No 6
CAR 256 requires total abstinence by aU pilots from any alcohol for a period of
[a] eight hours before departure [b] 24 hours before depa11ure
[c) eight hours before commencing duty [d[ 12 hours before deparlUre
Question No 7
Which of the following is tTue of drugs taken by pilots for medical reasons before flight?
[a] any drugs that are available 'over the counter' can be considered safe
[b] drugs can be considered safe if they are prescribed by a doctor
[c) drugs can be considered safe unless there is a warning on the packet
[d) the opinion of a DAME should be sought before using any drug
Question No 8
Discomfort or pain in the ears or sinuses is most likely during
[a] long periods of cruising flight at high altitude
(b] high rates of descent in unpressurised aircraft
[c) high rates of climb in uopressurised aircraft
(d] long slow descents in unprcssurised aircraft
Question No 9
lf ru1 otherwise healthy pilot suffers a bout of dizzy spells. the appropriate action required by CASR 67.205
would be
[a] notify a DAME ru1d refrain from alJ flying until cleared
[b) notify a DAME and refrain from all commercial flying until cleared
[cj notify a DAME and refrain from all instrument flying until cleared
ldl resume flying providing there is no recurrence within twenty-four how-s
Question No 10
Pilots c1m best assist airsick passengers by
[a] warning them that they will have to clean up the mess if they vomit
[b] descending quickly to land before they become sick
[c J reassuring them that airsickness is nothing to worry about
[d] flying as smoothly as possible and making alJ manoeuvres and descents gentle
Question No 11
Which of the following is a condition which is caused by excessive uric acid in the blood ru1d can be aggravated
by poor diet?
[a] gout
[b 1 angmu
lc J leprosy
ldl tinea
Question No 12
Which of tl1e following u·ould not be likely to result from flying with a severe cold?
[a] dizziness caused by pressure build-up in the middle ear [pressure vertigo ]
[b I discomfort or pain in the ears during a rapid descent
[c] blurring of vision
[dj ruptm·ing of the eru·drum
Question No 13
lt is generally accepted that human error can be totally eliminated from aviation with proper training and stand-
ard operating procedures
[a] this s tatement is n11e
[b] this statement is false
Queslion No 14
Too much salt in the diet can lead to
[a] excessive sweating
lbl increased chance of catching colds or flu
l c) high blood pressure
[d] low blood pressure
Question No 15
Foods most likely to produce intestinal gases are
[a] salty foods
[b J green vegetables
[c] foods high in sugar
[d] chicken
Question No 16
Obesity [being over weight] has been linked with which of the following health problems
[a] drowsiness, headaches. low blood pressure ru1d gout
[b] cancer. drowsiness. headaches lli1d heart disease
[c] high blood pressure [hypertension]. gout. diabetes and heart disease
[d] diabetes. headaches. cancer and high blood pressure
All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limjtations Page 1.7
Question No 17
Too Little iron in the diet can lead to which of the following health problems?
[a] anaemia
[b) low blood pressure
[c] skin rashes
[d] dizzy spells
Question No 18
High blood pressure [hypertensionl is a common cause of disqualification on medical grounds. With which of the
following is hypertension most directly linked?
[a) heart disease
[b) anaemia
[c) anorexia
[d] old age
Question No 19
On a hot dry day it is possible for the body to lose about 5 litres [more than one gallon] of water
[a] this statement is true
[b] this statcmem is false
Question No 20
One of the common characteristics of ageing is a deterioration of hearing. This is usually noticed first in the
[a] low frequencies
[b] medium frequencies
[c] high frequencies
[d] across all frequencies
Question No 21
The purpose of the Eustachian tube in the human respiratory system is to connect the
[a] midd le car to the outer ear
[b] inner car to the middle car
[c] outer car to the inner car
[d] midd le car to the throat
[c] inner car to the throat
Question No 22
The primary cause of pilot incapacitation in flight is
[a] disorientation due to inner car infections
[b] gastrointestinal disorders
[c] heart attack
[d] stroke
Question No 23
A person flying with a head cold wou ld not usually be affected by
[a] hypermetropia
[b] pressure vertigo
[c] difficulty clearing ears on descent
[d] rupturing of the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
Question No 24
The recommended period of time between blood donations and commencement of flying duties is
[a] I2 hours
[b] 24 hours
[c] 48 hours
[d] 96 hours
Question No 25
lf suffering from heat stress. a pilot should
[a] drink sufficient fluid to quench his thirst
[b) drink more fluid d1an dictated by dlirst alone
[cj drink ample quantities of carbonated fluids (soft drinks)
[d] drink ample water (rather than other fluids)
Question No 26
Pilots who are inclined to suffer from air sickness
[a] should never take travel sickness tablets
[b] should always deliberately induce vomiting
[c 1 should use caution when using travel sickness preparations
[d] c<m safely take any travel sickness preparation
Question No 27
The Valsalve Manoeuvre-
[a] could never be the cause of pressure vertigo
l bJ is more likely to be needed during a descent than a climb
[c) is more likely to be needed during a climb than a descent
[d] is not likely to be needed during a clinlb or descent
Question No 28
An excessively cold envirorunent does not pose the danger of
[a] impairment of thinking
[bj apathy
l c] loss of consciousness
[dj a feeling of elation
Question No 29
An obese pilot with hypertension would be unlikely to suffer from
[a] increased risk of heart disease
lb j difficulty in breathing due to lung cancer
[c] pain in the joints due to excess wear and tear
rd I poor circulation
Question No 30
The painful condition known as Barotrauma is most Likely to occur
[a] with an increase in differential pressure inside and outside the body when on descem
[b] with an increase in differential pressure inside and outside the body when on climb
[cj with a decrease in difJen:ntial pressure inside <md outside the body when on descent
[d] with a decrease in differential pressure inside and outside the body when on climb
Question No 31
The ideal relative hurnidity for passenger comfort in a jet transport aircraft is considered to be
[a] 10-20%
[b] 20-30%
[c] 40-60%
ld] 60-70%
Question No 32
On long flights at high altitude the relative humidity in the cabin of an aircraft may fall below comfmtable levels.
The relative humidity considered optimal for human comfort is
[a] 40-60%
[b] 50-70%
[c] 25-65%
[d] 30-50%
All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limita~ions Page 1.9
Question No 33
During a descent with blocked Eustachian Tubes. the gas volume in the middle ear
l al increases
[b] decreases
[cl remains constant
Question No 34
Sinus pain experienced by a pilot in an unpressuriscd aircraft is most likely with
[a] a blocked E ustachian rube during a climb
[b] a head cold during a descent
l c] a blocked E ustachian tube during a descent
[d] a head cold during a climb
Question No 35
Select the lowest operating environment temperature at which the symptoms of heat stress are likely to occur
[a[ 15°C lbl 25°C
[c] 32°C [d] 40°C
Question No 36
If you pinch yourself just above the hip. a good level of fitness is indicated if the fold of flesh in your grasp has a
thickness of about
[al 12mm fbi 20mm
[c] 6mm ldl 25mrn
Question No 37
The best way to guard against dehydration is to
[a] drink water only when you are thirsty
[bl drink a large amount of water at the beginning of each day
[c) drink water regularly throughout the day
l d] drink only when you are out of the sun
Men [No shoes].
Height [em) Weight (kg)

JSS 56
158 58
160 59
163 60
165 62
168 64 The National Heart Foundation table below
170 66 presents body we ights against height. If your
173 68 weight is more than 15% above the ideal
listed weight your diet probably needs some
175 69 considerat ion.
178 71
180 73
183 75
185 77
188 80
190 82
PILOTS AND MEDICAL EXAMINATIONS
REASO NS FOR MEDICAL EX AMll" 'ATION A great deal of lime. effort and money is spent to ensure that
the aircraft we fly are in a li t and proper airworthy condition before Lhey take off. The pilots who tly rhose aircraft
must demonstrate that they are free of any medical condition which could threaten safety. Conditions which would
disqua lify an applicant from holding a medical certificate would include:
* A physical disability which could impair the pilot's performance during flight. such as poor vision
which cannot be corTected with glasses, or very poor hearing.
* A condition which could lead to a s udden incapacitation such as a stroke. herut attack or a fit.
Med.ical staff in the CASA carefully examine the DAME's report along with reports from any other specialists
before disqualifications are made. CASA would not exist if pilots didn't fly aeroplanes, so every effort is made to
keep pilot's flying. even if only 'as or with a safety pilot' .
DESIGNATED AVIAT IO N MEDICAL EXAMINERS [DAME] The CASA has appointed certain doctors to act
as designated av iation medical examiners. Over 700 DAMES have been appointed in Australia and some overseas
countries. A current list of DAMEs can be obtained from theAirservices Australia publications centre in Melbourne.
Most flying schools keep a list of DAMEs for their local area which is available on request.
MEDICAL CERT IFIC ATES A medical exam ination is required for the initial issue of a medical certificate and
for each renewal. The period of va lidity of the certificate is four years for stude nt and private pilot licences if the
candidate is less than forty years of age on the day of issue , and two years if the candidate is forty or more years
old. In the case of commercial [or higher] pilot licences, the vali dity period is one year. Another medical examina-
tion is required at the end of that period for the re-issue of the certificate. Note that in some circumstances. after
consideration of the DAME's report. the CASA may require medica l examinations for some individuals at more
frequent intervals [sec CASR [J 998] 67.205 (3)] .
When making an appointment for a medica l examination you s hould indicate the licence level applicable. any
medical condition you migh t have and any existing restriction or requirement that applies to your current certificate.
Thi s avoids annoying delays when last minute 'h itches' are di scovered.
ALCO HOL AND THE BR AI N his often said, even by drinkers, that each time you take
"o an alcoholic drink tens of thousands of brain cells arc destroyed. This is untrue. in fact there
0 is no ev idence that moderate drinking causes any physical damage to Lhe brain. However
heavy and long term consumption of alcohol is another story. Not on ly the alcohol itself,
but also the diet and life style that often goes with heavy drinking can damage the liver, the
heart and the brain.
THE S HORT TE RM EFFECT S O F ALC OHOL One of the characteristics of alcohol

is the amazing speed with which it is absorbed into the body. Unlike most other substances.
it does not require digestion, but passes d irectly in to the blood stream from the walls of the
stomach and small intes tine. There is some s light reduction in the rate of absorption if the
stomach already contains food- especially fatty foods.
Once in the b lood stream. it is carried almost immediately to the brain where it acts as a depressant. Often there
is a sense of euphoria [or well being]. accompanied by a false impression that performance is above average when
in fact thinking is slowed and, judgement impaired. As the concentration of a lcohol increases, some effects such
as s lurred speech, unsteadiness on the feet and loss of inhibitions are noticed by others. but not by the intoxicated
person.
RIDDING THE SYSTEM OF ALCOHOL Even though the presence of food in the stomach has some effect
on the rate at which alcohol is absorbed. nothing c hanges the rate at which it is removed from the body. Exercise,
b lack coffee and other such mythical cures have no effect. Only time will allow the body to rid itself of alcohoL
A very s mall amount of the a lcohol consumed is directly disposed of Lhrough ex piration [the breath]. perspiration
and via the kidneys as urine . Although they begin almost immediately, these direct processes account for only about
10% of the totaL The remainder is broken down [metabolised] by the liver. The rate of this metabolism is about
Al l Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limitations Page 2.1

one standard drink per hour for a man of average weight and Jess than that for an average woman. Tf alcohol is
consumed at a rate which is faster than this metabolic process, it accumulates in the body and produces the effects
mentioned above.
Evidence suggests that some individuals exhibit a degree of destabilis ing of the balance mechanism of the inner
ear long after the blood alcohol levels have fallen below the legal limit. ln some cases a reduction in the ability to
process information has been evident even after an individual appears to be sober. [I appears that even when the
blood alcohol level has been reduced to zero [up to 14 hours after ingestion], a lcoho l is sti ll present in the bra in
cells for up to 24 hours after heavy drinking. Your performance could still be effected even after you have passed
the booze-bus test!
LONG T E R M EFFECTS OF ALC OHOL Apart from the well known 'hangover' effects of nausea, headache.
gastritis and thirst, frequent indulgence in heavy drinking puts a severe load on the entire system. Cancer of the
mouth, oesophagus and stomach, damage to the heart and liver are all well documented long term eiTects of alcohol
abuse. Many of these effects are actually more likely to be related to the life-style of the heavy drinker as well as
to the alcohol itse lf since the heavy drinker is often a heavy smoker on a poor diet with poor sleep pallems.
ALC OHOL AND FLYING CAR 256 requires total abstinence by the pilot from any alcohol for a period of 8
hours before the departure of the aircraft. However if large amounts of alcohol have been consumed, increased
susceptibili ty to disorientation and reduced performance could be expected long after the 8 hours required by law.
It is generaJJy accepted that to be sure you are completely free of any eiTects of alcohol, you should not consume
more than one or two drinks within 24 hours of Oying. Tbe maximum recommended alcohol intake over a period
of one week is 21 to 28 standard drinks for a man and 14to 21 standard drinks for a woman.
OTHER DRUGS All drugs, prescription or over-the-counter. have the potential to profoundly affect human
performance and behaviour. Drowsiness or dizziness are common s1de effects. Be sure to check with a Designated
Aviation Medical Examiner [DAME]. If your regular doctor is not a DAME, be sure to advise bim/her of your
intention to fly if dnags are prescribed for medical reasons. Also the condition for which the drugs are prescribed
cou ld itself be a reason not to fly , for example a severe head cold.
OTHER DRUGS
ILLICIT DRUGS All drugs have lhe capacity to profoundly effect human mood and perfom11mce. l11e effect
of illici t drugs can be broadly compared to the eiTect of alcohol. Also.
because they are illegal. there is virtually no control over their purity
or concentration.
Clearly. illicit drugs and Oying do not mix and, like alcohol, they have
no place in the aviation environment.
OVER-THE-COUNTE R AND PRESCRIPTION DRUG S If your

regular doctor is not a DAME. be sure to advise him/her that you ny
before accepting any prescription drug for the treatment of an ailment.
You should also be aware that a great number of over-the-counter dnags
have side eiTects which could be potentially dangerous in flight. If you
have any doubt abom whether a drug is safe to use. consult a DAME
for advice.
Some common drug types are listed below along with comments on their action and/or side effects.
TYPE OF DRUG C OMMEN T
ANALGESICS These are pain rel ievers. They may be used by pilots for the treatment of short-term
pain such as headaches and muscular pain. lf such pains persist. you should see your
doctor.
As pirin [trade names Aspro & Disprin] can cause stomach upset and. if taken to excess.
can cause internal bleeding and kidney problems. Codeine [trade name Panadeine] can
be addiclive and cause constipation Par acetamol [trade names Panadol & Dymadon]
taken in excess can damage liver and kidneys.
Page 2.2 Human Performance & Lim1tations Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School
ANTIHISTAMINES Used to help clear up congestion associated with colds, flu and sinus
problems. They produce side effect~ Ioften pronounced] of drowsiness
and degraded performance. They are defin itely not to be used when
fl ying!
EPHEDRINE Often found in nasal sprays. TI1ey can be incompmible with other
medications, especia II y some blood pressure medications. The excessive
use of nasal sprays can cause damage and irritation to the nose tissues
worsening or prolonging the condition.
STIMULANTS. Amphetam ines are illegal. TI1ey are used as 'pep pills' rBenzedrinej.
[AMPHETAMINES Their side effects include short-tempered restlessness, disorientation,
&CAFFEINE] fits of anx iety, overconfidence and headaches.
Caffeine is widely used in beverages such as coffee, tea and coke. Too
much causes sleeplessness and irregu lar heart rhythms. It can be habit
forming .
ANTIBIOTICS Antibiotics should normally have no detrimental effect on a pilot's abi lity
to safely carry out flying activities. However some individuals may have
an allergic reaction to some antibiotics. Side effects may include diar-
rhoea. Since antibiotics are prescribed to treat some fom1 of infection,
the condition itself could be cause to refrain from flying. If you have
been prescribed a course of antibiotics wh ich you have never previously
taken , it is generally recommended that a period of 24 hours should be
allowed from the commencement of the course of antibiotic treatment
to ensure that there is no allergic reaction.
TRANQUiLLISERS Used to treat anxiety or tension, they should never be used without medi-
cal consultation. Their effectiveness dim inishes with continual use and
they are habit forming. Side effects include drowsiness, dizziness and
an increased susceptibility to the effects of alcohol.
SEDATIVES Most commonly used to treat sleep disorders.they should never be used
without medical consultation. Side effects inc lude dizziness, blurred
vision, headaches and skin irritations. Some can be long-acting and
produce a hangover effect. They are habi t forming.
BLOOD PRESSURE High or low blood pressure can be a reason for disqnalification from
MEDJCATlON flying duties. There are some medications for controlling blood pressure
which are acceptable for pilots. however it is most important that you
consult an approved aviation medical authority for advice before using
such medications.
PREVENTION IS BEITER THAN CURE If you intend to fly, either privately or professionally, you s hould give
some thought to maintaining a healthy diet and Lifestyle so that the need for medications is kept to a minimum.
DRUGS AND ALCOHOL DO NOT MIX Remember that the combined effects of alcohol and other drugs is
often far greater than the sum of their effects taken separately. Never drink alcohol if you arc on a course of medi-
cation.
PLAY IT SAFE If ever you arc unsure whether a medical condition. or a course of treatment for such condition , may
have a detrimental effect on your ability to safely carry out a pilot's duties, be sure to check before flying. Contact
your Designated Aviation Medical Examiner or the CAS A's Office of Aviation Medicine in Canberra for advice.

HYPERVENTILATION
Hyperventilation is a state of overbreathing usually brought about by fear. excitement or anxiety. His accompanied
by a panicky feeling of suffocation that leads to deep. rapid breathing.
Oddly enough, although victims of hyperventilation feel short of breath and breathe more deeply and rapidly to
get more air illfo the lungs. their real difficulty is that they are exhaling too much carbon dioxide. Instead of mak-
ing them feel better, their unusual breathing pauern is making things worse because it removes too much carbon
dioxide from the blood. We teud to think of oxygen as good and carbon dioxide as bad.ln fact the body needs only
a certain amount of oxygen. and it is nom1al for some carbon dioxide to remain in the body.
Within minutes of the start of hyperventilation, the rcductiou in the acid ity of the blood due to loss of carbon diox-
ide produces lighthcadedness. dizziness. sweating. rapid hcmtbeat. and tingling or numbness in the hands and feet.
Fainting sometimes occu rs [hyperventi lation can be mistaken for a heart attack]. In many ways the symptoms of
hyperventi lation arc s imilar to those of hypoxia Llack of oxygen!. The simplest way to treat the condition is to make
a conscious effort to slow down the breathing rate.
Hyperventilation can be brought on by anxiety or fear associated with an in-flight emergency, or by overcompensat-
ing for a perceived lack of oxygen by breathing more deeply and more frequently. The symptoms of hyperventila-
tion can be experienced on the g round simply by taking ten deep breaths by exha ling as much air as possible then
inhaling to full lung capacity.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE CHANGES
By 18 000 ft atmospheric pressure has dropped to one half of its sea-level value. There
is quite a bit of air contained wi thin various cav ities in the body. As the outside air pres-
sure drops during a climb, a ir in the cavities of the middle ca r and sinuses. expands and
escapes into the nasal cavity reducing the pressure to that of the outside air. Air is also
present in the intestines. but the effect is insignificant during a normal c li mb at the rate
applicable to a typical light aircraft.
However during a c limb in a very high performance unprcssuriscd aircraft, or in the event
of a rapid decompression of the cabin of a high-flying pressuriscd aircraft. the expansion
of these gases can be so rapid as to cause considerable pain. The large bowel can be vented
via the anus, but the a ir in the sma ll bowe l cannot be vented and severe pain can result.
The extent of the pressure bui ld up depends to some ex tent on the kinds of foods which
arc being digested. Fermented drinks such as beer. or vegetables such as cabbage and
beans arc the worst. Tmpcrfcct tooth fillings can trap a ir wh ich expands to apply pressure
on the nerve causing sharp toothache. Obviously such pains can be a serious disrraction
from the task of flying- especiall y during an emergency.
SCUBA DIVING AN D FLYING
A diver at approximately 30 feet below the surface of tl1e water is subject to a pressure
equal to twice that of normal sea-level atmospheric pressure. To allow him/her to continue
to breathe, SCUBA [Self-contained underwater breathing apparatusl equ ipment delivers
air 10 the lungs at a similar pressure.
Air coma ins mainly oxygen and nitrogen with a small amount of carbon d ioxide. While
the oxygen and carbon dioxide pass eas ily in and out of solution in the lungs, the nitrogen tends to accumulate in
the blood. While ever the high pressure within the lungs is maintained, the nitrogen remains ham1less ly dissolved
in the blood and tissues.
When the pressure is suddenly released by ascending to the surface too quickly, the nitrogen comes out of solution
in exactly the same way as bubbles of gas suddenly appear within a softdrink when the cap is removed. Joints and
muscles are usuaUy first to feel the effects giving rise to stiffness in the joints and rheumatic-like pains in the
musc les. If the bubbles form in Lhe spi nal chord or brain, tingling sensations or
paralysis may occur. Tf the ascending diver panics and ho lds his/her breath while
ascending. the expanding air can rupture the delicate lung tissue forcing air into
the blood s tream . Rising quic kly to the brain. this air-contaminated blood can
cause unconsciousness or death. Called decompression s ickn ess or ' the b ends',
the most effective relief for the symptoms is recompression - e ither by reruming
to deep water or within a recompression [hyperbaric] chamber.
If a person who has been SCUBA diving goes flying immediately afterwards. the
further reduction in pressure with altitude can bring on the symptoms of decom-
pression s ickness at height s as low as 8000 feet. even though there was no problem
associated with the dive. The recommended periods that should be allowed between
SCUBA diving and flying are given below.
DIV E DESCRIJYfiON REST AT SEA-LEVE L
A dive which does not requ ire

decompression stops during ascent. 4 hours
A dive which does require decompression

stops during ascent, but is less than 4 hours. 12 hours
A d.ive which does require decompression

stops during ascent, but is more than 4 hours. 48 hours
Even though the CARs require a pilot to refrain from any alcohol for 8 hours before takeoff,
alcohol can still be found in the blood for up to 14/rours and in the brain cells for up to 24
flours after ingestion!
Alcohol belongs to the family of drugs known as depressams.
The most dangerou s side effect of antihistamines, which are present in many common cold
remedies. is that they may induce pronounced drowsiness.
If it is necessary to take sleeping tablets. it is recommended that a period of 24 hours should

be allowed before llying.
The symptoms of hyperventilation can be alleviated by having the victim rebreathe his/her
exhaled breath by breathing into a paper bag.
Remember there are no dmgs that can be assumed to be compatible with flying wi thout the
assurance of a DAME.

REVISION TEST NO 2
Question No I
The period of val idity of a medica l cenificate un less otherwise cancelled or suspended is
[a] 4 years for student and private pilot licences 1 for pilots under 40 years of agel and I year for
commercial lice nces
[bl 2 years for student and I year for privme pilot licences and commercial licences
[c] I year for student and 2 years for private pilot licences and commercial licences
(d] 2 years for a ll classes of licence
Question No 2
The most important process by which a lcohol is removed from the body after the consumption of alcoholic
drinks is
[a] through expiration [the breath!
[bl through perspiration[sweating]
[c] via the kidneys as urine
[d] through chemical breakdown in the liver [metabolism]
Question No 3
For the average male , the rate at which alcohol can be metabolised is equivalent to one
[a] standard drink every fifteen minutes
[b] standard drink every thirty minutes
[ c] standard drink every hour
[ell standard drink every two hours
Question No 4
Hyperventilation is likely to result in
[a] a change in the acidity of the blood caused by a drop in carbon dioxide levels
[b] severe headaches and vomiting
[c] sinus pain and discomfort in the middle ear
[d] lightheadedness associated with an increa~e in carbon dioxide levels
Question No 5
Abdominal pain caused by the expansion of gases within the body is most likely to be a~sociated with
[a] a rapid climb in a high performance unpressurised aircraft
[b] a rapid descent in a high performance unpressurised aircraft
[c] a rapid climb in a high perfonnance pressurised aircraft
[d I a rapid descent in a high perfonnance pressurised aircraft
Question No 6
At an altitude of 18000 ft the ambient atmospheric pressure is approximate ly
[a) one third of its sea- level value
[b] one half of its sea-level value
[c) two thirds of its sea- leve l value
[d] one tenth of its sea- level value
Question No 7
At a depth of about 30 feet. the underwater pressure is closest to
[a] one and a ha lf times normal sea-level atmospheric pressure
[bJ two times normal sea-leve l atmospheric pressure
[c] three times normal sea-level atmospheric pressure
[d] one half of normal sea-level annospheric pressure
Question No 8
Antihistamines are commonly found in co ld and flu medications. The side effects of antihistamines include
Ia] severe headache
[b] s leeplessness
lei blurred vision
[d] drowsiness
Question No 9
Decompression sickness or the 'bends' is caused by
[a] difficulty experienced in breathing under the high ambient pressure which occurs in deep water
[b] the excess oxygen which dissolves in the blood during a deep dive
[c] the release of dissolved nitrogen from the blood during a rapid ascent from deep water
[d) cramps caused by the low ambient temperature which occurs in deep water
Question No 10
A SCUBA diver has just completed a dive which did require decompression stops but was of less than four hours
duration. The minimum recommended period which should be allowed before flying is
[a] 4hours
[b] 12 hours
[c] 24 hours
[d] 48 hours
Question No 11
Which of the following would be an appropriate way to combat the effects of hyperventilation?
[a] breathe more rapidly
[b] make a conscious effort to slow down the breathing rate
[c] take a deep breath and hold it
[d] breathe more deeply
Question No 12
Which of the following is most likely to reduce the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood?
[a] high blood pressure
[b I cigarette smoking
[c] obesity
[d] use of analgesics
Question No 13
After heavy drinking. even though the blood alcohol level has returned to zero, some deterioration in physical
and mental performance is likely to persist for up to
fa] 4 hours
[b] 8 hours
[c] 12 hours
[d[ 24 hours
Question No 14
Hyperventilation is caused by
[a] too much carbon monoxide in the air
[b 1 too much carbon dioxide in the air
[c) breathing too fast and/or too deep for the body's requirements
[d] holding the breath too long
Question No 15
To which of the following drug fami lies does alcohol belong?
fa] stimulants
[b 1 depressants
rc1 sedatives
[d1 analgesics
Question No 16
For how many hours after ingestion can alcohol can it still be detected in the brain cells?
[a] 8 hours
[bl 12 hours
fcl 24 hours
fdl 48 hours
All Rights Reserved© 2009 Human Performance & Limitations Page 2.7
Question No 17
Alcohol can s till be detected in the blood for
[a] 14 hours after ingestion
[b] 14 hours after the blood alcohol level has reac hed .05
[c) 24 hours after ingestion
[d] 24 hours after the blood alcohol level has reached .05
Question No 18
Which of the following would be an appropriate remedy for a person who is s uffering the effects of hyperventi-
lation?
[a] hold the breath for about 40 seconds
[b] breathe into a paper bag
[c] increase the rate and depth of breathing
[d] use a nasal decongest am
Question No 19
If it becomes necessary to take sleeping tablets, how much lime should be allowed before flying?
[a] 12 hours
[b] 24 hours
[c) none if they provided a good night's sleep
[d) 8 hours
Question No 20
If a pilot has co mpleted a SCUBA dive which required decompression stops during ascent and was more than 4
hours duration, which of the following would apply?
[a] a rest at sea-level of at least 24 hours is required before flying
[b] a rest at sea-leve l of at least 48 hours is required before flying
[c) a rest at sea-level of at least 12 hours is required before flying
[d) a resi at sea-level of at least 6 hours is required before flying
Question No 21
The minimum time specified in the CARs between alcohol consumption and taking oiT is
[a] 8 hours, which is about right for all levels of intoxication
[b] 12 hours, which is sufficient if0.05 has not been exceeded
[c] 10 hours. which is very conservative
[d] 8 hours , which may not be sufficient in many cases
Question No 22
The symptoms of hyperventilation include
[a] tingling or numbness in the hands and feet
[b] pain in the middle ear
[c] a blue colouration in the lips and finger nails
[d] sinus pain
Question No 23
A pilot has just completed a SCUBA dive of 5 hours duration to a depth of 40 fl during which compression stops
were required on the way back to the surface. The recommended rest at sea level before a flight at a cabin altitude
of 6000 ft is
[a] 4 hours
[b] 12 hours
[c] 24 hours
[d] 48 hours
Question No 24
While flying, a pilot suffering from an upper respiratory u·act infection is liable to
[a] be more susceptible to hypoxia
[b] become spatially di.sorientated
[c] suffer from pressure vertigo
[d] suffer from cyanosis
Question No 25
If you become aware of a any change in your medical condi tion thai indicates that you no longer meet the relevant
medical standard (refer to CASR 67.205 )
[a] you must exercise extreme caution to ensure you wi ll not become incapacitated
[b] you may continue to fly. and as soon as practicable advise CASA of the change
[c] cannot fly until you have undertaken a full medical examination
[d] you may not carry out any function authorised by you r licence until you have advised
CASA or a designated aviation medical examiner (DA ME)
Question No 26
The maximum period which a flight crew licence holder can suffer an impairment of efficiency relating to an act
authorised by the licence, without DAME cenification that the impaim1ent no longer exists is (refer to CASR
67.265)
[a] 30 days for private or commercial pilots
[b] 7 days for private pilots
[c) 30 days for commercial pilots
[dj 7 days for commercial pilots
Question No 27
After a 3 hour session of diving , with decompression stops, the minimum time recommended before you fly again
is
[a] 48 hours
[b] 12hours
[c) 4 hours
[d] because of the decompression stops, no delay before !lying is required
Question No 28
During a c limb, expanding gas are most like ly to cause severe pain and discomfon when it is trapped in the
[a] stomach
[b [ large bowel
[c] small bowel
[d] lungs
Question No 29
Select the statement which is true for the use of analgesics
[a] they must not be used by pilots under any circumstances
[b] they may only be used after getti ng clearance from a DAME
[c[ they may be used by pilots but only for short term pain relief
[d[ they may be used by pilots without restriction
Question No 30
The upper limit of alcoho l intake on standard drinks over a period of one week is
[a] 20 for men and 14 for women
[b] 28 for men and 2 1 for women
[c] 32 for men and 28 for women
[d] 40 for men and 20 for women
Question No 31
lt is always advisable to check with a DAME before taking
[a} any over-the-counter medication.
[b I any prescribed medication.
rcl any over-the-counter or prescribed medication
[d [ any blood pressure medication

THE EAR
So many things we take for granted! The marvellously delicate and comple x structure of the ear is all too often one
of them. Nature has protected the mechanism of the midd le and in ner ear by burying them deep within the skull
and in the case of the inner ear. surrounding it with a cushion of fluid. Despite this. our own careless exposure to
continuous loud noise can cause this vital sense to be seriously degraded long before its intended 'use by' date.
The human car has two vital functions. It med iates the sense of hearing and the sense of balance. The ear can be
considered as three sections. The outer ear or ear canal, the middle ear and the inner ear.
THE OUTER EA R This consists

of a flap of ca rtilage framing a 25
mm long canal which termin ates at
the eardrum. The canal is an obsta-
cle course of hairs and about 4000
Semicircular canals
wax-producing cells which prevent
nnnercar]
intrusions such as insects o r dust from
reaching the eardrum. Tt also serves
to prOtect the eardrum from ex rremes
of heat and cold in the outside atmos-
phere. If too much wax is produced in
the canal, it can be detected by normal
medica l examinatio ns and removed
by syringi ng.
THE MIDDLE EA R The eardrum

Anvil forms an airtight seal protecting the
Hammer middle ear from contamination by the
Stirrup
outside atmosphere. As the eardrum
~~------~~~-------'~ vi brates to sound waves atTiving via
Middle ear the canal. three tiny bones, the ham-
mer, the anvil and rhe sti rrup amplify
and conduct those vibrations to the
cochlea. The stirrup connects w the
cochlea at a location known as the oval window and it is from there rhat the mechanical energy of vibration begi ns
its conversion to the electrical energy of nerve impulses whic h are carried to the brain via the cochlear nerve. The
middle ear is vented to the atmosphere by the eustachian tube which connects to the uppe r part of the rhroat. Air
flows ro and from the midd le ear via rhe eustachian tube to equali se the air pressure on either side of the eardrum.
T HE INNER EAR It is here rhar the dual function of the ear is revealed. The cochlea processes the vibrations
arriving at the oval window, converring rhem to electrical signal s which proceed to rhe brain to be interpre ted as
sound. Mounted above the cochlea are the semicircular canals which detect acceleration in pi tch, roll and yaw.
They are the seat of the sense of balance.
T he cochlea is a small bony srructure that looks a little like a snail's

s hell . It is filled with fluid and contains tiny hairl ike cells [see the il-
lustrarion at leftl. The vibrations arriving at rhe oval window from the
middle ear ser up pressure waves which travel through the fluid of the
cochlea. The hairli ke cells respond to the pressure waves generating
the ne rve impulses which the brain interprets as sound. The hairlike
cells are of va1ious widths and each is 'runed' to resonate at certain
frequencies depending on its stiffness. Constant exposure to loud noise causes damage to these hairlike cells which
is irreversible. Even one episode of exposure to a very loud noise [like a gunshot at very close range]. can cause
permanent damage to hearing.
THE SENSE OF BALANCE [Vestibular system]

The semicircular canals are three hollow loops located at the top of the cochlea. Like the cochlea. they are also ti lied
with fluid and conrain tiny hairlike cells called cupula. As the head or body changes its speed or attitude in space,
the fluid washes over the hairlike cells which respond by sending nerve impu lses to the brain w maintain
Page 3.1 All Rights Reserved © 2009 Hu man Perfo rmance & Limirations
Direction of view orientation. However is shou ld be noted that the cupula respond
to the initial change in angular acceleration only. and during a
prolonged level tum with constant angular acceleration, the initial
onset of fluid flow stops and the cupula return to the upright posi-
tion, no longer communicating information to the brain.
While the semicircular canals sense angu lar accelerations such a~

turning or rolling, another tiny organ senses linear accelerations.
Called the otolith organ, it is located at the top of the cochlea and
is made up of two components- the utricle which lies horizontally,
and the saccule which lies vertically. Horizontal or vertical ac-
utricle Saccule celerations are sensed by these organs in much the same way as
water in a dish sloshes to one end whenever the dish is moved.
While the semicircular canals respond to angular acceleration. the otolith acts as a linear accelerometer and responds
to straight-line changes in velocity both fore-and-aft and up-and-down.
A T EAM E FFORT TI1e sense of balance does not rely entirely on the middle ear. The brain also collects inforn1ation
from other sources to assist in orientation. The eyes play a dominant role in maintaining a sense of balance, as you
w ill quickly find out if you try standing withou t support on one foot with your eyes closed. You wi ll probably be both
surprised and disappointed! The brain also takes advantage of postural cues. These are pressures on the soles of the
feet when standing or on the seat and back when seated. Normall y the inputs from these different sou rces confirm
each other and the brain makes a correct and reliab le assessment of the body's orientation and state of motion.
Tn the environment of flight however, especially with no visible horizon, other forces can act to cause motion of the
fluid in the vestibular system. It is then that sensory information fTom the eyes, postural cues and vestibular sensa-
tions can appear ambiguous or conflicting. The brain becomes confused. In its mildest form. this can contribute to
airsickness. however the untrained pilot can suffer serious disorientation with disastrous consequences.
AND ITS EFFECTS

There are two characteristics of sound, frequency or pitch and intensity or loudness.
FREQ UENCY Sound is caused by vibrations which send pressure waves through the air. As each pressure wave
arrives at the eardrum. it pushes against it causi ng the eardrum to bend inwards and then spring back to its normal
position. When the next wave arrives. the process is repeated causing the eardrum to vibrate back and fonh. The
effect is not unlike the surface of a trampoline continually bending and springing back in response to a bouncing
child.
rr we coun t the number of pressure waves [or 'bounces'] per second. we have detem1ined the frequency or pitch of
the sound. The number of vibrations per second are called Hcnz [Hz]. The lowest note on a piano keyboard causes
the eardrum to vibrate at 27 Hz. while the highest has a frequency of 4000Hz. The range of intelligible speech is
from 300 to 5000 Hz.
INTENSI TY TI1e intensity or loudness of sound is determined by the degree to which the eardrum is bent by each
pressure wave. [Or to continue with the trampoline example, the weight of the child]. This is also called the amplitude
of the sound wave. The intensity of sound is measured in units called decibels [dB] . One dB is the lowest change
in sound level which a healthy. youthful ear can detect. Every increase of ten decibels indicates a tenfold increase
in the intensity of sound. For example. a noise of 40 dB is ten times as loud as a noise of 30 dB!
Human Performance & Limitations Bob Tail's Aviation Theory School Page 3.2
Whil e the human ear copes comfortably w ith sound intensity of up to 80 dB , above that the sound produces some
discomfort and lo ng term exposure can cause pcm1anent damage. Sound inte nsity above about 140 d B produces
ear pain. The tab le illustrates.
Intensity E xample
OdB Threshold of hearin g.
15 dB Whi sper.
30dB Conversation at home.
45 dB Conve rsation in a busy office e nvironment.
60 dB Noise level in a crowded ci ty street.
85 dB Pro longed exposure can cause temporary or permanent damage.
120 dB Piston e ng ine no ise at a few feet. [ear discomfort]
14{) dB Jet e ngi ne no ise at a few feet. [threshold of pain]
150 dB Jet aircraft with afterbumer selected.
Tt is generally recom me nded that if you are exposed tO noise levels greater than 85 dB , ~orne form of hearing
protection should be worn .
Typical noise levels in the cockpit of ge ner al av iation airc raft
Ai•·craft type At take-off Jn cr uise L a nding

Aerocommander 680 102 dB 92dB 83 dB
Beechcraft Bo nan7.a [A36] 97dB 86 dB 75 dB
Cessna 172 94dB 89 dB 75 dB
Cessna Agtruck [188] 106dB 106 dB 88 dB
Piper Pawnee 103 dB 102 dB 85 dB
Bell H elicopte r [Jet Ranger] 9 1 dB 92 dB 89dB
Sustained ex posure to noise levels g reater than 85 dB can cause pcm1ane nt hearing loss. The o nset of this type of
deafness is often not noticed by the individual since it begins at fre<1uencies above th at of no rn1al speech. In time
howeve r, the heari ng loss extends into the lower freque ncies causing diffi culty in hearing normal conversation.
Early warning signs include:
I Tt is easier to hear on a telepho ne than in normal face-to-face conversation.

2 Missi ng a lot of conversatio n in a no isy enviro nme nt. [ega c rowded bar].
3 Feeling the need to turn the TV up when others are hav ing no problem hearing.
4 Finding it d ifficult to hear when the speaker's face is tumed away.
H E ARI NG PROTECT ION As a gene ral rule, hearing protectio n should be worn if the no ise level is such that
you need to shout to be heard at a d is tance of half a metre. Well fi ning earplugs will provide a red uction of about
25 dB. while a good quality, well fining headset will reduce noise levels by about 4{) dB .
Note thai even the best headset or muff cannot reduce the inte nsity of noise arriving at the inner ear by any more
th an abo ut 4{) dB. This is because noise conducted to the inne r ear through the bo nes of the skull and face is about
40 dB lower than the outside source. Apart fro m hearing loss, exposure to high no ise leve ls increases stress levels,
reduces concentration. aggravates fatigue and leads to a general reductio n in efficiency. It is strongly adv ised that
hearing protection such as a good q uality headset shou ld be worn at all ti mes d uring flight.
DID YOU KNOW THAT
Exposure to noise levels of 120 dB or more for se1•eral hours a day for 3 to 6 momhs will cause deafness.
Noises of I00 dB in the f requency range below I00 Hz, will ca11se the body to 1•ibrate.
Noises of 150 dB or more will cause sweating ro occur between the fingers and under rhe collar.
Prolonged exposure to noises of 100 dB can a.Qect co-ordination of mental and physical acriviry and lead ro diso-
riem ation .
Page 3.3 All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Perfo rmance & Limitatio ns
You can expect to suffer permanent hearing damage if you are regularly exposed to
environmental noise levels exceeding 85 db. This hearing loss will first be noticed in the high
frequencies.
A blocked eustachian tube resulting from infections such as a head cold, will cause most
discomfort during descent because air can !low out of the middle car cavi ty much more easily
than it can get back in. Such blockages occur most commonly at the lower end of the
eustach ian tube.
Linear accelerarions occur when the body as a whole accelerates in a straight line in any given
direction. The otolith organ. which has two components, the utricle and the saccule. senses
these acce lerations.
Angular accelerations occur when the body rotates in pitch. roll or yaw. Tbe semicircular
canals sense these accelerations.
Both the o to lith organ and the semicircular canals respond on ly to cilanves in motion. lf no
change is occuring, the hair-like cells return to the upright position and fail to generate any
sensory signal
A practical test to assess whether hearing protection should be worn is the need to shout to be
heard from half a metre away. Under these circumstances the ambient noise level is likely to
be above 85dB .
Our acutely sens itive inner ears arc intricate micromcchanical sysiems with more than a
mi llion moving parts. The 50 to 200 mechanically sensitive hairs of each sensory cell work in
concert with those of more than I0.000 sensory cells in each car to detect motions of
the eardrum as small as rhe diame1er of a hydrogen arom (less rhan a billio111h of a meier).
Hearing loss with age is very much confined to 'western civilizations' and is the result of long
term exposure to unnaturally high noise levels. Research has shown that in the traditional
environment of many remote tribal communities, hearing is not affected by ageing.
Human Performance & Limitations Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School Page 3.4
REVISION T EST NO 3
Question No 1
One of the functions of the outer ear is to
[a] prevent the pilot's cap from slipping down over his/her eyes
[b] mediate the se nse of balance
l c] equalise the pressure on either side of the eardrum
IdJ send nerve impulses to the brain
[e] protect the eardrum from intrusions of insects. dust etc
Question No 2
Which of the following is a function of the middle ear?
[a] to protect the eardrum from the intrusion of foreign bodies
[bl to amplify the vibrations arriving at the eardrum and transfer them to the cochlea
l c] to convert the mechanical energy of vibrations to nerve impu.Jses
Id I to assist in maintaining the sense of balance
Question No 3
Which of the following is a function of the inner ear?
[a] to protect the eardrum from the intrusion of foreign bodies
[b] to amplify the vibrations arriving at the eardrum <md transfer them to the cochlea
[c] to convert the mechanical energy of vibrations to nerve impulses and assist in maintaining the
sense of balance
[d] to equalise the pressure on either side of the eardnam
Question No 4
Which of the following serves to detect the loudness and pitch of sound by converting the mechanical energy of
vibration to electrical impulses?
[a] the cochlea
[b] the semicircular canals
[c] d1c hammer. anvil and stirrup
[d] the vestibular system
Question No 5
Which of d1e following mediates the sense of balance?
[a] the cochlea
[b] the semicircular canals
[c] the hammer. ruwil and stirrup
[d] the eustachian tube
Question No 6
As a rough guide. hearing protection shou ld be wom if d1e ambient noise levels are such that it is necessary to
shout to conduct a conversation over a distance of
[a] lO metres
[b] 5 metres
[c] 3 metres
[d] half a metre
Question No 7
Deterioration of hearing caused by exposure to loud noise usually occurs first
[a] in the high frequency range , above normal speech
[b] in the frequency range of normal speech, 300 to 5000Hz
[c] in the frequency range below normal speech
[d] across the whole range of audible frequencies
Page 3.5 All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limitations
Question No 8
A decibel is a unit used ro measure
[a] the frequency or pitch of sound
[b) the in tensity or loudness of sound
Question No 9
Hertz IHz], arc used to measure
[a] the frequency or pitch of sound
[b] the intensity or loudness of sound
Question No 10
Continuous exposure to high noise levels in the cockpit should be avoided because
[a] the effect is cumulative and can eventually lead to deafness
[b] stress levels arc increased and concentration levels are decreased
l c] general performance and efficiency is reduced
[d) all of the above arc correct
Question No 11
Which of the following is the minimum intensity of noise that would result in the sensation of pain to the cars?
[a) 85 dB
[b] 110 dB
[c) 140 dB
[d] 160dB
Question No 12
Which of the following is the minimum noise level that would mark the onset of temporary or permanent deaf-
ness after prolonged exposure?
[a] 85 dB
[b] 110 dB
[c) 140 dB
[d] 160dB
Question No 13
Which of the following is the function of the eustachian tube in the human respiratory system?
[a] it connects the middle car to the outer car
[b] it connects the middle car to the inner car
[c) it connects the middle car to the throat cavity
[d) it connects the inner car to the throat cavity
Question No 14
Hearing loss due to long-tem1 exposure to high noise levels is usually first noticed in the loss of sensitivity to
[a] high frequency sounds
[b] low frequency sounds
[c] medium frequency sounds
[d) all frequencies of sound
Question No 1S
Above which noise level is it recommended that hearing protection be worn?
[a] 160dB
[b] 140 dB
[c] IIOdB
[d) 85 dB
Human Performance & Limitations Bob Tait's Av iation Theory School Page 3.6
Qu estion No J 6
Which pan of the car is most affected by pressure differences when the eustachian tube is blocked?
[a] the outer ear fbi the middle ear
[c) the inner ear [d) the ear lobe
Question No 17
If a head cold causes a blockage in the eustachian tube , where is the blockage most likely to occur'!
[a] at the top where the tube enters the middle ear
[b] at the bottom where the tube enters the nasa l passage
[c] in the centre where the tube is narrowest
[d] in any location where the tube bends
Question No 18
Which component of the inner ear senses changes in speed with constant di rection [l inear acceleration]'?
[a] the semicircular canal [b] the otolith organ
[c) the eardrum [d] the cochlea
Question No 19
When established in a ba lanced leve l tum at constant bank angle. the hair-like cells of the semicircu.lar canals
wiII be
[a] deflected in the direction of tum
[b] deflected in the opposite direction to the tum
[c] in the rest posi tion with no deflection
[d] waving back and forth
Question No 20
The term frequency when applied to sound is most closely related to
[a] the number of pressure waves arriving at the car in each second
[b] the strength [amplitude[ of the pressure waves
[c] the loudness of the sound
[d] the tone of the sound
Question No 21
The minimum noise level which could cause a person to s uffer temporary or permanent hearing loss after exposure
to sustained levels is
[a] 30dB [b] 45 dB
[c] 85 dB [d) 120 dB
Question No 22
The organ wh ich provides a person with a sense of balance is the
[a] accelerometome [b] Eustachian tube
[c] cochlea [d] semicircular canals
Question No 23
During constant angular acceleration. the ha ir- like sensors (cupula) in the semicircular canals arc
[a] upright (zero deflection)
[b] tilted in the opposite direction to the tum
[c] til ted in the same direction as the turn
[d] oscillating
Question No 24
Hyperventil ation is caused by
[a] too much carbon monoxide in the air
[b] ttlO much carbon dioxide in the air
[c] breathing too rapidly for the amount of activity
[d] breathing pure oxygen when not necessary
Question No 25
The part of the ear which converts sounds into nerve impu lses is the
[a) semicircular canals 1bl eustachian tube
[c] eardmm [dl cochlea
Question No 26
The anatomy of the ear which acts as a linear accelerometer is the
(a] stirmp [b) anvi l
[c] cochlea [dj oto lith
Question No 27
Temporary or pem1anent hearing loss can be caused by sustained noise exposure at leve ls
[a] above 120dB
[bl of 60 dB or greater
[c] typically found in the cockpit of a light aircraft
[d] above 140 dB
Question No 28
Exposure to sustained high noise levels
[a] is distracting only
[b] is distracting and fatiguing. but on ly likely to cause temporary hearing loss
[c] may cause pennanent hearing loss
[d] is irritating and distracting, but unlikely to be fatigui ng
Question No 29
A guide as to when hearing protection should be worn L~
[a] if you must yell to be heard 5 metres away
[b] if you can't hear a whisper from 0.5 meters away
l c] if you can't hear a normal conversation from 2 metres away
[d] if you must yell to be heard 0.5 metres away
Question No 30
Hearing loss due to long term exposure to high noise levels usually initially affects
[a] detection of high frequency sounds
l b] detection of low frequency sounds
rcl all frequencies equally
[d] middle frequency sounds
Question No 31
It is strongly advised that hearing protections such as a good quality headset should be wom
[a] during preflight inspections and throughout the flight
[b] during take-off on ly
[c) during take-off and landing
[d] at all times during flight
Question No 32
The function of the hammer. anvil and stirmp is to transfer vibrations from
ra 1 the middle ear to the inner ear.
[b] the outer ear to the middle ear.
[c] the middle ear to the ear dmm.
Id I the ear dmm to the inner ear.
Human Perfonnance & Limitations Bob Tail's Aviation Theory School Page 3.8
VISIO N
"Seeing is believing." This often repeated saying is evidence of the fact that vision is by far the most important of
our senses. If there is ever any conflict or ambiguity in the sensory inputs arrivi ng at the brain. it is those of the eye
that are usually accepted as correct.
THE AN ATOMY OF TH E E YE The

Retina cornea is a transparent film through which
light first enters the eye. It can be thought
Corn~ a
I )
of as a 'wind.~hield' which protects the rest
of the eye from the outside world and it
also helps the lens to focus light onto the
Aqueous lnuno\ . Vitreous humour . retina. The cornea is supported and held
1 a tmn sparcnl je lly that

help> the eye to hold its
shape.
in shape by a perfectly transparent fluid
called a queous humour. The iris is the
coloured part of the eye which changes
Pupil- - -- +
its shape in response to the intensity of
the light, causing the pupil [the black
aper1ure which forms at the centre of the
Iris iris]. to become larger or smaller thereby
admitting more or less of the light through
to the lens.
Opuc nerve
Blind ;pol The ci liar y muscles alter the shape of the
flexible lens allowing it to work with the
cornea to focus objects at various distances
onto the retina. The interior sUiface of the retina is covered with many millions of light-sensitive cells called rods
a nd cones. The cones are centra ll y located and specialise in colour perception and fine detail. They require bright
light. The rods are arranged concentrically around the cones and are not colour sensitive. They function best in low
light and are ch iefly responsib le for night vis ion. The eye adapts to changing light intensity by adjusti ng the iris
to c hange the diameter of the pupil and by chemical changes in the light sensitive cells on the retina. The most
sensitive area on the retina is the fovea , used for fine detail like threading a needle. Not far away is the junction of
the op tic nerve which forms a blind spot. Light falling on the blind spot will not be regi, tered by the brain .
DARK ADAPTATION Mankind did not evolve as a nocturnal hunter so our night vision is somewhat limited.
As mentioned previously the rods are chiefly responsible for night vision. but to function properly they need to be
'primed' with a substance called visual purple [rhodopsi n). Tttakes about30 to 40 minutes for the rhodopsin to reach
its full concentration but it can be destroyed in an instant by a bright flash of intense light.
The photograph at left is a highly magnified view of some of the millions

of rod cells on the surface of the retina. Because the rods are arranged
concentrically about the Fovea, it is often helpful at night not to look
d irectly at the object you wish to see, but to look slightly to one s ide o f it
so that the light is focused onto the rods and not the cones. The iris also
plays a pari in dark adaptation by contracting to enlarge the pupil and
all ow the maximum possible amount of light to enter the eye.
Bright light: The iris expands to cover most of the lens. The pupil [black
• pot] , is reduced in size, cuning down the amount of light that enters the eye .
. 1verage light: The iris begins to contract, causing the pupil to enlarge [dilate] .A greater amount
of light enters the eye.
Dark adapted: The iris has contracted further to produce a wide di lation of the pupil. This allows
much more of the available light to enter the eye.
Page 4. 1 All Rights Reserved© 2009 Human Performance & Limitations

To maximise night vision, 30 to 40 minutes should be allowed away from any bright light to allow the rhodopsin
to reach its maximum concentration. lfyou are accidentally exposed to bright light the effect will be destroyed and
another 30 minutes in low light wi ll be required from the time of exposure. Also prolonged exposure to strong glare
such as snow or beach sand can cause a 30 to 50% reduction in night vision for up to one week!
Cockpit lighting during flight at night is usuaJiy red because the frequency of red light has almost no effect on the
process of dark adaptation of the rods. Hand-held torches are very convenient in the cockpit of most light aircraft
at night, however they too should be equ ipped wi th a red filler. Even though most cockpits are also equ ipped with
a normal white ceiling light, this should not be used during flight.
When taxiing at night avoid looking at the landing lights or strobes of other aircraft. If you adjust the cockpit light-
ing so that it is a little dimmer than you would like. you wi ll find that, within a few minutes you will dark adapt
and feel comfortable with that level of lighting.
FINDING THE BLIND SPOT
*
Cover the left eye. Hold the book at arm's length and with the right eye. look at the tigure of the aeroplane. Slowly
move the book closer to the eye while fixing your gaze on the aeroplane. The star will disappear from your peripheraJ
vision when its image falls on the blind spot where the optic nerve joins the retina.
LIMITATIONS OF THE EYE The eye's abili ty to perceive detail [acuity] depends upon the angle subtended
at the eye by the element being viewed. Reading the bottom line on the doctor's eye chart requires the ability to
resolve an angle of one sixtieth of a degree [one minute]. This is equivaJent to seeing a dot 1 mm in diameter at a
distance of 3.6 m. or 1 em at 36m.
I
of 1°
60
Ac-cording to the nne-in-sixty
n1tc, t• would be t em 60 em
away. 1/60 of J• would be I
em in 3600 em away - that
is36 m.
Note that visual acuity also depends to a great ex tent on the degree of illumination of the object. The doctor's eye
chan is invalid if it is not in appropriate lighting. The doctor's eye chart also provides perfect contrast of black
against white. VisuaJ performance in the real world is often impaired by poor lighting and poor contrast even for
people whose perfonnance in an eye test is perfect.
Obstacles such as power lines are virtuaJiy impossible to see from an aircraft even in good lighting conditions because
the angle subtended by the width of the power line is often beyond the resolving power of lbe eye. Also since the
aircraft is above it, the power line is viewed against the ground. offering very poor contrast. Crop dusters prefer to
lly 1111der power lines whenever possible because the better contrast offered by the sky actually makes it safer!
Too much light can also cause problems. Mankind evolved as a ground dweller with the eyes recessed beneath the
eyebrows and forehead to protect them from the bright light from above. However pilots often fly high above cloud
tops or ocean which can rellect light from below. The eyes have no protection against bright light coming from this
direction. A pair of properly prescribed and correctly fining sunglasses can help cut the glare in this situation.
Flying towards the su n. especially with a dirty or scratched windscreen causes a dramatic reduction in vis ibil ity.
While proper care of the windscreen and a good preflight inspectio n can minimise this problem. nothing can be
done for the scatteri ng of light off smoke or dust particles in the atmosphere. When landing towards the sening sun
is unavoidable, the most effecti ve action is to use a sun visor if fitted to the cockpii. Sun glasses in this situation
are al most useless.
Flicker vertigo. Bright light is caused to flicker as it passes through an

idli.ng propeller blade or helicopter rotor. When this flickering occurs
at certain frequencies. effects ranging from distraction to dizziness and
disorientation can result. This effect is commonly encountered when
strobes are used to create visual effects in entertainment venues such
as d iscos. The phenomenon is called flicker verrigo and it can also be
induced by strobe lig hts in cloud.
Flicker vertigo is technically not an illusion; however, as most people

are aware from personal expe rience, viewing a flic kering light can be
both distracting and annoying. Flicker vertigo may be created by helicopter rotor blades or aeroplane propellers
inte mtpting direct sunlight at a rate of 4 to 20 cycles per second . Flashing anticollision strobe lights. especially
while the aircraft is in the clouds, can also produce this effect. You s hould also be aware th at photic sti muli at certain
frequencies could produce seizures in those rare individuals who are s usceptible to flicker-induced epilepsy.
Consider using a runway tha t is not into the late afternoon or early morning s un , even if it is cross-wind.
Keep windscreens clean a nd free of scra tches, its too late to do anything a bout it when you fmd yourself
almost blinded on la te final!
R emember when flying down-sun , that pilots flying the other way may have trouble seeing you. K eep an
extra good lookout a nd turn on taxi a nd landing lights if a vailable.
E mpty field myopia. Also called the empty visual field effect, this occurs when flying at high altitude or above an
unbroken layer of cloud. Because there is nothing for the eye to focus on between the cockpi t a nd infinity, the lens
takes up its rest position [ciliary muscle relaxed]. producing a focal distance between one a nd two metres l'rom
the eye. Tf an aircraft enters the pilot's field of vision there is a good chance that it will not be seen.
The effect can best be counte red by occasionally focusing on the wingtips, nearby cloud tops or ground features
if they become visible through breaks in the cloud. Tf an aircraft is seen, the bra in often finds it difficult to decide
whether it is a small aircraft which is relatively close or a larger aircraft which is further away. Th is is because there
is no othe r object within the field of view to compare it with. When a full moon [or the sun] is rising it looks very
large because it is close to the horizon and there are other objects to compare it with. Whe n it is high in the sky it
looks much smaller, even though if you measured it you would find it to be the same diameter. In an empty visual
field it is usual to gros ly overe.1·1imme the distance to anothe r aeroplane. Tn the absence of other visual cues, we
usually assume that objects are further away than they actuall y are.
Using your eyes for effective traffic scanning. The weak link in the see and avoid system is the pilot's eye. Dust,
fatigue. feelings, illness, age, illusions, altitude, sun direction, g lare, heat, lighting, and aircraft des ign all affect
vision. The eye has an accommodation function that enables it to change focus from far to near and back again.
Even the best of eyes take one to two seconds to make this adjustment. If the weather or haze is significant the eyes
may be unable to focus to a distance because there is nothi ng to see [empty-field myopia].
Tf one eye sees something that the other eye cannot it g ives a blurred or even rejected image to the brain. This hap-
pens when you have one eye dominant over the other. Movement is usually eas ily detected. While the eyes can get
light from over 200° of arc, they can o nly focus on an a rea of abou t I 0 or !5°. The eye can onl y focus while it is
not moving in its socket. Hold your head still and move your eyes from side to side and you will on ly get a gray
blur. Thus any scan must consist of a series of stops.
Page 4.3 All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Perfo rmance & Limitations
COLOUR VISION IN AVIATION
Colour vision relics on the colour sensitive cells of the retina called cones. The cones contain pigment which is
specialized by colour sensitivity. Some respond to red. some lO blue and some to green. The combined stimulation
of these cells produces all of the colours you can recognise [between 120 and 150 for most people]. When varia-
tion in brightness and saturation is taken into accoun t. the number of hues discernible becomes many thousands.
ll is interesting to note that colour-deficient vis ion is a lmost never found in females- it is an almost 100% male
problem.
Conditions which render the eye defective in colour perception are almost always inherited and are therefore per-
manent and unable to be corrected. Colour defective vision is easily detected by the Ishihara Test. The subject is
shown a series of cards containing coloured dots incorporating patten1s which wi ll on ly be seen by people who can
distinguis h between certa in colours.
In the early days of aviation. the ability to distinguish between white, red and green was of great operational signifi-
cance since coloured lights were used to communicate taxi. take-off and landing clearances. Nowadays however.
candidates who fail the colou r vision standards are usuall y given a dispensation to allow them to fly general aviation
aeroplanes as student, private or commercial pilots.
In the case of Airl ine Transport Pilot Licences [ATPL]. the requirement to d istinguish between white and red is
required to safely use some ground based aids such as PAPI [Precision Approach Path Indicator] and T- VASlS
[Visual Approach Slope Indicator System]. These provide the pilots of large aircraft with guidance on the final
approach. For ATPL candidates who fail the colour vision standards a special test for red-white defective vision
is available .
REFRACTIVE ERRORS
Reduction in visual acuity due to abnormalities in the lens arc called refractive errors. These can usually be cor-
rected by the use of suitable g lasses. Some of the most common arc summarised below.
Hyperopia [Also called Hypermetropia or Longs igh tedness] Although distant objects can be seen c learly. the
focus of closer objects falls behi nd the retina caus ing blurring of the image. Either the eyeball is too s hort or the
refractive power of the lens is too weak. The condition can be corrected by the usc of a convex lens.
CONVEX LENS
Myopia [shortsightedness] Ncar objects can be seen clearly bu t the focus of distant objects falls short of the retina.
causi ng blurring. The condition can be corrected by the use of a concave lens.
CONCAVE LENS
Astigm atism Irregularities in the cornea and/or Lbe lens causes distortion of different parts oflhe object to different
degrees causing blurring of some pans. The condition is corrected by Lhe use of a cylindrical lens.
I~resbyopia This is a natural proc-

ess related ro agei ng . The lens
becomes less flexible with age and
difficulty is experienced in focusing
on nearby objects - especially in low
light. The condition is usuaUy fi rst
noticed after the age of fony. but
many people postpone the inevitable
by holding the newspri nt further
away. Finally they 'run out of arm'
and admi t defeat!
The type of lens used to correct presbyopia will bring near objects imo focus but distant objects will then be out
of focus. To avoid Lhe need to continually remove and replace glasses, look-overs may be used. However if distant
vision also needs correction, bifocals will be prescribed.
The environment of the cockpit often requires the ability to quickly read fine print up close.locate instruments and
swi tches further away and scan the distance for other traffic or ground features. This requires much care in selecting
the correct type of glasses, especially if you intend to fly IFR or at night. You should consult a DAME for referral
to an aviation ophthalmologist and explain carefull y exactly what your needs are in the aircraft you arc likely to
fly. There is no reason why a pilot cannot continue to function perfectly well with the aid of appropriate look-over.
bifocal or even trifocal lenses. Also a surg ical procedure called 'lnteroccual Lenses is available for some eye types.
This allows the subject the availability of better sight wi thout the usc of glasses for most fl ying operations.
SEEING OTHER AIRCRAFT
VFR aircraft operate on a 'see and avoid' principle. Obviously you will not be able to avoid if you cannot see. Here
we look at some of the problems and exami ne some of the techn iques involved in seeing other aircraft in flight.
In an earlier section we learnt that the eye has difficulty seei ng any object that subtcnds an angle of Jess than one
minute of a degree. One degree is approximately one in sixty. The re arc sixty minutes in a degree. so one minute
represents I in 3600. That is to say, the smallest object that you could see from 3600 m aw<~y wou ld have to be not
less than I metre across. Note that this assumes good ligh ting and contrast. 3600 metres is 3.6 ki lometres o r about
2 nautical miles.
The figure below represents a typical light single engine aircraft approaching head on. It would be impossible to
see until it was about 2 nm away. If you were in a similar aircra ft type and each was cruising at 120 kt . thc closing
veloc ity wou ld be 240 kt - that 's 4 nm per minute. T he time from 11rst sighting to impact would be 30 seconds [quite
a bit less unless you had perfect eyesight and the lighting and contrast were good].
Tf each aircraft were cruising at 160 kt , that time

F in is Jess than one metre thick so wou ld be 22.5 seconds. M ore realistically. it
it could not be seen. wou ld most probably not be seen at the exact
moment when it became possible to see it. A
! more likely figure for 120 kt cruisi ng speeds

would be about 15 seconds.
t roO-)
--.....l~ - ·J) ~ To make matters worse, if another aircraft is
Wing is less Lban one ~ Fuselage is abou t on a collision course with you during cruisi ng
metre thick so it could one metre across so it night , it will appear to remai11 statio11ary in
nor be seen would be just visible the windscreen . Because we evolvetl to escape
to a person wi th
perfect eyes. predators, the brain perceives movement much
more readi ly than it does a stationary object.
Page 4 .5 All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limitations

Two cars approaching an intersection have a clear view
of each other. A coll ision at the intersection will occur if
each driver not ices that the other car remains at a constant
ang le to his own. This means that each car would appear
to remain in the same relative position in the windscreen
of tile other.
Called constant relative bearing, this principle applies

equally to aircraft on converging courses.
Since aircraft operate in three dimensions,the other air-

craft would have to be at the same height i.e. level with
your horizon. This adds to the difficulty of seeing it as
the hori zon usua ll y offers poor contrast.
SCANNING TECHNIQUES
Even though the rods do not detect colour. they are far
more sensi tive to light than the cones. The cones require
at least the light of a half moon to function at aii .Atnight
with less than half-moon illuminati on the fovea. where
the cones arc concentrated, ceases to provide any visual informat ion. This effectively creates two blind spots. the
normal one where the optic nerve joins the retina and the fovea. Nigh t vision can be enhanced by looking s lightly
[about 4° to 12"] to one side of the object you wish to view.
When we sweep our eyes f'fom left to right. the eyeball actually moves in a series of little jerks called saccadcs.
While these motions are occurring. no useful visual information is provided. When scann ing it is better to move
the head about I 0" or 15" degrees at a time, pausing after each movement to allow the peripheral vision to detect
any movement within the field of view. This is called the saccade/rest cycle and each movement of the eye takes
about one third of a second before it pauses to take in the new
'frame' before mov ing on to the next pause and so on. lt is
j more eflicient to move the head rather than the eyes alone be-
cause this prevents objects being lost as light is focused onto
' the blind spot.
As could be expected. most midair collisions occur in busy

traffic areas. Interestingly, a high percentage of such incidents
involve aircraft which are involved in flying training. A con-
tributing factor is probably that instructor and student are often
preoccupied with the immediate cockpit environment such as in
pre-solo ci rcuit training where height, track, downw ind checks
and the aircraft's position relative to the nmway demand a great
deal of attention.
You should develop the ab ility to li sten inte ll igently to a ll radio calls and keep a running picture of the traffic si tu-
ation. ln VMC it is always the pi lot's respons ibility to maintain separation from other aircraft. In G class airspace,
the fact that you have heard anmher aircraft make a radio call does not mean that it is the only traffic. Keep a sharp
lookout for other traffic that may not be using radio. Remember that an a ircraft at your level will always appear
in the strip of sky conta ining the horizon. The most important area of the sky to scan is about 60" to your left and
right and about 20" above and below the horizon.
SIMPLE PRECAUTIONS
The chances of seeing conflicting traffic can be improved by taking simple precautions which should become second
nature to you - they include:
C lea ring the turn in a high-wing aircraft Before turning in a high wing aircraft, lifl the wing and check the area
of sky in the direct.ion of turn. Once the turn has commenced. the wing will block your vision in the very area you
most want to see! C learing l he nose in a climb or d escent During a long climb the area of sky beneath your floor
could contain another aircraft which is climbing at a steeper angle but slower speed than you are. During a long
descent it is possible to be overtaking another aircraft which is hidden by your nose and Ooor. Make occasional 'S'
bends during climbs and descents to clear that part of the sky which is obscured by your aircrafl's nose and Ooor.
Tbr: <tdu;rair«'lfl l:s hid-.k.R

b)' th<t now alld fb:,r
Ttw f¥wr airc 111ft CWIIIOf ~

lllt. ' 10'1\W OOC b\."'<':1~ k 1.~
hidde•l>)' 111.., 1..,.,.: und ~r
If you are exposed to nonnal lighting after dark adaptation is achieved, it will take 30 to 40
minutes for full dark adaptation to be restored.
Prolonged exposure to glare can have a long lasting effect on night vision. Night vision can be
improved by c utting down glare exposure with the use of sunglasses during the day.
Night vision can be greatly affected by a lack of sufficient oxygen in the

bloodstream [hypoxial. ln an unpressurised aircraft without the use of supplemental oxygen.
night vision can begin to degrade at altitudes as low as 4000 feet.
The eye is unable to gather meaningful visual information while the image is moving across
the retina. Therefore the most effective means of scanning the sky for other aircraft is to scan
about 20° of the horizon for about two seconds at a time fsaccadel resr cycle f.
Rain or mist reducing the transparency of the atmosphere makes outside objects appear less
distinct. The brain is Likely to interpret that as being further away than they actually are.
In spite of its apparent size, the full moon can be comple tely covered by your thumb held at
ann's length!
REVISION TEST NO 4
Ques tion No I
The function of the ciliary muscles in the eye is to
[a] alter the shape of the lens to allow the eye to focus on objects at various distances
[b) move the eye from left to right in the socket
rc] move the eyelids to produce blinking
[d] change the size of the pupi I to vary the amount of I ight entering the eye
Question No 2
When light passes through the lens it is brought to focus at the back of the eyeball on the
[a] retina
[b] optic nerve
[c] cornea
[d] iris
Question No 3
The two different types of light sensitive clements on the retina are classified as
[a) rods which arc sensi tive to colour and cones which work best in dim light
[bl cones which are sensitive to colour and rods wh ich work best in dim ligh t
[c] rods and cones both of wh ich respond equally to all lighting conditions
[d] rods and cones both of which arc respons ible for colour vision
Question No 4
The blind spot is
[a] the area of the lens wh ich is screened by the iris
[b] the black spot in the centre of the coloured section of the eye
[c] at the j unction of the optic nerve and the retina
[d] an area on the cornea which does not respond to light
Question No 5
If a pilot whose eyes have ful ly adapted to darkness is exposed to a bright flash of light, the time required for
dark adapt11tion to be re-established is most likely to be
[a] 3 minutes
[b] 5 minutes
[c] 15 minutes
[d] 30 minutes
Question No 6
Prolonged exposure to bright glare such as beach sand or snow can cause a significant reduction in night vision
for up to
[a] 12 hours
[b] one day
[c] one week
[d] one month
Question No 7
Empty Field Myopia is the tendency of the ci liary musc le to relax when there are no close objects in the field of
view. This causes the eye to take up a focal length of approximately
[a] one to two metres
[b] six metres
[c] infin ity
[d] twenty-five metres
Qu estion No 8
The maximum distance at which a healtl1y eye in good lighting and contrast could identify a circle one metre in
diameter is approximately
[a1 one kilometre
[b1 five kilometres
[c] 2 nautical miles
[d] five hundred metres
Question No 9
The perception of colour is a function of the
[a] cones on the retina and is diminished in dim ambiem lighting
[bl rods on the retina and is diminished in dim ambient lighting
[c] cones on the retina and is diminished in bright lightiJlg conditions
[d] rods on the retina and is diminished in bright ligh ting conditions
Question No 10
In level fligh t. a collision risk exists if a converging aircraft viewed from your cockpit appears to be
[a] on the horizon and maintaining a constant position in your windscreen
[b I below the horizon and moving closer to the centre of your wi ndscreen
[c] on the horizon and moving away from the centre of your windscreen
[d] on the horizon
Question No 11
The most effective way to scan the sky for other aircraft during level flight is to
[a] move the head in a continuous arc from side to side
[b] keep the head still and move the eyes continuous ly from side to side
[c) do not look anywhere but straight ahead unless you detect movement
[d) move the head about 10° or 15° at a ti me. pausing after each movement to allow the peripheral
vision to detect any movemem
Question No I 2
Night vision is enhanced by
[a] looking slightly to one side of the object you wish to view
[b] fixing your gaze directly on the object you wish to view
[c] ensuring that the cockpit remains brightly illuminated
[d] drinking lots of carrot juice
Question No l3
After being exposed to normal lighting. dark adaptation [night vision] returns after a recovery period of about
[a] 30 minutes
[b] I hour
[c] 2 minutes
rell l0 minutes
Question No 14
For a pilot who is exposed to a high glare environment while on the ground [beach sand or snow].which of the
follow ing would help to enhance night vision?
[a] do not read small print within one hour of flying
[b] wear good quali ty sunglasses during the day
[c] avoid using contact lenses
[d] keep the cockpit lighting as bright as possible until just before takeoff
Question No 15
Night vision is extremely sensitive to aoy reduction of oxygen supply to the retina. The lowest level at which
night vision starts to be affected is
[a] 2000 ft
[b] 4000 ft
[c) LO 000 ft
[d] l5 000 ft
Question No J 6
The most effective method for scanning the sky for other aircraft is 10 move the head to scan small sectors allow-
ing the eyes to stop regularly throughout the scan while focusing on the horizon
[a) this statement is true
[b] this s tatement is false
Question No 17
What is the limit of resolution for a person with good vision at a distance of 2 nautical miJes?
[a] a circle with a diameter of .5 metres
[b] a circle with a diameter of I metre
[c] a circle with a diameter of2 metres
[d) a c ircle with a diameter of 3 metres
Ques tion No LS
Which of the following eye problems is a natural consequence of ageing?
[a] astigmatism
[b] myopia
[c] hyperopia
[d) presbyopia
Question No 19
In which of the following situations would a scratched and dirty windscreen have the mos t detrimental effect on
the pilot's forward vision during the day?
[a] flying beneath a thick overcast of cloud
[b] flying above a thick overcast of cloud
[c] flying away from the setting sun
[d] landing into a low sun
Question No 20
Heavy rain may have the effect of making objects viewed through the windscreen appear
[a) further away than they actually arc
[b] closer than they actually arc
[c] larger than they actually arc
[d] brighter than they actually arc
Question No 2 1
To avoid the poss ibility of the eyes taking up a res ting focus position when flying in conditions without visual
texture. it is recommended to
[a] stare at the horizon
[b] periodically look at an external aircraft fixture such as a wingtip
[c) blink regularly
[d) fixate at infinity
Question No 22
To avo id an aircraft moving into the visual blind spot in a pilot's field of view, it is recommended to
[a] move the head as well as the eyes
[b] move the eyes onI y
[c] close one eye when scanning
[d) not rely on see and avoid for separation
Question No 23
While night flying , the pilot of a passenger aircraft is exposed to the momenwry flash of a match in the
cabin. Full dark re-adaption will take
[a] not more than 5 minutes [bl about 30 minutes
[c1 I 0 to 15 minutes [d I at least an hour
Question No 24
Flicker vertigo is a condi tion which may occu r during flight in a helicopter clue to the strobe effect of light through
the rotor disc . It may lead to
[a] a feeling of excessive speed
lb 1 disorientation
[c] an over alert state of mind
[d] a state of tota l relaxation
Ques tion No 25
Night vision may be assisted by
[a] avoid ing dark rooms during the day
[b I avoiding the use of sung lasses during the day
[c] avoid ing bright light during the day and wearing sungla~ses
[d) avoiding the use of a hat when out in bright sunshine
Question No 26
Night vision is enhanced by looking slightly off centre. This is due to
[a] the concentration of rods in the foveal periphery
[b] the concentration of cones in the foveal periphery
[c] the concentration of cones in the retinal periphery
[d] the concentration of rods in the retinal periphery
Question No 27
When scann ing the horizon for traffic. the technique a pilot should use is to
[a] move the head smooth ly with pauses and many brief pauses between eye movements
[b) move the head smoothly and continuously and many long pauses between eye movements
fc] move the head smooth ly with pauses with many long pauses between eye movements
Question No 28
When visually scann ing, the saccade/rest cycle duration is
[a] 1 second [b[ 0. 1 seconds
[c) 0.3 seconds [d[ 0. 7 seconds
Question No 29
The anatomical part of the eye which focuses the visual image o nto the retina is the -
[a] fovea (b] iris
[c] lens [dl maculus lutea
Question No 30
The eye adapts to changes in ambient light intensity by adjus ting
[a] the iris to change the shape of the pupil and making chemical changes in the retina
Ib] the shape of the lens with the ci liary muscle
rc I the cornea and the shape of the lens
[d] the position of the rods and cones
Question No 31
Light is focused onto the retina by the action of
[a] the lens only [c[ the cornea and the lens.
fb 1 the cornea only [d) the cornea and the iris
Page 4. 11 All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limitations

DISORIENTAT ION
To con-ectly sense the orientation of the body in space [equilibrium] the brain must process information from vari-
ous sources. This information is generated by three different sensing mechanisms:
1 The eyes
2 The inner ear [Vestibular apparatus]
3 Skeletal muscles and joints [Postural or Proprioceptive cues]
By far the highest priority is placed on the information provided by the eyes. If there is any ambiguity in the in-
formation provided by the vestibular or postural cues. the eyes have the final say and, like the judge, their decision
is final! This system works very well while we stay on the surface of the earth and move about on our rwo feet as
evolution intended. Even in flight there is no big problem as long as the eyes are provided with reliable visual cues
like the horizon.
Disorientation is a state of confusion and conflict which occurs when the brain receives conflicting or ambiguous
messages from various senses and the eyes have no familiar external reference like the natural horizon to rely on.
Under these conditions. the brain is likely to make an incorrect assessment of the body's attitude in space and or
the type of motion which is occurring. The pilot's response may then be an inappropriate control input which could
lead to a dangerous loss of control.
During a rapid level acceleration [below left]. such as during the early stages of take-off in a high performance
aircraft, ine11ia causes the fluid in the inner ear to flow backwards. stimulating the hairlike cells to send messages
to the brain. Also the pilot feels his body sink into the seat back. this stimulates nerves in the muscles and joints to
send messages to the brain [postu raJ or proprioceptive cues). However, if the pi lot had beenti lted backwards instead
[below right]. the nerve impulses from these two sources would have been exactly the same as was produced by
level acceleration. In the absence of any visual cues. the brain is unce11ain which of these has occurred.
0
0
Similarly, the sensations experienced during deceleration are identical to being tilted downwards [see below]. ln-
ertia causes the 11uid in the inner ear to slosh forward. stimulating the hairlike ceiJs and the pilot is thrown forward
into his harness with less pressure on the seat back. In the absence of any visual in formation, the brain cannot
distinguish between the two.
All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limitations Page 5. 1

DELffiERATE DECEPTION lf a video of a runway flashing by is projected onto the windscreen while the pilot
is tilted up in his/her seat. the sensations of acceleration dw-ing take-off can be so accurately reproduced that it is
impossible to believe that it is not actually happening.
FuU motion simulators used by airline companies use these simple techniques. along with appropriate vibrations.
instrw-ncnt indications and audio effects and the deception is absolute! Many ;m airline pilot has folllld his heart
racing and palms sweating as the tilting of the sinmlator along with the accompanying visual and audio cues has
totally convinced his/her brain that the simulated situation is reaUy happening!
DEALING WITH DISORIENTATION The information the brain receives from the eye is given such priority
that even if the eye is focused on an artificial horizon it will be accepted as the dominant input. However. before
this can happen, the brain must be convinced that the artificial horizon is in fact a reliable reference and tllis takes
training and time.
Almost every pilot who has trained for an instrument rating has experienced bouts of disorientation during his early
training when motions of the fluid of the inner ear and changes in postural cues have given an incorrect perception
of attitude. H the importance of the indications of the artificial horizon has not yet been appreciated. disorientation is
almost certain to result. With training and practice. the brain can learn to fully accept the visual information of the
artificial horizon and other instruments, and instrument flying soon becomes a comfortable and routine activity.
OTHER ILLUSIONS
Bright is up Tllis illusion is more likely to be experienced by

the pilot of anlFR aircraft operating in IMC. The aircraft is in
cloud but near the edge of the cloud. The sunlight is striking the
cloud obliquely so that the pilot observes the brightest patch of
sky is above and to one side.
Our brains have been conditioned to accept that bright is up. so

unless instruments arc relied on. d1e pilot feels that he should
roU the aerophme to put the brightest patch of sky above him.
The leans The pilot is occupied witl1 other tasks and doesn't
notice that the left wing is very slowly dropping. If this roU is
very slow. the inner ear does not sense it so. as far as his brain
is concemed. he is still in level flight.
When he notices on the artificial horizon d1at he is in fact

banked. he makes a correction back to level flight. This correc-
tion however is rapid enough for the inner ear to react to it.
The aircraft rolls so slowly that the hairlike cells of the Since the brain receives infom1ation about the correction but
inner car do no react to the motion. TI1e brain remains not the original bank, it now incorrectly perceives that the
unaware that the roll has occurred and still believes the aeroplane is banked to the right. The effect can range fTom
aircraft is level. annoyance for an experienced pilot. to disorientation for an
inexperienced one.
Prolonged s hallow turn When the aircraft is placed into a

contiuuous gentle tum, say 1wo or three orbits at about 15• of
bank, the irmer ear reacts initially to the tum but. if the tum is
D -- prolonged, the fluid of the inner ear regains equilibrium and
the sensation of turning stops.
When the piJot notices that the aircraft is banked. his When the aircraft is rolled back to the level attitude the pilot
correction i~ likely to be much faster t.han the original believes he is banked the other way.
roll. The only message received by the brain is a roll to
the right. Even though the aii'Cafl is now level, the pilot is
left with a feeling that he is banked !O the right.
Page 5.2 Hu man Performance & Limitat ions Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School
The Coriolis lllusion The semicircular canals in the inner ear are set in three planes of motion -pitch. roll and
yaw. When an aeroplane enters a level tum, the flow of fluid within the canals stimulates the bairl1ke cells to send
information to the brain.Jf during the turn the pilot tills h1s/her head forward le .g. picking up a map off the floor].
the canal thm was in the yawing plane moves to the rolling plane. while the canal that was in the rolling plane
moves to the yawing plane.
The resulting sudden change in fluid flow within the canals. sends confusing signals to the brain. Certain combina-
When the head is ti lted for- [ )

ward. the canal that was in
the yawing plane moves to
the rolling plane.
Trus canal senses movement in the yawing plane during the tum.
tions of head movement. especially during a tum. can create an unpleasant tumbling sensation which at best can
be distracting and at worse almost incapacitming. The effect is known as the Coriolis illus ion. It is best to restrict
rapid head movements as much as possible. especially during activities such as instrument approaches.
The graveyard s pin or gra veyard spiral This melodramatic phrase originated in the early days of aviation when
repeated attempts to fly in cloud by untrained pilots in ill-equipped aircraft inevitably resulted in disaster. It was
due to a combination of the effects we have discussed so far causing disorientation and inappropriate control in-
puts resulting in a total loss of control- usually a spiral dive. Unfortunately such accidents still occur today, when
untrained pilots in well equipped aircraft suffer the same fate.
False horizons The avai labi li ty of the horiwn is

of such importance for orientation that. if the actual
horizon is not ava iIable. the eye will sometimes
seize upon another continuous strrught surface and
assume it to be the horizon.
-- If that surface is not level confusion results. The ef-
fect is fairly common when flying in clear sky over a
bank of stratus cloud. If the top of the stratus cloud
is sloping and the actual horizon is not ava ilable. the
bra in assumes that the cloud top is the horizon. This
leaves the pilot with the dilemma of the artificial
horizon indicating that the wings arc level. but what appears to be the natural horizon indicating a bank.
Autokinetic illusion The subject at left was asked to concentrate on a single point-source of light against a dark
background with no other objects in the field of view. He was asked to reproduce any move-
ment of the light source on a piece of paper. The haphazard movement he perceived is clearly
indicated- the light source in fact remained absolutely stationary!
In the absence of any other reference, the eyeball makes continuous small jerky movements.
these movements cause the focus of the light source to move on the retina. The brain perceives
these movements to be caused by movement of the light source. Called the autokinetic illu-
sion. it is of course most likely to occur when viewing distant lights on a dark night. Tt goes
without saying that some confu>:ion can be caused if a pilot perceives that objects which arc
in fact stationary arc moving!
The effect can be lessened by not fixing the gaze on any one light source for long periods.
Somatogravic illusion 1n the introduction to this section on disorientation we saw how the responses of the inner
ear and the postural cues Iproprioceptive system J, are identical for both level acceleration and a nose-up pitch. A
take-off on a dark night in a high perfom1ance aircraft produces Level acce leration. On a very dark night when the
take-off is away from any surface lighting, there may be no other visua l information once the aircraft becomes
airborne and the runway lights arc lost to view.
Under these conditions. acceleration can be mistaken for a steep climb and the pilot may respond by Lowering the
nose in an attempt to reduce the imagined climb angle. This causes a further acceleration and the pilot lowers the
nose funber. The aircraft can be flown back into the ground while the pilot false ly believes he/she is climbing.
As always the so lution is total reliance on the instruments.
Acceleration mistaken for a clim b
DE PTH PERCEPTION
Judging distance and height Because humru1s have
two forward-facing eyes. [binocular vision[, each eye-
---------::.e baH must be turned inwards slightly to focus on close
------------- objects. The brain monitors this 'cross-eyed' s tate to help
judge the d istru1ce to close objects. The binocular effect
is of Lillie use however for distances of more lhan about
one metre. so depth perception for more distant objects
must rely on o ther cues.
Pers pective Both the relative distance to objects in the field of view and
the he ight of the eye above the surface arc determined by perspective. The
princi ple is best illus trated by considering a row of similar objects such as
the telephone poles and fence posts in the illustration at left.
The poles, the edges of the road and the fence posts all appear to vanish into
a single point on the horizon [called the vanishing point] . In the top frame,
the horizon passes through a point about half way up the fence posts. This
ind icates that the observer's eye level is at that height above the road.
ln the second frame, the same scene is viewed from a height about half
way up the telephone poles [indicated by the pos ition of the horizon].
wh ile in the third frame, the same scene is viewed by an observer who
is about the sru11e height as the telephone poles. The height at which the
horizon cuts a fami liar objec t can be used to esti mate tl1e observer's ey.:
level above the surface.
Page 5.4 Human Perf01mancc & Limitations Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School
A
0" B
+ '
I~
~
~
Even though the poles and posts get smaller as they get further away, the eye does not use apparent size as the only
means of estimating distance. The two trees in the centre picture above appear to be the same distance away even
though one is small and one is large.At top right the sma ller tree seems closer because its base is further down from
the horizon. Perspective is more important than relative size in judging which objects are further away.
Note that the rules of perspective do not necessarily apply to objects in flight. Aeroplane B, above right, is c loser
to the horizon than aeroplane A but it cou ld be the same distance away or even closer and flying at a lower level.
E ffect of atmospheric trans parency on judgement of distance. Another factor that affects the accuracy of
distance judgement is the condition of the atmosphere. The brain has learned to ex pect a certain average transpar-
ency condition for the am1osphere. As objects are further removed from the observer, they become less distinct
[slightly fuzzy] as atmospheric pollutants increase in number between the eye and the object being observed. On
a day [or night] when the atmosphere is unusually
clear, such as just after a period of heavy rain , the
brain can be fooled into believing that objects are
closer than they actually are. On an approach this
~- 20 can lead to the impression that the runway is c loser
E
~
[i.e. you are overshooting] when in fact you are on

a correct approach path.
On the other hand, a heavily polluted atmosphere [or

fog] makes objects appear further away than they
Objects <~ppcar more dist<lllt. actually are giving the impression that a correctly
5 judged approach is too low [i.e. you are undershoot-
ing] . One reason for a large increase in rear-end
collisions on freeways on a misty or rainy day is
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 the reduced braking effectiveness combined with
Judged distance [m] the perception that the car in front is further away
than it actually is.
Another effect that can be caused by heavy rain is the refraction of li gh t as it passes through a build-up of water
on the windscreen. This can be a problem with the flat windscreens on larger aircraft. ff the windscreen wipers
cannot cope. the build-up of water acts like a lens. It is the same effect th at makes a spoon appear to bend when it
Build-up of water on the is placed into a glass of water. The
. / windscreen bends the light. build-up of water on the windscreen
./ acts like a prism, refracting the light
and making the angle to the runway
, threshold appear steeper than it ac-
', tually is. Since the nmway appears
' ' ...... to be closer, the pilot may believe
'- ....._ he/she is overshooting when in fact
'....._ the correct approach path is being
'- , actual runway positio,,t- · - -m
, aintaiued. Large jet aircraft usu-
' '....._ ally fly the approach by reference to
refracl<!tl nm,\a) posit ion' the ILS which docs away with such
potentially dangerous illusions.
All Rights Reserved @ 2009 Human Performance & Limitations Page 5.5
PARALLAX Ho ld a pencil at ann's length and. using one eye on ly, line it up with a more distant object. Keep
your sight fixed on the distant object and. keeping the pencil still, move your head to the le ft. The penci l appears to
move to the right. Now repeat the experiment but this time keep your sight fixed on the pencil. The distant object
appears to move to the left.
When you are moving. your brain can tell if an object is closer or funher away than the one you are focused on by
considering whether it appears to move oppos ite to. or in the same direction as you. This is called parallax. and it
is most useful when the object being viewed is at right ang les to your direction of motion.
\
\ //
\ /
\ /
\~
/ \ Eyes fixed on an object as you travel past
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
All poinrs closer than the object \
r
you arc fixed on appear to be
moving in the opposite direction
LO you.
All points fun her away appear to ' '

be moving in the same direction \
as you .
"" '
di1·cction of motion
Page 5.6 Human Perf01mancc & Limitations Bob Tait's Aviation Theory Schoo l
AERIAL PERSPECTIVE
In the absence of other visual cues or instrumemation, perspec-

tive alone can be misleading.An example is a runway on a dark
night with no other tights in view. With no other famitiar objects
to compare it with. it can be difficult to dete1mine whether you
are looking at a wide runway from a distance or a narrower
mnway from closer in.
Inexperienced pilots landing on a very wide runway at ni ght

can believe they are lower than they actually are. Typically they
wiII round out and hold off much too high.
Likewise, a narrow runway can give the impression that the

aircraft is higher than it actually is, leading to a late round-
out and a heavy landing. To a lesser extent this phenomenon
can occur in the day time when the runway is su rrounded by
featu reless terrain.
Runways which are used by larger aircraft are of1en equipped

with visual approach guidance systems such as T-VASIS or
PAP!. However with or without such systems great care must be
exercised in monitoring both height and approach path during
night approaches. Some factors which can give rise to iUusions
on approach to land during daylight are discussed below.
When the runway is level and the terrain under the approach is
level. the pilot gets an un ambiguous perception of the approach
angle. However when either the runway or the terrain under the
Is this the .t ame rzmu-ay viewed from a higher level, or i.r il
a 1U1rrowtr J'lmH!O)' l'iewetl from the same heighr?
approach slopes. the pilot can be troubled by false perceptions
of the approach angle. Put simply. the pilot tends to assess the
approach by noting the rate at which the terrain passes beneath
him/her. Fast moving terrain gives the impression of being low.
while slow moving terrain makes the approach seem high.
Terrain sloping up from the threshold Although the runway

itself is level,the approach is over terrain that slopes up from
the threshold. Al though the approach angle onto the n111way is
correct. the pi lot feels that he/she is too low. Because there is
less clearance than nom1a l between the correct approach path
and the rising terrain, the tendency is to remain high during the
approach and arrive at the runway too high and/or too fast.
Terrain sloping down from the threshold Although the

approach angle onto the runway is correct, the pilot feels Lhat
the approach is too high . Because there is more clearance than
normal between the correct approach path and the falling terrain,
the tendency is to fl y a lower. flatter approach requiring extra
power on late fi nal to make good the aim ing point.
Runway sloping up Even tbougb the approach is normal. the
1his angle looks perspective of the runway makes it appear that the aircraft is
lOOSleep
roo high. The pilot compensates by making a Ratter approach
- -dangerous at night!
Runway sloping down With the aircraft on a normal ap-

proach path with respect to the horizontal. the perspective of
the runway makes ir appear that the approach is 1.00 low. The
pilot compensates by flying a higher approach. resulting in an
overshoot or a high speed at the runway threshold.
Ihis angle looks
looshallow Judging dista nce at night. Most pilots undergoing Night VFR
training have a tendency to grossly underestimate the distance
to illuminated areas such as small towns or aerodromes. This
is because the illuminated area becomes clearly visible much
sooner at night than it docs in the daylight when the clutter
of the background makes it less distinct. This effect can be
exaggerated on very clear nights when the lights appear even
brighter and closer than normal. [How often have you heard someone describe a cryl·tal clear night as one where
you 'could reach out and touch the stars'?j
On final approach on a clear night. runway lights can appear brighter and closer than they really arc, giving the
pil ot the impression that the approach is too high. By the same argument. on a night with visibility reduced by
haze or smoke, runway lights appear further away than they actually are. giving the impression that the approach
is too low.
Black-hole effect. Of particular importance is the effect of an approach on a dark ni gh t when the only lights vis ible
are the runway edge lighting. This is li kely to be the case when the fl ight is on a night w ith a middle- level overcast
obscuring the moon and stars and depriving the pilot of any natural horizon. On such occasions you can lose all
perception of distance and depth and the runway lights can appear as though they are painted o n the windscreen!
lt is called the black-hole effect and the tendency is to get the false impress ion that you arc too high causing an
undershoot on the approach [the aircraft tends to 'sink' into the black-hole beneath it]. The effect can also be present
when city lights arc vis ible beyond the runway. but there arc no lights in the vicinity of final. Black-hole-li ke effects
can also occur in the day light when the approach is over feature less terrain such as s now or calm water. On take-off
the absence of lights other than the runway lights can give ri se to the somatogravic illus ion once the runway lights
di sappear after the nose is rai sed during the take-off run .
INCREASED SUSCEPTIBU~ITYTO DISORIENTATION The likelihood of a pilot experiencing disorientation

and illus ions depends to some extent on his/her physical ancVor mental state.
Physical contributing factors include: Head colds, nu or sinus infection
Physical exhaustion or discomfort
Mental contributing factors include: Amdety, stress or m ental fatigue

Fear or panic
Preoccu pation with other problems [worry]
SUMMARY OF VISUAL ILLUSIONS ON APPROACH :
A pilot may think that he/she is too ffiG H on approach [and therefore ten d to undershoot) when:
The runway slopes down to [up from] the threshold.
The terrain slopes up to [down fTom] the thre.shold.
The runway is narrower than usual.
The nmway is longer than usual.
The approach is over water or featureless terrain .
The approach is in total darkness except for the runway lights.
The air is unusually clear.
The runway and approach lights are brighter than usual.
There is heavy ra in on the windscreen.
Page 5.8 Hu man Performance & Limitat ions Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School
A pilot may think that he/she is too LOW on approach [and therefore tend to overshoot) when:
The runway slopes up to [down from) the threshold.
The terrain slopes down to [up from) the threshold.
The nmway is wider than usual.
The runway is sho11er than usual .
The visibility is poor.
The runway and approach lights are dimmer that usual.
The brain receives information from the eyes. the inner ear and skeletal
muscles and joints. Of these three sources by far the most important is the visual information.
Vertigo is a confused state of disorientation which occurs when the messages from the three
sources mentioned above arc conflicting or ambiguous. The only sure way to counter its effects
is to rely absolutely on the information provided by the aircraft's instnm1ents and ignore all
other sensory information.
In the absence of re liable visual information. proprioceptive [fTomthe skeletal muscles and
joints]. and vestibular [from the inner ear) cues can misinterpret acceleration as a continuously
steepening climb- the somamgravic illusion.
When the terrain over which an approach is made slopes up from the approach threshold. the
pilot may falsely perceive that the approach angle is too shallow. while terrain that slopes
down from the approach threshold can give the impression that the approach angle is too steep.
Susceptibil ity to disorientation can be increased by physical factors such as head colds, fatigue
and discomfort, or by mental factors such as anxiety. fear or worry.
THE MIRACLE OF PERCEPTION
Even though we can examine the physical properties of the eyes, ears and the proprioceptive
system , once the nerve impulses they generate arrive at the brain they somehow give rise to
conscious perception. Scientists and philosophers are still at a loss to even begin to explain
this incredible event ! What actually happens within your brain to make you perceive? Just for
fun, here are a few well known games we can play with perception.
Which of the Clentre dots at

right is the largest?
Measure them and find out.
.....
• .
••• • Perceiving without seeing. The
penistent grey spoiS you see
Three prongs show at the top of this nbove nt the intersection of the
figure but one of them vanishes on the black bo"es are not really there -
way down . If you put a finger across they e"ist only in your mind!
the drawing you will see where t.b.e
deception lllkes place.
Right. Often called the profile-goblet

illusion. this figure appears as a goblet if
the black is perceived as the background.
but as two opposing faces if the white is
perceived as the back.ground.
lntenl!ltingly. you can only ever perceive

one at a time - but never both together.
Although a student once said that he saw
'two black people kissing a white vase.'
Left.
Which line is longer - A orB?
A B
Page 5.10 Human Performance & Limitations Bob Tait's Aviation TI1eory School
Are the sides of the square above straight?
How much longer is the hat than the

width of the brim?
Do you see an old man or a Do you see a skull or a woman looking

bunch of good looking sheilas? into a mjrror?

Wbkh of the ropes has been
cut short? Which of these rugs is the big-
ger one?
...
Which cylinder is the biggest?
Page 5. 12 Human Performance & Limitations Bob Tait's Aviation TI1eory School
REVISION TEST NO 5
Question No I
The brain perceives the body's orientation in space by
[a] processing information from the eyes [visual cues]
[b] processing information from the inner ear [vestibular cuesl
rc1 processing infom1arion from rhe skeletal muscles and joints rpostural cues 1
[d] combining and comparing visual. vestibu lar and postural cues
Question No 2
In sensing the orientation of the body in space, the brain assigns the highest priority to infonnation coming from
[a] the eyes
[b] the inner ear
[c] the middle ear
[d] the proprioceptive system
Question No 3
Which of the following is the most likely cause of disorientation?
[a) a change in the information com ing from the inner ear
[b1 a conflict or ambiguity in the information coming from visual. vestibu lar and postural cues
[c] poor lighting reducing the amount of visual information received
[d] a rapid transition from level flight to a steep cl imb
Question No 4
In the absence of reliable visual information, which of the following states of motion would be most difficult to
differentiate?
[a] a steep turn and a rapid deceleration in leve l fl ight
[b] a rapid acceleration in level flight and a transition from level flight to a dive
[c) a rapid acceleration in level flight and a transition from level flight to a climb
[d) a rapid deceleration in level flight and a transition from level flight to a climb
Question No 5
The most effective way to deal with an episode of disorientation in flight is to
[a] keep a constant look-out for glimpses of the natural horizon outside
[b] rely absol utely on the aircraft's instruments
[c) keep the contro l column central and maintain a constant power
[d) disregard the instrument indications and fly by 'feel' until it passes
Question No 6
'The leans' is a state of disorientation which occurs when
[a) the rate of onset of the initial bank angle is above the threshold of perception, but the rate of
the pilot's correction to a level attitude is below that threshold
[b) the rate of onset of the initial bank angle is below the threshold of perception, and the rate of
the pilot's correction to a level attitude is also below that th reshold
[c) the rate of onset of the initial bank ang le is below the threshold of perception, but the rate of
the pilot's correction to a level attitude is above that threshold
[d) the rate of onset of the initial bank angle is above the threshold of perception, and the rate of
the pilot's correction to a level attitude is also above that threshold
Question No 7
The Coriolis illusion can produce an unpleasant tumbling sensatjon. It is most likely to occur when
[a) the head is turned rapidly from left to right during visual flight
[b) the head is bowed forward rapidly during instrument night
[c) a rapid deceleration occurs during level flight
[d) an aircraft which has been in a shallow turn for some time rolls back to level night

Question No 8
The somatogravic illusion [falsely identifying a level acceleration as a steep climb]. is most likely to be encoun-
tered
[a] during a go-around in a high perfo1mance aircraft when flying visually
[b] just after the transition from instrument to visual flight
[c) during an approach to a poorly lit runway on a dark night
[d] during and just after take-off in a high performance aircraft on a dark night
Question No 9
When an aircraft is performing a prolonged shallow tum during instrument flight. a common illusion is
[a] a sensation of being banked in the opposite direction when the wings are rolled back to the
level attitude
[b] a sensation of remaining banked in the tum wben the wings are rolled back to the level
anitude
[c] a sensation of climbing when the wings are rolled back to the level attitude
[d] a sensation of diving when the wings arc rolled back to the level attitude
Question No 10
If a pilot who experiences the somatogravic illusion reacts to the associated fa lse sensation. there wou ld be a
danger of the aircraft being flown back into the ground after take-off.
[a] the statement above is false
[b] the statement above is true
Question No Jl
Which of the following is true regarding perspective?
[a] if two aircraft are in the field of view, the one which appears larger is always closest to the
observer
[b) if two aircraft arc in the field of view. the one which appears closer to the horizon is always
further away
[c] any point which is on the horizon must be at the same height as the observer
[ell if two aircraft in the field of view arc at the same height. they wi ll also appear to be the same
distance above or below the horizon
Question No 12
One illusion which may be experienced on a dark night approach to a very wide runway wh ich is remote from
street or town lighting is
[a) the aircraft appears to be higher than it actually is during the flare prior to touchdown
[b] the aircraft appears to be lower than it actually is Juring the flare prior to touchdown
[c) the aircraft appears to be travelling faster than it actually is during the landing roll
[d] the aircraft appears to be higher than it actually is during the approach
Question No 13
One illusion which may be experienced on a dark night approach to a narrow runway wh ich is remote from street
or town lighting is
[a] the aircraft appears to be higher than it actually is during the flare prior to touchdown
[b] the aircraft appears to be lower than it actually is during the flare prior to touchdown
[c] the aircraft appears to be travelling slower than it actua ll y is during the landing roll
[d] the aircraft appears to be lower than it actually is during the approach
Question No 14
You are making an approach by day into a runway where the terrain slopes up from the threshold of intended
landing. The most likely misjudgment during this approach wou ld be
[a) an overestimate of your height above the runway threshold
[b] an underestimate of your height above the runway threshold
[c] an underestimate of your speed during the approach
[cl] an overestimate of the length of the runway
Qu estion No 15
During a constant angu lar acceleration in the yawing plane, the hair-Like cells in t.he semicircular canals of the
inner ear will be
[al del:lected in the same direction as the tum
[b1 del:lected in the opposite direction as the tum
[c] in an upright position
[d] waving to and fro
Question No J 6
Which of the following organs mediates the sense of balance?
[a] eustachian tube
[b] the eardrum
[c] the semicircular canals
[d] the coch lea
Question No 17
The effects of vertigo may be reduced or eliminated by
[a] rapidly scanning between the instruments and features on the ground
[b] looking for the horizon when visibility is poor
[c] concentrating on the artificial horizon on ly
[d] scann ing all of the instruments and ignoring any sensations that arc not confirmed by
instrument indications
Question No 18
The s usceptibility to disorientation is increased if the pilot is suffering from anxiety. stress or menta l fatigue
[a] this statement is false
[b] this statement is true
Question No 19
The proprioceptive system generates sensation from
[a] the sem icircu lar canals
[b] the otol ith
[c] the ~kcletal muscles. joints and tendons
[d] the skin
Question No 20
The au tokinet ic illusion is responsible for
[a] an isolated distant light appearing to move when stared at for a period of time
[b] brightly lit towns appearing c loser than they actually arc on a dark night
[c] a pilot rounding out too high when landing on a wide runway on a dark night
[d] a pilot confusing accelerat ion on take-off for a steep c limb
Question No 21
When viewed from the cockpit of an aircraft. a small town which is approximately five nautical mi les away will
appear to be
[a] closer than it actually is on a dark night
[b] c loser than it actually is in daylight
[c] further away than it actually is on a dark night
[d] further away than it actually is in daylight
Question No 22
The somatogravic illusion causes the pilot to th ink that
[a] deceleration in a descent is level !l ight
[b] deceleration in leve l fl ight is a climb
[c] acceleration in a climb is level tlight
[d] acceleration in leve l fl ight is a climb

Question No 23
The effects of vertigo may be reduced or eliminated by
[a] rapidly scanning between instruments and external visual features
[b] looking only outside in conditions of poor visibility
[c] scaru1ing aJJ instruments only
[d) fixating only on one instrument
Question No 24
The "black hole" phenomena on take-off refers to
[aj the inability of light to escape beyond the event horizon
l b] the somatogravic illusion
[c] autokinesis
[d J the place where odd socks go
Question No 25
A pilot's susceptibility to visual illusions during approaches will be increased by
[a) fatigue
[bj the amount and nature of their flying experience
[c] good night adaptation
[d] the presence of good glides lope guidance
Question No 26
Disorientation is likely to occur as a result of
[a] flying on instruments only. if you accidentally enter a cloud while in flight
lbl avoiding looking at instruments for reference if you accidental ly enter a cloud while in flight
[cj avoiding fast head movements when no external horizon is visible
[d] only looking outside the cockpit on a sunny day with no cloud
Question No 27
A pilot experiencing spatial disorientation in lMC should
[a] avoid head and eye movements
lbl scan all instruments
[cj fixate on one instrument
[d] concentrate on outside visual cues
Question No 28
When on approach to a long wide runway with terrain which slopes down to the landing threshold. the pilot may
feel that he/she is
[a] low on the approach path resulting in a tendency to overshoot
lbl high on the approach path resulting in a tendency to overshoot
[c] low on the approach path result ing in a tendency to undershoot
[d] high on the approach path resu lting in a tendency to undershoot
Question No 29
On approach to land on a runway at night with an overwater approach a pilot is likely to perceive that the
runway is
[a] further away than it really is and that the approach is too low resulli11g in an overshoot
[b] further away than it really is and that the approach is too high causing an undershoot
[c] closer than it really is and that the approach is too low resulting in an overshoot
[d] closer than it really is and that the approach is too high causing an undershoot
Question No 30
The most important cue used by a pilot in judging height is
[a] aircraft attitude
[b J runway length
[c] texture flow on the ground
[dj ground illu mination intensity from landing light
Question No 31
A disoriented pilot should
[a] vigorously seek external visual cues
[b) avoid bead movements
[cj combine flight instrument indications with external visual clues
[d] roll the aircraft into a rate one level n1rn and maintain the ntrn until re-oriented
Question No 32
A pilot is most likely to fly an approach which is too low when the approach is made
[a] the runway is wider than usual
[b J the runway Lights are brighter than usual
[c 1 the runway slopes down from the aiming point
[d] the runway is shmter than usual
Question No 33
Disorientation is a conditions which exists when
[a] there is not enough visual infonnation available to the brain
[b J there is insufficient information available from visual. vestibular and proprioceptive cues
[c) the body is subjected to rapid acce lerations
[d] there is conflict of information fmm visual. vestibular and proprioceptive cues
Question No 34
Information from the eyes. ears combine with proprioceptive information to give the body a sense of
[a] equilibrium
[b J situational awareness
[c) navigation position
[dj ve1tigo
Question No 35
During take-off on a dark night it is important during the initial climb out to
[a] seek as many visual cues as possible from outside the cockpit
lbl keep checking the instrument indications with outside information
[c] concentrate only on the instruments to maintain the aircraft's attitude
[dl fly by 'feel' as much as possible
Q uestion No 36
When maintaining the correct approach path to land on a runwuy which is shorter than usual you may
[a] think you are low and therefore tend to overshoot
[b J think you ru·e high and therefore tend to overshoot
[ c] think you are low and therefore tend to understhoot
[dj think you are high and therefore tend to undershoot

CLOADS
Consider an aeroplane performing a pitching manoeuvre such as a steep pull-up [See fig belowl. According to Isaac
Newton's well known laws of motion, all objects w ill continue in s traight-line motion unless compelled by some
external force to do otherwise. At any point on the llight path. the aeroplane wou ld 'prefer' to adopt a straight-line
motion and continue off at a tangem.lt is following the curve only because it is continually being forced back onto
that flight path by a force which always acts towards the centre of the curve. Tnis force is provided by the extra lift
generated when the pilot pulls back on the stick.
The aeroplane is cominuatly

forced back omo the curved night
pnth by the extra tift created when
the >lick is pulled back.
I The pilot's body also obeys Newton's laws and must be pushed
back onto the curved path. The pilot feels this as an increasing
pressure on tbc scat. This is called a G load and it causes every
part of the pilot's body to experience an apparent increase in
weight. G loads a rc measured by comparing them with the
nonnal force of gravity.
In normal level flight the pilot is under IG. In a sixty degree

banked level turn, the pilot experiences 20. That is every part
of the body behaves as though its weight had doubled. Indeed
if we could weigh the pilot during this manoeuvre the scales
would record twice the normal weight! During a typicalloop.the G load will reach about3.5 to 4 in the early pull
up and ex it. This is a high enough G load to require some extra effort to keep the head up or to lift a hand.
1be aircrilft's seat pushes: against Lhe pilol's

body. forcing it lo follow the curved Aighl path.
Note it is not rellll)" the pil<ll who is forced into
the seat. it is the seat whjch is being forced into
the pilot! 1l1e re>uil i;, on apparent incTCU>e in
The physiological effects of G The apparent

weight increase which accompanies a high
~~ brain
positive G load applies to every component of
the pilot's body, including the blood. Since the
heart must pump blood 'up-hi ll' to oxygenate
~~
t11e brain,the rate at wh.ich blood flows to the
brain reduces. This is aggravated by the fact
that the hean. along with other internal organs,
~
is forced downwards under the G load, stretch-
heart ing and elongating the arteries which connect
it to the brain. wh ich like a ll nervous tissue is
panicularly sensiti ve to lack of oxygen.
The heart responds to the crisis by increasing

its pumping rare. This cardiovascular reflex
is triggered by the drop in oxygen level in the
brain, however it takes a few seconds for it to
take full effect. The graph opposi te represents
an average response.
Page .6.1 All Rights Reserved @ 2009 Human Performance & Limitations
Aeroplane A pulls a high G load of very short duration. such as flying round the bottom comer of a square loop.
Because it is all over in two or three seconds.the brain is able to cope due to the residual oxygen which was present
before the manoeuvre. These are sometimes called transient loads.
Aeroplane B pulls a very high G load with a more gradual onset over about five seconds. T he residual oxygen is
used up before the cardiovascular system can fully compensate by increasing the bean rate. The resulting lack of
oxygen causes grey out, black our and eventual loss of consciousness [G-LOC].
Aeroplane C perfom1s a typical loop. The G loads range from about 4 in the initial pull-up. to less than one over
the top. to about three or three and a half in the last quarter.
Protection due to Tolerance decreases as residual oxygen is used.

residual oxygen
level in the brain
B Tolerance increases again as the heart compensates.
9G
7G
VISUAL BLACK OUT

5G
VTSUAL SYMPTOMS [GREY OUT]
3G
to time available
adapt.
IG A c
s 15 20 25 seconds
G rey out This is the name given to a partial loss of vis ion which usually occurs as the first physiological effect of
sustained G loads. The low blood oxygen levels cause the peripheral vision to fade. Objects in the centre ofthe field
of view can be seen but they appear to be surrounded by a grey haze. The pilot is still fully conscious ru1d capable
of flying the aeroplane. For a healthy person these effects will usually be first noticed at about 3.5 G.
Black ou t Above about 5 G, the grey haze envelops the entire field of view ru1d almost immediately becomes black.
The pilot is still conscious but cannot see.
Loss of consciousness [G-L OC] This will follow very qu.ickly after black out if the high G load is sustained. The
pilot is now unconscious and of course incapable of flying the aeroplru1e. Although consciousness is usually quickly
regained when the G load is released [i.e. the pilot stops pulling back on the stick]. there are situations in which some
individuals may remain unconscious for a much longer period. The consequences of course can be catastrophic.
Factors which d ecrease tolerance to G loads Hypoglycaemia [low blood sugar levels] or diabetes cru1 in1pair
the heart's ability to compensate at the onset of high G loads, causing grey out and black out to occur at relatively
low sustained G loads. Heat stress caused by a hot cockpit environment cru1 cause a subst!Ultial decrease in G
tolerance
Hypoxia caused by operating at high altitudes without oxygen causes the blood oxygen level to be low even before
the onset of My G load. Any respirdtory infection, including the common cold cru1 have significant effect on G
tolerance.
Human Performance & LimitaLions Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School Page 6.2
Techniques for impro ving G toler a nce One design feature found in
many high performance acrobatic aircraft is a more reclined seating
position for the pilot. This brings the heart and the brain closer to the
same leve l lessening the effort required to pump blood to the brain
[See figure at left].
Te ns ing lhe s tom ach muscles Under a high G load, blood tends to
pool in the vascular spaces in the lower abdomen and legs. Tensing
the stomach muscles [as if you had invited someone to hit you in the
solar plexus], can reduce this effect and therefore reduce the loss in
circulating blood volume. Pilots of some high performance acrobat ic
aircraft sometimes wear a G belt. This is a wide stiff belt not unlike
that worn by weight lifters. Tightening the stomach muscles against the belt provides a more efficient means of
preventing the pooling of blood. G su its as worn by jet lighter pilots go one step further by the action of in.ll atable
panels strapped tightly to the stomach and upper legs. These panels inflate under high G loads to apply strong posi-
tive pressure to reduce the pooling of blood.
Ph ysical fitn ess Tolerance to high G loads varies not on ly from one individual to another, but also from day to day
for any one individual. Maintaining a good level of general fitness wiU assist perforn1auce under high G.
Nega tive G Negative G occurs when the pilot is p laced on the outside of a pitching manoeuvre. In this case the
G load acts to throw the pilot out of the seat. Unlike posi tive G, there is an excess of blood in the arteries leading
to the head. The heart responds by slowing down [under test conditions in a centrifuge, subject's hearts have been
known to stop]!
It is unlikely that a pilot will be subject to high negative G

except in the course of advanced acrobatic flying in aircraft
which are specifically designed to fly such manoeuvres.
Grey out and black out wiU not occur under negative G,
and the pilot remains fully conscious throughout. High
sustained negative G can force the bottom eyelid over the
eye ball causing the field of view to go red. This condi tion
is sometimes called red out.
The most likely inlmediate effect of negative G is rupturing

of the small blood vessels of the face and eyes causing bloodshot eyes and red blotches on the face. lL is generally
accepted that the safe limit for negative G for a healthy person is about-3G.
A sudden change from sustained negative to

high positive G greatly increases the chance
of experiencing grey out or black out.
level in verted night
The heart slows down under negative G, so
when positive G is applied. it must change
from slower than norma l to fas ter lhan
normal to compensate. Once positive G is
grey out or black applied, the residual oxygen in the brain is
out occurs here deple ted before the heart can increase the
blood flow. The G threshold at which grey
out or black ou t will occur will be much
lower than normal.
P age 6.3 All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limitations
TOXIC HAZARDS
Carbon monoxide Aviation fuels are mainly a mixture of hydrocarbons and during the process of combustion
they combine with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and water. These products are expeLled
from the engine in the exhaust.
By far the most dangerous of these gases is carbon monoxide which is present in much higher concentrations in
the exhaust of piston engines Ibetween 3% and 9% I than it is in gas turbine engines [about 0.003%]. When carbon
monoxide is preserH in the lungs, it enters the blood stream by combining with the haemoglobin in the blood. takiog
the place wl1ich is normally occupied by oxygen. Relatively small traces of carbon monoxide in the environment
can have a devastating effect on human performance.
<f:i At very low levels. there arc no symptoms [carbon monox ide is present in cigarette smoke]
<f:i However as saturation rises, there is an insidious. marginal impairment of performance which is
aggravated by exert ion
<f:i As the saturati on increases, the first symptoms appear. They include slight headache. fatigue and a mild
discomfort in breathing
<f:i At still higher levels there is an impairment of vision, mental confus ion [d ifficu lty in performing
relatively simple mental calculations]. severe headache and sometimes vomiting
<f:i Very high concentrations result in unconsciousness and death.
The most common source of carbon monoxide in the cockpit of a light aircraft [particularly a single engine aircraft],
is a leaking exhaust system. Even though carbon monoxide itself is a colourless. odourless and tasteless gas. there
are always other gases contained in the exhaust which do have a distinctive odour. Always take the smell of exhaust
fumes very seriously and investigate the cause.
In a typical light single engine aircraft, the cabin is heated by air

which has passed through a heat exchanger.
The heat exchanger can be thought of as a canister which SUITOunds

a section of the hot exhaust pipe. Cold ambient air enters via a duct
and is forced to pass over the hot surface of the exhaust pipe. The
heated air is then directed via another duct into the cabin.
Obviously any cracks in the pipe will allow exhaust fumes to flow
into the cabin along with the heated air.
If the presence of carbon monoxide is sus-

pected. cabin heat vents should be immedi-
ately shut off and aU fresh air vents should
be fully opened. Use oxygen if it is available
and land as soon as possible to investigate the
cause. This will involve checking for exhaust
system cracks and leaks in the cabin heat
syst.e m. In single engine aircraft check the
engine lire waU.
exhaus1 gases
gases
OTHER TOXIC HAZARDS
Contact with aviation gasoline [AVGAS ]. is co nunon for most general avia-
tion pilots.lt should be remembered that the fumes of gasoline are toxic and
can cause headaches and nausea. It is unlikely that such fumes will present a
problem during flight , but when a pilot is required to participate in refuelling
operations close contact with fumes is almost unavoidable.
if refuelling is from 200 litre drums stored in a closed shed. the drum in
use should be moved out into the open air. Remember that AVGAS spilt on
clothes can cause considerable skin irritation and quite serious reactions may
result in some individuals.
Many o ther toxic or volatile substances can have unpleasant effects. These
include cleaning agents. solvents. paints or lacquers. thin ners and hydraulic
fluid. Common sense precautions should be taken to avo id breathing the
fumes or contact with the skin or eyes.
PROTECTION FROM HOSTILE ENVIRONMENTS.
It is all too easy when flying over water, tropical jungle or desctt for pilots and passengers alike to give little thought
to the predicament they may find themselves in if a forced landing occurred. Appropriate clothing. including foot-
wear, can make an enormous difference to the outcome should the worst happen. Imagine walking kilometres for
help over hot desert sand or rocks in ' Stubbics' and thongs!
The EME RG section of ERSA Paragraph 4 gives hints on shelter and survival in various hostile environments- it's
worth a read and a little contemplation. Pilot's involved in the agricultural indusu-y give due consideration to items
such as fire resistant clothing. Many synthetic materials could add to the danger of fire. Wool is one of the very
best natural and inexpensive materials offering resistance to flame. Items of clothing such as socks. gloves and
shirts that cont ain a high percentage of wool are ideal for this purpose. [Sec www.csiro.au/ files/filcs/p9z9.pdf]
ln most healthy individuals, the phenomenon of grey out wi ll be experienced during sustained
loads of 3.5 G, while black out will occur at a sustained load of about SG.
G-LOC [loss of consciousness] will occur if loads in excess of 5 G are sustained.
A pilot is most likely to suffer a reduced tolerance to high positive G loads during a manoeuvre
where zero or negative G is suddenly followed by a high positive load such as pulling through
a half downward loop from inverted Hight.
The most effective way to bring immediate relief for the symptoms of carbon monoxide
poisoning is to adm inister oxygen to the sufferer.
The effects of carbon monoxide poisoning are brought about because carbon monoxide
molecu les occupy the place in the blood which is normally reserved for oxygen.
Human Performance & Lim.itations Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School Page 6.6
REVIS ION TEST NO 6
Question No 1
Which of the following will always be accompanied by an increase in positive G load?
[a] increased lAS in a dive
[b I any manoeuvre which requires extra power
[c] any manoeuvre which requires the pilot to pull back on the control column
[d] any manoeuvre in which l:he aircraft's nose is above the horizon
Question No 2
Which of the following is an effect of a sus tained high G load?
[a] a slowing of the bean beat
[b] a decreased flow of oxygenated blood to the brain
[cl an increased flow of oxygenated blood to the brain
[d] an irregular heart beat
Question No 3
Very high transient [shon-duration] G loads can be tolerated with little effect because
[a] the brain can continue to function for a few seconds on the residual oxygen which was presem
before the onset of the G load
[b] the heart res ponds immediately to the onset of high G loads by pumping faster
[c] high G load forces fresh ly oxygenated blood to the brain
[d] the brain can continue to function without oxygen until the increased heart rate compensates
Question No 4
In which of the following situations would a normal healthy person be most likely to experience loss of con-
sciousness [G-LOC]?
[a] eight G sustained for two seconds
[b] three G sustained for five seconds
[c] seven G sustained for seven seconds
[d] two G sustained for fifteen seconds
Question No 5
Which of the following would nor increase a pilot's tolerance to high G loads?
[a] adopting a more reclined seating position
[b] tensi ng of the s tomac h muscles just before the onset of and during the G load
[c] maintaining a high level of physical fitness
[d] adopt ing a more erect seating position
Question No 6
Which of the following is an effect of a sustained negative G load?
[a] a slowing of the heart beat
[b] a decreased flow of oxygenated blood to the brain
[c] pooling of blood in the abdomen and legs
[d] an irregular heart beat
Question No 7
Which of the following transit ions of G loads would be most likely to produce G-LOC?
[a] from a high positive to high negative G load
[b] from a high negative to high positive G load
[c] from a low posi tive to high positive G load
[d] from a low negative to high negative G load
Question No 8
At about which sustained G load wiU a healthy person be likely to begin to experience grey om?
[a] 1.5 G
[b) 2.5 G
[c) 3.5 G
[d] 4.5 G
Question No 9
At about which sustained G load will a healthy person be likely to begin to experience black out?
[a] 7G
[b] 5G
[c] 3.5 G
[d] 2.5 G
Question No 10
Which of the following would most likely lead to carbon monoxide contamination of the cockpit atmosphere?
[a] excessive use of carburertor heat
[b) an electrical short circuit
[c] flying low in a very thick smoke haze
[d] a leak in the engine exhaust system
Question No 11
Which of the following is not a symptom of carbon monoxide poisoning'?
[a] headache and faligue
[b] a feeling of euphoria
[c] discomfon in breathing
(d] impairment of vision and mental confusion
Question No l2
When using cabin heat in light si ngle-engined aircraft it should be remembered that
[a] there is a possi bili ty that carbon monoxide can be introduced directly into the cockpit through
exhaust leaks in the heat exchanger
[b] the frequent usc of cabin heat can increase the risk of fire
[c] the usc of fu ll cabin heat during take-off can degrade the aircraft's take-off performance
[d) cabin heat should be used in cruising flight only. and never in climbs or descents
Question No 13
Which of the following would be suitable treatment for a person suffering from carbon monoxide poisoning?
[a) administer oxygen
[b] give plenty of water
[c] give a sleeping pill
[d] have them rc-breathe their exhaled breath from a bag placed over the nose and mouth
Question No 14
Carbon monoxide is dangerous because
[a] it displaces oxygen from the blood's red cells
[b] it stings the eyes and seriously impairs vis ion
[c] it is highly acidic and atlacks the lining of the lungs
[d) it displaces oxygen from the lungs causing suffocation
Question No 15
One design feature wh ich would improve the tolerance to high positive G loads is
[a] a five-point , full acrobatic harness
[b] a more reclined seating position
[c] an upright seating position
[d] a joystick rather than a control column
Human Performance & Li.mitations Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School Page 6.8
Question No 16
The action which should be taken in the event of a person suffering from carbon monoxide poisoning is to
[a] provide oxygen
[b] give water
[c] lie the patient down and keep them warm
[dj have the patient re-breathe inside a paper bag
Question No 17
A symptom of carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning is
[a] a feeling of well being with no pain or discomfort
[b) tingling of the bodies extrem ities
[c] blue colouring of the fingers and toes
[d] warm and sluggish feelings with a tendency to headaches
Ques tion No 18
The most likely result of exposure to negative G forces is
[a] G induced loss of consciousness (GLOC)
[b I sagging facial feantres
[c] burst blood vessels in the eyes
[d) black out
Question No 19
If you suspect that you are suffering from carbon monoxide poisoning during flight you should
[a] open all available air vents and use oxygen.
[b 1 close all air vents and use cabin heat.
[c1 s low down your breathing rate.
[d1 hold your breath.
Question No 20
Items of clothing that offer good resistance to flame contain a high percentage of
[a1 synthetic frabics
(b] wool
rc1 conon
[d1 plastic
Question No 21
The accepted limit for negative G for a healthy person is considered to be
[a] -I G
[b l -2G
[c] -3G
rdJ -4G
P age 6.9 All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limitations
CIRCULATION AJim RESPIRATION
Continued human performance in any environment requires an unin-
terrupted supply of frcsbJy oxygenated blood to the brain. This flow
is so important that the brain continually monitors both the quantity
and quality of its blood supply. sending commands to the heart to
adjust its pumping rate, and to the lungs to adjust d1e breathing rate
LUNGS to ensure an adequate supply of oxygen is being delivered.
Once its supply of oxygen has been delivered to the brain and the
rest of the body. the deoxygenated blood returns to the heart where
it passes through a system of valves. arte1ies and veins.
The heart receives the deoxygenated blood and directs it to the lungs.
where it gives up its carbon dioxide and collects a fresh s upply of
oxygen.
The blood contains a substance called haemoglobin. an iron-rich

pigment which is the main component of each red blood cell . The
most imp011ant property of haemoglobin is its ability to combine
loosely with oxygen. ln the lungs. each passing haemoglobin mol-
ecule picks up as many as four oxygen molecules and carries them.
via the blood stream to the body's tissues.
HEART
When the haemoglobin has collected its complement of oxygen
molecules, the oxygenated blood is returned from the lungs to the
heart where it is pumped through the aorta to recirculate to the brain and the rest of the body.
The brain docs not monitor the oxygen level of the blood directly, instead. it reacts to changes in the carbon dioxide
content of the blood.
If the brain detects a rise in carbon diollidc levels in the blood it assumes that the body is in a state of exertion so it
sends a command to increase the breathing rate [puffing]. This system works quite well for su rface-dwe llers. si nce the
need for extra oxygen is accompanied by the rise in carbon dioxide levels associated with hard physical work.
However, d1c system cannot be relied on when we liy s ince a lack of oxygen at high altitude is not associated
with physical exertion. There is no increase in carbon dioxide levels so the brain docs not react by increas ing the
brcatning rate.
HYPOXIA
The composition of the atmosphere is about 78% nitrogen. 20% oxygen and 2% carbon dioxide with traces of other
rarer gases. This ratio of component gases remains constant as altitude increases, so it is not true to say that there
is a lower percemage of oxygen at nigh altitudes - 20% of the atmosphere is oxygen at sea-leve l and 20% of the
atmosphere is oxygen at any other altitude. If the total sea-leve l pressure of the atmosphere was I013 hPa. 20% of
that would be due to oxygen i.e. 202.6 hPa. This is called the partial pressure of oxygen. At 36,090 feet the total
pressure of the atmosphere would have dropped to only 226 hPa and 20% of that would be due to oxygen: so the
partial pressure of oxygen would be only 45.2 hPa.
The transfer of oxygen into the blood stream depends upon the partial pressure within the lungs. Even if the lungs
were filled with 100% oxygen, none would enter the blood stream if the pressure was too low. You learned early
in your flying training that atmospheric pressure drops as height is increased. At 10000 feet the blood is sti ll about
90% saturated with oxygen and a normal healthy person feels no noticeable effect. As height is increased above
I0000 feet. the partial pressure of oxygen drops to the point where the transfer of oxygen to the blood stream is
impaired. At 33.700 feet without cabin prcssurisation. it becomes necessary to breathe pure [100%] oxygen to
maintain an adequate blood saturation level.
Blood oxygen levels can be maintained at altitude by p ressu rising the cabin to maintain a pressure equal to that at
about 8000 feet. or by us ing an o xygen mask to increase the percentage of oxygen in the air being breathed. This
increases the partial pressure of oxygen within the lungs.
All Rig hts Reserved© 2009 Human Performance & Limitations Page 7.1
HYPOXIA -THE SUBTLE DE CEPTIO N If flight to high a ltitude is continued without pressuri sation or sup-
plemental oxygen, the oxygen levels in the blood begin to fall. However s ince the carbon dioxide levels have not
changed, the brain remains complete ly unaware of the oxygen crisis. There is no feeling of suffocation because
the lungs can still be fi ll ed easily to capacity with the low pressure air. While the pilot feels perfectly comfortable,
the brain is being starved of oxygen. Th is state of oxygen deprivation is called hypoxia and the early symptoms
resemble mild intoxication with alcohol, along with a marked reduction in night vision. Later symptoms inc lude
s lowed th inking and impaired judgemelll accompanied by a feeling of euphoria and the impress ion that perform-
ance is actually above average.
As the hypoxia worsens, the behaviour is likely to beco me more erratic [even bizarre]! Eventually unconsciousness
will occur, but at no time wi ll the subject have any feeling of suffocation or become otherwise distressed. Cyanosis,
a blue coloration of the lips and fingernails. is usuall y evident in the more advanced stages. A few breaths of 01tygen
will usually provide full recovery in a few seconds with the s ubject reporting no memory of his/her actions while
in the hypoxic state.
EFFECT IVE PER FORMANCE T IME [E PT] Also called the Time o.f Useful Consciousness, thi s term refers to
the time avai lable for clear thinking and meaningful actions before becom ing confused. and eventuall y unconscious,
after being deprived of oxygen at· various heights. [These .figures assume a normal healthy subject}.
Altitude [feet] Mod er ate activity [pilot] Sittin g quietly [passenger] 20,00() f~XI
tl 1md I reel
'(>; •
0
'
0
'(r
ORBATII
20000 10 minutes 20 minutes
25000 3 minutes 5 minutes ••

*
30000 1 minute 3 minutes tl
Below is the resul t of an actua l flight test demonstrating the effect of hypoxia o n the handwrit ing of a subject who
was taken to an altitude of 25 000 ft without oxygen. After being supplied with oxygen at 25 000 ft, the climb was
continued to .30 000 Ft. The subject was 11sked to supply written comments at various altitudes during the ascent.
Altitude Handwriting sample Remarks
2000 fl ()_ '1. -,,A 7 ,__....) 1.~ - Control specimen of normal hand-
writing
'<'-'J.-;,/Y'J-<-~ 'J..t;//, a? ~ If
10 000 ft No apparent effect.
Beginning muscular uncoordina-

15 000 ft Lion
18 000 ft ' I' 1- /YO /4

rY ' -~,V1tiJ
,/ Definite physical and mental inef-
ficie ncy
Last zero left off both L8000 and
20 000 f1 20000. Marked uncoord ination
22 000 ft Feeling better!!! Evidence of false

feeling of well-being.
Feel good!! Insight. judgement and

23 000 ft co-ordination very faulty.
c ,. t ~
'· ~ I . 'J ' .. ·It / ..
24 000 fl ~ 1 . ·_.:;.- .. ( Mental and physical helplessness.
'
,. e *.f rr; ·. ·~., 4 . ·· J..<V
-. ]h..,t.v ~n
-. Improvement with a few breaths
25 000 ft ' . • ,. i ) , •
of oxygen.
I
Page 7.2 Human Performance & Limitations Bob Tai t's Aviation Theory School
Increased suscep tibility to h ypoxia Under some circumstances, inclucling medical conditions, there may be an
increased susceptibili ty to the effects of hypoxia. While it is not expected that the medical conditions would be
affecting the flight crew. they should be home in mind with respect to the carriage of passengers.
[a] Night vision- Lhe rods of the retina that are used for vision at night are extremely sensitive to oxygen lack.
Degradation of night vision begins at about 4000 ft.
[b) Smoking- the regular heavy smoker is likely to have up to 10% of the blood's haemoglobin occupied by
carbon monoxide and not available for oxygen carriage. Even at 5% saturation he/she is effectively up to 8000
ft altitude before leaving lhe ground. However. this difference reduces as height is increased because the drop of
pressure with increasing height is not linear. By the time the smoker with 5% saturation is at 5000 feet, his effective
altitude is about 10 000 feet.
The carbon monoxide in cigarelle smoke 'hijacks'

Carboxyhaemoglobin saturation % the haemoglobin in the blood which normally trans-
ports oxygen armmd the body.lt forms a compound
called Carboxyhaemoglobin.
Once the carbon monoxide has bound to the haemo-

globin. there is no place for oxygen molecules. All
nervous tissue,especially the brain, is very sensitive
to lack of oxygen so performance drops.
Lcj Alcohol- the effects on the brain are similar

] 10~~--~~----~----~~----~
to those of hypoxia. Their separate effects are addi-
:a
~
tive.
0%
Ld] Cold and fatigue- both will erlhance the ef-
fects ofhypoxia. Remembertheambienttemperature
at lO 000 ft may be below o•c.
[e] Chronic respiratory disease- conditions such

as emphysema and asthma restrict air entry to the
0 10 15 20 lungs and the subject may be relatively hypoxic on
Actual altitude in thousands of feet the ground. An increase in altitude will increase the
degree of hypoxia.
(fj Hearl disease- some types of bean disease, particularly congenital, result in poor oxygenatlou of the blood.
This will be aggravated by increased altitude.
[g) Anaemia- in this condition there is a decrease in the amount of haemoglobin available to carry oxygen to
the tissues. Any decrease in oxygen availability soon leads to hypoxia.
H yperventilation Superficially. it might be anticipated that lack of oxygen could be compensated for by breathing
more rapidly. This indeed is tnte during exercise at ground-level when the whole circulation accelerates to carry
larger amounts of oxygen. But at rest. with the circulation in the resting phase. the major effect is to wash out the
body's carbon dioxide without increasing the oxygen carried. This is true at all altitudes because the determinant
of the oxygen saturation of the blood is the pressure of oxygen in the lungs, not the volume that can be breathed
in and out.
Overbreatbing Lhyperventilation I produces symptoms that have some similarity to hypoxia, in that brain function
is slowed. ln addition there is a feeling of light-headedness and ringling in the arms and hands. This can be repro-
duced quite easi ly by breathing deeply and rapidly for about a minute or so whi le s ilting in a chair. Continuation
of over breathing can lead to loss of consciousness. Tt is therefore important not to voluntarily increase tho:: rate of
respiration if it is thought that there is an oxygen shortage. Holding the breath or voluntari.ly decreas ing the rate
of breathing will help alleviate the symptoms. Breathing into a paper bag held over the nose and mouth causes the
exhaled breath to be rebreathed. This will rapidly increase the carbon dioxide level of the blood and restore normal
breathing however it is usually recommended only as a last reso11.
Effects of r educed pressure As bas been seen.tbe reduction in air pressure due to increased altirude reduces the
amount of oxygen. However, other effects occur due to the reduced pressure of the other coosti tuents [predominantly
nitrogen! of air. Reducing the pressure of any gas causes it to expand. Gas trapped in body cavities- gut. middle ear.
sinuses and occasionally teeth -will expand as the altitude increases. Usually this escapes easily- wind is passed,
the ears pop etc. If lbe gas cam1ot escape it can cause colic in the abdomen or toothache. Descent to a lower level
wiJI relieve lhe symptoms. [High altirude flyers are warned against eating cabbage!]
Ears and sinuses normally allow expanding gases to escape but. when lhe gas contracts as the pressure increases
on descent.lbey may not allow air to equalise in pressure. This can result in a painful or ruptured eardrum or acute
sinus pain. It usually occurs with a head cold. Relief may be obtained by stopping the descent or even ascending
for a short period.
Nitrogen dissolves to a small extent in body fluids. When the ambient pressure is reduced the effect ean be akin
to releasing the cap of a carbonated drink bottle i.e. small bubbles can fom1 in the fluid. This effect does not oc-
cur below 18 000 ft, is uncommon below 25 000 ft and takes an appreciable time at a!litude to manifest itself. It
produces decompression sickness the commonest form of which is the bends.
The bends result in pain. First a dull ache but steadily increasing in intensity around the large joints particularly
the knee shoulder or elbow. An X-ray wou ld reveal bubbles of gas around the joint. Complete relief is obtained on
decreasing the altitude, but a person who is susceptible is likely to suffer the symptoms of each altitude exposure.
Other less common manifestations of decompression sickness are a painful choking sensation .tiJlgling sensations
or paralysis of limbs.
Rapid decompression One of the most alarming events which can be encountered in high-flying pressurised
aircraft is a sudden loss of cabin pressure. This can occur because of fail ure of a door or window. Failure of the
pressurisation system itself is more likely to result in a slow drop of cabin pressure. The effects of rapid decom-
pression include: Breath forcibly exhaled from the lungs; a sudden drop in cabin temperature; pain in the stomach.
cars and sinuses; turbulent wind as the air escapes violent ly from the cabin carrying loose paper and clothing wilh
it and a sudden increase in noise level. On the rare occasions when rapid decompression has happened in large
passenger-carrying aircraft. the crews have often reported that one of the most urgent problems was handling the
passengers who became extremely frightened or even hysterical.
From sea-level to 10 000 feet, no supplememal oxygen is required for a
pilot to satisfac totily perform the nonnal cockpit duties. By 10 000 feet
however, there is a measurable degradation in night vision and some of the
higher mental functions.
From I 0 000 feet to 25 000 feet a cominuous flow oxygen mask is adequate.
This system simply allows oxygen to flow continuously into a storage bag
attached to the mask. When the user inhales, oxygen is drawn from the stor-
age bag umil it deflates. then ambiem air is inhaled to satisfy the remaining
capacity of the lungs. II is cheap and simple but relatively inefficient.
From 25 000 feet to 40 000 feet a demand oxygen mask is used. h is

equipped wi th a system of valves which allow more efticiem control over
the oxygen flow. The system supplies increasingly higher percentages of
oxygen until from 33 700 feet to 40 000 feet 100% oxygen is being inhaled.
Above 40 000 feet. the partial pressure is so low that even breathing I 00%
oxygen does not supply the blood with sufficient oxygen. A pressure
demand mask is required to supply 100% oxygen under increased pressure
to the lungs. These masks are very uncomfortable to use and are intended
for use only while an emergency descent is made to a more comfortable
level.
Note that, compared to sitti11g quietly, oxyge11 uptake during a life-threatelling em ergency call i11crease by a
factor of20!
All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Pe1formance & Limitations Page 7.5
REVISION EXERCISE 7
Question No 1
The transfer of oxygen to the blood stream during respiration depends most directly upon
[a) the breathing rate
[bl the partial pressure of oxygen within the lungs
[c) the percentage of lung capacity achieved with each breath [depth of breathing[
[d] the volume of oxygen inhaled with each breath
Question No 2
The componelll of blood which is most directly involved in the transport of oxygen throughout the body is
[a) the plasma
[b] haemoglobin
[c] the white blood cells
l d) the red blood cells
Question No 3
When suffering from hypoxia at high level in an unpressurised aircraft. the pilot or passengers feel no unpleasant
suffocating sensation because
[a) in the absence of physical exertion. there is no change in the carbon dioxide level in the blood
so the brain docs not respond
[b] there is a subconscious increase in breathing rate to compensate for the dropping ambient
atmospheric pressure
[c] the heart rate increases to increase the blood flow to the brain to compensate for the dropping
ambient atmospheric pressure
[d] the drop in partial pressure of oxygen is accompanied by a similar drop in the partial pressure
of carbon diox ide
Question No 4
If a pi lot suspects that he/she is suffering the effects of hypoxia. the most appropriate remedy would be
[a] voluntarily increase the breathing rate to increase the oxygen uptake
[b] voluntarily increase the depth of breathing to induce more oxygen into the lungs
[c] voluntarily increase both the rate and depth of breathing
[d] usc supplemental oxygen or descend immediately to a lower leve l
Question No 5
In the event of a sudden loss of cabin pressure at 30000 ft, the Effective Perfom1ance T ime [EPT] for a pilot
w ithout supplemental oxygen would be approx imately
[a) 5 minutes
[b] 2 minutes
[c] I minute
[d] 15 seconds
Question No 6
Which of the following is not normally a symptom of hypoxia?
[a) cyanosis
[b] a feeling of euphoria
[c] severe headache
[d) erratic behaviour
Question No 7
CAO 20.4.7 requires that supplementa l oxygen be provided and used by the pilot at all times during flight above
[a] 20000 feet
[b] 10000 feet
[c] 14000 feet
[d] 8000 feet
Questioo No 8
One of the effects of hypoxia is a degradation of night vision. This effect begins at about
[a] 4000 feel
[b I l0000 feet
[c] 14000 feet
[d] 20000 feet
Question No 9
Each passenger must be provided with supplemental oxygen for all of the time at which an unpressurised aircraft
is operating above
[a] 20000 feet
[b] 10000 feet
[c) 14000 feet
[d] 8000 feet
Question No JO
Which of the following will increase susceptibility to hypoxia
(a] smoking and alcohol
[b] anaemia
[c] cold and farigue
[d] a II of these
Question No lJ
The average time of useful consciousness for a passenger sitting quietly following a rapid decompression at
30000 feet is closest to
[a) 3 minutes
[b] 5 minutes
[c] 1 minute
[d) 10 minutes
Question No 12
Oxygen is transported around the body by
[a] haemoglobin
[b) white blood cells
[c] plasma
[d] the nervous system
Question No 13
The average time of useful consciousness while engaged in moderate activity following a rapid decompression at
25000 feet is
[a) 1 minute
[b) 3 minutes
[c) 5 minutes
[d) 10 minutes
Question No 14
A heavy smoker will suffer the effectS of hypoxia at a lower altitude than a non-smoker. While flying at an alii-
tude of 5000 feet , a heavy smoker could be experiencing the same degree of hypoxia as a non-smoker at
[a] 5000 feet
[b) 10000 feet
[c] 15000feet
[d] 20 000 feet
All RightS Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limitations Page 7.7
Q uestion No 15
Hypoxia may be caused by
[a] flying with a head cold
[b) flying at an altitude where the partial pressure of oxygen is too low
[c) breathing too quickly and/or too deeply for the requirements of the body
[d) flying after a period of underwater diving
Question No 16
Hypoxia is always accompanied by
[a] high temperature and vomiting
[b] dizziness
[c] profuse sweating
[d] a degradation in the performance of a pi lot
Question No 17
Which of the fol.lowing would not increase the likelihood of suffering the effects of hypoxia at a relatively low
altitude
[a] flying at night
[b] flying with an elevated blood alcohol level
[c) flying in a poor state of physical fimess
[d) smoking heavily
Question No 18
The time of useful consciousness [Effective Perfom1ance Time - EPT] while cruising at an altitude of 20 000 feet
and si tting quietly would be about
[a] I minute
[b] 20 minutes
[c J IS minmes
[d) 5 minutes
Question No 19
The symptoms of hyperventilation are
[a] quite similar to those of hypoxia
[b] quite different to those of hypoxia
[c) a blue colouring of the lips and fingernails [cyanosis]
[d] profuse sweating
Question No 20
Above which altitude does it first become necessary for the pilot of an unpressurised aircraft to breathe pure
[100%] oxygen?
[a] 10 000 feet
[b] 33 700 feet
[c] 40 000 feet
[d] 45 000 feet
Question No 21
Above which altitude does it first become necessary for the pilot of an unpressurised aircraft to breathe pure
[100%] oxygen under pressure?
[a] 10 000 feet
[b] 20 000 feet
[cj 40 000 feet
[d] 45 000 feet
Question No 22
Cyanosis can be identified by
[a] rapid breathing
[b J a blue coloration of the finger-nail beds and lips
[c) s.lurred speech
[d] difficu lty in maimaining balance
Question No 23
Compared to siuing quiet ly in a normal cockpit environment. the uptake of oxygen when under stress of coping
wirh a life-threatening emergency can be increased by a factor of
[a] 2
[b] LO
[c] 20
[d] 5
Question No 24
The most likely immediate effect of a sudden decompression at 35 000 feet would be
[a] pains in the stomach
[b I the forced exhalation of breath
[c] gasping for air
[d] dizziness
Question No 25
A regular smoker at sea-level can be assumed to be at an effective altitude of
[a] 2000 feet
[b] 5000 feet
[c) 8000 feet
[d] 10 000 feet
Question No 26
The average time of useful consciousness when engaged in moderate activity following a rapid decompression at
20000 ft is closest to
[a] 10 minutes
[b] 5 minutes
[c] 3 minutes
[d] I minute
Question No 27
Oxygen is transported around the body in the blood by
[a] haemoglobin
[b] white blood cells
[c] leukocytes
[d] plasma
Question No 28
The average time of useful consciousness when engaged in moderate activi ty following a decompression
at 30000 ft is closest to
[a] 30 seconds
[b) I minute
[c] 5 minutes
[d] I0 minutes
Question No 29
A smoker who has an elevated level of carbon monoxide in the blood stream may suffer <l greater reduction in
performance as alt itude increases compared to a non smoker. This is because at a cabin altitude of 5000 ft, the
physiological altitude of a smoker with a 5% carboxyhaemoglobin saturation can be up to
[a] 7000 ft
[b[ 10000 ft
[c] 15000 ft
(d] 20000 ft
Question No 30
Hypoxia may be caused by
[a] flying with a head cold
[bl flying at an allitude where the partial pressure of oxygen is too low
[c] breathing too quickly for the amount of activity
[d) flying after scuba diving
Question No 31
Hypoxia is always accompanied by
[a] unconscious ness
[b] dizziness
[c) a deterioration in flying performance
[d] perspiration
Question No 32
Susceptibility to hypoxia will not be increased by
[a] flying at night
[b] flying with a hangover
[c] lack of physical fimess
[d] cigarette smoking
[e] excessively cold environment
Question No 33
The time of useful consciousness while cruising at FL200 following an oxygen supply failure and while sitting
quietly is usually closest to
[a] 1 minme
[b] 20 minutes
rcl 15 minutes
[d) 10 minutes
Question No 34
Under what circumstances should 100% oxygen be given to a passenger
[a] if they are hyperventi lating
[b) if they are suffering from the bends
[c] if they are suffering from carbon monoxide poisoning
[d] if they are suffering from hypoglycaem ia
Q uestion No 35
Hyperventilation
[a] produces a chemical imbalance in the body which may give rise to symptoms that are often
mistaken for hypox ia
[b) is not likely if a person is breathing from supplementary oxygen
[c I cannot lead to unconsciousness
[d) is usually due to factors other than anxiety or apprehension
Question No 36
One method recommended to help overcome 'hypt:rvemilation ' is to
[a] breathe more deeply and at a slightly faster rate
[b] hold your breath, or try to breathe more s lowly
[c] hold your nose and blow out hard
[d] avoid reading 'Penthouse' during class
Question No 37
lf you are experiencing fee lings of warmth and well being, associated with blue discolouration around the lips and
fingernails, you may be sufferi ng from
[a] hyperventilation
[b] the 'bends'
[c] CO poisoning
[d] hypoxia
Question No 38
Many of the symptoms of hypoxia and hyperventilation appear the same. To assist in deciding the condition being
experienced
[a] only hypoxia causes tingling sensations
[b] only hypervemilation causes blue colouration around the extremities of the body
[c] only hyperventilation causes feelings of warmth and we ll being
[d] only hypoxia causes b lue colouring around the lips
Question No 39
A tingling feeling in the extremities is a symptom of
[b] carbon monoxide poisoning
[c] hypoxia
[d] the bends
Question No 40
A voluntary reduction in the rate of respiration is a treatment for
[b] carbon monoxide poisoning
[c] hypoxia
[d] the bends
Question No 41
A pilot s hould breathe 100% oxygen under pressure above a cabin altitude of
[a] 20000 ft
[bJ 30000 ft
[c] 40000 ft
[d] 45000 ft
Question No 42
As altitude is increased, the percemage of oxygen present in tbe atmosphere I
[a] remains constant I I
0
[b J decreases
0
• I
0
[c J increases I
0
[d] decreases then increases

I
0
I
0
All Rig hts Reserved© 2009 Hu man Performance & Limi tations Page 7.11
HUMAN FACTORS CONSIDERATIONS
ONCE MOST AVIATION ACCIDENTS WERE CAUSED BY BAD ENGINEERING!
On the 6th May 1937 the Hindenburg burst into flames as it approached its moorings
at Lakehm·st. New Jersey. Amazingly 62 of the 97 people on board survived!
Since d1en human ingenuity ;md des ign skills have placed men on the moon and
soft-hmded vehicles on Venus and Mars, yet aviation accidents still occur, and when
they do. the failure in about 80% of cases can be traced to ilie human factor.
Frequently there are no survivors.
Ln this section we examine the human 'liveware'

f;t How do we maintain a situational awareness
{K What is involved in the decision making process
ik What is meant by personality and what part does it play in flying
~ What effect does stress have and how can it be managed

f;t What effect does fatigue and poor cock-pit design have on performance?
THE AWESOME COMPLEXJTY OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

In the fifth century BC. Hippocrates made the following observation. "From 1he brain and ji·om !he brain only.
arise our pleasures. joys. laughter, and jests as well as our sorrows, pains, griefs, and fears." Nearly twenty five
centuries later, we have learned a great deal more about ilie physiology of ilie central nervous system. but when it
comes to understanding the mechanisms of consciousness ;md perception we know little more than he did!
Why can an idiot savant calculate ilie cube root of a six digit number in six seconds, or teiJ you on which day of
the week d1e sixth of June will fall in one thousand years time. while remaining quite incompetent in normal brain
function? The short answer of course is iliat we just don't know.
We know that the brain is an incredibly complex org<m. by one estimate capable of holding 100 million million bits
of information. yet we know almost noiliing about where iliat information is stored or bow it is processed. The best
science can do is to invent models of how the brain may be organised and d1en conduct experiments to confirm or
disprove that model. In iliis section we will refer to some of these models. however it should be remembered that
the most useful infom1ation can be gained simply by learning from the various inc idents wh ich have occurred in
the real world - the 'University of Hard Knocks!'
T HE DECISION MAKING PROCESS [A model]

At any given moment human behaviour is the result of two levels of action. Subconscious or reflex actions which
occur below ilie threshold of awareness. and deliberate conscious actions which are initiated after the brain has
processed ilie relevant information received from the various senses. Situational awareness begins with the arrival
of information from visual. audio. vestibu lar and proprioceptive sources. Proprioceptive [also called postural]
information is received from forces and pressures acting on the muscles and skeletal joints.
Page 8. 1 All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limitations

The sensor y mem ory. This information is first directed to the brain's sensory memory where it is soned. Some of it
triggers reflexes s uch as keeping balance, or is directed to subconscious actions suc h as movements of the steering
wheel of a car while driving. Some o f it is passed on to the brain's short term memory for further allention wh ile
some is si mply discarded. The sensory memory is constantly being flooded with inputs from the environment and
can hold any one item for only a very shan Li me. Visual information is held in the sensory memory for only between
half a second to one second. If it is not then passed on to Lhe shon term memory it is lost. The well known , 'which
c up is the pea under?' trick is a test of sensory memory for vision.
Auditory information [sounds] are held for between four and eight seconds before they are lost. This makes it possible
to 'replay' something that was sa id a few seconds ago even though we were not actua ll y listening at the Lime.
The sh ort term mem ory. The s hort term memory holds only about seven items of information for about thirty
seconds or so- a good example is a phone number. Its perfom1ance can be enhanced a little by clumking [groupi ng]
individual items into blocks {www.mvlink.coml-donc/arldhrdlleaminglmemory.htmlj. This technique is commonly
used in phone numbers when 32778840 is remembered as 'Lhree two double seven, double eiglu , four zero'. The double
seven and double eight is treated as a s ingle item therefore reducing the total number of items to be remembered.
Another interesting thing that researc h has revealed about the short term memory is that it appears to be acoustic.
That is it stores information as sounds rather than mental piciures - once again the example of the phone number
illustrates this. Also. despite its short duration. the short term memory is almost error free! If you were asked to
remember five digits or Jeners for fifteen seconds. your performance would be likely to be 100%.
The long term m emory. The long term memory persists for minutes to an entire Lifetime and its capacity almost
defies belief, but unlike the short term memory, it is very susceptible to error. Long term memory seems to rely
to a great extent on associati11g new information with existing information. We find it muc h easier to Jearn and
remember when we are dealing wi lh material which is similar to that which has already been leamed. ln fact one of
the best known axioms of teaching is to 'proceed from Lhe known to the unknown', that is to associate new material
with that which has already been learned.
The long te rm memory already

discussed can be further catego-
rised according to Lhe type of data
which is stored. Epis odic m emor y
contains the past evems which h ave
Ears- occurred along with Lheir outcomes.
audio and "The last Lime I did this, Lhat hap-
Eyes- Musc les and joinrs- pened." This is an important part of
vestibular input.
visual input. Proprioceptive input. the learning process.
Semantic m emor y assigns mean-

ing to symbols. codes or words such
as logos, and flags. The semantic
memory allows us to take in infor-
mation in the form of abbreviated
&
subconscious aclion
Sensory n1emory ,z;;_.,, graphic signs in public places indi-
cating such Lhings as infonnation
comparing&
booths, toilets, lifts, first aid e tc.
remembering
Motor skil.ls m em ory. Com plex
indiv idual tasks which have been
Short term
Long term
linked through t:raining and practice
or working become skills. These s kills are con-
memory
memory
tained in the motor skills memory.
When a pilot fi rst learns to hover a
helicopter. it takes al l of h is atten-
conscious action
tion and concentration [formulation
RESPONSE Central of the motor sk ill ]. However, once
Decision
Maker
Hu man Performance & Limitations Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School Page 8.2
the individual actions have been cemented into a skill [teaming of the motor skill], very little conscious effort is
required and the brain is free to deal with other things such as radio procedures and discussions with passengers
[execwion of the motor skill]. These skills are sometimes called 'mo10r programs' and they are capable of being
performed quite subconsciously; for example a guitarist who carries on a conversation wh il e continuing to play
the instnunent. Because they are subconsciously stored as a set of automatic actions. errors of execution are rare.
The most likely error associated with motor skills is in the iniriarion of the incorrect skill rather than an error in
execution. For example the pilot selects undercarriage up after landing instead of flaps up but finds it difficult to
remember which action he actually did perform.
For an item to pass from the short tenn memory to the long term memory it must be consolidared. Consolidation
requires rehearsal [repetition or study). Consolidated items are then assigned to a category of re lated items. For
example you meet someone who knows a mutual friend whom you haven't seen for many years. First you recall
your friend's name and face. then comes a cascade of associated memories which you effortlessly recall - the car
he owned, the house he li ved in. the blue cattle dog that sat on his front steps, even the way he spoke and often you
can reca ll almost word for word sentences that were spoken by him years ago.
The sensory memory, the short term memory and long term memory are involved in the decision making proc-
ess.
Analysis of aircraft accidents over the years has shown that accidents caused by bad or inappropriate decisions oc-
cur with almost equal frequency across the entire spectrum of pilot experience. Having many years of experience
with thousands of hours in your log book does nor guaranree that your next operational decision will be a good
and appropriate one! Even though experienced pilots wou ld have accumulated a good long tenn memory base of
procedures and past experiences, if the visual, audio, vestibular or postural inputs are misinterpreted. the decision
making process is compromised. When vital elements of sensory input are misinterpreted or disregarded, situational
awareness suffers and the resulting bad decisions can have catastrophic consequences. as we shall see later.
Limitations of the centr al decision maker and information processing. Even though it is possible to do two
things at once by carrying out a motor skill like lowering the undercarriage while doing something else like having
a conversation with ATC , if one of these tasks demands more attention the other will be 'put on the back burner'.
For example, if the undercarriage lever jammed, the conversation with ATC would be likely to stop or if tl1e radio
failed, the attention to the undercarriage wou ld be likely to suffer. As stress on the pilot increases, the attention span
narrows to deal with the problem. The rate of information processing actually increases under stress. however the
range of allenrion [the number of individual items included in the att.ention span) decreases. The guirarist srops
wfking ro you when he has to play a more compficared piece. On the other hand, during a long flight on autopilot
over featureless boring terrain, the pilot's rate of information processing will decrease whi le the range of items will
increase to include such things as tonight's supermarket shopping list!
Our attention can be sefecrive or divided. Selective attention applies when all of our attention is focused on those
input data which are specific to the particular task at hand to the exclusion of any irrelevant data. Even when we
operate in this selective attention mode we are still surprisingly sensitive to infonnation which is relevant to us even
though we may not be focused on its source. The 'cocktail party effect' describes the phenomenon which allows
us to 'prick our ears' whenever we hear our name mentioned in background chatter even when we are preoccupied
with another activity. This effect allows us to respond to our call sign on the radio in s pite of having to deal with
other unrelated tasks. When under stress we tend to resort to selective attention mode and deal with each item
before moving on to the next. This is sometimes called selective sequential attention.
Divided attention applies when the sitt1ation requires us to perlonn separate tasks simultaneously. During a land-
ing we must remain aware of our height above the ground. the direction of the aircraft. the w ind component and
the airspeed displayed in the cockpit. This requires our attention to be divided and is usually accomplished by
scaoning rapidly from one item to the next. This mode is sometimes described as divided sequential. Once again
the process of selective or divided attention depends largely on our spare mental capacity. If during a landing, too
much attention is paid to the airspeed indication, the chances are that e n·ors in direction, heig ht , or allowing for
wind will occur.
Central to the design of cockpit e nvironments is the crew's capacity to cope in an emergency situation. This de-
pends largely on the spare mental capacity of the individual crew members under conditions of increasing mental
processing and reducing attention scope.
Page .8.3 All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limitations
PERSONALITY AND DECISION MAKING
The ancient Greeks ident.ified four basic types of
personalities which even today still provide a useful
STABLE description of most indiv idua ls. The divisions are not
clear cut, but rather there is a gradual cbange be tween
tbe extremes. The horizontal axis grades from intro-
verted I turned inwards- quiet and shy] to extroverted
[turned outwards- impacting strongly on others].
Phe lgmatic: Sanguine:
Stable introvert Stable extrove rt
Ic heerful] tri The vertical axis grades from stable !consistent and
[cool -self assuredj
~ unaffected by circu mstances). to anxious or unstable
-===::::=::~===~ ~====~::::::::::~ 0 [unpredictable and easily affected by circumstances !.
~ No one individual fits neatly into any one category, but
Cho leric: ll:l most of us 'defau lt' into one of the four quadrants most
Me lancholic:
Anxious introvelt Anx ious extrovert -l of the time. You probably wont be surpri sed to hear
[moody - sad] [hot tempered] that the personality type most likel y to have an accident
due to risk taking is the anxious extravert. Which one
do you rhink best describes you!
Anothe r way to define personality types is in terms

ANXIOUS of the desire to achieve goals [goal directed] and the
[UNST ABLE] desire to fi t in with a team and keep other me mbers
of the team happy [person directed]. Some personali-
PERSON-D.I RECTED ties have a great determination to achieve a goal but
P+ show li ttle regard for the feelings of otl1crs involved
IG+P- types].
Othe rs are so concerned with keeping everybody

happy that they are prepared to compromise their goals
0 LP+G- types].ldeally pilots will be G+P+ ty pes. A good
0 captain will be just as concerned with main taining the
)>
\ respect and cooperation of the crew as he/she is with
0 achieving hi gh operating standards
~-;3
~
G- Decisions are not mere ly the result of 'hard-wired' re-
G+
sponses in the centra l nervous system , but arc greatly
in fluenced by the personality of the individual. Two
people with very similar experience and background,
faced with identical situations o ften make quite differ-
ent decisions based on the personality of each. Studies
P- have shown that an unstable extrovert is much more
like ly to be involved in a driv ing accident than a stable
introvert. wh ile subjects who identified themselves as 'adventurous' were more likely to be in-
volved in nying acc idents. Psychologists have identified the following s ix persona lity-generated
hazardous aflirudes wh ic h affect human behaviour and dec is ion making.
ANTI-AUTHORITY "Listen mate, who's pluckin' this chook !"A refusal to listen to the advice
or s uggesti ons o f others. A contempt for a ll regulation even when that regu lation is reasonable
and necessary. "Nobody te lls me what to do- I'll do it my way!" You don't have to look very far
in av iation to lind examples of this type of thinking.
DEFERENCE "Don't look at me- I only work he re!" Whatever goes wrong is never his/her
fault, but is always the fault of some othe r person o r ci rcumstance. This te nde ncy to defer to the
opinio ns o f others without considering some initi ative of your own has comributed to accidents
and incidents in av iation. The capta in makes a decision that is clearly unsafe and the first ofiicer
comments. The capta in replies that he knows what he's doi ng and is sure that it is safe so the
fi rst officer 'crawb back under his roc k' and accepts it without further comment.
Human Performance & Lim itations Bob Tait's Av iation Theory School Page 8.4
IMPULSIVENESS The tendency to commi t to a certain course of action without giving thought
to the possible consequences. This behaviour is often found in 'beat-ups' as pilots departing
or arriving at venues where fri ends are present decide to put on a 'demo'. Even ex perienced
airshow pilots or cropdusters have been caught by the unp lanned 'spur of the moment' action.
Unfortunately the outcome is often tragic because of the unseen obstacle. or lack of sufficient
airspeed or power.
INVULNERABILITY Th is is the. 'II ca11'1 happe11 10 me' syndrome. "I can't find the dipstick
so I haven't dipped the tanks- bu t I'm sure it will be OK!"
MACHO "There's nothing I can't do- and there's nothing I won't try!" "Real men don't eat
quiche- and real men aren't afraid to take on a bit of weather, or ny a bi t overweight, or take a
chance now and then with fuel reserves! "
RESIGNATI ON This is an unwillingness to take control of a situation and do something dif-

ferent when the unexpected happens.
"Ah well, there's nothing I can do about it now! The weather is getting worse and daylight is
beginning to fade - alii can do is press on and hope for the best!"
Additiona l personality-related factors that influence performance and deci sion making are pride, peer pressure and
employer pressure. These factors are likely to be most significant in the very early days of a pilot's first job.
PRIDE A pilot who ha~ recently qualified is naturally keen to demonstrate his/her new skills. Pride can be a positive
attribme, but it must not be allowed to interfere with the need to learn from the experience and wisdom of others.
PEER PRESSURE In many ways, peer pressure is just another form of pride. It includes the desire to land at the
short strip that others have landed at, to complete a bad weather circuit and landing in conditions that others have
coped with etc. Even though peer pressure is perfectly understandable, the desire to do what others can do should
be tempered with a real istic appreciation of our own limitations and experience level.
EMPLOYER PRESSURE This can be a two-edged sword. Apart from a desire to please and impress a new
employer, there is the fear that underachieving could cost the pilot his/her job.ln many cases employer pressure is
imagined to be much greater th<m it actually is . and a frauk discussion wi th most employers would do much to reas-
sure the pilot that his/her limitations arc understood and that the employer will not be impressed by risk-taking.
BEHAVIOUR
Human behaviour is largely the result of processing information which arrives through the various senses. There
arc clearly defined steps involved in iuformation processing.
Sensation Light entering my eye from outside

RESPONSE stimulates the optic oerve and carries infoilllation
DECISION to my brain.
PERCEPTION Per ception My brain perceives that this is the image
S ENSA TION of another aircraft which is remaining stationary in
the windscreen.
Decision Through my long term memory l realise
that this indicates a danger of collision. sol decide to change my present cruising level and continue watching the
other aircraft.
Response 1 take the appropriate actions to initiate the level change and advise the appropriate stations of my
intentions.
M ENTAL C APAC ITY

Even though the brain holds a massive amount of information. it can consciously think upon only one item at a time.
It can however perform more than one learned motor skill at a time, e.g: circus performers who ride a unicycle and
j uggle balls at the same time. Wh ile performing appropriate moror ski lls. a pilot can th ink of what radio
Page .8.5 All Rights Reserved© 2009 Human Pe1formance & Limitations
frequency is required while seuing a transponder code. The brain achieves this feat by quickly scanning between
each conscious task- it still however. can dea l with only one at any one instant. The number of tasks that can be dealt
with iJl this manner depends to a very large extent on the complexity of cach.lf one task begins to demand more
processing time. it will be at the expense of the others. Mental capacity is finite and if too much is demanded by any
one item. the brain will begin 'load shedding' by dropping some of the other items from the cycle of auentioo.
ATTITUDE Attitude can be simply defined as a predisposition to respond in a certai11 way to a particular
person or situation. An attitude can be considered to incorporate three separate e lements.
Belief- The cognitive aspect. A be lief may or may not have a justification in reason. For example, Tmay believe
that a kid who wears a ring through his nostril will never make a good pilot. There is no rational justification for
this belief since I have never had anything to do with such a person. Another example may be that I believe that
sl..-y divers arc happy relaxed people who arc admired by many.
Feeling - The affective aspect. Tn the light of my belief that skydivers are happy, relaxed and admired, I may feel
that I wou ld like to be like them. Note that this feeling may be based on a belief which has no rational justification.
I may have never met a skydiver!
Action - The behavioural aspect. This feeling. based on this belief. predisposes me to act or respond. One night
at a party my friend says "Let's try skydiving this weekend." Before I know it, I am jumping out of a perfectly
serviceable aeroplane!
Attitudes can be manifest as actions in response to feelings based on beliefs. Many experts believe that attitudes
allow us to organise the complex world i.n which we live. We tend to group people or other objects according to
some identifying feature. Our response to that group is then based on our feelings based on what we believe about
that group. For exan1ple, if I believe that all reel-headed people are ill -tempered. I can respond to any red-headed
person I meet in a certain way and so keep my world nice and tidy! Obviously then altitudes are not always positive
or productive. Altitudes are often the result of our thoughts or beliefs colouring our perception of reality.
Many aircraft accidents have revealed that even though the pilot possessed the necessary ski ll and knowledge to
safely cope with a situation. his actions were based on his attitude to a particular person or s ituat ion.
MOTIVATI ON Motivation is the desire to participate and ach ieve. or as sporting coaches like to put it 'the fire
in the bell y'. Withou t motivation, other human attributes such as inte ll igence are virtually useless. Motivation is
the key to success. not only in the short term for particular tasks or immediate goals. but also for the long term in
achieving the ambitions of a lifetime. Tnte ll igenee and even raw talent, do not alone ensure success. for without the
genu ine desire to succeed there is little hope of achievement.
1f intell igence is likened to the size of a car's fuel tank, then motivation can be thought of as the fuel that goes into
it. l t's no use having a large fuel tank if its empty- and its no use having high intell igence with no motivation.
A car with a smaller fuel tank can go just as far as any other- it just needs to fill up more often. [The park benches
of the world are full of intelligent people!] Motivation comes from
different sources for different individuals. Whi le some may be moti-
vated to succeed by extrinsic factors such as the promise of applause
and admiration from their peers, or higher liv.ing standards, others
may be motivated by imrinsic factors such as personal sat isfaction
and self-fulfilment.
Tn 1943 a psychologist by the name of Abraham Maslow proposed that

the performance of a human being ultimately depends on the satisfac-
tion of a hierarchy of needs as illustrated in the diagram on the next
page. Unti l each need is satisfied [working from the bottom up), it is
difficult to fully concentrate on the next highest need.
That is to say that we are prepared to sacrifice one need in order to satisfy the one below it. For example. humans
[and any other animal for thill matter]. are prepared to risk safety and security to satisfy hunger, thirst or the need
to breathe.
Human Performance & Lim itations Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School Page 8.6
Having assured ourselves of sufficient food, water and
Self fuLfillment air, we next tum our anention to finding a safe place to
Expression of
live which is secure from danger. Once we have satis-
capabilities & fied our hunger and are sure that we are safe, we look for
talents companionship in famiJy, friends and lovers.
Prestige , status, Once these needs are satisfied, we consider a house

achievement & esteem in the right suburb and maybe even a 4-Wbeel Drive!
dominance
Finally when we have plenty to cat and drink, are safe
and secure. have a circle of friends and loved ones. and
have acquired a few luxuries that we don't rea lly need,
Belonging and affection we tum our attention to expressing ourselves through our
Fricnd$hip. lovc. sex
particular capacities and talents- wb.ich is reall y what life
should be all about!
Safety and security
Freedom from pain and danger
Note thai Maslow didn't say that it is impossible to
advance to the next level without satisfying the one be-
Phys iological Needs low; he simply said that we wi ll suffer from a constant
Hunger, thirst. air etc distraction of wanting to attend to that need before we
can move on.
In 1959 Hertzberg, another psychologist. was investigating job satisfaction and motivation. His Two-Factor
Theory proposes that the factors that motivate individuals to perform in their job arc differell/ to the factors that
cause job dissatisfaction. He found that the motivating .factors were the ones higher up in Maslow's hierarchy
such as achievement, advancement, recognition. responsib ility and the nature of the job itself. Job dissatisfaction
on the other hand had causes further down in the hierarchy. I le called these hygiene factors such as staff relations.
company personnel policy. salary, security and working conditions. An interesting consequence of this is that,
since the factors arc different, it is possible for an individual to rema in highly motivated even though he/she may
be dissatisfied with the job. It is also possible that an individual may be satisfied wi th the job even though he/she
is not motivated to improve performance. Also two people may behave in the same way wh ile being motivated by
quite different factors.
THE PERFORMA NCE v AROUSAL CURVE

Pilot performance will be degraded by overloading the brain wi th too many simultaneous tasks. This situation is
worsened if the pilot panics or becomes anxious about the outcome. However, some degree of arousal is nece~·smy
for performance to reach an acceptable level in the first place. The performance v arousa l curve shown below il-
lustrates how performance varies with various degrees of arousal.
Tn the absence of arousal. that is, the pilot is bored or complacent, performance is diminished due to the lack of
intensity of the brain's auention cycle. As arousal increases, that is the pilot focuses intently on the task. perform-
ance increases to reach a peak at a moderate level of arousal.
However, if arousal continues to intensify due to an increased

workload or stress, perfom1ance begins to degrade. The part of
the curve which is above the level of performance appropriate to
the task [dashed li ne] defines the ideal operating area where the
required performance can be obtained at arousal levels that arc
high enough to avoid boredom or complacency. but low enough
to avoid stress or anxiety.
Paformnncrc diminished
by anxiety and ~>tTe:;s
Pilots who practice for high level acrobatic competition flying
sometimes find that if they practice too long and too hard before
J•t'rfotman« dillllnisbed b)'
borC\Iom :ltld complacenc-y
an event, they become disinterested and bored with the routine and
performance suffers . On the other hand. if they go to the competi-
tion under-prepared, their anxiety about the lack of preparation
actually increases the likel ihood of making a 'silly' error during
9ort'dum AROUSAL Anxie-1y
the sequence of manoeuvres.
Page .8.7 All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limitations
Three different types of memory have been identified.
* The sensory memol)' which has a duration of about one second for visual images and
abou t four to eight seconds for sounds.
* The shon term memory which has a capacit y of about 7 items [such as a phone
number] and is mainly acoustic and almost error-free.
* The long term memory which has virtua ll y unlimited capacity bu t is prone to error.
The long term memory organ ises items by associat ion to aid recall.
When a manual task has been rehearsed and practised long enough. it becomes incorporated
into a motor program. This allows it to be performed wi th almost no conscious monitoring.
The brain processes information in four stages.

* Sensation It takes in information from the eyes. ears, vestibular and
proprioceptive system.
* Perception Tt 'makes sense' out of the inputs from these various sources.
* Decision Perception leads to si tuational awareness. After comparison with
items in Lhe long term memory, a decis ion is made based on those
perceptions.
* Response The response is to act [or not to act] on the dec ision which was the
result of perception wh ich was the resu lt of sensation.
REVIS ION EXER CISE 8
Question No 1
The average retention span of the short term memory is about
[a] 5 to 10 seconds
[b I 15 to 30 seconds
[c] l minute
[d] 3 minutes
Question No 2
Which of the following is true concerning the shor1 tem1 memory's susceptibility to en·or?
[a] it is very susceptible to error
[b] it is free of error
[cl it is almost free of error
[d] it is more susceptible to e rror in the young
Question No 3
The long term memory performs best when the information is presented
[a) in one large block
[b) as a series of unrelated single items
[c] by association with previous items already stored in the long term memory
[d] wi th the aid of over-head projector slides
Question No 4
Al1irude is cons idered as incorporating three different clements; they arc
[a] believing [cognitive] , feeling [affecti ve] and acting [behavioural)
[b] seei ng [visual]. believing [cognitive] and feeling [affective]
[c] seei ng [visual). hearing [auditory] and feeling [affective)
[d] feel ing [affec tive] . acting [behavioural] and hearing [auditory)
Question No 5
The source of motivation is
[a] different for different individuals
[b) the same for everybody
[c] associated on ly with monetary gain
[d] associated only with personal satisfaction
Question No 6
Our attitudes arc often the result of our thoughts o r beliefs colou ring our perception of rea lity
[a] this s tatement is true
[b] this statement is false
Question No 7
The duration of the sensory memory for sounds is approximately
[a) I to 2 seconds
[b] 2 to 4 seconds
[c) 4to 8 seconds
[d) 15 to 20 seconds
Question No 8
The duration of the sensory memory for visua l images is approx imately
[a] 1 second
[b) 2 seconds
[c) 8 seconds
[d] 20 seconds
Question No 9
The average number of items that can be beld in the short term memory is
[a] 7
[b) 10
[c) 15
[d] 20
Question No 10
One interesting characteristic of the short term memory is that it appears to be
[a] almost entirely acoustic
[b] almost entirely visual
[c] equall y reliant on visual and acoustic inputs
[d] unaffected by alcohol
Question No 11
When a task has been rehearsed and drilled to the point where it can be pe1formcd with no conscious monitoring.
it has become a
[a] motor program
[b] reflex action
[c] habit
[d] conditioned response
Question No 12
The four stages by which information is processed by the brain are
[a] decision. perception, sensation and response
[b] perception. sensation. response and decision
[c] sensation. decision. perception. and response
[d] sensation. perception. decision and response
Question No 13
The Performance v Arousal curve shows that
[a] the higher the arousal. the better the performance
[b] the lower the arousal. the better the pcrfom1ance
[c] the best pcrfom1ancc is achieved at a modemtc level of arousal
[d] performance is virtually unaffected by arousal
Question No 14
As arousal increases from boredom to anxiety. the performance of a particular task is likely to
[a) increase continuously
[b] decrease continuously
[c] decrease then increase
[d] increase then decrease
Question No 15
Which of the following is likely to have the most lasting effect on pilot motivation?
[a] high wages
[b] promotion
[c] threat of dismissal
[d] job satisfaction
Question No 1.6
The main function of the semantic memory is to
[a] recognise names and faces
[b] recognise visual symbols. codes or logos
[c] remember episodes of cause and effect that have occurred in the past
[d] remember skills that have been learned by constant repetit ion
Question No 17
The main function of the episodic memory is to
[a] recognise names and faces
[b J recognise visual symbols, codes or logos
[c) remember episodes of cause and effect that have occurred iJ1 the past
[d] remember skills that have been learned by constam repetit ion
Question No 18
A personaljty wruch features cool headed self assurance would be classified as
[a] stable extrovert
[bl unstable extrovert
[cl stable introve11
[d] unstab le introvert
Question No 19
Deference is one of the 'hazardous thoughts' which affect human behaviour and decision makiJ1g.lt refers to
[a] the tendency to resist authority and object to regulation
[b] the tendency to commit to a particular course of action without considering the consequences
[c) the tendency to blame another person or circumstance for whatever goes wrong
[d] the tendency to believe that 'it can't happen to me'
Question No 20
Which of the following is true of the brain's mental capacity?
[a] the brain can consciously think upon several items at the same time
[b] the brain can carry out only one motor program at a time
[c] the brain can carry out more than one motor program at a time
[d] the brain cannot carry out a moror program without consciously monitoring the actions
involved
Question No 21
Long tern1 memory is enhanced if the infonnation is presented
[a] in massive chunks
[b] in limited quantity
[c] by assoc iation with ex isting stored infonnation
[d] with continuous repetition
Question No 22
When a manual task has been rehearsed and practised it requires less conscious auent ion to pcrforn1 than a new
task. This is because the well practised task is pcrfonncd via a
[a] cerebellum loop
[b] motor program
[c] parasympathetic memory channel
[d] menta l picture
Question No 23
Concerning the rate of inforn1ation process ing and the attention range of a pilot flying with a critically ill patient
d ivert ing to an emergency alternate in poor weather compared to a typical nigh t
[a] the rate of infom1ation processing will increase and the attention range wi ll decrease
[b] the rate of information processing will decrease and the attention range wi ll increase
[c] the rate of information processing will increase and the attention range wi ll increase
[d] the rate of information processing will decrease and the attention range wi ll decrease
Page 8. 11 All R ights Reserved @ 2009 Human Performance & Limitations

Question No 24
Professionals in the field of aviation workload assess pilot's mental workload in order to determine
[a] the minimum rest period required
[b] the maximum duty period which may be sustained
[c J the maximum flight time which may be sustained
[d) how much spare mental capacity is available to allow a pilot to cope in an emergency
Question No 25
A motor program is most likely to have a problem at the stage of
l aj initiation
l b] execution
[c] learning
ld l formulation
Question No 26
A goal oriented person who is not people oriented will relate to others in a way that appears
[a) friendly to associates and subordinates
Ib J aggressive to subordinates and associates
[c] cool to subordinates and associates
[d] friendly to associates but aggressive to subordinates
Question No 27
According to Maslow's Hierarchy of human needs, the motivating factor on the highest level of the hierarchy is
[a] monetary rewards/salary
lb l responsibility/job satisfaction
jcj job security
[d] working relationships with colleagues
[e] working conditions
Question No 28
A person is able to best recall informal ion from short term memory that is
[a] visual and clustered
[b) audib le and clustered
[c I visual and separate
[d] audible and separate
Question No 29
A Captain on a flight disables the overs peed warning system by pulling the circuit breaker. The First Officer asks
the Captain why and he replies that it will enable them to increase speed and save time and that he knows what he
is doing. The First Officer then shrugs his shoulders and says nothing more about the decision. The First Officer's
attitude in this case may described as
[a] anti -authoritarian
[b] one of vulnerability
[c] assertive
[d] deferent
Question No 30
A large transport jet aircraft suffered total hydraulic system failure when an engine explosion severed the hydraulic
lines of all three hydrau lic systems leaving the aircraft with no primary fl ight control response. The crew were able
to crash l<md the aircraft using asymmetric thrust from the remaining engines. Two thirds of the people on board
( 184 out of 285) survived the crash. The crew were able to control an apparently uncontrollable aircraft by using
knowledge from
[a] short term memory
[b] long term memory
[c] motor programs
[d] semantic memory
Question No 31
The ideal level of arousa l for a pilot prior to completing a flight proficiency check is
[a] very high
[b] high
[c] very low
[d] low to moderate
[e] moderate
Question No 32
Regardi ng motivation
[a] people may be motivated by different forces while apparen tly behaving in the same way
[b] everyone is motivated by the same basic factors
[c] motivation drives a person to behave in a socially acceptable way
[d] drives are innate in all individuals while motivation is extrinsic
Question No 33
The human brain may be considered in some ways to be similar to a computer. It processes inputs in the order of
[a] perception, reaction. rev iew, reassess
[b] sensation, perception, decision. response
[c] induction, review. processing, revision
[d] processing, responding, perceiving. behaving
Question No 34
A pilot who is anxious about night flying is conducting an approach at 2300 hours local time to an airport in poor
weather. In this situation his/her level of arousal is likely to be
[a] low
[b] high
[c] optimum
[d] extreme
Question No 35
Cruising on a long fl ight over featureless terrain a pilot's information processing is likely to suffer from
fa] increased rate and decreased range
[b] increased rate and increased range
[c] decreased rate and decreased range
[d [ decrea~ed rate and increased range
Question No 36
The brain processes information through four stages. In order these are
[a] decision, perception, sensation, response
[b] perception, sensation, decision. response
[c) sensation, response, perception. decision
[d] sensation, perception, decision, response
Question No 37
The factors by which attitude may be said to be influenced are
fa] cognitive, affective and behavioural
[b 1 behavioural. psychological and physiological
[c] cognitive, environmental and mental
[d] affective, effective and reflective
Question No 38
Motivation is derived from
[a] the same sources for all individuals
[bJ different sources for differem individuals
fcl extrinsic factors only
[d] intrinsic factors only
Page 8. 13 All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Perfonnance & Limitations

Question No 39
The He11zberg 1\vo Factor Theory proposes positive motivating factors in job satisfaction like achievement and
recognition. Negative factors causing dissatisfaction are hyg iene factors. An example of a hygiene factor is
[a] advancement
[bl responsibil ity
[c] staff relations
[dl the type of work
Question No 40
After takeoff a pi lot notices oil leaking from one of the engines due to a loose oil cap and immediately shuts down
the engine but fails to feather the propeller. The aircraft crashes as a result. The actions of the pi lor in this situation
are the result of an attitude of
[a] invulnerability
[bl macho
[c] resignation
[d] impu lsiveness
Question No 41
An instructor who lets a student dev iate significantly from a standard approach. hoping they wi ll improve uses an
interactive style wh ich may be categorised as
[a] P+ G+
[b] P+ G-
[c] P- G-
[d] P- G+
Question No 42
The personality type most Likely to have an accident as a result of risk taking is the
[a] stable introve1t
[b] stable extrovert
l c] anxious introvert
[d I anxious extrovert
Question No 43
The typical nwnber of separate unrelated items which can be retained in the working memory is
[a] 3
[b] 7
rc1 12
[d] 20
Question No 44
During periods of high stress. a pilots attention is like ly to be
[a) selective sequential
[b] divided parallel
[c) selective parallel
rd I divided sequential
Question No 45
The technique of 'cbunking' may be used to
[a] improve the capacity of the short-term ]working! memory
[b] improve the capacity of the long-tem1 memory
[c) improve the capacity of the sensory memory
Id I increase the rate at which information can be processed
AIDES MEMOffiE
Consolidation of items into the long tenn memory can be enhanced if the item can be readily a~sociated with other
items already existing there. It is difficult to remember or recall unrelated facts which do not have any logical base.
However, if these facts can be associated with an often repeated phrase or pattern of words, recall becomes easy.
How often have you found yourself saying. "Thirty days hat/1 September. April. June and November....... " Light
aircraft pilots almost without exception will have learned a mnemonic for pre-takeoff and pre- landing cockpit
checks. Better still of course, is to use a written checklist.
lt has been shown that the quality of recall is far better for those items which are associated with positive emo-
tions. Material that was learned in a pleasant environment under happy circumstances finds its way into the long
term memory much more readily than that associated with unpleasant or stTessful circumstances. Also we better
remember material which is learned in a logical order. where each item is a natural flow-on from those previously
learned. Proceed from the known to the unknown -.from the simple to the complex.
THE MIND SET 'Believing is seeing'

One very common problem associated with perception is thar the long term memory sometimes becomes an obstruc-
tion to correct interpretation of the messages arriving in the sensory and short term memory.
T his is because the brain tries to associate the incoming messages with infor-
mation already stored in the long tenn memory. If the incoming message is
similar to one already stored. there is a tendency to assume that they are the
same. This is sometimes called a mind-set, where the brain believes what
A it wams to believe rather than what is actually there. Once d1e mind-set ha~
BIRD occurred, it can be surprisingly difficult to see what should be obvious!
IN THE A good example of mind-set is shown at left. Most people who read it for
THE HAND the first time miss the fact that the word 'the' is duplicated. This is because
the phrase is so familiar. that the brain wams to believe that that is what is
being seen.
This tendency to take in some of the facts and then make an assumption which is not correct has been the cause of
many major aircraft accidents. Many institutions. including airlines, are now including judgment training as part
of their employee education programme. Tlus includes developing an awareness of personality factors and the need
to deliberately and fully examine all of the available sensory inputs before making an unhurried decision based on
all the facts as they are. not as they may first appear to be. Good decision making requires a disciplined approach,
especially when you arc under pressure- which is not 1m uncommon situation in aviation!
The most important consideration is to avoid rushing in with a judgement which is not based on all of the facts.
The following steps should be followed in problem solving.
Consider the facts - What's going 011?

Do not attempt to act until you arc certain that you understand the situation. Remember that there arc
many quirks of perception that can cloud your situational awareness. Be sure that the real situation is
fully understood. Many an accident has occurred because the pilot never did cxanunc all of the clues
before deciding what the problem was.
Define the problem- What's causing it?
In the Jjght of the available facts be sure that you have correctly identified the problem. There is often
more dmn one problem capable of generating a given set of symptoms. In-flight vibration could be
caused by a problem with the propeller. the cngine/s or d1c airframe.
Consider solutions- What am 1 going to do about it?
Having identified the problem, be careful that you choose the most appropriate solution. Remember that
there is often more than one solution for a particular problem. The first solution that comes to mind is
not nccessari Iy the best.
Take each of the possible solutions and try them- Act.
Now that you have decided on a solution - do it!
Consider the result -Did it work?
If the action did not produce d1e required result. be prepared to repeat d1c process. If the action
did achieve d1e desired result, is there anything you can do to improve on it next time?
Page 9.1 All Rights Reserved© 2009 Human Performance & Limitations
A simple example. The pilot of a light single-engine aeroplane with a fixed pitch
propeller believes that the RPM is dropping. He checks to see that the tachometer --<> Consider the facts.
confirms it. He checks for throttle creep or environmental influences such as
turbulence or a downdraft.
He identifies the problem as carburettor icing................................ > Define the problem .
He decides to apply full carburettor heat.. ....................................... c;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;O::'??r;;;;.. Consider solutions.
He operates the carburettor beat control. returns it to the normal
position........................................................................................... . c;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;-:;>> Act.
He checks to see what effect it had ................................................. <;;;;;;;===;;:>;;;.~ Consider the result
If it did not restore the RPM he must go back to reconsider the facts. identify another possible cause, consider the
appropriate action/s, carry out those actions then consider the resu lt.
Confirmation Bias. A common threat to good decision making is conformation bias. This is the tendency in all of
us to leap to a conclusion and then disregard any evidence that may indicate that the in itial conclusion was incorrect.
We tend to 'cherry pick' the evidence considering only that which supportS the initial conclusion and disregarding
that which docs not support it. Politicians being interviewed on current affairs TV provide a good example'
THE FALSE HYPOTHESIS

One of the most common contributors w human error in the decision making process is the false hypothesis or
mistaken assumption. No pilot would deliberately commence a take-off without a clearance, however there arc
countless cases on record when the pil ot has falsely assumed that a clearance has been given.
The world's worst aviation accident occurred when two Boeing 747s collided on the runway atTcncrifc in 1977 after
one of the captains made such an assumption. No pilot would deliberately land with the undercarriage retracted ,
but again there are countless cases of pi lots assuming that it was extended when in fact it wa~ not.
One of the most dangerous characteristics of the false hypothesis is that it can be very difficult to convince the
victim that the assumption is incorrect. Gear-up landings have been made even after the gear warning horn has
sounded and, in some cases. even after the tower has advised that the gear docs not appear to be down! Cockpit
Voice Recorders have often revealed that doubts expressed by some crew members have been overruled by the
strength of belief in a false hypothes is. Analysis of a number of aviation and railway accidents shows that there
are certain situations in which the false hypothesis is most likely to occur. They include:
lligh expectancy. A good example of this is provided by an incident in New South Wales in the days ofDC3s. The
aircraft was on a typical 'milk run' through western towns and the pilot had expressed concern about the excessive
amount of oil leaking from the left engine which he had checked at several landing stops. When he experienced a
yaw during one rake-off, he immediately feathered the left engine only to discover that the right one had Jailed!
When the situation we are faced with is nor what we have been expecting it is highly likely that essential details
will be overlooked. A pilot flying an instrument approach builds up an expected picture of what the conditions will
be like when he/she breaks out of cloud and becomes visual. If the actual conditions are va~tly different to what
has been expected, there is a strong possibility of an omission such as forgetting to cancel SAR.
Diverted attention . When the pilot is preoccupied with one problem. a false assumption is made about the status
of other systems. Many a pilot has grappled with a radio problem in controlled airspace only to end up landing
with the wheels up. There is one case of an airline crew who ran out of fuel while trying to solve a problem with
an undercarriage warning light! When it ser ves as a defence. This involves accepting the assumption which
promises the happiest outcome and ignoring or evading the truth. A pilot accepts any evidence that the weather is
likely to improve while rejecting any evidence to the contrary.
Followin g a period of high concentration. After coping with a demanding or dangerous in-flight si tuation there
is a tendency to relax !thank goodness that's overj. A pilot who has just landed after coping with an engine failure
in a light twin turns off the rwnvay and taxies into a ditch!
As a result of the etl'ects of a motor memory. An action involving the operation of a lever or switch which selects
the wrong one or operates it in the incorrect sense. The pilot of a light twin was asked to make the best possible
speed on approach to assist in traffic separation. He obliged by retracting the undercarriage and increasing the ap-
proach speed. He then proceeded to land with the gear still up.
Environm ental capture. When a particular action or motor ski ll is always associated with a particular enviromen t
or phase of flight, it is possible to assume that that action or motor skill has been carried out simply because we are
now in the phase of flight that is usuall y associated with it. Students are often taught to check 'mixture rich' , 'pitch
fine' and 'gear green' once the aircraft is established on final. The victim of environmen tal capture calls 'rich, fine
and green' simply because he/she has rolled out of the tum onto final without giving any conscious anention to the
actual posi tion of any of these controls.
RISKY SffiFf
We've all heard the o ld saying 'safety in
numbers'. Most individuals tend to be
more cautious when they are acting alone
than when they are part of a group. Stud-
ies have shown that a group of people [and
that includes two or more]. are likely to
take more risks than any one indi vidual
would take if he/she acted alone. Known
as 'risl-]' sh ift" . this behaviour may be seen
in such diverse groups as a mob of protest-
ers, troops in combat and pilots on the flight
deck. 1\vo or more pilots may tend to take
assurance from each other and venture into
situations where no one member of the crew would be comfortable. Imagine two pilots pressing on into seriously
bad weather. Each pilot is actually apprehensive about the situation. yet each misinterprets the lack of comment
from his co lleague as an assurance that the risk they are taking is acceptable.
A light nvin making its way imo Parl~field aerodrome ji·om the north-east was encoumering steadily ll'orsening
wearher. On board were rhe owner-pilot who had commenced his instrumem rating training but did not hold an
instmmem rating. He was a local and knew the area well. In the righr seat was a very experienced flying instmcror
who had held an instrument rating b111 had not renewed it for rwo years. This was rhe firsT time he fwd flown into
Parafield. The pilot was canfidentthat ifrhe weather made continued VFR.flight impossible, the instructor would
be capable of raking over and comimting as an!FRflight. The instrucror was not at all comfortable with the idea
of taf..?ng over in fMC ~rithollf proper preparation in an unfamiliar environment to say nothing of rhe fact that ir
would be completely illegal and.foo/hardy withoUT rhe necessary documents.
Neither pilot had discussed the siruarion with rhe orher. The pi/or cominued on beneath lowering cloud in rising
terrain with ever decreasing visibility in rhe beliefrhar the instructor would take over and save the situation. The
instmctor assumed rhar the pilot must have done this kind of thing before and his local knowledge would sm·e the
situation. Finally the road they were following rook a sharp tum to rhe left and the pilot lost sight of it in the rain.
Very.fortunately for both occupams, in rhe next few seconds rhe aircraft suddenly emerged from the heavy shower
and the visibility and could base permitTed a safe continuation of the flight to anunevemfullanding. Clearly, both
pi/ors had gor themselves imo a situation rhar they most certainly would have avoided had they been alone.
Pilots of multicrew aircraft should be aware of the phenomenon of risky shift and be prepared to make their ap-
prehension known if they have identified a risk they would not normally be prepared to take.
This same behaviour is often displayed in a group of young people, especially boys, who feel compell ed to dem-
onstrate their courc1ge/skill on skate-boards or by jumping from dangerous heights into water. Sadly it is also often
a contributing factor in fatal motor accidents among the same age group.
However it should be noted that group behaviour does not always tend toward the risky extreme. Depending on
individuals and the general bias of the group. at limes the group behaviour may swing to the safer extreme. This is
especially the case when safety is one of the objectives of the group. Workplace Health and Safety rules are often
considered by people in the 'real world ' to be at the extreme safe end of the scale.
Another good example is found in the political system. A collection of people at a cabinet meeting can be easily
led by a few strong individuals to make a group decision on an issue in spi te of some individuals having private
reservations. They vote 'along party lines'. This behaviour is sometimes called group polarisation.
DISORIENTATION AT NIGHT
A Cessna 172 was nearing the end of a Night VFR training exercise in North Queensland. The purpose of the flight
was to assess the pilot's standard in prepar.ltion for the final flight test , so the instructor limited his involvemen t to
supervision. The pilot's performance throughout his night tmining had been very satisfactory. The <lircraft had been
cruising at9500 ft with good weather and unlimited visibility. The lighL~ of the destination, which had no navigation
a.id, had been clearly visible for some time before the pilot commenced his descent from the west.
The pilot considered the flight to be virtually over and, apart from lowest safe altitude requirements , was flying
purely by visual reference to the lights of the town and the clearly visibl e horizon. During the descent, the lights of
the town were lost for a w hile as the aircraft encountered a parch of isolated cumu lus cloud. The pilot continued to
fly purely by visual reference as he manoeuvred the aircraft between the moonlit cumu lus cells. When he finally
emerged back into clear sky the heading had changed by more than 90° to the right. However the pilot. who had
taken no notice of the Directional Gryo, was unaware of this change.
S.ince he bel ieved that the aircraft had continued on approximately the same heading, when he noticed the lighL~
of the town now behind his left shoulder, he assumed that he had overflown the town while he was negotiating the
cloud.
So completely did his brain accept this false

perception that , when he turned back towards
the lights. he remained totally convinced that
he was now approaching the town from the
~-
east.
' This was in spite of the fact that for the aircraft
to cover the distance required to place it on the
WUAT ACfl.lALL Y
HAl>Pf.J.~fEO.
other side of the town in the time availabl e, it
wou ld have to have travelled at a significant
percentage of the speed of light!
When he arrived over the airstrip. the pilot

advised that. since there was no wind. he would
land in the same direction as he had used for
takeoff.
\\HATTHf~ f'li,O'I'
He then proceeded to set up an approach for the
BELlEVED. opposite direction! His disorientation persisted
WHAT ACTlJAU..Y after landing when he taxied to the wrong end
HAP..ENED.
of the strip l ooking for the hangar.
,...,., pOOc llr!K'It kti
.ad ~d ituit)lll .
~
bar.:t ~tho! tw.n fmm
the "~..acm ..'Ide.
Even during the debriefing when the events
~- were explained with the help o f a diagram.
he found it difficult to accept that his version
of real ity was not correct and remained in a
somewhat troubled state for some hours.
How fragile our perceptio11s of reality ca11

be!
~ WHA't l'Ht: I'II.OT

~ OEU£VED.
A&r tk tum, the pilot

bcll('¥«1tlvt he WIU
IIPJlfOtadU"f. till: li)I.Oo n
(tOOl aJw, C'blem liidt
AROUSA L AND STRESS The word stress is used so often in everyday
conversation. that it is sometimes difficult to determine its exact mean ing in a
particular context. For the purpose of this discussion it may be helpful to begin
by considering what is meant by arousal. The term arousal refers to the state of
activity of the body at any given time. By this definition, there is some degree of
arousal even when we are asleep. When we awake from sleep. the body begins to
respond to a Hood of stimuli from the various senses and the level of arousal increases. As we are faced with more
challenging and/or urgent tasks during the clay, our level of arousal increases further. When the demands made on
us increase to the point where we begin to feel unsure of our abili ty to cope [and therefore of the outcome!. arousal
becomes anxiety. Thi.~ is where stress begins.
When arousal has increased to the point of stress, the

B rain body begins to exh ibit physical changes. The brain
Hypothalamus signals the hypothalamus which mediates most of the
Pituitary gland ely's subconscious responses. The hypothalamus then
stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete a hormone into
the blood stream.
The adrenal gland Uust above the k.idneys] responds

by releasing adrenaline and a number of additional
Heart ormones which prepare the body for the 'flight or
ght' response. This is a product of human evolution
in which, while we decide whether to stand and fight
or Hee to safety, U1e body prepares itself for maximum
perfom1ance.
Adrenal glands The heart beats faster, blood pressure rises and blood
flow to the skin and digestive system is redirected to
the muscles, causing the skin to look pale and feel cold.
'Goose bumps' and shivering may occur. Respiration
rate increases and air passages dilate to maximize the
flow of oxygen to the lungs. Blood gl ucose levels rise
to ensure maximum energy production is available. The
body is now ready to 'fight/ike hell or run/ike mad'.
Kidneys
This surge of energy and intense feeling of readiness
can actually be pleasant and positive, hence we hear
of 'adrenaline junkies' who get a buzz out of facing
potential danger. So ingrained is this response that it is triggered
even when the 'threat' is not real, such as the viewing of horror movies or even while reading a good book! When
stress is related to a particular set of circumstances. such as Hying visually at low level in bad weather, it is known
as acute stress [short term]. When stress is job or lifestyle related, it is known as chronic stress [long-term].
Whi le acute stress is perfectly normal and even desirable since it enhances the dynamics of coping with a particular
si tuation, chronic stress is clearly a negative and potentially destructive factor in the lifestyle of any individual.
Because we humans are such devilishly complicated creatures, we can suffer from chronic stress even without
being fully aware of the cause!
There are however a number of well documented indicators of stress that can serve as a warning.
These can be categorised under four separate headings as mental, physic.al, emotional and behavioural.
Mental indicators of stress include

Frequently suffering from mental blocks.
Forgetfulness, including once familiar names and places.
Inability to concentrate on one particular task- [Reduced attention span].
Reluctance to make decisions -I putting U1ings off until tomorrow].
Physical indicators of stress include
THE HOLMESIRAHE SURVEY OF High pulse ra1e
RECENT EXPERIENCE Dryness of the mouth
Profuse sweating
Dea1h of a spouse ---100 Hot flushes
Divorce ---73 Sleeplessness and bad dreams
Marital separation ---65 Asthma
Jai l term ----63 'Nerve' rashes
Death of a close fami ly me mber ---63 Ulcers
Pe rsonal injury or illness ---53 Body pains
Marriage ----50 Severe headaches
Fired at work ---47 Heart disease
Marital reconciliation ---45
Retire ment --45 Em otional indicators of stress include
hange in health of a fami ly member --44 Apathy and depression [couldn't be bothered], and a
Pregnancy ----40 feeling of worth lessness
Sex difficulties ---39 Constant feeling of weariness
Gain of a new fami ly me mber ---39 Constant feeling of anxiety. fruslration, nervousness o r
Work readjustment ----39 gui lt
Change in financia l stale ---38 Changes of mood and shortness of temper
Death of a close friend ---37
Change to diffe ren1 line of work ---36 Behavioural indicators of stress include
Arg ume nts with spouse ---35 A tendency to heavy and regu lar consumption of
Mortgage of over$ I00 000 ----31 alcohol or other drugs
Foreclosure of a mortgage or a loan ---30 Overeating and heavy smoking
Change in responsibili1ies at work --29 Loss of interest in work and taking time off work when
Son or daughter leaving home ----29 it is not warranted
Trouble with in-laws ---29 Nervous trembling in the voice
Outstanding personal achievement ---28 Nervous laughter, fidgeting or general restlessness
Partner begins or stops work ---26 Not listening [daydreaming) during conversations with
Begin or end school ---26 more than one other person
Change in livi ng conditions ---25
Revision of personal habits ---24 Events or si tuation s which cause stress a re refe rred to as
Trouble with boss --23 stressors. Two American researchers. Holmes and Rahe, have
Change in work hours or conditions ----20 discovered that stressors are al most always relared to change.
Change in residence ---20 Inte restingly, a11y change. whether it is for the worse or for Ihe
Change in schools ---20 beller can increase stress leve ls. Homes and Rahe anempted to
Change in recreation ---- 19 quanti fy these effects by surveyi ng hundreds of s ubjects and
Change in church activities --- 19 allocating a numerical value on a scale of I00 to each of the
Change iu social activities --- 18 s1ressors.
Mortgage of loan less than $I 00 000 --- 17
Change in sleeping habils --- 16 The Holmes/Rahe survey of recent expe rience is used exten-
Change fami ly get-togelhers ---- 15 sively in asse~sing stress levels and has been found 10 be a rea-
Change in eating habits --- 15 sonably reliable a nd accurate ind icato r. The subject is asked 10
Holiday --- 13 read down the lis! and lick any item which has occurred in his/
Christmas --- 12 her life in !he past twelve months. ll1e va lues for each of these
Minor violations of the law ---- 11 items are added and the tota l becomes a 'stress quo1ient' for that
indi vidual. Research has show n 1ha1 80% of those who score
above 300 and 50% of those who score be!ween 150 and 300 are
either ill or wi ll become ill in the next twe nty-four months.
Nole !hat stress itself is not the problem. In fact some level of s1ress [or arousal] is a positive and desirable cond ition
which contri butes to feelings of satisfaction and fulfi lment when a difficult job is done well. .It is a continuing lligh
level of stress. especially when the stressors are not clearly identi fied, !hal can become destructive. If you have a
score above 150, you should identify and reduce the stressors in your life.
C OPING WITH STR ESS. Mil itary personnel e ngaged in acwal comba1provide an excellem source of subjects
for studies on the effects of stress. Not only is the situation full of powerful psychological and physical stressors.
but a large number of subjects with a wide range of age, experience and backg round can be sampled. Swdies of the
behaviour of individuals under such high stress have indicated that most undergo three s tages during which their
reactions and behaviours foll ow quite different patterns.
The first stage is alarm. Tn thi s stage all of the psychological and physiological sy mptoms of the 'fight or flight'
response are easily identifiable. Put simply the subjec ts are just plain te rrified! The second s tage is resistance.
Once the subjects have accepted that the situation cannot be avoided. the feelings of fear give way to acceptance
and behaviour settles down to a 'plateau' of reasonable performance and. at least outwardly, a resistance aga inst
'giving in' to the situation. This is evident in the behaviour of 'banle-hardened' troops , or the air force mess hall
songs of World War H. The third stage is collapse. It see ms that during the resistance stage, the body is burning up
its physical and psychologi cal reserves. Finall y even the toughest individual finds these reserves exhausted and can
no longer endure the stress. The symptoms of chronic stress appear with the subject experiencing constant physical
exhaustion. anx iety and severe depression.
Most pilots of course, do not operate in such extreme circumstances. The resjstance stage of chronic stress may
persist for years, with performance remaining at an acceptable level while the physical and psychological reserves
are slowly being eroded away. Then, quite suddenly, the brain calls 'enough!' and their performance deteriorates -
they begin to make serious errors. have difficulty performing to the required standard. and lose all job satisfaction.
Many find it impossi ble to con tinue with their job.
Coping strategies. Individuals vary greatly in their abi lity to cope w ith stress. Some interna lise stress and give
no indication of requiring help to cope with stress even though they are under a great deal of stress. On the other
hand some individuals are extremely sensitive to stress and often find stress in siwations where there is no physical
or emotional threat. Stress coping strategies can be classified as: Action copi11g- Escapism. This involves taking
action such as removing the source of the s tress or removing one's self from the stressful situation. There may be
circumstances where removal from the siwation [i.e. changing jobs, changing address. getting a divorce] is the only
realistic alternative. Cognitive copi11g - Mind over matter. This involves rationalisation along wirh intellectual or
emotional detachment from the situation. It includes such strategies as counselling which can help put things into
a better perspec tive. Symptom-directed coping -This may include seeking professional help including prescription
drugs or simply the use of recreational drugs such as al cohol, tea or coffee. Exercise and meditation also fall into
the category of symptom-directed stress management. Stress leve ls can be dramatically lowered simply by talk-
ing to someone abom the stressors. The worst tiling you can do is internalise your feelings and continue to deny
that stress is 'getting to you'. Identify the stressors and put them in perspective. Quite often the perceived threat is
grossly exaggerated. Elevate your self image by keeping a positive omlook and maintaining a good level of physi-
cal fitness. The three areas of your life that should be investigated [and modified] when address ing the problems
of stress are beJza,·iour, attitude and jimess.
Relaxation. Another important requiremem for the management of stress is the ability to remove one's self both
physically and emotionally from the stressful environment. Periods of relaxation shou ld be planned during the day
to allow retreat to a place which is comfortable and quiet. Don't be afraid to experiment with various relaxation
techniques tO find the ones that best suit your personality and environment. Time management. A great deal of
unnecessary stress is generated simply by our failure to adequately prepare ou rselves for the day's work. When
events that occur during a flight have been anticipated with a ready plan of action, a potentially stressful situation
can become routine. Also proper preparation avoids wasted time later, providing the opportunity for relaxation and
rest.
Physical stress. Most of our cons ideration so far has been of psychological stress. Stress can al so be generated
by physical stressors. These are the things that impact on our physical comfort and impair the efficient operation
of rhe body. They include: Noise. A very noisy environmem can present a serious distraction to performance,
producing rising s tress level and fatigue. Vibration. Some light aircraft are subject to a good deal of vibration,
especiall y light si ngle-engine fixed-wing and helicopters. Constant vibration contributes to stress. Temperature.
Uncomfortably hot or cold cockpit environments can impair performance by diverting concentration and attention
away from the tas k of flying. Hig h G loads. Fatigue and stress levels increase when the pilot is subject to repeated
high G loads. Hu11ger and rhirst. The pilot's performance is degraded and stress levels rise because of the distrac-
tion and discomfort which accompanies hunger or thirst. Take tlte time to eat and drink normally during the day.
Student pilots or passe ngers often ask if they should eat anything prior to an aerobatic flight. They should eat and
drink normally. They are not doing themselves any favours by beginning a flight with the body already under the
physical stress of hunger or thirst.
Note that in some occupations in general aviation such as aerial agriculture or aerial mustering. the likelihood of
being subject to a variety of physical stresses such as noise, vibration and hlgb G loads is just part of the job. The
situation becomes even worse if the additional strcssors, such as heat. cold or hunger are added. Eat properly. drink
enough. wear bearing protection and dress appropriately for the ambient temperature
FATIGUE
Fatigue can be a threat to safety in any area of aviation.From the private pilot on a holiday
flight who combines late nights with long days. to the single-pilot charter operator who
bas to deal witb passengers. baggage, refuelling, weather, traffic and schedules.
Fatigue. unlike alcohol. cannot be measured as a percentage concentration in the body,

so it is easy to overlook it as a s ignificant risk factor in the daily routine.
Like stress, fatigue can be considered as acute [short term1or chronic [long term]. Acute
fatigue occurs when a pilot has spent long hours enduring tl1e demands of a hectic day. which may have included
coping witl1 poor weather or difficult passengers. A long day of fl ight instruct ion with associated ground briefings
can also be the cause of acute fatigue. The affects of fatigue are noticed first as a diminished ability to think clearly,
while generally the more monotonous and/or complex ia~ks will be affected before motor programs and sensory
perceptions. Fatigue is a perfectly natural response and there is virtually noming that can be done to alleviate it
apart from a good night's s leep.
Chronic fatigue is job or lifestyle related. In fact, this type of fatigue is often simply a manifestation of c hronic
stress. Those suffering from this type of fatigue find tlmt. even after a night's sleep they feel little better than they
did when they went to bed. If chronic fatigue is to be dealt with, changes in lifestyle or daily routine will usually
be required. Note that c hronic fatigue may well be a symptom of a deeper psychological or medical problem and
medical advice should be sought if it persists for extended periods. Typical symptoms of chronic fatigue are loss
of appetite , insomnia, tenseness and depression. Common sense is probably the best medicine for fatigue. Plan
adequate sleep and relaxation in your norrnal routine, stick to a healthy diet and exercise regularly.
BODY RHYTHMS Most of me activity in the universe is ordered into cycles. The movement of the galaxies,
stars, planets and moons follow regular cycles which in tum give rise to regular pattern of night following day or
high tide following low tide. It is not so surprising then to discover that we also display circadian [daily! variations
in our physiology. Researchers have measured these regular c ircadian variations in such things as:
* blood pressu rc Note: When humans are placed in an ar-

* body temperature tificial environmem and isolated from the
* heart rate twemy-four hour day-night cycle, these
* sensory acui ty body rhythms tend to revert to a Memy-
* adrenal gland output five hour eye/e.
* brain function
Recent research has shown that adults have a bui lt-in day, which averages about 24 hours and most people attain
their best-quality sleep between IO.OOpm and 6am. However indoor li ghting does affect circadian rhythms. Re-
search has shown the actua l cyc le to be 24 hours and II minutes± 16 minutes. The "clock" resets itself daily to the
24-hour cyc le of the Ea1th's rotation.
These circadian rhythms are not just a scienti fic theory, they can actually be observed by quantitative testing. The
most convinc ing example is the variation of body temperature over 24 hours. Even though the average tempera-
ture of the body is regarded as 37°C, body temperature actuall y varies from a high of 36.9°C at about 6.00 prn to
a low of 36.1 •c in the early hours of the morning about 4.00 to 5 .00 am. This rhythm is usually stable from one
individual to another and is therefore often used as a reference with wh ich to compare variations. It is interesting
to note that most variations in human performance follow roughly the same pattern.
The performance of tasks such as hand-eye coordination, reaction time, matching symbols and adding numbers
tends to vary throughout the 24 hour period from good in the mid to late afternoon to poor in the early hours of the
morning. By contrast the sleep wake cycle seems to be the most easi ly trained to vary between 20 and 28 hours
which seems to indie<tte that it is controlled by d ifferent body clock.
. 36.9°
Variation of body temperaiUre with time.
36.5°~~-----+------lr-------+----l-----+---+----+------lr------,·l
\
6.00 am 9.00 am 12.00 3.00 pm 6.00 pm 9.00 pm 12 .00 3.00 am 6.00 am 9.fJO am
noon nlidnight
36.1 °
Variation of performance with time.
I
6.00 am 9.00 am 12.00 3.00 pm 3.00 am 6.00 am 9 'iJyn
noon
Hand-eye coordination
Reaction time
Matchi ng symbols
Adding numbers
These rhythms are considered to be so important that a new sub-discipline of biology called chronobiology has
arisen to conduct research into its significance. One of its direct effects is the general lack of well-being after long
distance flights which involve a large change in longitude. Sufferers display a degradation in performance and
motivation as well as changes in mood and behaviour. One researcher was prompted to declare that 'long disTance
air travel is an insult to our biology!'
THE SLEEP/WAKE CYCLE

In normal circumstances the sleep/wake cycle follows a 24 hour rhythm wi th about one third of the time spent
asleep and d1c other two thirds awake. T he cycle is sometimes considered as a crude 'credit' and 'deficit' system
where deposits are made during sleep and withdrawals are made during waking hours. Each hour of sleep is equal
to a deposit of two points with an absolute maximum credit of 16 points. No matter how long you sleep, your
sleep 'credit card' has a credit limit of 16! For each hour you spend awake, one sleep credit is deducted from your
account. lf you sleep for eight hours [16 points] and then remain awake for 16 hours. your sleep credit account
will be down to zero. A person will normaUy feel a strong desire for sleep when the sleep credits have hit zero.
ln the situation illustrated below, a subject sleeps for 8 hours and accumulates 16 sleep credits. He then remains
awake for 16 hours bringing his sleep credits back to zero. Another 8 hours s leep returns his sleep credi ts to 16.
16
I '\ I
'\ I
tl\
\
14
12
I I
'\
"0
,' '' ,' '\ I

I 10
8
~
'"'
c.
8
I Vi
I
I \
'\ I
I
'' '' 6
4
I,' ,' \ ,I' 2
'\ I \
' I
'
ZERO
2
\
4 ·;;
\ <=
\ 6 "c.
"0
\ 8 1!
\ 10 "'
' 12
16 hours 12 hours 20 hours 16 hours
awake awake awake awake
8 hours 8 hours 8 hours

-
4 hrs
sleep sleep sleep sleep
He then remains awake for only 12 hours so he still has 4 sleep credits up his sleeve. He then sleeps for another
8 hours but this does not add another 16 sleep credits to his account. The limit is 16. He then stays awake for 20
hours which gives him a sleep deficit of 4. He then has 4 hours sleep which adds 8 points to bring his account
to 4 sleep credits. Lf he then remains awake for 16 hours he would have a sleep deficit of 12 and would have a
strong desire to sleep.
Note that even though his sleep deficit is high. the readiness for sleep still follows the circadian rhythm. And if it
was 4 or 5 pm.lhe sleep deprived individual may still have difficulty falling asleep. It is the timing of sleep that
is critical in determining the duration of restful sleep.
STAGES OF SLEEP.
ln a normal alen state the brain displays a characteristic pattern of activity that can be observed in a print-out of
the brain's electrical activity. This state produces a particular pattern known as Beta activity. When a person is
resting quietly such as just before sleep with the eyes closed. a distinct new pattern of brain activity occurs called
Alpha activity. As the sleep cycle begins. yet another phase is entered during which small, rapid irregular waves
are produced along with slow rolling eye movements. This is called stage one sleep. Another three stages of
sleep are identifiable. each with a characteristic mode of brain activity.
About half of the sleep cycle is made up of Stage 2 sleep. It takes about 90 minutes for a person to pass through
all four stages of sleep, with rapid eye movement [REM] sleep beginning at stage four. before a return to the ear-
lier stages. The REM stage is sometimes caJJed 'paradoxical' sleep because the pattern of brain activity is similar
to being awake. The 90 minute cycle through the various stages of sleep repeats during the night with about
four episodes of REM. which is usually associated with vivid dreaming.
Researchers still haven't figured out why we need to sleep at all. In a recent study of about one million people.
the most common duration of sleep reported was 8 to 9 hours. We tend to need less sleep as we age. but the time
at which we sleep becomes less flexible- it becomes more difficult to take a quick nap at other than the nom1al
time for sleeping.
Human Performance & Limitations Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School Page 9. 10
Naps As you might expect, the best quality sleep occurs when sleep is attempted at 'normal' times i.e. between
about 2200 and 0800 LMT. However napping can be a useful means of gaining sleep credits when an individual is
operating in a siwation of dislUrbed sleep patterns- as pilots often do. However napping appears to be an acquired
art and while some people nap habitually. others find it dirticullto fall asleep 'on demand'. People who are not ac-
customed to napping may find that if they succeed in fall ing asleep they may suffer from extended drowniness and
headaches after they awake [the hangover effect]. It is generally accepted that, to be of any benefit, a nap should
have a duration of at least lO to 15 minu tes.
SLEEP DISORDERS.
Four of the most common types of disorders associated with sleeping are narcolepsy, apnoea. somnabulism and
insomnia. Sufferers of narcolepsy are unable to prevent themselves from suddenly falling asleep. This may occur
even though the individual has sleep credits and has no apparent need for sleep. Needless to say such a condition
cannot be tolerated i.n aviation.
Apnoea sufferers stop breathing during sleep. The breathing cessation may last for ten seconds or so but sometimes
as long as a minute. As far as the sleep/wake cycle is concerned. the main problem is that since sufferers often wake
frequently as the body 'panics' for air, sleep credits are lost and the individual suffers from persistant daytime sleepi-
ness. The worst cases may have aponea episodes up to a hundred times a night and usually the sufferer is not aware
of the cessation of breathing that preceded the sudden awakening. Persistant aponea requires medical advice.
Somnabulism is simply sleepwalking. It is very common in young children, and may occur in adults especially
when operating irrregular work/rest cycles. Insomnia is the inability to get to sleep even when the body is out
of sleep credits and conditions are favourable. This condition is known as clinical insomnia. When the inability
to get to sleep is related 10 an obvious environmental factors such as jet lag, d isrupted work cycles or simply an
uncomfortable bed or excessive noise, it is known as situational insomnia.
HELPING THE BODY SLEEP.

If you are finding it difficult to get 10 sleep because of situational insomnia a few simple guidlines may assist.
1. Avoid caffeine near bedtime [tea. coffee or some soft drinks]
2. Ensure that the room is quiet and comfortable
3. Try to avoid napping during the day to ensure you have minimum steep credits
4. Plan a quiet period before you sleep- free of strenuous exercise and emotional stress
5. Take a warm dru1k of milk. take a book for light reading and consciously relax the muscles.
In cases where sleep is essential and insomnia persists. certain drugs can help to induce sleep. These drugs are
known as hypnotics and are best known by their trade names of Librium. Dalmane, Normison and Mogadon. All
such drugs. of course, should never be used without medical consultation and, because some of these drugs can
have serious effects on performance. pilots must ensure that an adequate period is allowed between taking such
drugs and Hying. Normison is most frequemty prescribed for pilots.
Alcohol as an aid to sleep. AJthough alcohol is widely used as an aid to sleep it should be remembered that alco-
hol induced sleep is not nonnal sleep. REM sleep is greatly reduced during such sleep and there is a Likelihood of
waking early after poor quality sleep.
TRANSMERIDIAN DYSCHRONISM [JET LAGj

Throughout a twenty-four hour period human performance of certain tasks follows the pattern illustrated in the
following graph. In the early afternoon there is a drop in performance called the post-lunch [or post-prandial) dip.
Interestingly lbis dip is evident even when the subject has not had lunch! As you might expect.the next dip in the
performance curve coincides with the early hours of the morning between midnight and sunrise. Note that these
patterns are present whether or not the subject has had adequate recent rest. Sleep deprivation simply aggravates
the existing dips.
Lf the subject is quickly transported into a new time zone, the circadian rhythm remains set to the depanure point
but the performance crests and u:oughs now occur at different local times. The illustrations below show the effect
of travelling east over a local time change of nine hours. This has the same effect as slipping the rime scale to the
left so that after arrival in the new time zone. the best performance is available during the night while the lowest
performance occurs in the middle of the day. This is good news for the dedicated party-goer, but bad news for the
person who must perform demanding tasks during the working day!
The body will slowly adjust
to the new time zone at an
average rate of about one to
perfom1ancc one and a half hours per day.
lowest lt would take this subject
six to nine day s to s peed
post-lunch dip up the circadian cycle until
[post-prand ial dip] it 'catches up' to the new
normal sleep environment.
In the simpler example

9 am 12 noon 3 pm 6 pm 9 pm 12 3 am 9am
mid night
below let's consider two
people. one in Penh and one
in Sydney. At the moment
that the person in Sydney
notes the time is 10.00 pm
EST. the one in Perth would
note that it is 8.00 pm WST
[assuming no day light sav-
sleep in the ing applies!.
new time zone
If the person in Perth could
6pm 9 pm 12 3 am 6 am 9 am 12 noon 3 pm 6pm sudden ly be transported
mid night C7?'rll
~I ••
to Sydney [beam me up
Scottiel, his body rhythms
would be 'out of phase' by
Travell ing east causes the time scale to move to the left while the body rhythms
two hours. The traveller
initially remain unaltered. Sleep in the new time zone corresponds to the body 's
peak perfonnance. while the lowest pe1formance occurs during the day.
would need to speed up
his interna l clock to get
into step with his Sydney
counterpart.
However if the person in Sydney bad done the travelling. he would find hin1self two bow-s ahead of the Perth clocks,
so would have to slow down his internal clock by two hours to get into step with his new environment.
Most people who have flown on long international cast-west Aights would agree that jet lag see ms to be more of a
problem on cast bound Aights than on west bound Aights. It seems most internal body clocks arc better at adjust-
ing 'backwards' in time than they arc
at adjusting 'forwards' . There is no
solid scientific reason as to why this
is so. but anecdotal evidence seems
8.00 PM
0)
to support it.
10.00 PM Research has also shown that other

factors . including personality. innu-
cnce the time required to synchro-
nise our body clocks to a new time
zone .
Tra\'elling we.•u- your body rhythms must retard to match tile ntw time
Rcsynchronisation wil l be easier if
you arc an even ing type, ex troverted,
young. in good physical condition
and travell ing west. Tt will be more
difficult if you are a morn ing type ,
introverted. older. in poor physical
condition and travelling east.
If you were placed in an artificial environment and isolated from the nonnal passage of night
and day your body rhythms would reset to a twenty-five hour cycle and you would want to
sleep an hour later each day. After twelve days you would be behaving like a noctumal animal
sleeping during the day while staying awake during the night.
You will get the best nights sleep when your attempts to sleep coincide with your natural
circadian sleep cycle.
When you travel east your circadian phases must be advanced, when you are travelling west,
your circadian phases must be delayed. The body finds it easier to delay the cycles than to
advance them.
The more monotonous !mdlor complex a task is the more likely you are to be affected by
fatigue.
Three phases have been identified in the body's response to stress.
* ALARM A high level of arousal brought about by the body's 'flight or fight' response. To put
it more simply - fear.
* RESISTANCE An acceptance of the situation and resistance against 'giving in' to it.
This phase can last for months or even years!
* COLLAPSE A final exhaustion of the ability to resist. the subject finds it impossible to continue
in the situation.
Page 9.13 All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Perfonnance & Limitations
REVISION EXERCISE 9
Question No 1
During which period of the day will the average person find it most difficult to stay awake?
[aj midday to 2 pm
[b] l0pmto2am
[c] 3 am to Sam
[dJ 9 am to midday
Question No 2
What is the average rate at which the body resynchronises to local time after travelling through a large change in
longitude?
[aj 6 hours per day
[bJ 8 hours per day
[c] 4 hours per day
ld l 1 .S hours per day
Question No 3
After a non-stop flight through a 90• change in longitude, the time required for the body rhythms to fully readjust
to the destination's local time would be closest to
[aj l day
[bj 4 days
[c] 10 days
[dj 12 days
Question No 4
On the Holmes/Rahe scale of recent experience which of the following is rated as being the least stressful?
[a] change in eating habits
[bJ trouble wi th the boss at work
lc I retirement
[d] death of a close family member
Question No 5
The Holmes/Rahe research showed that stress levels can be increased by changes in life style or conditions and
any change. for the worse or for the be/ler can increase stress levels
[a] this statement is u-ue
[bJ this statement is false
Question No 6
Which of the following is true regarding transmeridian dyschronism Uet lag[
[a] flying east requires the body's rhythms to advance
[b] flying west requires the body's rhythms to advance
[c] flying east requires the body's rhythms to delay
[dl flying north in summer requires the body's rhythms to advance
Question No 7
Which of the following is true of the circadian rhythm for a normal person?
[a] it always follows an exact 24 hour cycle
[b] it tends to revert to a 25 hour cycle when the subject is isolated in an artificial environment
[c J it speeds up in summer and slows down in winter
[d] the body finds it easier to speed it up than it does to slow it down
Question No 8
Which of the following would be most vulnerable to fatigue?
[a] clear thinking
[b] hovering a helicopter
[c] seeing and hearing clearly
[d] speaking clearly
Question No 9
The lapse in performance standards which occurs daily in mid afternoon is known as
[a] the post-meridi an depression
[b J the post-prandial dip
[c) the siesta syndrome
[d] the afternoon lapse phase
Question No 10
Which of the following describe, i11 order of occurrence. the three phases of t:he body's adaptation to stress?
[a] resistance. alarm , collapse
[bl collapse. resistance. alann
[cl resistance. collapse. alarnt
[d] alarm. resistance. colJapse
Question No 11
Which of the following describes the effect of excess stress on the auention span?
[a] the attention span is reduced
[b] tbe anention span is increased
[c] the attention span is not affected by excess stress
[d] the attention span reduces initially but soon returns to normal
Question No 12
Sleep is likely to be most beneficial when
[a] you go to bed as late as possible
[b] the sleep period coi ncides with the circadian sleep cycle
[c] the bed room is kept at body temperature
[d] you go to bed as early as possible
Question No 13
Chronic fatigue differs from acute fatigue in that
[a] it can usua ll y be rel ieved by a good night's sleep
[b] it is always the resu lt of overexertion
[c] it is easily treated by sleeping pills
[d) it is usually life-style related and the cause may not be obvious
Question No 14
Tasks become more likely to be affected by fatigue as they become
[a] more monotonous and less complicated
[b] less monotonous and less complicated
[c] more monotonous and more complicated
[d] less monotonous and more complicated
Question No 15
Which of the following is true of acute stress?
[a] it always has a negative effect on performance and should be avoided at all costs
[b] it has no affect on performance
[c] moderate levels of stress can e nhance the dynamics of coping with a particular si tuati on
(d] the higher the s tress levels, the better the performance becomes
Question No 16
A common source of human e rror is the false hypothesis. Under certai n cond itions this is more or less like ly
than at o ther times. From the following list. select the situation least likely to result in a person arriving at a fal se
hypothesis
[a] when expectancy of an event is high
[b] after a period of intense concentration
[c] during a period of preoccupati on with another prob lem
[d] during normal operations
Question No 17
The process of decision making involves which order of steps?
[a] consider the facts; define the problem: consider the solutions: act: consider the result
[b) define the problem; consider the facts; cons ider the solutions; act; consider the result
[c) consider the facts; consider the solutions: define the problem: act: consider the result
[d] define the problem: consider the solutions: consider the facts; act: consider the resu lt
Question No 18
A pilot who was worried about the condition of the left engine in a twin-engine aeroplane experienced an engine
failure on take-off and feathered the left engine. only to find that it was the right engine which failed. This pilot
has been a vicrim of
[a) expectancy producing a fa lse bypothes is
[b] a moror program producing a false hypothesis
[c) expectancy producing a menral block
[d) stress producing a memory loss
Question No 19
The illustrarion below serves to illustrate the pcrceprual en·or known as
[a] the Coriolis illusion
(b] the autokinetic illusion
[c] somatogravic illusion
[d) mind set
PARIS
TN THE
THE SPRING
Question No 20
Which of the following is not an emotiona l indicator of stress
[a] apathy and depress ion
[bl constant feeling of weariness
[c) high pu lse rate
[d] changes of mood and shortness of temper
Question No 21
With reference to transmeridian dyschronism (Jet lag). the worst condition for biorhythm readjustment is
[a] flying cast (with the body system phases needing to advance)
[b] tlying wes t (with the body system phases needing to retard)
[c) flying cast (with the body system phases needing to retard)
[d] tlying wes t (with the body system phases needing to advance)
Question No 22
Human error as a cause of a ircraft accidents has become a major focus of safety programs for many airlines. Con-
cerning the link between human error and aircraft safety
[a) human erTor can be elim inated through thorough training
[b) human error can be elim inated through standard operating procedures (SOP's)
[c) human erTor can be elim inated through short duty periods which prevent boredom
[d] human error can never be e liminated
Question No 23
In human decision making, the term "Ri sky Shift" describes the tendency for
[a] an individual to be more likely to be prepared to knowingly breach a regulation than a group
[b) a group to be more likely to be prepared to knowingly breach a regulation th11n an individua l
[c) a group to be less likely to be prepared to knowingly breach a regulation than an individual
(d] both groups and individuals to be prepared to knowingly breach a regulation as experience
levels rise
Question No 24
A pilot on final approach may say "gear down• during the pre-landing checks without actually performing the action
of lowering the gear. ln this case the error is referred to as
[a] random
[b) sporadic
[c J enviromnental capture
ld I systematic
Question No 25
Brief periods of sleep between rest periods. or naps, have been shown to be beneficial in restoring sleep credit
and overcoming the effects of jet Jag. Studies have shown that in order for a nap to be considered beneficial. the
duration needs to be at least
[a] 10- IS minutes
l b] 2S-3S minutes
[c) 4S minutes
[d[ 60 minutes
Question No 26
A stress management method which is defined as a cognitive method is
[a] alcohol
[bj rationalisation
[c] changing jobs
rd l exercise
Question No 27
When in cruise in <m aeroplane with an autopilot engaged. the role of the pilot is primarily one of monitoring sys-
tems. The typical length of time for which a pilot will maintain vigilance before boredom reduces perform<mce
significantly is
[a] 10 minutes
[b] 30 minutes
[c) SO minutes
[d] 90 minutes
Question No 28
Chronic fatigue in an individual is characterised by
[a] loss of appetite, insomnia. tenseness and depression
[b] physical exhaustion alone
[c] irritability. insomnia but not loss of appetite
[d] feelings of elation. and increased reliance on caffeine and alcohol
Question No 29
A person who undergoes counselling for stress is using a coping strategy which may be described as
[a] cognitive
[b] reactive
[c] active
[d] passive
Question No 30
While conducting an instrument approach in lMC you have a mental picture of what 'you expect to see when you
become visual. You break out of cloud and what you see is differellt to your mental picture of the approach. In
this situation
[a] essential details will tend to be overlooked
[b] it will take time for you to orient yourself
[c] you will experience strong vertigo
[d] you will immediately discount the contribution of the mental model
Question No 31
The e rror-cause-removal approach to reducing the occurrence of human error aims to
[a) achieve zero error rate
(b] reduce errors through high levels of motivation
[c] encourage pilots to identify potential sources of error to prevent problems in the future
[d] develop safeguard backups to manage error so that when it occurs, other procedures
will check the resul t to identify any problem
Question No 32
Chronic fatigue is most likely to be initially caused by
[a] continued pressure from upper management
[b] a long period of poor health
[c] problems at home
[d] difficult rosters
Question No 33
Concerning the management of human error in relation to enhancement of safety in aviation
[a] the only way to ach ieve safety is through elimination of human error
[b) the most significant way of controlling human error is by continuously and enthusiastically
publicising safety practices
[c] repetition or overlearning has a significam influence on error reduction whi le motivation does
not
[d] human error can never be eliminated and to conceal errors is to encourage their repetition
Question No 34
The most beneficial stress management strategy is a threefold approach involving modification or use of
[a] attitudes, diet and fitness
[b) diet , medication and behaviour
[c] behaviour, a1tin1des and firness
[d] relaxation techn iques, medication and exercise
Question No 35
The function of the Eustachian tube in the human body is to
[a] detect angu lar acceleration
[b 1 detect motion
l c] transmit nerve impu lses
[d I equa]jse air pressure each side of the eardrum
Question No 36
A false hypothesis would be unlikely to be made
[a] when expectancy is high
[b 1 after a period of intense concentration
[c] after a series of false alarms
[d] when preoccupied with another task
Question No 37
Chronic fatigue differs from acute fatigue in that
[a] stress is nor a factor in acute fatigue, only in chronic fatigue
[b I chronic fatigue can be overcome by a good night's sleep in most cases
[c) chronic fatigue is unlikely to develop unless the pilot experiences jet lag
[d] chronic fatigue can build up ins idiously over time but be triggered or worsened by other
factors
Question No 38
The highest life change unit score on the Holmes-Rahe scale is associated with
Ia I marital separation
[b] marriage
Ic I change in sleeping habits
[d1 death of a close family member
Question No 39
Escapism as stress management mechanism may involve the use of drugs or a physical escape from an intolerable
work situation to a new job. Escaping
[a] should never be used as a solution
[b) may sometimes be the only viable option
[c J is the first option for stress management
ld I will never solve a persons problems
Question No 40
The circadian rhythm of body temperature, which influences the natural sleep· wake cycle
[a] is consistent at exactly 24 hours
[b] is consistent in isolation at 25 hours, hence the sleep period would begin about an hour later
each day
lei varies widely between individuals
ld I is generally about 12 hours in duration
Question No 41
When conducting a procedural approach. a pilot uses a pattern of behaviour which is
[a] motor programme based
[b] rule based
[cj knowledge based
[d] skill based
Question No 42
Paradoxical sleep is a term used to describe
[a] ROM sleep
[b 1 RAM sleep
lcJ stage 2 sleep
[d] REM sleep
Question No 43
Approximately half of normal sleep is made up of
[aj ROM sleep
[b] RAM sleep
[c] stage 2 sleep
Question No 44
Events are perceived as stressful when they result in
[a] positive or negative life changes
[b] positive life changes only
[c] negative life changes only
[c 1 headaches and nausea
Question No 45
The minimum required length of a nap to be considered restorative is
[a] 10 minutes
l b] 20 minutes
[c) 40 minutes
[d] Ihour
Question No 46
The order of steps involved in the PILOT mode l of decision making is
[a] pray, initiate action. look for solutions, oversee progress . take stock
[b] postulate, investigate, litigate. operate, terminate
[c] probe the facts. identify the problem, look for solutions. opemte, take stock
[dj postpone action , investigate the solution, listen to others. operate, tell someone
BASIC E RGONOMICS.
Derived from the Greek for working naturally. ergonomics is the science of des igning a work environment so as to
maximize its 'user friendliness.' Flight in modem aircraft can be considered as three domains:
T HE HARDWARE The aircraft and its associated systems

T HE SOFTWARE The electronic 'nervous system' wh ich links the systems
T HE LIVE WARE The human crew who must operate it
One of the most basic principles of ergonomics is that the machine shou ld be de-
signed to fi t the characteristics of the people who operate it
Of prime importance lO air safety is the interface between the aircraft and the crew.
It is here that a two-way process must occur. The crew must input commands via
the controls to achieve the required performance from the aircraft. The aircraft
must feed back information to the crew via dis plays and instrumentation to all ow
him/her/them to monitor that performance.
CONTR OLS Aircraft controls arc often described as belong ing to one of two subsets. The primary controls
which are directly responsible for initiat ing or preventing motion about the three axes. and the secondm·y or ancil-
lary controls which arc used to control the a ircraft's cnginc/s and systcms.lift augmentation devices s uch as Raps
and slats, trims and spoilers. Note that spoilers arc sometimes used to assist the primary controls as in the case of
spoiler-assisted ailerons, or in some cases. des igners may do away with ailerons altogether and usc spoilers as the
primary control ill roll . Good design requires that the primary controls should have the following propcnies:
T hey should operate in a natural sense [pre tty obvious]. I guess it depends on what you consider natural. I do
recall some students who. in the early lessons. assumed that the rudder pedals ought to work like the handlebars of
a push-bike. Jf you wan t to tum left. you pull back on the left s ide and push forward on the right s ide! Then there
were the farmers who found it difficu lt to believe that you pul l the throttle back to decrease power. If you come
across a student with both of these problems you could have some pretty interesti11g times even before takeoff!
T h ey should be balan ced. The controls wh ic h arc used most often shou ld require the least cffon to man ipulate.
The degree of deflection requ ired should be in harmony with the aircraft's response.
T h ey should provide feedback. The pi lot shou ld feel a resistance on the controls which is proponional to the rate
of attitude change that is commanded. If balance and feed-back arc correct. a given rate of c hange in attitude should
require a larger control movement with less resistance on the controls when the lAS is reduced.
MIS-SET TRIM LEA.DS TO LOSS OF CONTROL

On the morn ing of the 15 th March 198 1 the pi lot of a Bccchcraft Bonanza was preparing for a flight from Archer-
field to Mt Tsa to attend a convention. After arranging for the aircraft to be fuelled to capaci ty, she loaded her four
passengers on board along with their luggage. This brought the gross weight of the aircraft close to the maximum
a ll owable. Although she was relatively inexperienced on the rypc.thc pilot did not usc a wriuen c hecklist but relied
instead on a previously memorized check which was not type-specific.
The last pilot to fly the aircraft was in the habi t of usi ng full nose-up trim for landing and had left it with the trim
in that position. The Bonanza is trimmed by the use of a trim wheel which is
Tt- lrom .... . _ ,..........._
. .>& ............ ... . . . .
,...u.-...._,.......__
. .. mounted venically at the bouorn of the instrument panel. The trim position
...
• .., _ _ ~.,;.,
ind icator is a vertica l ri bbon which is viewed through a window adjacent to the
. ........it.<' •
trim wheel . The ribbon is marked with a scale to indicate the degree of deflec-
tion of ihc trim tab. The neutral position is marked with a zero, '0', while the
letters 'U' and '0 ' indicate whether the deflection is for nose-up or nose-down.
During her pre-takeoff check the pilot did not phys ically wind the trim wheel
to the fu ll extent of its travel to check its operation. but s imply glanced at the
ind icator and saw what she believed to be a '0' show ing in the window. What
she actually saw was the lubber line of the indicator passing across the top of
the leucr 'U'
All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limi tations Page 10. 1
The takeoff run was commenced with the trim still in the full nose-up position and as the airspeed increased. the
aircraft adopted a higher and higher nose attitude until, at about 60 knots. it became airborne with the stall warning
sounding continuously. With both hands on the control column. it rook every bi t of strength the pilot could muster
to hold the nose below a full stall. She tried to reach for the throttle to reduce power. but was unable to hold the
nose down with only one hand on the control column.
The aircraft cominued for the length of the runway on the threshold of the stall with full power app lied until, as it
passed over the fence. it was seen to bank sharp ly to the left and descend into the trees where it exploded in flames.
Amazingly. all of the occupants escaped with their lives although the pilot suffered serious burns.
HUMAN FACTORS AT WORK The pilot later reported

that during the take off, she had made a number of attempts
to trim the nose down and that. apa11 from the difficulty of
letting go of the control column. she later realised that she
bad been trying to wind tbe wheel the wrong way. Since it
was already in the fully nose-up position. she had come to
the conclusion that the reason that she couldn't move it was
that it was stuck! With some degree of pa.1ic present and her
limited experience on the type. she had believed that to make
the nose go down. she should pull down on the edge of the
trim wheel - this action however commands nose-up trim.
It is interesting that. back in 1981 when the accident was

reported in U1e Aviation Safety Digest. it was presented as an
example of inadequate pre-takeoff checks - which. as the pilot herself freely admits. it was.
However very little was made of the fact that among the contributing factors was a fai lure
of the interface between pilot and machine. In this case a display which. under a given set
of circumstances. could be misinterpreted. Also worthy of note is the fact that 'natural sense'
for one may not necessarily be so for another in a different set of circumstances. The fact
that most of us would consider it unfair to criticise the designer for not anticipating such a
possibility is evidence of just how subtle the human influence can be.
If the same accident were reported today. it is cenain that much more emphasis would be
placed on the reasons why the pi lot failed to obtain the correct information from the visual
display and why the concept of 'natural sense' failed on this occasion.
Pulling dOWI'l on the edge
of the trim wheel
commands nose-up trim.
SAFETY HAR NESSES

The primary objective of a safety hamess is to prevent serious injury to occupants involved in a survivable crash
where the aircraft cabin stn1c ture remains reasonably intact. Any harness design which achieves this objective must
be satisfactory from a safety viewpoint. regard less of the design or type of mounting employed.
ln the case of acrobatic hamesses there is the added requirement that the pi lot should remain securely in his/her seat
and be capable of reaching and operating all of the conu·ols while inverted or even under a high negative G load.
This requires not on ly special design considerations but also special attention on behalf of the pilot when adjusting
and securing such harnesses.
The most common harness design found in general aviation aircraft is the lap stmp and diagonal sash type. The
human body is capable of withstanding decelerations of up to 20 G for periods of 200 milliseconds [0.2 seconds],
without injury. Aircmft accident investigations have shown that harness and mounting systems designed to 25 G
decelerations have achieved a good survival rate when worn correctly. The lap strap shou ld be adjusted so that the
hips are secured intO the cup of the seat and the shoulder sash should run from a point just below the hip to pass
over the mid point of the opposite shoulder. It should not chafe the neck, nor should it pass too close to the tip of
the shoulder allowing the upper body 10 slip out during deceleration.
While the single sash harness is effective for linear deceleration, any side load can cause the upper body to lean
out of its restraint and impact the instrument panel or controls. A double shoulder strap provides good restraint in
both linear and sideways deceleration.
INERTIA REELS Because of the need for the pilot to lean forward to reach some controls in most aircraft. a
fixed-mounted shoulder harness must be all owed some slack when the pilot is in the upright position. This allows
some forward movement of the upper body before the harness jerks it to a halt- exactly the type of motion that did
the damage in the days when people were hanged! Inertia reels automatically take up any slack wbile still a!Jowing
freedom to lean forward norma!Jy. They are designed to lock when the deceleration reaches about 1 G.
Harnesses and buckles should be carefully inspected periodically and inertia reels should be checked to ensure that
they allow slow forward movement, but lock firmly when a rapid rug is applied.
Lap strap and sash type Full aerobatic five point
DESIGN EYE POSITION [DEP].

It is impossible to design a cockpit that will be suitable for every possible shape and size that human beings come
in. so designers define an anthropometric range of the population and design the cockpit for people who fit within
that range. Generally the bottom 5% and r.op 5% in stature are excluded so that the well designed cockpit should
be suitable for 90% of the population. One of the most vital elements in cockpit design is the eye level of the
pilot. It is essential that the pilot be able to see the maio instruments clearly and also have a good view outside the
cockpit especially forward and downwards during approach and landing. The view available to the pilot depends
to a large extent on the position of bis/her eye witbin the cockpit. Cockpits are designed on the assumption that
the pilot's eye will be at a particular position called the Design Eye Position. Some aircraft have markers on the
central windscreen pillar which line up when the eye is in the correct position.
One standard assumes that the aircraft is landing in a circle of visibility of 1200 metres. Some of that distance
ahead of the aircraft will be cut-off by the nose and/or instrument panel. The pilots eye position should ensure that
a distance equal to 3 seconds at the approach speed is visible beyond the cut-off point and witbin the 1200 metre
visibility limit.
Correct DEP.
... 3 sec distance .. 'o
1200 m ahead
In large aircraft the seating position is critical in determining tbe forward visibility available to the pilot. A pilot
seated with his eye level one inch [2.54 em] below the DEP will typically lose about 40m of forward visibillity
40m lost by sitting I inch to low.
All Rights Reserved © 2009

'
1200 m ahead
Human Performance & Limi tations Page 10.3

DISPLAYS
A display may be defined as any device which presen ts information directly to any one
of our senses. Tn a large jet aircraft the sta ll warning may be indicated by a stick-shaker
[the sense of touch]. a warning hom [audio] or a warning light [visual]. All of l11ese
devices can be described <lS displays. Dynam ic displa ys are those that are subject to
changing indications such as the Hight and engine instruments. while static displa ys
present fixed items of information in the form of placards. graphs or tables.
While the brain's sensory capacity is a lmost unlimited, the rate at which it can absorb
information is limited severely by the short-tem1 memory capacity. This causes a 'bot-
tleneck' as information arriving via the senses has to wai t its turn to be processed by
the brain. During l11is wait some of this information is likely to be lost or altered.
12.75
It is very important then that d isplays present on ly relevant infom1ation in the most
c lear and concise manner. There are various types of displays. each of which has its
advantages and d isadvantages depending on the type of information being presented.
For example a digital presentation gives a much more accurate value than a circular
analogue display but it takes more time to read it [left).
However when the values are changing frequently or when it is important to observe
the direction or rare of change, the analogue presentation is superior to the digital
one. Also most people find it easier to remember the previous value after a change by
recalling the visual image of where the pointer was on the analogue dial [left]. One
glance at the circular analogue display allows the brain to 'photog,aph' the position
of the pointer rather than remember a string of digits.
10.5 A digital clock is perfectly adequate for recording time for the purpose of navigation
log-keeping such as deparrure times or ETAs. However when it comes w short-term
t1me, the analogue watch has its advantages. For example, wa tching the sweep of the second haud on an analogue
stopwatch during a one minute outbound leg makes it much easier to compare elapsed t1me with the time to run
and to decide when one quarter. one half or three quarters of the time has elapsed.
Head-Up-Disp lays. By projecting a collimated [focused to infinity] im-

windscreen age of flight data onto an angled glass screen. the pilot can be provided
with a display which is superimposed on the view outside the cockpit.
The collimated lens focuses the image at infinity so that the pilot does not
have to change focus or divert his vision from the omside view. These
devices are called head-up displays [HUD] and they have been in com-
- mon use in military aircraft for some years.
Warnings. The multitude of systems that require monitoring in a modem

aircraft. especiall y in a ciitical phase of tight such as take-off or landing.
make it likely that the pilot may not become aware of an item which
requires his immediate and urgent <mention. Visual displays require the
pi.lot's vision to be directed at the display at the critical time. Although
the head-up display goes a long way to solving this problem for some parameters. presenting all of the information
relating to all of the aircraft's systems on the HUD would simply transfer the problem from the instrUment panel
to the H UD screen. Audio warning systems are the answer. Such warnings should be attention getting without
being startling.
BeUs or horns have been used for years to warn piJots of undercarriage problems or the impending stall. One
problem with these abstract warnings is that they simply tell the pi lot that something is wrong without indicating
what the problem is. A bell or hom may indicate fire or undercarriage malfunction or stall warning and may have a
different meaning on the ground than it does in the air. Voice warning systems such as ground proximity warni11g
systems IGPWS] alert the pilot to the problem by giving the appropriate command to remedy it. 'Whoop Whoop
PuU Up - Pull Up'. This can save precious seconds in a critical situation by reducing the 'sensat1on-perception-
decision-response' process to 'sensation-response'. One problem that has shown up in GPWS systems however is
that if such systems activate too early, the crew may become 'desensitised' and later ignore a genuine problem.
Linear strip displays. This type of presentation is
SYSTEM 1 SYSTEM 2 SYSTEM 3 ideal when it comes to monitoring the performance
of several similar systems such ~ each engine of
a multi-engine aeroplane. Another very familiar
example is the graphic cqualiscr found on many
70 70 70
stereo sets.
60 60 60
50 Linear displays can be arranged in such a way that
50 50
making comparisons between systems becomes easy
40 40 40 and any trend away from normal will be clearly
indicated.
30 30 30
20 20 20 For example if the three gauges at left were moni-

toring three similar systcms. the pilot could tell at a
10 10 10 glance that all indications were the ~amc. showing
0 0 0 normal operation[lcftl.
- 10 -10 -10 llowever if the System 2 indication falls below

-20 -20 -20 normal it is immediately obvious that something is
amiss and further investigation would be called for
[below left].
SYSTEM 3 Sometimes linear strip displays arc arranged so

SYSTEM I SYSTEM 2
thnt the card is fixed and the pointer moves along
the card, such as in the illustration mlcfi. l lowever
sometimes the pointer may be stationary and it is the
70 70 70 card that moves beneath the pointer. This type is not
60 60 as effective for the purpose of moni toring similar
60
systems since the movement of the card is not as
50 50 50 obvious as the non-alignment of the pointers.
40 40 40
Sometimes the card is colour coded to indicate
30 30 30 normal range [green I. cauti on range [orange] and
limits [red].
20 20 20
10 10 Some form of linear strip display i~ often used in
the trim position indicator of light general aviation
0 0 0
aircraft.
-10 -10 -10
It has been noted that some combinations of mov-
-20 -20 -20
ing tape display~ and indicato~ 1-uch a' the attitude
indicator can produce annoying or di~tracting effects
when the values change in the opposite sense. For
example in the figure at bonom lefi. the airspeed tape
is on the left and the altitude tape i1> on the right. If
currenr current air,peed begin~ to decrease and altitude begins to
a.r<peed ohiiUde
increase while the pilotl> attention i~ on the attitude
indicator. the fabc sensation of rolling has been
reported by some pilots.
In re;,ponse to the\e complaint!>. some designers

have speed tape~ with the higheM value-. on the bot-
attitude
indicator tom. however that is also again~t the expectations
of most. Both dc,ign~ arc to be found in modem
aircrafl - obviou~l y an undesirable state of affairs.
Who was it who said "You can't please all of the

people all of the time?"
All Rights Reserved ~ 2009 I Iuman Performance & Limitationl> Page 10.5
c !:'
'"'
"0
..c c
"E
"
"0
5
Primary Secondary ~ E
·c:
"- (f ~
"' "'
80 80 GG 00
00 0 0 oo oo
00 0 0 oo oo
00 0 0 oO Oo
L R L R
Power levers Power levers
The layout of engine instruments in mulli-engine aircraft requires careful thought - allhough you might find that
hard to believe when you look into the cockpit of some general aviation aircraft! There are two main considerations.
F irstly the pilot shou ld be able to quickly and confidentl y identify disparate read ings when the parameters for one
engine do not coincide with those of another. This may be the first warning the pilOt may have that something is
amiss. The problem becomes more complicated when the display incl udes both primary [e.g. manifold pressure
and RPMJ and secondary [e.g. oil temperature and ammeter] engine indications. ln the diagram at top left. the
primary and secondary i nstruments are grouped side by side with the left engine instruments on the left and the
right engine instruments on the right.
Thi s arrangement makes it much easier for the pilot to compare the rwo engines and notice any disparate indica-
t ions. However it could be argued that this arrangements al so introduces some difficulty of quickly identifyi ng a
parameter for a particular engine since the ri ght engine primary instruments are on the left hand side and the left
engine secondary instruments are on the right hand side.
In the arrangement at top right. all of the left engine's in struments are grouped on the left si de above the left power
lever , and all of the right engine's instruments are grouped on the right side above the right power lever. This makes
it much easier to monitor the parameters aod identify the engine to which they relate but it makes it more difficult
to quickly nOtice any disparity between particular parameters.
Cathode ray rube [CRT] displays present information in the form of a picnare or words on a T V screen. Jt is interest-
ing that in this type o f display the information i s often presented as a picmre of an analogu e instrument. Technology
has replaced the mechanical innards of rhe old fashioned instmments, but the acJu(l/ p resemation ofrhe information
often remains the same. Another rem.inder that the human brain has remained untouched by advances in aircraft
performance and design!
The glass cockpit. The adven t of CRT displays of fli ght

systems represented a milestone in the evolution ofthe flight
deck as we know it today. Along wi th other similar devices
such as liquid-crystal displays [LCD] and light-emining
diodes [LED]. which are much lighter and run cooler than
CRTs. they have released designers from the constraints of
old fash ioned electromechanical instrumentation aod permit-
ted integration of displays. w i th more effective utilisat ion of
high priority panel space and greater flexibility.
The information which is relevant to the various phases of flight can be displayed on one or two simple screens while
master warning systems compete for the pilot's auemion only if they have something important to say. However
a ll of this has not come without a price in terms of human factors. The most common criticism of the glass cockpit
concept is that the lmman pilot is denied an overall view of the 'big picture' and often fee ls more like a spectator
than a participant iu the cycle of events.
In fact many pilots. especially younger ones. may experience a loss of proficiency in basic instrument flying skills
such as scanning technique and maintaining a situational awareness. On the other hand there are those who might
argue that so-called basic instrument flying skills are destined to become increasingly irrelevant in the future evolution
of cockpit design and new ski lls appropriate to the environment will be needed. Perhaps the 'hands-on' instrument
pilot will go the same way as the dead reckoning navigator and the village blacksmith !
M od e awareness. One cause for concern that has emerged from the ever-increasing trend towards automated flight
systems and the preference to provide pilots with only the information which is relevant to the current flight situa-
tion. is the crew's ability to adequately monitor such systems. A number of incidents and accidents have occurred
in which the crew have misident ified or forgotten which mode of the amoflight system has been selected.
The automat ic flight and engine management systems can be set up in many different modes. for example an auto
flight system can be set up to maintain a given rate of climb or a given speed during climb.lt is possible for the
pilot to believe that the system is carrying out one task when in fact it has been programmed to carry out another.
Interestingly. many amomatic systems that were introduced in the hope of eliminating human error have simply
created another potential source for such CJTOrs!
COMMUNI CATION AND LEADERSHIP

Comm unication is possible in many d ifferent forms. Through the spoken or written word.through body language,
through symbols and gestures and through an and music. At the moment we arc concerned main ly with the spoken
word since that is the fonn of communication used almost exclusively during flight.
Ba rriers to eiJective com mu nica tion . Factors that can inhibit effective conununication can be external or internal.
Extcmal factors arc the most obvious. they inc lude high environmental no ise levels. distractions of a busy work
environment or physical discomfort. and poor enunciation or an unfami liar accent. lntcmal factors are ma inly
associated with the perception of what is said. A message spoken with perfect enunciation and clarity can still be
misunderstood if the receiver misinterprets its intended meaning.
One of the most common internal factors is the error of expectancy. This occurs when the receiver assumes that he
has heard what he expects to hear rather than what has actually been said. In some cases the receiver listens to part
of the message wh ich says what is expected, but fails to register other information that may be re levant.
For example a tower controll er who says." Alpha Bravo Charlie line up after the Cessna on final passes." may find
that the pilot hears 'Alpha Bravo Clwrlie line up' and disregards the remainder. Another problem here is that the
pilot may key his microphone to acknowledge after he hears the phrase 'line up' and therefore clip the remainder
of the controller's message. Because of this. controllers phrase such messages so that the instruction 'line up' is the
last thing that is said cg "Alpha Bravo Charlie. there is a Cessna on final. after that aircraft passes. line up."
T he limitations oflanguage. No matter how obvious the intended meaning of a phrase may be to the communicator,
the limitations of language can often produce the most unexpected misunderstandings in the receiver. For example
TIME FLIES! the phrase 'Time flies' is so fami liar to most of us that there would be lillie li ke-
lihood of its intended meaning being confused. However. if the receiver had
I Fly O~·m~ics • tOO mm Final never heard such a phrase and s imply applied the accepted rules of syntax some
_, ambiguity wou ld be apparent. The meaning of the phrase is altered completely
(((~ ~ : depending on which word is taken to be the noun and which is taken to be the
verb. In one case we are talking about time flying, in the other we are describ-
ing the action of timing flies. This example illustrates the surprising degree
((( '
of d ifficu lty involved in making even a simple statement wh ich is absolutely
I •
unambiguous without resort ing to the c lumsy extravagance of legal phraseology.
""' J have often sat beside students who. upon receiv ing the instruct ion. "take the
tick tick next taxiway left." reply with the question. "docs he mean this taxiway coming
tick tick
up, or the next one?"
AJI Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limi tations Page 10.7
AIDS T O EFFECTIVE C OMM UNICATION
Usc of sta ndard phrases Because of the ever-present possibility that the receiver of a spoken message may misin-
terpret its intended meaning. aviation has adopted the use of standard phrases. the exact meaning of which are part
of pilot training. T binldng before you speak A liule thought before speaking can make the world of difference
to the effectiveness of a spoken message.
Keep control over the pace and clarity of s peech Even when you are operating in a demanding or threatening
environment. discipline yourself to speak clearly and deliberately. One outstanding example of this is Neil Arm-
strong's first moon landing when. after touchdown on the lunar surface and having had a heart rate of over one
hundred and eighty, he calmly reported. "Houston Tranquillity Base here. the Eagle has landed."
Another factor that can have an

Authority gradient too shallow. etl"ect on communication in a multi-
T he captain consults the fi rst crew environment is the so-called
officer o n every issue and never 'authority gradient' . This refers to
takes command. In an the relationship that exists between
e mergency it is likely that no the captain and the other members
clear cut decision will be made. of the flight crew. When the author-
ity gradient is shallow. the captain
and crew arc equally involved in
most of the decision makjng and
Autho rity gradient correct. The there is a high level of comm unica-
captain assumes overall command tion between the captain and crew
but involves the firs t officer as a members. Although this egalitarian
useful member of a team which situation may sound ideal. if the
he leads. T he first officer respects authority gradient is too shallow.
the captain's command status but the captain's command status can be
feels free to cont ribute. compromised - a case of 'fam iI iarity
breeding contempt'.
Tfthe authority gradient is too steep.

the captain is perceived as a dictator
Authori ty gradient too s teep. The and the crew members feel reluctant
captain assumes total command to communicate their ideas or sug-
leaving the frrst officer out of lbe gestions. even when they feel they
'loop·. T he first officer is unl ikely have something importan t to say.
to contribute anything to the The infamous Captain Bligh of the
decison making process - even 'Bounty' provides a familiar exam-
when he is sure that the captain ple of a steep authority gradient. ll
has made a mistake! is found that different cultures tend
to be comfortable w ith different
authority gradients. In some cultures the crew is very sensitive to the captain's 'losing face' so they tend to wi thhold
comment. As ian and European crews tend to adopt a higher authority gradient than Australians.
Body language. The main non verbal methods of communicating and establishing a relationship arc eye contact,
facial expression. touch, body orientation and posture. hand and head movements [gestures] and personal space
[phys ical separation].
Eye contact is normally brief and prolonged eye contact or staring is usually n.:garded as threatening behaviour
and is not conducive to good communication. Facial expression is of great importance. Tn fact the same statement
made with two differen t facial expressions can often have two quite different meanings. Touch beyond an initial
handshake is distracting in all blll close personal relationsh ips- it should be avoided in norma l flight crew situations.
Posture can be very revealing as we tend to lean towards those we agree with and away from those we dislike.
Gestures are so important in communication that we often sec people making gestures wh ile talking on the phone
when they know that the other party cannot see them! Gestures such as finger tapping. leg swinging and shou lder
shrugging ind icate frustration or disinterest. Positive gestures such as head nodding can give encouragement and
indicate that the listener is interested in what is being said- even if he/she doesn't agree.
PUSH AND PULL
Communication serves two basic functions. It can allow us
to present our thoughts and opinions for others to consider,
or it can allow us to access the thoughts and opinions of
others for our own consideration. When we are presenting
our thoughts and opinions to others, we are employing the
'push' mode of communication. Examples are
expressing an opinion
stating facts or beliefs
giving commands or orders
present our side of a negotiarion.
When we are seeking access to the thoughts or opinions of

others we are employing the 'pull' mode of communication.
Examples are
asking a question
requesting an opinion
'+ .' ; • •· • :' . + • • • • + ••• • • making a proposal
inviting the other party to negotiate.
ACTIVE LISTENlNG. By its very nature, the pull mode

of communicarion initiates a two-way conversarion. lt is
no use asking a question, requesting an opinion, making a
proposal or inviting the other party to negotiate if we are not
going to listen effectively to the reply. It is common knowl-
edge that most of what we hear in conversation is ignored.
misunderstood or quickly forgotten [some researchers claim
the figure can be as high as 75%]. Reasons for thjs include:
Wandering attention or tuning out You can think much faster than someone else can speak, so when you are
preoccupied with other things [or just not interested]. you have plenty of time while someone else is speaking to
wander off and occasionally return to the conversation with a well-timed "yes". "no" or "goodness me! "
Preparing your next contribution While the speaker is making his point. you are no! listening. but rehearsing
what you are going to say next. You pay almost no attention to what he/she might be saying as you wait impatiently
for your turn.
Engineer ing the conversation The conversation is heading into areas you have little interest in or are uncomfort-
able with. so you take every opportunity to divert the conversation back to suit your preference.
Intellectual arm wrestling Every time the speaker makes a poim or offers an opinion, you put up an argument
to the conrrary. Rather than listening, you are attempting to remain on top of the conversation [must have the last
word].
LEADERSHIP
A leader in a given situation is a person whose ideas and actions influence the thought and behaviour of others.
He/she is an agent of change and influence. He/she uses example and persuasion. combined with a personal un-
derstanding of the goals and desires of the group he/she happens to be leading as well as those of the employer.
He/she feels responsible for trying to implement these goals. High levels of skill demonstrated in his/her own job
ensures the respect of the group.
Leadership v Authority True leadership should no! be confused with authority. Whereas authority is usually
assigned. true leadership is acquired. The status of authority has effect immediately it is assigned. but the quality
of leadership takes time to develop. People who are leaders will be automatically granted authority by the group.
while people in authority often show no trace of leadership [Civil Aviation Safety Authority?].
All Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limi tations Page 10.9
The three circ les model of good leadership rem inds us that three considerations compete for the attention of a good
leader. They are the ta~k. the team and the individual. At any one moment the leader's attention may be focused
on;
the task only [I]

l the team only [2]
the ind ividual only [3]
TASK the team and the task [4]
the individual and the task [5]
the team and the indi vidual [6]
the task, the team and the individual [7]
A good leader should have the P+G+ type of personality. That is

while remaining orientated towards the immediate task goals. he/
she shou ld a lso have a genuine concern for individual people within
the team.
In summary a good leader shou ld:
Lead by example. Set high standards of perforn1ance by demonstrating a high level of personal
performance.
Advise intent. Communicate with the team and keep them informed of intentions before acting on
those decisions explaining the reasons for not implementing the ideas of others.
Having made the decision, summarise the proposed course of action but don't allow
debate on it.
Delegate. Delegate appropriate duties to team members to a ll ow time for the leader to perfom1
a monitoring or supervising roll.
Motivate. One of the most effective means of motivation is to offer praise for good
performance [posi tive reinforcement].
Consult. Involve the team in most decision making processes. For example the captain asks
the first officer for his opinion, then makes the final decision.
Set p riorities. TI1e most effic ien t use of resources is achieved when energy is directed to tasks in a
logical order of priority. Most students have heard it summed up by the s logan
'aviate, navigate, communicate.'
Finally if a captain is to be effective in creati ng an effective team, he/she must be aware that the likelihood of his/
her advice and counselling be ing accepted and acted upon depends to a large extent on the crews perception of his/
her own integrity and competence. TI1is perception is based on the crew's observation of the captains performance
in his normal duties. Motivation of the crew cannot be accomplished by ex hortation alone - don't nag!
T h e 1\yo Communication Rule. To enhance meaningful communi cation on the flight deck, some a irlines use the
two communication rule. This requires a response from each crew member to each communication directed at him/
her. TI1is technique ensures that important observations are acknowledged and brought into the consciousness of the
team , to be e ither discarded o r acted upon. Tf a response is not made to a commun ication directed at a fl ying crew
member then the comment is repeated once more. If no response is forthcoming, the non- flying p ilot takes over.
' FO LLOWE RS H IP '

While a great deal has been said and written about leadersh ip, it is worth giving some thought to the task of being
a fo ll ower. that is a member of the team tha! is being led.
Person ality issu es A survey cond ucted in the UK revealed that 93% of first officers and 74% of captains ad mined
that there were other pilots with whom they preferred not to work. As a team member you may not always have
the luxury of working only with those that you genuinely like. To be an effective team member you must be able
to put personality differences aside and still contribute effectively to the task goals.
Assertiveness A good team member will not agree with a plan of action just to 'keep the peace' if he/she is feeling
uneasy about it. On the o ther hand. once an appropriate plan of action has been decided upon, a good team member
will fully support it if he/she might personally prefer a different plan. T he degree of asserti veness displayed by a
particular team member is controlJed to a very great extent by that person's personality, however if you are con-
vinced that a particular course of action is incorrect or dangerous, it is vital that you put your opinion forward for
consideration. Many of the worlds worst aviation disasters may have been avoided if the first officer or other crew
member had strongly voiced their objections to a bad decision. If you were in a ship and the captain insisted on
maintaining a course wllicb headed straight for an iceberg, you could choose to do nothing and start planning the
best route ro the lifeboats.lf you are pan oftbe crew of an aircraft. you do not have that option!
T HREAT AND E RRO R MANAGEMENT [TEM].
Basic principl es.

Firstly it must be said that TEM is nothing new. It has been part of human behaviour since we first evolved. When
my mother told me not to climb the mango tree in our back yard she identified two threats: Firstly Tcould fall and
secondl y there was a big bee hive in the branches. I then made the error of ignori ng those threats and suffered the
consequences of both. First the bees and then the fall!
In the context of aviation TEM is simply an extension of the concept of airrnanship and airrnanship has often been
described as the application of common sense. Sadly. experience shows that so-called common sense is not all that
common. On many occasions common sense becomes obvious only after the event and it certainly can't be relied
on as a means of preventing undesirable outcomes.
ln the past, human error in aviation was considered a weakness and the person involved was 'gui lty' of making the
error. The fact is that our propensity for error is simply the price we must pay for being human and the best we can
do is find ways to identify errors and resolve them when they occur.
TEM is an attempt to develop a mind-set which e nlmnces the ide ntification of threats. minimizes the opportunities
for error, and resolves those errors when they do occur. The TEM model bas tllree basic components:
'l) Threa ts
'l) Errors, a nd
'l) Undesired aircraft states
If tllreats. errors and undesired aircraft states are not recognised and managed in tin1e. an accident or incident may
result. 1n the TEM model this final event is called an outcome.
Let's consider each of these in turn.

T hreats. To put it simpl y, threats originate in the environment ou tside the aircraft or in the cockpit and are not
directly attributable to something the crew did or did not do. They include things such as poor weather. wind shear.
rugh pilot workload in very busy airspace and inte!TUptions or distractions during an approach to land.
Er rors. Again to put it simply, errors originate from pilot actions or inactions that have the potential to adversely
affect the safety of the flight.
Undesired aircr aft states. Tills peculiar pllrase refers to any flight condition or attitude whlch was not intended
by the operating crew. Undesired aircraft states would include such things as inappropriate flap selection on take-
off or landing. flight above or below the desired altitude, airspeed too high or too low during climb or descent or
[careful ofrlzis one]unintentional stalls or spins. Note that an undesired aircraft state can resu lt from either a threat
such as turbulence o r wind s hear, or an error such as inappropriate use of contro ls.
Le t's examine threa ts in more detail.

ln the CASA material a threat is defi ned as:
'l) A situarion or e1·enttlzat has rile potemial to impact negatively on the safety of a flight or
1) Any influence that promotes rhe opportunity for pilot error or
'l) Anyrlzing thar causes a variation to a 'perfecr'jliglu.
All Rights Reserved @ 2009 Human Performance & Limitations Page 10. 11
Threats can be classified as external and imemal and latelll.
E" ternal threats originate from the environment in which the aircraft is operating and can lead to pilot error.
They include such things as:
~ Distractions caused by passengers or cabin crew ~ Unexpected requests or enquiries from ATC
~ Weather problems ~ Maintenance issues
~ Heavy traffic situations and/or unfamiliar aerodromes ~ Missed approach
~ Pressure to meet time schedules ~ Ln-llight diversion ~ System fa ilures
Ex temal threats can be further sub-divided into anticipated. unexpected or latent.
Anticipated , or expected , external threats would include such things as weather and heavy traffic or unfamiliar
aerodromes.
Unexpected external threats would include such things as distractions from passengers, in-flight diversions and
missed approaches.
L a tent extermll threats are not directly obvious to lhe pilot but are lurking in lhe background waiting for a
panicular set of circumstances. They include such things as a 'user unfliendly' work environment such as poor
cockpit design or instrument layout, aircraft design characteristics and company policies that do not adequately
address proper maintenance issues or pilot fatigue and optical illusions such as sloping nmways or 'black hole'
approaches.
Internal threats are brought to the cockpit in the persons of the pilot and crew. They cannot in themselves be
called errors but they increase the likelihood of errors.
'ik Pilot fatigue 'ik Team famiJjarity in multi-crew aircraft
'ik Language and cultural issues ~ Health and fitness
'ik Pilot experience and personality ~ Pilot recency and proficiency
[See 'Personality and decision making'- Page 8.41
Threats can be further classified as environmental threats and organisational threats.
Environmenta l threa ts exist because of the environmem in wh ich the aircraft is operating. They include:
~ Weather such as thunderstorms, icing, crosswindftailwindfdownwind wind shear and turbulence
'ik Airspace communication problems such as may occur in Cf/\ or in a CfAF area
'ik Ground environments at airports including signage. the presence of birds or obstructions
~ Terrain about and below the aircraft
~ Operational pressures such as late arrivals or unserviceabil ities
Organisational threats originate from deficiencies in the infrastructure and organisation in which the aircraft is
operating. They include such things as:
~ Documentation errors I incorrect data entry or misinterpretation of manuals]
'ik Tour of duty problems
Management of threats.
1l1reat management refers to tools or procedures that allow pilots to anticipate and/or respond to threats. A man-
aged threat is one which is recognised and responded to before it can adversely affect the safety of the flight.
Example: A pilot reads and interprets an aerodrome forecast which imposes an alternate requirement. The pilot
chooses an altemate aerodrome and ensures that sujjicie111 fuel is carried to proceed to that aerodrome should it
become necessary. The threat has been managed.
Page 10.12 Human Perfonnance & Limitations Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School
A mismanaged threat is one that is linked to or induces an error which adversely affects the safety of the flight.
Example: A passenger in an aircraft approaching 011 unfamiliar aerodrome asks the pilot questions ubout the
availability of a public telephone after landing. The pilot checks the ERSA and fails 10 make the ten mile inbound
call resulting in a near collision with a departing aircraft.
Tools and techniques used to manage threats.

~ Detailed study of weather enroute and at the destination
~ Ensuring compliance with operational requirements pertaining to the flight
~ Checking ERSA for arrival at unfami liar aerodromes for special procedures
~ Thorough and careful pre-flight inspection
~ Self-assessment of fitness. recency and expe1ience requ ire.d
~ Familiarity with aircraft type and emergency procedures
~ Applicat ion of standard operating procedures [SOP].
SUMMARY OF THREATS
EXTERNAL INTERNAL LATENT
Originating from owside the im- Relating to the person of the pilot Usually not noticed until after
mediate em•ironment of the pilot and/or crew. Fatigue. perSOJI(J/ity, the event. After an accidem- "Of
and/or crew. recency. health etc. course. I should have realised that
could become a problem!"
ANTICIPAT ED UNEXPECTED
ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANISATIONAL
Note that you can expect examination questions which ask you to ident ify the type of threat in a given scenario.
Tt is important to be able to classify the type of threat using the terminology above.
For example: A forecast thunderstorm would be an anticipated. external environmenwlthreat.
A pilot's over-confidence and aggressive personality wou ld be an imemal threat. LMaybe it

could also be described as a late/If internal threat]. Also, all latent threats would be
unexpected. It wouldn't be a latent threat if it was anticipated.
A poorly designed cockpit has the undercarriage and flap levers next to each other and similar
in size and shape. One day the pilot operates the undercarriage lever instead of the flap lever
after land ing, causing the undcrcaJTiage to retract whi le the aircraft is on the ground. This
would be an examp le of a latent threat.
Question No 1
A threat that is not immediately obvious to the pilot. such as an undercarriage lever situated adjacent to a flap
lever, or manifold pressure and RPM gages widely separated. is best described as-
[a) a latent threat. fb] an ex ternal threat.
lc1 an anticipated threat. [d) an internal threat.
Question No 2
A S IGMET is transmitted to a pilot in flight advising of reported mountain wave acti vity. Select the description
which best describes the category of this threat.
[a] external, unexpected, organisational.
fbi internal, anticipated . envi ronmental.
[c] external, anticipated, environmental.
fdl organisationaL anticipated, latent.
Question No 3
A pilot is put under pressure from his employer to get back to base before his tour of duty expires. This is an
example of-
fal an external threat. [b] an antici pared threat.
[cl an e nviromne ntal threat. [dl a latent threat.
Question No 4
Select the option below which best describes an organisational threat.
[a] a flight into a high density traffic area.
[bj an air traffic controll er whose speech is too fast to understand easily.
Lc] pilot proficiency degraded by lack of recent experience.
[dl provision of an instrument approach chart that is out of date.
Question No 5
Which of the following wou ld be best described as an internal threat?
la I ad verse weather.
lbl pilot fatigue.
fc] operati ng at au unfamiliar aerodrome.
[d) taxiing at an unfamiliar aerodrome with poor taxiway markings.
Question No 6
A type of threat which is best managed by maintaining a high skill level through practice and training is-
[a] an anticipated threat. [bl a latent threat.
[c] an unexpected threat. [d) an organisational threat.
Question No 7
Optical illusions s uch as the 'black hole' effect and sloping runways are examples of-
[a1 an intemal threat. rb] an anticipated threat.
[c] a latent environmental threat. [d] a latent internal threat.
Question No 8
Which of the following would be best described as an intcmalthreat?
[a] flight into a high traffic density area.
[b] an air traffic controll er with a heavy foreign accent.
[c] a pilot with a tendency to be over confident.
fdl a maintenance release that is incorrectl y filled in.
Question No 9
Which of the following wou ld be an example of an unexpected environmental threat?
[a] take-off from an aerodrome with a high density alti tude.
rbl operating an aircraft with tires incon·ectly inflated.
[cj operating at an unfamiliar aerodrome.
[dj an encou nter with hoar frost on descent in clear air.
Q uestion No 10
Which of the follow ing is an example of a latent threat?
[a) committing a check list to memory. Lbl an poorly written check lists.
[c) engine fa ilure in flight. [d) an encounter with rime ice.
Answers: I [a] 2 [c) 3 [d] 4 [d] 5 [b] 6 [c) 7 [c) 8 [c] 9 [d) 10 [b].
Now let's examin e errors in more detail.
Tn the CASA material an error is defined as night crew actions or inactions that lead to a deviation from crew or
organisational intentions: reduces safety margins; and increases the probability o f adverse operational events on
the ground and during flight.
Errors can be classified as handling errors. procedural errors and cotmllunicalioll errors.
Han dlin g errors are errors in the actual manipulation of the aircraft controls. Not surprisingly handling .mors
most often occur when the pilot has limited total aeronautica l experience or limited experience on the particular
aircraft type. Handling errors are much less likely as experience increases, although it must be said that too much
reliance on modem automated systems can reduce a pilot's level of skill in 'hands on' flying. This often shows up
in instrument rating renewals when the p il ot has spent the last year flying almost every approach with the auto pilot
coupled to the navigation system. Handling errors include such things as:
~ Rounding out too high or too late in a landing
~ Failure to maintain tracking and descent profile tolerances during an approach
~ Failure to accurately maintain height when flying manually
~ Over/undershooting the intercept of a desired track
~ Unnecessary excess speed during taxi or unnecessary harsh bmking
~ inappropriate use of power during approach
~ Poor technique during cross-wind landings
Procedural errors. Although inexperienced pilots arc more likely to make handling errors. procedura l errors may
occur across the whole spectrum of pilot experience. They often occur as a consequence of an ex ternal or internal
threat such as time constraints. poor communication, distraction or poor quality aerodrome markings or s ignage.
~ Failure to use <I wrinen checklist for take-off or landing
~ Fai lure to fty a right-hand circuit when requi red by ERSA
~ Fai lure to stop at a holding point
~ Failure to conform to the tracking and height limitations during an instrument approach
~ Incorrect calcu lation in night plann ing or weight and balance management
Comm unication er rors are the result of ambiguous or misinterpreted communication Lusually speech). They
often resu lt from:
~ Use of non-standard ptu·aseology in the case of radio communication
~ Poor quality radio reception
~ Over-transmission of radio messages by a third pat1y
~ Unfami li ar foreign accents or rapid speech
Any of the above types of pilot error may occur as a result of el'.ternal threats that may divert the pilot's attention
or intemal threats such as memory lapses or preoccupation with personal issues.
Committed er ror.
If we expect a particular si tuation to arise and prepare ourselves to make the appropriate response , it is no surprise
that when the situation does arise, we will respond more rapidly. For example if a batsman in a cricket game ex-
pects the next ball bowled to at a medium pace and a half volley, he is most likely to strike the ball successfully if
the ball bowled is at a medium pace and a half voll ey. However if the bowler actually delivers a faster fu ll -toss,
the batsman is likely to execute the prepared response and finds himself making the long walk back to the pavilion.
The batsman was commiued to the incorrect response. A pilot landing at a rough strip strewn with gravel decides
to retract the naps immediately after landing to protect them from stone damage. A strong crosswind made the
landing difficult and he 10uched down heavily with drift on. He feels embarrassed and disappointed and makes the
mistake of retracting the undercarriage instead of the naps- more embarrassment!
F u rther m ethods of classifying h andling er rors.

The human errors that are associated with any one individua l performing a given task can be classified according to
their frequency and nature. Examining the pattern of these errors can sometimes be useful in recognising the type of
remedial training required or in some cases identifying a faul! in the procedure be ing applied. Tt must be accepted
that human error can never be entirely eliminated and to conceal en·ors is to e ncoun1ge their repetition. Pilot errors
can be a source of embarrassment and the temptation can be to cover-up or deny them . The error-cause-remowJl
approach to safety encourages pilots to idemify and report potential sources of error and act to prevent such errors
occurring in the future. Three of the most common error c lassificat ions are discussed below.
System atic E rror. Tn this case the error occurs with a definite pattern. All other
elements of the task are e n·or free, bUI an error occurs regularly in one particular
e lement. Once identified, systematic errors can usually be easi ly remed ied because
there is likely to be one particular fault in the process.
Example: All elements of the c ircuits flown by a pre-solo student pi lot are of a con-
sistently good standard except that every round-out and hold-off is too high. Once
it is recognised that the same error is occu rring consistently, the instructor begins to
look for a s ingle cause. He discovers that the student is looking in the wrong place
at this point. The student changes the system accordingly and the error vanishes.
R :md om error. Random errors occur without any specific pattern. Each time the
task is performed an error occurs at a different stage and may or may not be repeated
on the next try. Random en·ors arc usually an indication that e ither the system is
too complex causing an overload of mental capacity, or the person pcrforn1ing the
task has not grasped the basic fundamentals and needs retraining - cxpecially in
the basics.
Example: A pre-solo student pi lot makes inconsistent errors during circuit tlying.
The approach is too slow on one occasion and too fast on another. The round-out
is too high on one landing and too late on another. On one take -off he forgets to
retract the flaps; on another he forgets the fuel pump; one circuit is too wide while
the next is too c lose. Lsound familiar]? More dual on this sequence!
Sp ora dic er ror. This is by far the most difficult error to remedy. All elements
of the task are performed satisfactorily almost all of the time. But occasionally a
serious error is made in one element lhat has been performed correctly a number
of times previous! y.
Example: This time the pre-solo student pilot bas just flown a really good session
of circuits to the point where the instructor is about to get out and send him on his
first solo. The instructor decides to do just one more circuit and on this occasion
the student loses all interest in airspeed on late final to the point where the instruc-
tor has to take over and apply power to save the situation. Errors of this nature can
sometimes have an emotional cause. The student is preoccupied with personal problems or simpl y nervous about
going solo. The sad reality is rhat recent statistical analysis of world-wide aircraft accidents has shown that in at
least 80% of cases the cause is human e rror rather than a failure of a system or an external environmental factor
such as weather or volcanic eruptions etc .
Page 10.16 Human Perfonnance & Limitations Bob Tail's Aviation Theory School
Accidents vers us Experience. Aircrafl accidents have been investigated from every aspect you can imagine. One
interesting breakdown of the statistics is types of errors against pilot experience. Accidents have been grouped
according to whether the cause was lack of man ipulative skill [usually ca lled handling errors] . or errors resulting
from poor operational decisions Ierrors of judgement).
Not surprisingly, the handling errors are more common amongst low-time pilots and they tend to become less frequent
as pilot experience increases. These accidents include such th ings as heavy landings. swlls during low level turns
and cross-wind landing or take-off accidents. What may be more surprising though is the revelation that errors of
judgement do not become less frequent with experience and an experienced pi lot is just as likely to make a poor
operational decision as a nov ice. T hese accidents include such things as continuation ofVI--'"R flight into deteriorat-
ing weather conditions, accidents associated with v isual circling to land after an instrument approach at night or in
margina l weather and fuel exhaustion. So you see, no matter how many hours you have in your log book. or what
type of aircraft you fly, there's no guarantee that your next operational decis ion will be a good one!
Handling errors . Errors of judgeme nt.
-
.,;
Q
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-
-.,
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u
0
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0
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'0.... ....
_g _g
E E
z
;:l
- z
;:l
0-99 100-1 000 1000+ 0-99 100-1 000 1000+

Total aeronautical experience [hours]. T ota l aeronautical experie nce [hours].
Vigila n ce Decre ment. Experiments have shown that the human capacity to maintain vig il ance when mon itoring a
system's performance tends to decrease markedly after about 30 minutes. A pi lot monitoring the instruments while
flying on autopilot is much more likely to miss deviations or system malfunctions after the first 30 minutes. Also
pilots who are forced to fly manually on instruments whi le in cloud or in darkness take much longer to recognise
deviations and to implemen t correc-
tive action af1er that time.
100% This is one reason why the autopi lot

is such a useful aid in instrument
~
flight. If the pilot is forced to fly the
.,"'c
Vl
entire flight on inst rument~ in TMC,

<)
> Vig ilance decrement it is very likely that by the time he
u arrives over the destination aid. his
~
.... vigilance will be at a low ebb just at
.,
<)
0
50% the time when the highest work load
c
~ is imposed.
:§l
>
30 60 90 120
Time - minutes
SUMMARY OF ERORS
HANDLING ER RORS PROCEDURAL ERRORS COMMUNICATIONS ERRORS

Handling errors occur when the Procedural errors occur when Communication errors occur when
pilot i.v operating the comrols. the pilot is using procedures such the pilot, or pilots, are commlmi-
awopilor or systems. as check! ists, standard opera/ ing cating with each othe1~ or with
procedures, pre-fligllt planning or other people, such as ATC or other
emergency drills .. crew members.
COUNTERMEASURES.
Countermeasures are used to prevent threats and or errors from impacting on the safety of the flight. They may
be built into the aircraft systems, in which case they are known as systemic couutenueasures , Examples are stall
warning devices, ground proximity warn ing systems and system status indicators such as alternator and vacuum
pump failure w~lrnings.
Other countermeasures include:
Planning countermeasures. Execution countermeasures. Review countermeasures.

These include such things as: These include such things as: These include such things as:
Thorough pre-flight planning. Monitoring systems during flight. Monitoring the progress of the
Pre-fl ight briefing. Cross checking instruments. flight and modifying plans if nec-
Conringency planning: What if! Workload and systems management. essary as the tight proceeds. [How
e.g. Check ERSAfor next landing are we doing?1
point data; Remaining assertive and alert
Have next map ready to use. to take early action to cope with
expected future events.
Note that when threats are not recognised and dealt with they can lead to errors. Coumermeasures are designed
to catch the errors before they can hal'e a11 effect on the flight. If the coumermeasures are not effective. an
tmdesjred ajrcrq(t state UJASlmay result.
Question No 1
A pilot who has failed to apply carbureuor heat during a glide has committed-
[a) handling error [b) procedural error
[c) communication error [d) execution coumermeasure
Question No 2
After being d istracted by difficult rad io communications. you deviate from your assigned level in controlled
ai rspace. A countermeasure which would most likely have avoided this situation would be called-
La) a planning countermeasure requjring the carriage of a second r.ldio.
[b) an execution coun termeasure requiring that you manage the workload.
[c) a review countermeasure that would have all owed you to ignore the height and concentrate on
the radio.
[d) a procedural countermeasure that wou ld have dealt with the radio problem.
Question No 3
A pilot who is running well behind schedule for the day, forgets to turn on the anti-icing system and consequent-
ly suffers severe airframe icing. This situation demonstrates-
[a) a latent threat lead ing to a hand ling error.
lb] a latent threat lead ing to a communication error.
[c) an internal threat leading to a handling error
[dl an anticipated threat leading to a procedural error.
Page 10.18 Human Perfonnance & Limitations Bob Tair's Aviation Theory School
Question No 4
A pilot who resorts to assertiveness to address a problem in flight is employing-
[a] an execution countermeasure. [bl a planning countermeasure.
[cl a handling countermeasure. ldl a review coun termeasure.
Question No 5
A pilot who has planned to cruise at 5,500 feet is given an ini tia l c learance to c limb to 4,500 feet in CfA. Be-
cause of poor radio reception , he reads back 5,500 feet. This is an examp le of a-
la) procedural error [b] handling error
[c] communication error. [d) planning error.
Question No 6
A pilot who is running late misses the NOTAM advising that a restricted area on his rou te is active. His f:light
enters the restricted area without a c learance. The type of countenneasurc that would have prevented this is-
[ a) an execution countermeasure. [b) a planning countermeasure.
[c) a review countermeasure. [d) a communication countermeasure.
Question No 7
A pilot who has done all of his f:lying training on a nan·ow nmway, makes his first approach to a runway that is
much wider. He rounds out much too high and makes a very heavy landing. This is an example of-
[ a) an external threat. [b) an internal threat.
[c) a procedural error. [d) a latent threat.
Question No 8
The crew of a heavy jet transport aircraft over ran the runway in a heavy thunderstorm. An investigation showed
that the company had directed that brakes should be used in preference to reverse thrust at the later stages of the
landing roll to protect the engines.
The company directive that precipitated this incident is an example of-
[a] a latent threat. [b) an external threat.
(c) an organisational error. [d) an unexpected error.
Question No 9
Which of the following would be classified as an execution countermeasure?
[a) cross checking instruments.
[b] planning a flighr.
[c) modify ing the original plan due to changed conditions.
[d] pre-flight briefing.
Question No JO
Select the item which best describes an internal threat.
lal forecast bad weather on a TAF.
[b] pi lot complacency.
lc] marginal runway length.
ldl operations at a non-fantiliar aerodrome.
Answers: l (a] 2 [bj 3 [a] 4 [d) S [c] 6lb] 7 (d) 8 [a] 9 [a] 10 [b).
An u nd esired a ircraft s tate [UAS] is simply any Hight condition, aircraft attitude or aircraft configunllion which
was not intended by the pilot or appropriate to the pm1icular phase of flight. Typically a threat which is misman-
aged leads to an error which is unrecognised or unresolved which in turn leads to an undesired aircraft stale. The
undesired aircraft state is really the pilot's last chance to remedy the situation. Even at this late stage. if appropriate
action is taken to manage the UAS the outcome may still be avoided. [n the TEM model. the outcome is s imply an
incident or acc ident that results from the mismanagement of threats. errors or undesired aircraft states.
Example:
An aircraft is approaching an aerodrome ar which CTAF procedures apply. The pi/or is unaware rhar the frequency
has recently been changed. Since he has landed at that aerodrome .veveral rimes in the pasr he assumes that the
frequency is the same as ir was on previotts occa.vions. He makes his call on the old frequency and hears 110 reply
so assumes that there is no traffic. As he turns from base omofmal. he has a nearmis.v with an RPT aircraft mak-
ing a straight-in approach.
In the example above, the threat could have been managed by careful attention to the current ERSA in which
case the error wou ld not have occurred. Even after the error had occurred, it could have been resolved by cross-
checking the selected frequency with the current ERSA or by noting the absence of the AFRU response.
Threat
_Approach
__ to CTAF
___,.. \ fmlr
t
En vironmen t aI
threat
Wrong CTAF frequency
_____+___.,.._ \
Unde.~jred ajrcrafl state
Procedural
error . . ---------t\
In CTAF with no broadcast
OU!comc
Safety incidem
Undesired aircraft states can be categorised as:
Aircr aft ha ndling s ta tes wh.ich include such things as:
~ aircraft control [deviations in pitch, roll and yaw]

~ a ltitude. track or speed deviations [deviations in flight path]
~ placing the aircraft in a hazardous situation [weather o r violation of CTA or CTAF procedures]
~ exceeding structural load factor or speed limitations and
~ poor tcchnjque in Hying the approach or landing
Ground navigation states such as:
~ attempting to usc the wrong taxiway or runway

~ taxiing too fast
Aircraft configuration s tates s uch as :
~ inappropriate flap or speed-brake selection

~ incorrect autopilot mode
'\) incorrect programing of GPS or other navigation aid
~ incorrect fue l distribution
~ incorrect distribution of weight
Page 10.20 Human Perfonnance & Limitations Bob Tait's Aviation T heory School
Undesired Aircraft States. UAS.
An undes ired aircraft state is defined as a pilot-induced cond ition in which the aircraft is in a position or at a
height or speed o r configuration which reduces the margin of safety.
They can be broadly categorized as:
Aircraft handling states. Ground navigation states. Aircraft configuration states.
Usually the result of aircraft han- Usually the result of handling errors Also usuttlly the result of handling er-
dling errors in.fli~:lu. 011 the ground resulting in an incor- rors in jligla resulting in rite inappro-
Icing systems not operating in rect position or conditio11 during priare operation levers or switches.
icing conclitions. taxiing. Inappropriate flap deployed.
Aircraft in an unusual attitude. Aircraft on the incorrect taxiway. Inappropriate speed brake deployed.
Speed below Vysc after an engine Aircraft on the wrong runway. lncorrect fuel distribution.
failure. Aircraft taxiing roo fast. Incorrect weight distribution.
Speed below correct approach Aircraft over-runs a holding poim. IJ1correct autopilot mode selected .
speed. lucorrect se lection or set-up of radio
Aircraft below optimum approach
aids.
gradient.
Aircraft above Vb in turbulence.
Aircraft in an excessive rate of
descent at touc h-down.
Error " Undesired Aircraft State.
It is often the case that students fi nd it difficult to distinguish between an t:JIJJI. and an undesired ajrcro,ft state.
It should be remembered that an error is someth ing the pilot, or other members of the llight crew, either did or
did not do. while an undesired aircraft state is the inappropriate condition , pos ition or configuration that resulted
from the pilot's action or inaction.
For example:
A pi lot fails to llpply Cllfburettor heat during a glide approach. That 's an error.
The aircraft is now in a condit ion that reduces the safety margin. That's an undesired aircraft state.
A pi lot uses insufficient rudder to correct a yaw during s tall recovery. Tit at's an error.
The aircraft is now in an unusual attitude that reduces the safety margin . That's a111111desired aircraft state.
A pi lot fails to adequately monitor the airspeed during a missed approach. That's an error.
The aircraft is now 11ying too slowly to achieve the optimum c limb gradien t. That's a11 1111desired ttircraft state.
A pi lot misjudges the wind during the flare for a crosswind land ing. That's a11 error.
The aircraft touches down heavily with drift on. That's an 1111desired aircraft state.
Even whe11the aircraft is in atJLmdesired stat.e, it is 11ot too late for the pilot to remedy the silllalion by dealing
witlr the UAS before it develops into a11. accident or a11 incident. Rem ember, if a V AS develops, it is vital that
priority is give11 to dealing with the VAS. Tnvestigati11g tlte threat or error that led to the UAS is something
that can be do11e calmly later.
All Rights Reserved @ 2009 Human Performance & Limitations Page 1021
Questions on undesired aircraft s ta tes.
Question No 1
A pilot carrying out solo forced landing practice, fails to select the carburettor heat to hot. Carburet tor ice forms
during the descent and the aircraft fails to climb out normally on the 'go around'. This is an example of:
[a] a handling e rror leading to a undesired handling state.
[bl a communication error leading to a undesired handling state.
[c) a hand ling error leading to a undesired configuration state.
[d] a procedural error leading to a undesired handling state.
Question No 2
A pilot fai ls to fully reuact the Haps at the commencement of a missed approach procedure. The aircraft fails to
achieve the desired climb gradient. This is an example of-
[a] a handling error leading to a undesired handling state.
[bj a communication error leading to a undesired handling state.
[c) a hand ling error leading to a undesired configuration state.
[d] a procedural error leading to a undesired handling state.
Question No 3
A pilot incorrectly uses the centre of gravi ty loading system for the aircraft resulting in the aircraft taking off
wi th rhe centre of gravity beyond the aft limit. This is an example of-
fa] a handling error leading to a undesired handling state.
lbl a communication error leading to a undesired handling state.
fcl a hand ling error leading to a undesired configuration state.
fdl a procedural error leading to a undesired configuration state.
Question No 4
During the take-off run , the side window of a Cessna 172 popped open. The pilot immediately attempted to
close and fasten it and consequently lost directional control and ran off the side of the runway into a d itch. This
incident would most likely have been avoided had the pilot-
fa I checked the window latch earlier in the take-off run.
lbl given priority to dealing with the undesired aircraft state, leaving the window open.
lei practiced the technique of closing the window whilst on the move.
ldl studied the aircraft manuals for information of dealing with such an event.
Question No 5
Which of the following examples describes an undesired aircraft configuration state?
Ial icing system not operating in icing conditions.
[bl lAS too low dUJing an approach to land.
Ic1 taxiing too fast.
[dJ incorrect fuel distribution.
Question No 6
The pilot of a piston eng ine aircraft notices that the oil temperature is very high and the oil pressure is beginning
to drop. She decides to abandon the original flight plan and lands at the nearest aerodrome with maintenance
facilities. In this case the ex ternal threat has been mitigated by implementing-
[a) an execution countermeasure followed by a review countermeasure.
[b] a latent threat and a review countcnncasure.
[c] a planning countermeasure followed by an execution eountenneasure.
[d] a review countermeasure followed by an execution countermeasure.
Ques tion No 7
Because of poor radio reception and rapid speech on the pan of the ai r traffic controller, a pilot who has been
given a QNH of 1023 , reads back 1032 and sets it on his altimeter s ubseale. This is an example of-
[a] a procedural error.
fbl a handli ng error.
[cl a communications e rror.
[d] a configurmion error.
Question No 8
With the a ircraft established on final approach. the pi lot lowers full nap. Sho11ly afterwards. the undercarriage
warning system indicates that the landing gear is not down and locked. The pil ot becomes distracted by the un-
dercarriage problem and inadvertently a llows the nose to drop causing the speed to exceed Vfe. The first priority
should have been-
[a) raise the Rap .
[b] manage the undes ired aircraft state by maintaining the correct nose attitude.
[c) recycle the undercarriage.
[d] repeat the pre-landing checklist.
Ques tion No 9
Before setting out on a flight to a homestead strip the pilots considers, "What if the gate has been left open and
there are cattle on the strip'?" He arranges for the owner to be present for his arrival. This is an example of-
[ a] an execution coun termeasure.
[b) a planning countem1easure.
[c) a review countermeasure.
[d) a communications countermeasure.
Question No 10
Regularly practicing forced landings would be an example of a-
la) a planning countermeasure employed to manage an unexpected threat.
[b) a review countermeasure employed to manage a procedural error.
[c) an execmion countermeasure employed to manage an anticipated threat.
[d) a planning countem1easure employed to manage a handling error.
Answers: I fa] 2 [c] 3 [d] 4 [b] 5 fdl 6 [a] 7 [c] 8 [b] 9 [b] 10 fa].
Setting priorities
While an ident ified error can be corrected and resolved so that the undes ired aircraft state is avoided , it is important
to accept that there may be occasions where continuing to recognise and rectify an error may allow the undesired
aircraft state to go from bad to worse! That is the pilot may need to switch his/her attention from managing the
error or threat to managing the aircraft s tate.
Example
The pilm of an agricultural aircrtift was retuming to base at about 300 feet AGL after a job. The headset mi-
crophone was unserviceable so he was u.fing a hand-held microphone. After making a w/1 to circuit traffic he
dropped the microphone. He immedit1tely lent forward with his head in rhe cockpitrrying to retrieve rhe micro-
phone by pulling on its cord. The aircl'(ift enrered a spiral dive and crashed. The pilot was killed.
Remember rhe age old adage: "Aviate , Navigate, Communicate- in rhat order."
Not a ll threats j ustify the time and attention of the pilot. Tn considering the risk involved in a particular threat we
must first consider the probability rhat the threat will be realised along with the possible consequences. There is a
probability the earth will be struck by an asteroid tonight and a lthough the conseq uences are dire, the probability
is very low. A lso there is a high probabi lity that I will be delayed in traffic on the way home , but the consequences
are acceptable. Neither of those threats justjfy the time and effort involved in trying to avoid them.
The response to a threat should be in proportion to the associated risk. It makes no sense to invest a great deal of
time and effort in countcrn1easures to threats th at have very little risk associated. A perfect example of this is the
absurd response we see to the perceived threat to national security at regional airports. It is possible that an eighty
year old woman in a wheel chair could have a bomb concealed in each of her slippers. but the risk is extremely
low.
The effective management of the threats that do justify the pilot's attention depends mainly on early detection and
the time avaHable to consider the options and take appropriate action. Of course the most proactive option would
be to anticipate the threat in time to avoid any impact in might have had on the flight.
Example:
A pilot approaching a 11on-towered t1erodrome realises That landing on an into-wind runway in the /cue afternoon
will involve an tipprottch imo the sening sun. He also notes that his dirty windscreen is likely to cre{l!e serious
visibility problems on /(1le final. The pilot tmticipores this situation and joins rhe circuit for fl crosswind approach
rhar will be away from the sun. The threaT has been anticipated cmd avoided.
The effecti veness and thoroughness of lhreat management depends ultimately on the pilot's attitude and motiva-
tion. A pilot who fai ls to anticipate envi ronmental threats is faced with the situation of ha ving to deal with them
after they have impacted on the safety of the lligh1. Another wise old adage:
Prevention is better Than cure!
Processes to identify and m anage thr eats, errors and undesired aircr afl states.
Stm1dard oper ating procedures [SOPs]. It is the usc of standard operating procedures [SOPs] that have given
aviation the level of safety it enjoys to-day. SOPs impose rule-based behaviour on the crew so that almost every
possible event that can be anticipated is reduced to a sequence of preordained actions that have been carefully
thought ou t beforehand to ensure maximum safety. When an lFR pilot arrives in the vicinity of the destination
aerodrome in IMC, he/she follows a set procedure of tracking and descent limitations which has been surveyed and
published on the approach plate and is relieved of the task of working the whole thing out from 'scratch' . Also a
set procedure for coping with an engine failure at a critical time such as just after take-off is subject to a standard
operating procedure. Rule-based behaviours such as these are not motor programs but are stored as a set of rules
in lhe long term memory. They are actioned as a deliberate conscious set of actions and monitored by the short
term [working] memory which 'licks oft' each item as it is carried out.
Some students during muli-engine training fall for the trap of learning lhe procedures to the point where it becomes a
motor program which is often run without proper attention during the stress of an engine failure situation at k'lke-off.
When the instructor fails the engine the student 'rattles oft' the procedure. "mixrure up - pitch up - power up -gear
up - .flaps up -identify - COI!firm -feather. • like a poem- all in record time and smiles a satisfied smile. However
the whole procedure is of little value unless the items are carefully monitored and , if necessary modified. Was ira
complete or partial loss of power? Is there enough runway left to allow a landing straight ahead?
Simulators and synthetic trainers are very useful tools in achieving rule-based behaviour, mainly because many
situations that must be dealt with would be dangerous if performed in flight. In the case of larger aircraft , many
SOPs are too long and involved to be reliably committed to the error-prone long term memory and so are wriuen
as a check list that can be followed by a 'challenge and response' technique as each item of the procedure is dealt
wi th. Because the use of SOPs greatly reduces the risk of errors occurring in the actual implementation of the pro-
cedure, they have proved to be very effective as a means of deal in g with a myriad of both routine and emergency
situations in flight. In fact experience has shown that when SOP related errors do occur, it is most likely because
the original problem was misidentified by the crew and the incorrect SOP was initiated.
Knowledge-based behaviour. This can be thought of simply as thinking and reasoning. The pilot makes deci-
sions based on a knowledge of all of the facts and these decisions are not in any way related to previously existi ng
rules. The most imponam element in knowledge-based behaviollf is the quality of the knowledge in d1e first place.
The pilot must be careful to examine all of the facts in an unhurried way remembering that even in flight instant
action is rarely necessary.
Example: An instructor and an experienced pilot rook off from a conn·ol/ed aerodrome in a light twin with the
fuel caps off. The rower noticed a white srremn coming off the righT wing flnd informed the pilot That 'something'
appeared to be trailing fi·om the wing. The piloT immediately assumed That it was smoke and tlrar the engine was
on fire flnd. in a series of panic acrions. closed the rhrollle on a pe1j"ectly good engine and wit how attempting to
feaTher it. turned back towards the rttnway with the undercarriage sril/ down. The aircraft cmshed killing both
pilots. All of the facts were flVflilable to confirm that the engine WflS fimctioning normally, but appflrently none of
rltese were considered in all unhurried way - there was 110 knowledge-based behaviour.
Situational awar eness may be defined as knowing whai is going on around you, being ab le to predict what could
happen and taking the appropriate action in a timely manner. Situational awareness may be considered as three
separate levels.
Leve l one is perception. The sights, sounds and other sensations that come to the attention of the pilot.
This includes such 1hings as sigl11ing other aircraft, observing signs of threatening weather, tmusual engine vibra-
lion, instmment indica/ions, warning lights, runway condition and crosswind or downwind conditions.
Leve l two is comprehension. This refers to the interpretation of the elements that have been perceived. The sights,
sounds and sensations perceived are used to create an accurate picture of the current situation considering both the
aircraft state and the outside environment.
Ensure that you do not interpret/he world according to /tow you would like it to be, bw in terms of how if is.
Leve l three is projection. The pilot now applies past experience and training to predict the likely outcome of the
current sinmtion and make decisions about the most appropriate action to take.
By now you have probably realised that TEM is really just an attempt to confront problems that bave been with us
in aviation since the famous brothers first flew at Kitty Hawk. A Jot of new [and in some cases, quaim], terminol-
ogy is used to describe some very familiar and simple concepts. The scenario below contains clements which can
be used to illustrate the TEM model.
The pilot of a single-engine Beechcraft departed a Queensland country airstrip 011 a solo flight. The latch on the
cabin door had passed its 'use by' date and didn't always engage securely with the locking mechanism. The pilot
used a wrillen check list before lake-of!wlticlt included the ifem 'hatches and hamesses secure'. Just after take-off
the door latch released resulting in a sudden alarming increase in cockpit noise and a change in aircraft pelfor-
mance. The pilot attempted to close and lock the door bur was unsuccessjitl. He made a second and 1hird attempt
to close the door but to no avail. While the pilot was struggling with tlze door, the aircraft. in a left tum and losing
height. struck rising terrain. The aircraft was destroyed and the pilot was seriously injured.
The condition of the door latch was a

maimena11ce issue wh ich was not always
a latent external threat
obvious except on occasions when it
failed to engage.
The cocJ.."]Jit check list contained the item

'hatches and harnesses secure' but the a procedural error
pilot failed to adequately check that item.
The door popped open after take-off. an undesired aircraft state
loss of situational awareness

The pilot fixated on closing the door and
lost control of the aircraft. failure to manage w1desired
aircraft state
Aircraft impactS with the ground- pilot

injured. outcome
failure to switch from

The most direct cause of the accident was error management to
the pilot's failure to realise that the door undesired aircraft state management.
could wait.
failure to priOtitise
C ountermeasures.
We have examined the need for the management of threats, errors and undesired aircraft states. The tool s and
techniques used to manage these are call ed countermeasures. A countermeasure is any action o r system which
is d irected to avoiding or reducing the impact of a threat, error or undesired aircraft state. Some countermeasures
are systemic-based [built into the system] . They may be mechanical or elect ronic devices.
Systemic-based countermeasures m ay be mechanical or electronic devices s uch as:

~ stall warning devices
~ systems fai lure warnings such as enunciator panels
~ airborne collision avoidance system [ACAS] and
~ ground proximity warning systems [GPWS]
Or they may be meas ures aimed at ensuring appropriate pilot actions in given situations such as:
~ standard operating procedures [SOPs]
~ written checklists
~ briefing and
~ training
Other less formal countermeasures reside in the individual pilots themselves. These include such characteristics as
skill, experience, knowledge , attitude and airmanship of individuals and/or the crew as a team. Three categories
of these types of countermeasures are:
Planning countermeasures which include:

Measures taken before departure to faci litate the safe operation of a flight such as:
~Flight planning.
~ Pre-flight briefing.
~Contingency planning to cope with expected threats that may arise.
E xecution countermeasures which include:

Measures taken during flight to guard against threats and errors that may arise such as:
~Monitoring e ngine. flight and navigat ion instruments.
~ Cross-checking information ensure its integrity.
~Good systems and workload management to ensure situational awareness is maintained.
Review countermeasures cope with unexpected contingencies which may arise during fl.ight including:
~ Evalum ing and mod ifying plans as the !light proceeds.
~Remaining alert and assertive in identifying and addressing issues as they arise.
MORE TEM QUESTIONS.
Question No 1
Select the item which best describes an external threat
la I pilot fatigue
[b] a pilot suffering from the effects of a hangover
[cj another aircraft entering the runway while you are on late ·final
[d J difficulty in understanding the transmission of a foreign pilot
Question No 2
Sclc.ct the item which best describes an undesired aircraft state
[a] arrival over the threshold too high and too fast on a landing approach
[b I failing to notice a damaged tyre during a daily inspection
[c) failure to realise that a destination aerodrome requires an altemate
[dl aircraft overdue for its annual inspection
Question No 3
An example of an expected threat is
[aj thunde rstorms forecast on the TAF
lbl engine failure in flight
[cI becoming lost in flight
[dj being dive11ed in flight by ATC
Question No 4
For the flight crew, the three basic components in the TEM model are
[a] threats. errors and undesired aircraft states
lbl threats, errors and aoticipated aircraft stares
]c) threats, flight crew human resources and aircraft states
[d] errors. fl ight crew human resources and undesired aircraft states
Question No 5
Which of the following would be class ified as an external th reat
(a] pressure to meet timetab les
(bl pilot fatigue
[c·l health and fitness
ldl lack of familiarity with other crew members
Question No 6
An example of a latent threat is
ra] undercarriage will notretract in flight
[bj wind gusts exceeding the aircraft's cross wind Limitations for landing
lei poor aircraft equipment design
ldJ unexpected high traffic vol ume in the terminal area
Question No 7
Entering the incorrect way-point data while operating in a stressf11l cockpit environment is an example of
[a] an environmental threat leading to a configuration error
[b) an organisational threat leading to a committed error
[cl an expected threat leading to an unexpected error
(dl an unexpected th reat leading to an expected error
Question No 8
The three primary categories of e rror in Lhe TEM model arc
[a] loss of heading control. loss of attitude control and loss of airspeed control
[b] navigational error. radio frequency error and navigatioo aid error
[c] crew resource error. airtraffic control error and ground handling error
[dj aircraft handling errors. procedural errors and commuoication errors
Question No 9
Undesired aircrafl states are categorised by the TEM model as
[a] aircraft handling , ground handling and incorrect aircraft configuration
[b] aircraft ground handling, vertical navigation and incorrect inftight configuration
[c] vertical navigation , ground handling and inftight navigation
[d] ai rcraft handling stares, ground navigation states and aircraft configuration states
Question No I 0
Track and speed deviation are examples of
[al ground navigation state
[b] aircraft handling state
[c) horizontal navigation state
[dj aircraft configuration state
Question No 1J
UnaULhoriscd penetration of controlled airspace is an example of an undesired
[a] ground navigation state
[b) aircraft handling state
[c) air navigation state
[d) navigation configuration stare
Question No 12
Being positioned at the incorrect holding point prior to take-off is an example of an undesired
[a] ai rcraft handling state
[b] aircraft ground configuration state
[c) siruational awareness state
[d) ground navigation state
Ques tion No 13
IncotTect navigation aid setting is an example of
ra1 ground navigation state
[b] aircraft configuralion state
[c) horizontal navigation state
[dj siruarional awareness state
Question No 14
With regard toTEM, the use of a checklist prior to take-off is an example of
(a] a desirable a ircraft state
[b I a safety state
fc I a countermeasure
[dl a safety tactic
Question No 15
When considering the risk any threat imposes you should consider
Ia] the probability of encounte ring the threat irrespective of the consequences
Ib I the seriousness of the consequences irrespective of the probability of encountering the threat
[c J the probability of encountering the threat and the seriousness of the consequences
[d] the probability of encountering the tbreat an any stage during the flight
Question No 16
When an undesired aircraft state is identified the primary task s hould be
[a I identify the error which led to the undesired aircraft state
[bj identify and correct the error wnich led to the undesired aircraft state
[cj deal with the undesired aircraft state and return to controlled stabilised Hight
ldJ advise ATC of the undesired aircraft state
Question No 17
One measure of the effectiveness of actions taken by a crew to manage threats is
[a] the accuracy of the crew's recall of events during de-briefing
[b] the speed with which the crew acted to manage the threat
[c] whether the threat was detected in time for the crew to respond appropriately
[d] whether an undesired aircraft state was avoided
Question No 18
The most proactive option in threat management is to
[a I anticipate the recovery action required if the threat occurs
[b] anticipate and avoid the threat altogether
[c) take corrective action once the threat has occurred
[dj concentrate on management of any undesired aircraft state that may result
Question No 19
Mismanaged threats usually lead to
[a] errors which arc then linked to undesired aircraft states
[b) undesired aircraft states which arc then linked to ctTors
[c) aircraft handling errors which then lead to environmental errors
[d) diversion from standard operating procedures
Question No 20
With regard toTEM. a cockpit systems failure warning light is an ex1m1ple of
[a] a proactive decision making process
[b) a systemic-based countermeasure
[c) an undesired aircraft state management device
[d) a handling error countermeasure
Question No 21
A tborougb pre-rake off bliefing is an example of
ra1 a systemic-based countemleasure
[b) a planning countenneasure
[c) an execution coumermeasure
[d j a review countermeasure
Question No 22
A pilot notices an alternator warning li ght illuminated during flight and responds by turning off a ll unnecessary
electrical loads. This behaviour would be best described as
[a] a systemic-based countermeasure
fbi a planning countenneasure
[c] an execution countermeasure
rd I a review countermeasure
Question No 23
Regu lar monitoring of flight. engine and navigation instruments during flight is an example of
Ia] a systemic-based countenneasure
[bj a planning countermeasure
[cl an execution countermeasw-e
ld I a review countermeasure
Question No 24
A stall warning is activated during flight and the pilot immediately takes action to restore the lAS. This would
be an cxarnplc of
[a] a systemic-based countermeasure
[b J a planning countermeasure
[c) an execution countcrmeasw-e
[dl a review countermeasure
REVISION EXERCISE 10
Question No 1
Which of the following techniques wou ld contribute most 10 good team problem solving performance?
[a) stand steadfastly by your own aims and opinions and don't be swayed by others
[b] trust you personal feelings about an issue rather than logic
[c] always take a vote on final decisions to ensure that everyone on the team is happy
[d] team members contribute but the team leader makes the final decision.
Question No 2
Good leadership in a group is c haracterised by
[a] high personal anention and medium task orien1a1ion
[b] medium personal anention and medium msk orientation
[c] high personal anent ion and high task orientation
[d] medium personal auention and high rask orientation
Question No 3
Which of rhe following represents the best order of priorities for tasks during flight
fa] aviate, communicate, navigate
[bl communicate, navigate, aviate
[c] navigare, aviate, communicate
fd] aviate, navigate. communicate
Question No 4
An example of the 'push' mode of conversation is
ra] asking a question
Ib I making a proposal
lei giving your opinion
Ld] requesting an opinion
Question No 5
Which of the following would nor be indicative of good leadership?
[a] leading by example
[b] advising your intentions before acting
[c) not involving the crew in dec ision making
[d] offering praise for good performance
Question No 6
Mode awareness bas become a concern for the crews of modem generation aircraft. This term refers to
[a] crew awareness of the fiigbt mode of the autollight systems
1b 1 first-officer a wareness of the mood of the captain
[cj captain's awareness of the thoughts of the flight crew
[d] crew awareness of the correct speeds and power senings for various fiigh t stages
Question No 7
One disadvantage of glass cod."J)it technology in the modem generation of aircraft is that
ra] pilots having difficulty in unders!anding the mass of information presented on the displays
[b I captains having difficulty in monitoring the actions of the crew
[c) loss of proficiency in basic instrument flying skills especially in younger pilots
ldl lack of faith in the indications given by the CRTs
Question No 8
Which of the following is an advantage of a digital display over a circu lar analogue display?
[a) comparison between similar systems is easier
fbi the exact value of an item is more easily read
[c] it is easier to observe the direction and rate of change of a parameter
[d] it is easier to include it in the scan during hands-on instrument flight
Question No 9
Which of the following is true of linear strip display type instruments compared to circular gauge insiTument.s
[a] they provide easier comparison between systems
[b] it is difficult to detect a discrepancy between two systems
[c] linear strip displays make it easier to obtain accurate values
[d] linear strip displays are easier to include in the scan during insiTUment flight
Question No 10
The captain of a mulli-crew aircraft rarely consulls other members of the crew and discourages any verbal input
from them in the course of a !light. This situation could be described as
[a] a shallow authority gradient
(b] an ideal authority gradient
[c] a steep authority gradient
[d) strong leadership
Q uestion No 11
The 'Three Circles' model of good leadership requires that a leader should
(a] concentrate on the task and not be influenced by the team or the individual
(bj always consider the team and the task, but not be concerned with individuals
(c) consider the task and the team only after all the of the needs of the individual have been met
[dj be prepared to consider the task , the team and the individual in his/her leadership style
Question No 12
A good leader should be prepared to
[a] lead by example, motivate, delegate and consult
[b] lead by example, motivate, delegate but never consult
[c) lead by example, motivate, consult but never delegate
[d] lead by example, consult, delegate but never motivate
Question No 13
In December 1978 in P01tland, Oregon USA. the crew of a United Airlines DC-8 were dealing with an undercar-
riage fault as they approached the airport. While attempting to deal with the fault, the captain held for over an
hour until the aircraft eventually ran out of fueL The flight engineer had warned the captain of the low fuel state
but the captain, preoccupied with the undercarriage fault, simply said "OK" then went back to what he was do-
ing. A contributing factor in this accident was the engineer's
[a I attitude of resignation
[bJ hesitation
[c J Jack of concern
ld I lack of assertion
Question No 14
Which of the following is an example of the 'Pull' mode of communication?
[a] inviting the other pa11y to negotiate
Ibl giving commands or orders
(c] expressing an opinion
[dl presenting your side of a negotiation
Question No 15
An irnponant difference between leadership and authority is that authority is assigned while true leadership is
acquired.
[a] this statement is true
[b I this statemenL is false
Question No 16
In the event of a sudden emergency in flight the most effective communication sty le is
[a] assertive
[b] resigned
[c] sympathetic
[dJ abrasive
Question No 17
The two communication ru le used by many air crews today requires a response to each statement or comment made
on the flight deck. Tf a response is not made by the flying pilot. then
[a] the comment is repeated once more and if there is still no response the non flying pilot takes
over
[b] the comment is repeated twice more wi th increased vo lume and if there is still no response the
non flying pilot takes over
[c) the non flying p ilot takes over immediately
[d) the comment is repeated once more and if there is still no response the non flying pi lot
shakes the other crew member to wake them up
Question No 1.8
Good cockpit leadership techn ique may be characterised by
[a] high personal attention and medium task orientation
[b] medium personal auention and medium task orientation
[c] high personal attention and high task orientation
[d) medium personal auention and high task orientation
Q uestion No 19
The preferred style of communication on the flight deck is
[a] debating
[b] summarising
[c] physical touch
[d] prolonged eye contact
Question No 20
Refer to the diagram below representing a glass cockpi t display consisting of an artificial horizon with an airspeed
tape on the left and an altitude tape on the righ t both with high values at the top of the display. On c limb with a
constant power setting the speed and altitude scales will be moving in opposite directions as airspeed reduces and
altitude increases. T his may lead to the illusion of
[a] climbing [bl rolling
[cl pi tchi ng ldl yawing.
current curren1
•irs peed >ttitude
8.
-"'
auitude
indicator
Question No 21
A good captain w ill encourage the co-pilot to use communicaLion styles which are
[a] assertive and submiss ive
(bl aggressive and supportive
[c] supportive and submissive
[d] asse11ive and supportive
Question No 22
The body language technique which should be adopted by a Captain to e ncourage optimal communication between
crew members is
[a] yawning
[b) finger tapping
[c] head nodding
[ d] constant eye contact
Question No 23
A display of good leadership techniques by a Captain to encou rage team work may include
[a] giving his opinion first and then consulting other crew members
(b) explaining the reasons for not implementing ideas of the group
[c] taking votes from crew about a proposed course of action
[d] acting first then ex plain ing later
Question No 24
The most important considerations in the ergonomics of flight deck design are
[a] fu nction, ease of use, frequency of use. interpretation of signals
[b] function, frequency of use. sequence of use. importance of control
[c] function, sequence of use. size
[d] function, symbolism, recognition
Question No 25
A senior Captain in a company has been asked to d iscipline a junior pilot who has a poor artirude towards proce-
dures. The problem is to be recti fied through rhe avenue of counselling methods. For best resu lts, the qualities rhe
senior Captain should demonstrate ro the junior pilot are
[a] trustworthiness and high rechnical comperence
[b] authority and high rechnical competence
[c) aurhoriry and trustworthiness
[dl rrusrworrhiness and good communication skills
Question No 26
In attempting to motivate flight c rew to be vigilant and professional in rheir fl yi ng operations
Ial exhortation alone is of limited benefi t
Ib I extrinsic moti vators are not effective
Ic I intrinsic moti vators are not effective
[d'j strict discipline and punishment is the best approach
Question No 27
T he cockpit authority gradient refers to
[a] the relationship that exists between the captain and other fl ight crew members
[bj the aircr.tft attitude on climbout
[cj a left hand turn
[d l the re lative experience levels of the different members of the flight crew
All Rights Reserved@ 2009 Human Performance & Limitations Page 10.33
Question No 28
Of the cockpit instrument layouiS below, the one which makes disparate readings between engines most easily
identified on both primary IP) and secondary lSI engine parameters is
p s s p p s I' s s I' s p p s
80 80 0G 00 88 00 0G 00
00 00 oo oo oo oo oo oo
00 00 oo 100 100 1 oo oo oo
00 00 oo 0 0 oO oo Oo
1]~ [a]
1]~
[b]
1]~
[c]
u~[dJ
r(l...., •'~m ~~r k''l'CO. flOIOl't lt H I) f\tW11'k~
Question No 29
In the following stmements, the one which is not an advantage of a gauge type display of engine parameters versus
a digital readout is
[a] the exact value of the parameter is e-asy to discern
[b] trends and rate of change are easily detected
[c] comparison between engines is made easier
[d) a glance can tell the pilot if the readings are within the normal range
Ques tion No 30
An example of the 'push' mode of conversation is
[a] asking a question
(b] making a proposal
(c) giving your diagnosis
[dl reading back
Question No 3 1
The Glass Cockpit technology of the modem generation of aircraft has many advantages over rhe conventional
flight deck insrrumen rs but there are disadvantages as well. One such disadvanrage is
[a] pilots having difficulry integrating the mass of information presented on the displays
[b] an increased monitoring workload
[c] lack of proficiency of basic insrrument flying skills, especially for younger pilors
rd] older pi loiS distrust of the systems
Question No 32
Mode awareness has become a cause for concern among crews of modern generarion aircrafr. This term refers to
Ia] crew awareness of the flight mode of the autoflight system
lb I co-pilot awareness of the mode of questioning of rhe captain
[c] captain awareness of the thought processes of the first officer
ldl crew awareness of the transponder mode setting for WAS operation
Question No 33
Linear strip type instrument displays compared to circul:u· gauge instruments provide
[.a] an easy comparison between systems and show trends clearly
[b] difficulry in detecting discrepancies between engines
Ic l more accurate values
l d) no advamages
Question No 34
A characteristic of good leadership wou ld be for a Pilot in Command to
[a] propose a solution then consult the First Officer for an opinion
[b] ask the First Officer's opinion the n make a deci sion
(c] ac t amocratically
[dj act democratically
Question No 35
A large jet transport aircraft was in a holding pattem at 2000 ft while the crew investigated a landing gear fault
indication. While the attention of the entire crew was diverted to the landing gear problem the aircraft slowly de-
scended and crash landed in swampy terrain. The crash was due to
[a] the poor des ign of the gear indicating system
[b) the fai lure of the captain to manage the situation
[c) the negligence of the air traffic controller who should have noticed the loss in alritude
[d) the failure of the au topilot system
PRACTICE EXAM ONE
Ql The sensory memory length for sounds is about
A 1-2 seconds B 2-4 seconds
C 4-8 seconds D 8-15 seconds
Q2 To develop under normal cond itions after the lights have been turned off. full night vision requ ires
A 15-20 minutes B 30-40 minutes
C 60-80 minutes D about 2 hours
Q3 The sensory memory length for visual images is about

A I second B 10 seconds
C I minute D I0 minutes
Q4 The average number of items which can be he ld in the short term memory is
A 7 plus or minus 2 B 10 plus or minus 2
C 4 plus or minus 2 D 15 plus or mi nus 2
QS A characteristic of the short term memory is that it is apparently

A visual B acoustic
C spatial D sensory
Q6 Best night vision is achieved by

A looking slightly'off centre'
B looking directly at an object
C eating lots of carrots
D using a bright torch to view the instruments
Q7 Short term memory is

A of average susceptibility to errors B very susceptible to errors
C error free D almost error free
Q8 Long exposure to very bright light can affect night vision for up to
A 6 hours B I day
c 3 days D J wcck
Q9 Excess Stress
A can widen the attention range
B can restrict the attention range
C does not affect the attention range
D affects all individuals attention ranges the same
Q10 The sbo11 term memory has a retention span of about

A 5- 10 seconds B 15-30 seconds
C 40-60 seconds D 23 minutes
QII The 'leans' can be caused by

A slowly ent.ering a tum on instruments, followed by a fast wing levelling
B quickly entering a turn on instrumems, followed by a fast wing levelling
C slowly entering a tum on iostruments, followed by a slow wing levelliog
D quickly eorering a rum on instruments, followed by a slow wing levelling
Q12 A bell-shaped curve of efficiency against stress shows

A that too h igh a stress level results in most efficiency and fun
B that too low a stress level results in most efficiency and fun
C that too high a stress level results in inefficiency and collapse
D that too high a stress level results in lack of interest
Q 13 The minimum noise level which will cause physical pain to the ears is
A 85 dB B 110 dB
C 140dB D I65dB
Q14 The minimum level above which docs noise starts to damage the cars is
A 60 dB B 85 dB
C IIOdB D 140dB
Q15 The normal sea level pressure is halved at an altitude of

A 10000 ft B 18000 ft
C 25000 ft D 30000 ft
Q16 Our eyes start 'greying out' at a G loading of about

A I.SG B 2.5 G
C 3.5 G D 4.5 G
Ql7 We start to 'blackout' at a G loading of about

A 6.5 G B 3.5 G
C 2.3 G D 5G
Q18 A person's resistance to stress will best be increased by

A straining the whole system B prescription drugs
C rest and relaxation D adopting a positive fitness programme
Ql9 The three stages which have been identified in the progress of ones adaptation to stress arc
A low, comfort. high B resistance, alarm. collapse
C low, high. collapse D alarm. resistance, collapse
Q20 Attitude is caused by

A our thoughts colouring our perceptions and feelings which tl1en influence our
behaviour
B a rational series of mind processes
C anything which reinforces our beliefs
D irrational prejudice
E wearing your basebal l cap backwards
Q21 The normal sea level pressure is doubled at a water depth of

A 22IT B 33ft
C 55ft D 66ft
Q22 Empty Field Myopia is the tendency for the eyes to take up a resting focus position when there is
nothing to focus on, such as looking at an empty sky. The usual distance of the resting focus position in
front of the eyes is -
A 1-2m B 20m
C infinity D 5-10 m
Q23 The TI1ree C ircles Model of leadership shows the relationship between the attention areas of
A Duty. Emotion and Instinct B Indi vidual. Team and Task
C Leader, Follower and Colleague D Activity, Assessment and Authority
Q24 After crossing a number of time zones. the average rate of time adjustment the body makes is
A I 0 hours per day B 7 hours per day
C 4 hours per day D I .5 hours per day
Q25 Malaria is a leading cause of death among pilots in third world countries like Haiti. The precaution
most effective as a preventative measure to guard against infection is
A prescription tablets which are completely effective as a preventative measure
B to a lways sleep under a mosquito net
C to always s leep i.n an air conditioned bouse
D to always wear long sleeves and trousers and use insect repe!Jent spray
Q26 One danger of using coldltlu relief medicines is that they may contain antihistamines, resulting in
A a feeling of well being and overconfidence B hyperactivity
C drowsiness D difficu lty in getting adequate s leep
Q27 Gout is a condition which can lead to arthritic attacks, especially in males. It is a result of
A a disturbance of the uric-acid metabolism
B lack of blood supply from a bad heart, causing an imbalance in the Oz :C02 ratio
C excessive exercise/overworking. and a diet lacking in iron
D drinking too much water
Q28 A pilot on a c heck Hight performs a number of accurate landings during the check but then undershoots
during a landing. This error would be classified as
A random B sporadic
C systematic D consistent
Q29 A pilot on a check Hight performs a number of landings during the check but the touchdown point
vru·ies without any recognisable pattern. This error would be classified as
A random B s poradic
C systematic D consistent
Q30 A pilot on a c heck Hight performs a number of landings during the check but undershoots in all cases.
This error would be classified as
A random B sporadic
C systematic D kinaesthetic
Q31 A component of basic ergonomics is that

A the pilot must be trained to fit the cockpit
B the pilot should sit in a position from which all of the instruments are clearly visible
C the cockpit should be designed to fit the characteristics of the people who operate it
D the pilot's seat should be designed for maximum comfort
Q32 If a passenger is hyperventilating an appropriate course of action would be

A encourage him/her to take deeper breaths
B administer oxygen
C encourage him/her to breathe slower or hold the breath
D admin ister oxygen and breathe deeper
Q 33 An action which would help prevent flicker vertigo is

A turn on the landing light when flying in cloud
B turn off strobes and rotating beacons when Hying in cloud
C turn cockpi t lighting down as d iml y as possible
D keep the eyes focused o n the instruments
Q 34 The best preparation for good quality s leep is

A activities that s low you down. a quiet dark room and a firm bed
B vigorous activity and music
C reading a book on hum an perfom1ance and limitations
D writing a long letter to a friend
PRACTICE EXAM TWO
QI On a hot day, the amount of water a body loses on average is about

A 2 litres B 5 litres
C 8 litres D 12 litres
Q2 Regarding experience and accidents

A novice pilots have fewer handling accidents than do experienced pilots
B novice pilots have more handling accidents than do experienced pilots
C novice pilots have fewer accidents caused by faulty judgement than experienced pilots
D novice pilots have more accidents caused by faulty judgement than experienced pilots
Q3 Regarding drugs which can be taken without the approval of a Designated Medical Examiner
A only prescription drugs may be taken
B only non-prescription dn1gs may be taken
C only legal drugs may be taken
D care should be exercised in relation to all drugs even though specific approval is not
always required for all drugs
Q4 Hyperventilation may be c<luscd by

A ovcrbrcathing B undcrbreathing
C breathing too much carbon d ioxide D breathing too much carbon monoxide
Q5 The condition causing a pilot to think that he is high on approach is when

A the lighting is less bright than usual B the terrain slopes down to the threshold
C the air is abnom1ally clear D the runway is shorter than usual
Q6 Following consumption. alcohol can it still be found 10 inlluence information processing ability for
A 24 hours B 12 hours
C 10 hours D 8 hours
Q7 Some kinds of food arc known to produce gas in the body. These include
A vegetables, ma inly legumes B meats. especiall y red meat
C any kind of thawed food D foods high in sugar
QS The gas coming out of solution in the blood causing the condi tion known as the bends is
A carbon dioxide B oxygen
C nitrogen D carbon monoxide
Q9 The condition which can make a pilot think th<tt he is low on approach is
A when the runway slopes up from the threshold
B a narrower than usual runway
C a b lack approach
D poor vis ibi lity
QJO Following ingestion of alcohol , it can still be detected in the blood for up to
A 8 hours B 18 hours
C 14 hours D 30 hours
Qll Night vision stans to be affected at a cabin altitude of about

A 2000 ft B 4000ft
C 8000 ft D 13000 ft
Q 12 Hypoxia may be defined as

A a dangerous excess of carbon dioxide in the blood
B a dangerous excess of carbon monoxide in the blood
C insufficient oxygen available to function at full efficiency
D too much oxygen in the blood due to hyperventilation
Ql3 Concerning short term memory, the incorrect statement is
A it serves us for a maner of seconds only B it is almost error free
C it can on ly handle 5-9 items at once D it is very susceptible to error
Ql4 Good leadership would noi be defined as

A leading by example B advising inten t before acting
C not involving the crew in decision making D praising good performance
Q 15 Carbon monoxide is dangerous because

A it displaces oxygen from the red blood cells
B it is heavier than air and so displaces the air
C it is very smelly and so is a distraction
D irs effects increase on descent
Ql6 If your Eustachian tube becomes closed or blocked, the site of the problem is likely to be
A the soft tissues at the nasal passage end of the tube
B the inner ear end of the tube
C the outer car opening
D only at the bend
Q 17 After crossing a number of time zones. the average rate of time adjustment the body makes is
A 10 hours per day B 7 hours per day
C 4 hours per day D 1.5 hours per day
Ql8 Unequal air pressure between a pan of the ear and the environment can cause pain and other
complications. The pan of the ear affected is the
A inner ear B middle ear
C outer ear D lower ear
Q 19 Excess salt tends to

A make you pass a lot of water
B lower your resistance to bacterial infection
C lower the blood pressure
D raise the blood pressure
Q20 With regard to the problem of a closed or blocked Eustachian tube.the phase of Hight likely to be more
of a prob lem than the rest is
A climb, with the vo lume of gas in the middle ear decreasing
B cruise, with the volume of gas in the middle ear remaining constant
C descent , with the volume of gas in the middle ear decreasing
D landing. wi th the volume of gas in the midd le ear fluctuating
Q21 Alcohol is classed as a

A stimulant B depressant
C analgesic D sedative
Q22 Obesity can lead to

A low blood pressure B high blood pressure
C fainting attacks D shortage of breath
Q23 To lower your risk of hean disease. you should avoid

A being moderate with alcohol
B having a positive attitude and avoiding emotional stress
C choosing a low salt. low cholesterol diet
D increasing your smoking
Q24 The human brain is often cons idered analogous to a computer. The order of processing stages is
A decision, sensation. perception. response B sensation, perception, decision, response
C response. sensation , perception, decision D perception, response, decis ion, sensation
Q25 In the British Midlands crash at Kegworth in January 1989, the FO of a 737 mistakenly shut down
the wrong e ngine after a failure and the aircraft subsequently crashed short of the nmway when no
power was avai lable for the approach. Cabin crew ltnd passengers had noted flames corning from the
left engine and although the captain announced to the cab in that the right engine had been shu t down,
no one questioned rhe night crew about this nor did t.he flight crew ask for any observations from the
cabin crew. The decision to divert to Kegworth was made. ATC and company were advised, engine
shutdown checklists were completed and tl1e cabin crew were kept informed of happenings but as the
left throulc was advanced on 'final no power was available 1md the aircraft crashed 900 mt short of
the threshold. 47 died and 67 were seriously injured. The aircraft was destroyed.
A major factor in the acc ident was
A the shut down of the wrong eng ine by the FO and a lack of communication between
cabin crew and flight crew which would have alerted the flight crew to which e ng ine
was on fire
B the Captain's arrogance and his insistence on dealing with the problem by himself
C a failure of all flight crew members ro adequately monitor the fuel state, resulting in
fuel exhaustion and a one engi ne inoperative dead stick approach
D the crew performing rash actions withou t any attempt to evaluate progress or monitor
results
Q26 In the worlds worst av iation disaster on March 27, 1977 a KLM 747 taking off at Tenerife in the
Canary Islands collided on the runway with a Pan Am 747 which was backtracking. Both aircraft
had been diverted to Tenerife as an allemate after nearby Las Palrnas had been closed due to a bomb
blast. The very senior KLM check and training captain was seriously concerned about his crew's
duty hours due to the diversion and was very anx ious to avoid an overn ight stop in Tenerife. There
was no full length taxiway su itable for a 747 at Tenerife, so backtracking had to be done on the
runway which was shrouded in cloud at an e levation of 2000 ft. The Pan Am had been c leared to
backtrack part way and turn off onto a taxiway wh il e the KLM lined up. The KLM lined up and the
captain spooled the engines up to begin the take-off without a clearance but he was stopped o nce by
the First Officer wh ile an airways clearance was given but a rake-off c learance had still not been
obtained before the captain again proceeded to take-off despite the flight engineer aski ng him about
the Pan Am's position and with the First Officer transmitting a hurried radio call "we are now at
take-off'. The Pan Am. which was to call when c lear was still on the runway Md due to the cloud
neither c rew cou ld see the other aircraft until it was too late. The Pan Am tried to turn off at the last
second as the K LM desperately tried to become airborne. The nose of the KLM cleared the Pan Am
and its belly slid along the roof but the main gear of the KLM tore into the fuselage of the Pan Am.
Of the 644 people in both aircraft, only 61 in the PM Am survived. All 248 on the KLM died and
335 of the 396 on board Pan Am were killed.
A major contributing factor was
A the PM Am c rew's disregard for correct radio phraseology

B the KLM Captain's concern over time constraints resulting in a rushed departure
combined with a steep cockpit authority gradient inhibiting crew contributions
C both aircraft crew's failure to maintain a good lookout during ground operations
D the KLM Engi neer's lac k of situational awareness
Q27 A crew has just completed a flight from MELBOURNE to TOKYO and return with minimum rest.
At the end of this tour, they would be likely to be suffering the effects of
A chronic fatigue B acute fatigue
C transmeridional dyschronism D boredom
Q28 Hypoxia risk will not be increased by

A increased altitude B a cold environment
C smoking D hyperventilation
All Rights Reserved@ 2009 Human PerformMce & Limitations Page 10.41
Q29 Long term memory is characterised by
A apparently unli mited capacity, but information can be d ifficult to reca ll
B very lim ited capacity, but reliable and easy recall
C apparently un limited capaci ty, reli able and easy recall
D limited capacity and difficu lt recall
Q30 A condi tion which is caused by excessive uric acid in the blood and can be aggravated by a poor diet is
A gout
B stomach ulcers
C tinea
D insomni a
Q31 When la nding into the sun the best action for a pi lot to take is to
A use the cockpit sun visor
B wear sunglasses
C concentrate on the area just over the nose
D put the seat back fully up
Q32 An e ffect of the long term use of asprin is

A blurred vision.
B high blood pressure
C skin irritations
D internal bleed ing and kidney problems.
Q33 In a situation of very h igh cockpit workload a pilot is liable to

A miss imformation due to a narrowing of auention
B become too slow to react to info rmation
C miss information due to infrequent input
D lose interest in the s ituation
Q34 Under c ircumstances of high cockpit workload a good captai n shou ld be prepared to
A make comm;md decisions without consultation
B take over the tasks of jun iors
C prioritise and delegate tasks
D take full responsibi lity for all tasks
Q35 The best quality of s leep occurs between the local mean time hours of
A 0800 to 2400 B 2200 to 0800
C 0800 to 1400 D 1400 to 2200
Q36 A gesture which enhances positive communication is

A folding the arms
B crossing the legs
C finger tapping
D nodding of the head
Q37 To maintain a good commun ication standard between crew members it is not advisable for
A the co-pilot to be assertive when he/she feels the captain has made an error
B the captain to consult with the crew before making an operational decision
C the captain to offer praise for good performance
D rhe co-pilot to clear his mind of all doubts before bothering the captain
Q38 In the event of a sudden eme rgency in flight the most effective communication style is
A assertive
B resigned
C sympathetic
D abrasive
Page 10.42 Human Perfonnance & Limitations Bob Tait's Av iation Theory School
Answers to Exercises
&
FINAL PRACTICE EXAMINATIONS
Answers to exercise No 1
No I [b] No 2 [d) No 3 [a] No 4 lbl No 5 [b] No 6 [a]
No 7 [dJ No 8 [b] No 9 [aJ No 10 [d] No II [a] No 12(cj
No 13 [b] No 14 [cJ No 15 [b] No 16 [c] No 17 [aJ No 18 [aj
No 19[a] No 20 [c) No 21 [d] No 22 [bJ No 23 [a] No 24 [bJ
No 25[b] No 26 [c] No 27 [b) No 28 [d] No 29 [b) No 30 [aJ
No 31 [cJ No 32 [a] No 33 [b) No 34 [b] No 35 [c] No 36 [a]
No 37 [c]
Answer s to exercise No 2
No I (aJ No 2 [d] No 3 [c] No 4 [a) No 5 (a] No 6 [b]
No 7[bj No 8 [d] No 9[cj 0 10 (b) No II [bj No 12[b)
No 13[dj No 14[c] No IS [bj No 16[cj No 17[aj No 18[b]
No 19 [bJ No 20 [b) No 21 [d) No 22 [a] No 23 [d) No 24 [cJ
No 25 [d] No26 [d) No 27 [b) No28[c] No 29 [c] No 30 [b]
No 31 [cj
No I [e] No 2 [b] No 3 [c] No 4 [a] No 5 [b] No 6 [dj
No 7 [a] No 8 [b] No 9 [a] No 10 [dj No II [cj No 12 [a]
No 13 [cj No 14 [a] No 15 [d] No 16 [b] No 17[bj No 18[b]
No 19[cj No 20 [a] No21 [c] No22 [d] No 23 [a] No 24 [c)
No 25 [d) No 26[dj No 27 [cj No28[cj No 29 [dj No 30 [a]
No31 [dj No 32 [d)
No I [a] No 2 [a] No 3 [b) No 4 [c) No 5[d) No 6 [c)
No 7 [a] No 8 [cj No 9[aj No 10 [a) No I I [dJ No 12 [a]
No 13 [a] No 14[bj No 15 [b] No 16 [a] No 17[bj No 18[dj
No 19 [d) No 20 [a] No 21 [b] No 22 [a] No 23 [b] No 24 [b]
No 25 [cj No 26 [dj No 27[aj No 28 [c] No 29 [cj No 30 [a]
No31[.cj
No I [dj No 2 [a] No 3 [b) No 4 [c) No 5 [b] No 6 [c)
No 7 [bj No 8 [d] No 9[a] No 10 [b j No I I [c) Nol2[b]
No 13 [aj No 14[bj No 15 [c) No 16 [cj No 17[d] No 18[bj
No 19 [c] No 20 [aj No 21 [a] No 22 [d) No 23 [c] No 24 (b]
No 25[a] No 26[b] No 27[b] No28 (a] No 29 [dj No 30 [cj
No 31 lbJ No 32[b] No 33[d) No 34 [a] No 35 [c] No 36 [a]
Answers to exer cise No 6

No I [c] No 2[bj No 3 [aj No 4 [c) No 5 (d] No 6 [a]
No 7[bj No 8 [cj No 9[bj No 10 [d j No II [bj No 12[aj
No 13 [aj No 14[aj No 15 [bj No 16 [a] No 17 [d] No 18 [c]
No 19 [al No 20 lb] No 21 [c]
No 1 [bj No 21bJ No 3 [a] No 4[dj No 5 [c) No 6 (c)
No 7(bj No 8[al No91cl No 10 (d) No I I l.aJ No 12[a]
No 13[b] No 14( b) No 15 [b) No 16 (d] No 17 [a] No 18[bj
No 19 tal No 20 [bj No 21 [cj No 22[b j No 23 [cj No 24 [b)
No 25 Lei No 26[a] No 27[a] No 28 (b) No 29 [bj No 30 [bj
No 31 [cl No 32(a] No 33 [b) No 34 [c] No 35 (a] No 36 [bj
No 37(d] No 38 (d) No 39[al No 40 (a]
No411c.l No42[al
Page II. I All Righls Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limitations
Ans wers to exercise No 8
No I [b] No 2 [c] No 3 [c] No4 fa] No 5 [a] No 6 [a]
No 7 fc i No 8 fa] No 9 fa] No 10 [a] No II fa] No 12 fdl
No 13 (c] No 14 fdl No 15 [dl No 16 [bl No 17 [c] No 18 fcf
No 19 [c] No 20 fc] No 2 1 fc] No 22 [b] No 23 fa] No 24 [dl
No 25 [a] No 26 [c) No 27 [b] No 28 [bl No 29 [d] No 30 [b]
No 31 fel No 32 fa] No 33 [bf No 34 [bl No 35 [d] No 36 fdl
No 37 fa] No 38 fbl No 39 [c] No40 [d] No4 1 [b] No 42 fd]
No 43 fbl No 44 fa] No 45 fa]
Ans wers to exercise No 9

No J [cf No 2 fdl No 3 [b] No 4(a) No 5 [a] No 6 [a (
No 7 fbl No 8 [a] No9 [b) No 10 [d] No I I [a] No 12 fbl
No l 3fd] No 14 [c) No 15 [c] No 16 [dl No l7 [a] No 18 fa]
No l9(d] No20 (c] No2 1 (a] No 22 [dl No 23 [bl No 24 [c)
No 25(a] No26 [b] No 27 [b] No 28 [a] No 29 [a( No 30 [a]
No 31 (c] No 32 [bf No 33 fdf No 34 [c i No 35 [d] No 36 [c ]
No 37 [d] No 38 fa) No 39 [b] No40 [b] No 4 1 [b] No 42 [d]
No 43 ic] No44(a] No 45 fa] No 46 [c]
Ans wers toTEM Questions

No I [c( No 2 fa( No 3 [a] No 4 [a] No 5 [a] No 6 [c(
No 7 [b] No 8 (d] No 9(dj No 10 fbl No II [b] No 12 Jdl
Nol3fbl No 14(c] No 15 [c] No 16 [c] No 17 [c i No 18 [b]
No 19(a] No 20 fbf No2 1 [bf No 22 fdl No 23 [c i No 24 fdl
Answers to exercise No J0
No l fdl No 2 [c] No 3fd] No 4(c] No 5 [c] No 6 [a i
No 7 [c] No 8 fbi No 9 [a] No 10 [c] No II [d] No 12 [a]
No l 3[d] No 14 [a) No 15 [a] No 16 [a] No 17 la] No 18 [e]
No 19 [bJ No 20 ibl No 2 1 [d] No 22 [c] No 23 [bl No 24 ibl
No 25 fa] No26iaJ No 27 [a] No 28 [a] No 29 fa] No 30 ic ]
No 31 ici No 32ia] No 33 iaJ No 34 [bl No 35 fb i
Ans wers to Practice Examination No 1

No J ic i No2 ibl No 3 ia] No 4ia] No 5 fb i No 6 [a i
No 7 idJ No 8 idl No9 [b] No 10 [b] No II [a] No 12 ici
No l 3fc] No 14 [b] No 15 [b] No 16 [c) No 17 idl No 18 fd]
No 19id] No 20 ia] No 2 1 [bl No 22 [a] No 23 [b i No 24 idi
No 25 fdJ No 26(c) No27ia] No 28 [b] No 29 fa] No 30 Jc]
No 31 (c] No 32(c] No 33f bi No 34 [ai
Answers to Practice Examination No 2

No J Jb i No 2 ibl No3idi No 4ia] No Sici No 6 fa i
No 7 ia i No8 ici No9idl No 10 [c] No II fbi No 12 ic i
No l 3fdl No 14 [c) No 15 ja] No 16 [a] No 17 id i Nol8 1bl
No l 9id ] No 20 jcj No2 1 ibl No 22 [bi No 23 idl No 24 ibl
No 25 ]a] No 26jbj No27j bJ No 28jdJ No 29 [a] No 30 [a]
No 31 ja] No 32jd] No 33jai No 34 [c ) No 35 ib i No 36 id i
No 37 [dJ No 38 [a)
Human Perfonnance & Limitat ions Bob Tait's Aviation T heory School Page 11 .2
Dehydration I .2
Index water loss I .5
Designated Aviation Medica l Examiner 2.1, 2.2
appointments 2.1
disqua lifications 2. 1
A
list of DA M ES 2. 1
Active listening 10.9 medical certificates 2. 1
Adrenal gland 9.5 physical disability 2. 1
Age 1.4 reason for medical examinations 2.1
deterioration in eyes I .4 validity of the certificate 2.1
deterioration in hearing I .4 Design eye posi tion[ DEP) 10.3
gl~s 1.4 Diet
Aides memoire 9.1 diet and body weight 1.1
Aircraft configuration states 10.16 exercise I .I
Aircraft handling states 10.16 Nationa l Heart Foundation table 1.10
Air ~ickoess 1.4 Disorientation 5.1
Alcohol autokinetic illusion 5.3
blood alcohol levels 2.2 bright is up 5.2
long tenn effects 2.2 coriolis Illusion 5.3
metabolism 2.1 dealing with disorientation 5.2
ridding the system of 2.1 false horizon 5.3
short term effects of 2 .I graveyard spin 5.3
Alcohol and llying 2.2 increased susceptibility
Anticipated. or expected. external threats 10 .12 postural or proprioceptive cues 5.1
An~icty 8.7 prolonged shallow turn 5.2
Arousal 9.5 the leans 5.2
Atmo~pheric pressure changes 2.4 vestibular cues 5 .I
Allentioo [cycle of) 8.6 Displays
analogue display 10.4
B au10ftight system 10.7
cathode ray tube [CRT I 10.5
Blood donations I .2
digi ta l d isplay I 0.4
r.:comrnended rest before llying I .2
dynamic displays I0.4
Body rhythms 9.8
light-emitting diodes [LED) 10.6
c linear displays 10.5
liquid-crystal displays [LCD) 10.6
Central nervous system 8.1 mode awareness 10.7
brain 8.1 static displays 10.4
decision making process 8.1 the glass cockptt I 0 .6
memory 8.3 Drugs 2.2
episodic memory 8.2 amphetam mes 2.3
short term memory 8.2 analgesics 2.2
C ircu lation 7 .I antibiotics 2.3
hucmog lo bin 7 .I anti histamines 2.3
hypoxia 7.1. 7.2 b lood pressure medication 2.3
effective perforn1ancc time 7 .2 caffeine 2.3
increased susceptibility 7 .3 drugs and alcohol 2.3
Communication ephedrine 2.3
authority gradient 10.8 prescription drugs 2.2
barriers to effective communication 10.7 stimulants 2.3
lim nations of language 10.7 tranquillisers 2.3
push and pull I 0.9
Communication errors 10.13 E
Confirmation Bias 9.2
Countermeasures 20
Ear
the inner car 3 . I
Cyanosis 7.2
balance [sense of] 3.1
D oval window 3.1
semicircular canab 3.1
vest ibular system 3. 1 treatment of... 2.4
the middle ear 3.1 Hypothal;mms 9.5
eardrum 1.3, 3.1
hammer 3.1 I
rupture of the ear drum 1.3 Injury 1.4
the anvi l 3. 1 inner ear J .3
the eustachian tube 3. 1 lntemalthreats 10.12
the stirrup 3. 1
the outer ear L
ear wax 3.1
Emotional considerations Latent extemal threat~ 10.12
anxiety 1.5 Leadership 10.9
depress ion I .5 leadership v authority 10.9
fear 1.5 three c ircles model I0 . I0
Employer pressure 8.5
Environmental threats I0 .12
M
Errors 10. 11 Ma~low's pyramid of needs 8.6
Eustachian tube 1.3 Med ical examinati on 2. 1- 2.2
Exte malthrcats 10. 12 Mind-set 9. 1
Mode <twarcncss 10.7
F
N
False hypothesis 9.2
Fatigue Na~al cavity 1.3
acute fatigue 9.8 Noise 3.2
chronic fatigue 9.8 decibels 3.2
Flight or fight Iresponse 1 9.5 expo~ure to high noise levels 33
Food poisoning frequenC) 3.2
bacterial contamination 1.1 hearing protection 3.3
food to avoid l.l pitch 3.2
typica l noise levels 3.3
G
0
G load~ 6.1
decrea~ed tolerance 6.2 Organisational threats I0. 12
impro' ing G tolerance 6.3 Outer car I .3
negative G 6.3
physical fitness 6.3 p
physiological effects 6.1
Peer pressure 8 .5
black out 6.2
Perception 5 .4
cardiovascular reHex 6.1
depth perception 5.4
gre) out 6.3
aerial perspective 5.7
G tolerance [diagram] 6.2
binocular vision 5.4
loss of consc iousness 6.2
judging distance at night 5.8
red o ut 6.3
pcrspecti ve 5.4
Goose bumps 9.5
sloping runway 5.8
Gout 1.5 sloping terrain 5.7
Ground navigation states 10. 16
Performance v Arousal Curve 8.7
H Personality
anti -authority 8.4
Haemoglob in 7 . I deference 8.4
Handl ing errors 10.13 extroverted 8.4
Heart 1.1 introverted 8 A
heart problems 1.1 ill\ ulnerability 85
Hc rttbcrg's two-factor theory 8.7 macho 85
Hindcnburg 8.1 resig nation 8.5
Human errors 10.1 4 stable 8.4
Hyperventilation 2.4 unstable 8.4
~ymptoms of... 2.4 Pituitary gland 9.5
Pregnancy 1.4 v
Pride 8.5
Procedural errors 10.13 Vision 4 .1
eye 4.1
R acuity 4.2
blind spot 4. l
Random error 10.14
ciliary muscles 4.1
Relaxation 9.7
cones 4.1
Risky shift 9.3
dark adaptnt ion 4 .I
s dilation of the pupil 4.1
finding the blind spot 4.2
SCUBA diving 2.4 fovea 4.1
Seeing other aircraft 4.5 iris 4.1
closing velocity 4 .5 le~ 4.1
constant relative bearing 4.6 night vision 4.1
lighti ng and contra~t 4.5 optic nerve 4 .I
midair collisions 4.6 pupil 4.1
clearing the tum 4 .6 retina 4.1
simple precautions rhodops in 4.1
~canning techniques 4.6 rods 4.1
seei ng techniques 4.5 limitations of the eye 4.2
Sinuses 1.4 astigmatism 4 .5
Situational awareness 10. 18 colour vi~ion 4 .4
Sleep/wake cycle 9.9 h> peropia Ior hypermetropia] 4.4
Smoking 1.2 m)Opia 4.4
cancer 12 presbyopia 4.5
Sporadic error 10.14 refractive errors 4.4
Standard operating procedures 10.18 saccades 4.6
Stress 8.7. 9.5
acute stress 9.5
alarm 9.7
chronic stress 9.5
collapse 9.7
Holmes/Rahe survey 9.6
indicators of stress 9.5
resiMance 9.7
Systematic Error 10. 14
T
Threat and Error Management 10.11
Threats 10.11
Toxic hazard~ 6.4
avia1ion gasoline 6.5
carbon monoxide 6.4
cleaning agents 6.5
cxhauM fumes 6.4
hydmulic fluid 6.5
lacquers 6.5
paint!> 6.5
l>Oivents 6.5
thinners 6.5
u
Undesired aircraft state 10.16
Undesired aircraft states I 0 .11
Unexpected external threats 10. 12
I I
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Human Performance

FOR THE CPL & ATPL

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Cyber Examination Series by

For more information, see our web page at www.bobtait.com.au

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Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School

Warren Melvor and Nntban Higgins

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VFR [DAY] AEROPLANE SYLLABUS

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PART ONE ...................................................................... .........................T he Human Condition.

PART TWO ................................................................... Pi lot Medical Drugs & Scuba Diving.

PART THREE .................................................................................................... The Human Ear.

PART FIVE ............... ............................. ................ ............................... Disorientation in F light.

PART SIX ....................................................................The Effect of G Loads & Toxic Hazards

PART SEVEN ................................................................... Circulation, Respiration and Hypoxia

PART EIGHT ................................................ Human Decision Making, Personality & Attitudes

PART TEN ...................................................................... Cockpit Design & Crew Relationships

PART ELEVEN ........................................................................................ Practice Examinations

Heart attack Risk increased by I 00%

Stroke Risk increased by 100%

Gangrene Risk increased by 500%

GO£NGUP GOING DOWN

Eustachian tube Eustachian rube

During the course of colds or flu,the mucus membrane can swell

Men [No shoes].

Height [em) Weight (kg)

THE S HORT TE RM EFFECT S O F ALC OHOL One of the characteristics of alcohol

Al l Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limitations Page 2.1

OVER-THE-COUNTE R AND PRESCRIPTION DRUG S If your

TYPE OF DRUG C OMMEN T

Al l Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limitations Page 2.3

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE CHANGES

SCUBA DIVING AN D FLYING

DIV E DESCRIJYfiON REST AT SEA-LEVE L

A dive which does not requ ire

A dive which does require decompression

A d.ive which does require decompression

Alcohol belongs to the family of drugs known as depressams.

If it is necessary to take sleeping tablets. it is recommended that a period of 24 hours should

Al l Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limitations Page 2.5

Al l Rights Reserved © 2009 Human Performance & Limitations Page 2.9

THE OUTER EA R This consists

THE MIDDLE EA R The eardrum

T he cochlea is a small bony srructure that looks a little like a snail's

THE SENSE OF BALANCE [Vestibular system]

While the semicircular canals sense angu lar accelerations such a~

AND ITS EFFECTS

Typical noise levels in the cockpit of ge ner al av iation airc raft

Ai•·craft type At take-off Jn cr uise L a nding

I Tt is easier to hear on a telepho ne than in normal face-to-face conversation.

DID YOU KNOW THAT

THE AN ATOMY OF TH E E YE The

1 a tmn sparcnl je lly that

The photograph at left is a highly magnified view of some of the millions

Page 4. 1 All Rights Reserved© 2009 Human Performance & Limitations

FINDING THE BLIND SPOT

Flicker vertigo. Bright light is caused to flicker as it passes through an

Flicker vertigo is technically not an illusion; however, as most people

I~resbyopia This is a natural proc-