5 - Welding Defects

Welding Metallurgy
Welding Defects
PROF. DR. TAMER S. MAHMOUD
Introduction
Alexander Kielland (Finland) – 1980

123 Killed
Introduction
Weld Defects Classification
Metallurgical Defects
Hot (Solidification) Cracks
▪ They are called hot cracks because they occur immediately
after welds are completed and sometimes while the welds
are being made.
▪ The main cause of solidification cracking is that the weld
bead in the final stage of solidification has insufficient
strength to withstand the contraction stresses generated as
the weld pool solidifies.
▪ These defects, which are often caused by sulphur and
phosphorus, are more likely to occur in higher carbon steels.
Sulphur is often considered to be the most

dangerous because it readily combines with
iron and manganese to form (MnFe)S. A
compound of low melting point which easily
spreads along grain boundaries.
▪ Solidification cracks are normally distinguishable from other
types of cracks by the following features:
1. They occur only in the weld metal - although the parent
metal is almost always the source of the low melting point
contaminants associated with the cracking.
2. They normally appear in straight lines along the centre line
of the weld bead, but may occasionally appear as transverse
cracking.
3. Solidification cracks in the
final crater may have a
branching appearance.
4. as the cracks are 'open'
they are visible to the
naked eye.
▪ Factors which increase the risk of the
formation of hot cracks include:
1. Insufficient weld bead size or
inappropriate shape.
2. Welding under excessive restraint.
3. Material properties - such as a high
impurity content or a relatively large
shrinkage on solidification.
▪ In steels, cracking is associated
with impurities, particularly
sulphur and phosphorus.
▪ To minimize the risk of
cracking, fillers with low carbon
and impurity levels and a
relatively high manganese
content are preferred.
▪ As a general rule, for carbon
manganese steels, the total
sulphur and phosphorus content
should be no greater than
0.06%.
▪ However when welding a highly
restrained joint using high
strength steels, a combined level
below 0.03% might be needed.
▪ Weld metal composition is dominated by the filler and as
this is usually cleaner than the metal being welded,
cracking is less likely with low dilution processes such as
MMA and MIG.
▪ Parent metal composition becomes more important with
autogenous welding techniques, such as TIG with no filler.
▪ Apart from choice of material and filler, the main
techniques for avoiding solidification cracking are:
1. control the joint fit up to reduce the gaps,
2. clean off all contaminants before welding,
3. ensure that the welding sequence will not lead to a
buildup of thermally induced stresses,
4. choose welding parameters to produce a weld bead with
adequate depth to width ratio or with sufficient throat
thickness (fillet weld) to ensure the bead has sufficient
resistance to solidification stresses. Recommended
minimum depth to width ratio is 0.5:1,
5. avoid producing too large a depth to width ratio which
will encourage segregation and excessive transverse
strains. As a rule, weld beads with a depth to width ratio
exceeds 2:1 will be prone to solidification cracking,
6. avoid high welding speeds (at high current levels) which
increase segregation and stress levels across the weld
bead,
7. at the run stop, ensure adequate filling of the crater to
avoid an unfavourable concave shape.
Mechanism of Solidification Cracks
▪ The partition and
rejection of alloying
elements at columnar
grain boundaries and
ahead of the advancing
solid- liquid interface
cause marked
segregation.
▪ The segregants form low melting
phases or eutectics with the metal to
produce highly wetting films at grain
boundaries.
▪ These films weaken the structure to
the extent that cracks form at the
boundaries under the influence of the
tensile residual stresses that occur Mechanism of Solidification Cracks
during cooling.
Cold (Hydrogen) Cracks
▪ Cold cracks form in the weld at some point in time after the
weld has cooled.
▪ Cold cracks usually form either due to excessive stress in
the weld or due to hydrogen diffusion in steels.
▪ Elemental hydrogen can diffuse and migrate to dislocations
and form pockets to create enough pressure to expand the
defect and form a crack.
▪ Under some circumstances, cold cracks
can form up to 48 hours after welding.
▪ Hydrogen-assisted cracking can be
reduced by preheating to reduce
cooling rate after the weld and post-
weld heating to encourage diffusion of
hydrogen out of the weld.
▪ Such cracks can form in the weld zone
but are typically found in HAZ.
▪ Some cold cracks can form due to
excessive strain in the weld after
cooling and are typically observed in
welds of very thick cross-section or if
the fusion zone alloy is much
stronger than the surrounding base
metal.
▪ Transverse cracks are typical of such
situations.
▪ Toe cracks that appear to originate at weld/HAZ boundary
near the free surface are likely to be caused by a
combination of excessive stress and a brittle HAZ.
▪ Cold cracks are more likely to be transgranular, i.e., going
through the grains rather than along grain boundaries.
The Source of Hydrogen
▪ Hydrogen in the welding zone can come from several
different sources:
▪ the combustion products in oxyfuel welding;
▪ Decomposition products of cellulose-type electrode
coverings in SMAW;
▪ moisture or grease on the surface of the workpiece or
electrode; and
▪ moisture in the flux, electrode coverings, or shielding gas.
Solubility of hydrogen
Solubility of hydrogen in aluminum

Measuring Hydrogen Content
▪ The Figure shows the mercury method.
▪ A small test specimen (13×25×127 mm) is
welded in a copper fixture.
▪ The welded test specimen is then immersed
in mercury contained in a eudiometer tube.
▪ As hydrogen diffuses out of the welded test
specimen, the mercury level in the
eudiometer tube continues to drop. Mercury method for measuring diffusible
hydrogen in welds.
Measuring Hydrogen Content
▪ From the final mercury level, H (in millimeters), the
amount of hydrogen that diffuses out of the specimen,
that is, the so-called diffusible hydrogen, can be measured.
▪ This method, however, can take days because of the slow
diffusion of hydrogen at room temperature.
Hydrogen Reduction Methods
▪ The weld hydrogen content can
be reduced in several ways.
▪ First, avoid hydrogen-containing
shielding gases, including the
use of hydrocarbon fuel gases,
cellulose-type electrode
coverings, and hydrogen-
containing inert gases.
Effect of shielding gases on weld metal hydrogen
content: (a) GMAW; (b) FCAW.
▪ Second, dry the electrode
covering and flux to
remove moisture and
clean the filler wire and
workpiece to remove
grease.
▪ Third, adjust the
composition of the Effect of electrode baking temperature
on weld metal diffusible hydrogen levels
consumables if feasible.
▪ Fourth, use post-weld heating to help hydrogen diffuse out
of the weld.
Effect of post-weld heating on the weld metal hydrogen

content of mild steel.
Cavities
▪ This occurs when gases are
trapped in the solidifying weld
metal.
▪ These may arise from damp
consumables or metal or, from
dirt, particularly oil or grease,
on the metal in the vicinity of
the weld.
Cavities
▪ This can be avoided by ensuring
all consumables are stored in
dry conditions and work is
carefully cleaned and degreased
prior to welding.
Classification of Cavities
▪ Classifications according to
position:
▪ Surface cavities.
▪ Internal cavities.
▪ Classification According to
Shape:
▪ Small and spherical (Porosity).
▪ Large and cylindrical (wormhole).
Forms of Porosities
Problems
Problems
1. How the welding defects can be classified?
2. Explain the mechanism of solidification cracking?
3. State the methods for hydrogen reduction.
4. Explain the mercury method for measuring the hydrogen contents
in welds?
5. How solidification cracks are normally distinguishable from other
types of cracks?
6. What are the reasons of solidification cracks formation? How it
can be eliminated?
Problems
7. What are the reasons of cold cracks formation? How it can be
eliminated?
8. Explain the effect of shielding gases on weld metal hydrogen
content for GMAW and FCAW.
9. Why Sulphur is often considered to be the most dangerous
element for solidification cracks?
10. The GTAW of pure iron with Ar–5% H2 as the shielding gas
showed that the weld metal hydrogen content increased with
increasing heat input per unit length of the weld. Explain why.
Thank You

5 - Welding Defects

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

5 - Welding Defects

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Welding Metallurgy

Alexander Kielland (Finland) – 1980

Sulphur is often considered to be the most

Solubility of hydrogen in aluminum

Effect of post-weld heating on the weld metal hydrogen

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen