PN JUNCTION DIODE

INTRODUCTION:

According to modern electron theory, matter is composed of 3 fundamental particles, which are invisible to
bare eyes. They are:

1. Neutron,
2. Proton &
3. Electron.

Table:

The elements of different kinds, even though consist of electrons, protons & neutrons whose characteristics
are in identical in nature. They behave differently, because of the difference in arrangement of electrons,
protons and neutrons which each atom is composed.

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Difference between silicon (Si) & Germanium (Ge):

S.NO: Si Ge

In Si, the valence electrons are in 3rd shell & In Ge, the valence electrons are in 4th shell &
2 closest to nucleus, the stronger are the forces farthest to nucleus, when compared to Si, so
that bind it to nucleus. the force of attraction is less.
More energy is required to make the valence Less energy is required.
3
electron free in Si to take part in conduction.
The vibrational displacement of atoms is less, The vibrational displacement of atoms is more.
4 because As the valence electrons are closest
to nucleus.
It is less influenced due to variation in It is more influenced due to variation in
5
temperature. temperature.
It is more stable because it does not vary It is un – stable.
6
much with respect to temperature.
The cut – in voltage is high, because it is less The cut – in voltage is less, because it is more
7 effected due to variation in temperature. i.e., effected due to variation in temperature. i.e., Vr
Vr = 0.7 V = 0.3 V
Reverse saturation current, I 0 is in nano ( Reverse saturation current, I 0 is in micro
8
10−9 ) Amps at room temperature. ( 10−6 ) Amps at room temperature.
There is a difference of 0.4 volts for V r of Si & Ge, the reason is that in Ge diode I0 is larger by a factor
of about 1000 than I0 of Si diode for the same ratings.
𝑉
For n = 2 , for small current s in Si, the current I increases as 𝑒 2 𝑉𝑇 for the first few several tenths of a
𝑉
volt, and increases as 𝑒 only at higher voltages. This is the reason why there is a delay in the rise of Si
𝑉𝑇

characteristics and hence a higher cut – in voltage V r

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COMPARISON BETWEEN ZENER DIODE & PN JUNCTION DIODE:

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COMPARISON BETWEEN ZENER BREAK DOWN & AVALANCHE BREAK DOWN:

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 RECTIFIERS AND FILTERS

COMPOARISON BETWEEN RECTIFIERS (HWR, FWR & BRIDGE RECTIFIER):

BRIDGE
S.NO PARAMETER HWR FWR
RECTIFIER

1 Number of diodes 1 2 4

𝐼𝑚 2. 𝐼𝑚 2. 𝐼𝑚
2 Average dc current, Idc
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
3 RMS current, Irms
2 √2 √2
𝐼𝑚 2 𝐼𝑚 2 𝐼𝑚
4 Average dc voltage, Vdc 𝑋 𝑅𝐿 𝑋 𝑅𝐿 𝑋 𝑅𝐿
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
2 2 2
𝐼𝑚 𝑋 𝑅𝐿 4. 𝐼𝑚 𝑋 𝑅𝐿 4. 𝐼𝑚 𝑋 𝑅𝐿
5 DC Power output, Pdc
𝜋2 𝜋2 𝜋2
2 2 2
𝐼𝑚 ( 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆𝐼)𝑚 ( 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 ) 𝐼𝑚 ( 𝑅𝐿 + 2𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 )
6 AC Power input, PAC
4 2 2
40.6 81.2 81.2
7 % of rectifier efficiency (η) 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 2𝑅𝑓
[1+ 𝑅 ] [1+ 𝑅 ] [1+ 𝑅 ]
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

8 Max. rectifier efficiency (η) 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%

9 Ripple factor (r) 1.21 0.482 0.482

10 Lowest ripple frequency f 2f 2f

11 PIV / PRV Vm 2Vm 2Vm

12 Voltage regulation Good Better Better

0.286 0.693 81.2

13 TUF 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 2𝑅𝑓
[1+ 𝑅 ] [1+ 𝑅 ] [1+ 𝑅 ]
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

14 Maximum % of TUF 0.287 0.693 0.812

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
15 Max. load current (Im)
[ 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 ] [ 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 ] [ 𝑅𝐿 + 2 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 ]

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COMPARISON BETWEEN SHUNT AND SERIES VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

S. NO: SHUNT VOLTAGE REGULATORS SERIES VOLTAGE REGULATORS

The control element is in parallel with the The control element is in series with the load.
1
load.
Only small current passes through the The entire load current IL always passes through
2 control element which is required to be the control element.
diverted to keep output constant
Any change in output voltage is Any change in output voltage is compensated
compensated by changing the current Ish by adjusting the voltage across the control
3
through the control element as per the element as per the control signal.
control signal.
The control element is low current, high The control element is high current, low voltage
4
voltage rating component. rating component.
5 The regulation is poor. The regulation is good.
6 Efficiency depends on the load current. Efficiency depends on the output voltage.
Not suitable for varying load conditions. Preferred for fixed as well as variable.
7
Preferred for fixed voltage applications.
Simple to design. Complicated to design as compared to shunt
8
regulators.
Examples: Zener Shunt regulators, Examples: Series feedback type regulator,
9 transistorized shunt regulator etc., series regulator with pre-regulator and feedback
limiting etc.,

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 TRANSISTORS

COMPARISON OF TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS:

CHARACTERISTIC COMMON COMMON

S.NO: COMMON BASE
PARAMETER EMITTER COLLECTOR
1 Input Resistance Very Low (100 Ω) Moderate (1 KΩ) High (500 KΩ)
2 Output Resistance Very High (500 KΩ) Moderate (40 KΩ) Low (25 Ω)
3 Input current IE IB IB
4 output current IC IC IE
Input voltage applied
5 Emitter and base Base and emitter Base and collector
between
output voltage taken Collector and
6 Collector and base Emitter and collector
between emitter
𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐸
7 𝛼𝑑𝑐 = 𝛽𝑑𝑐 = 𝛾𝑑𝑐 =
Current Amplification 𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐵
factor ∆𝐼𝐶 ∆𝐼𝐶 ∆𝐼𝐸
𝛼𝑎𝑐 = 𝛽𝑎𝑐 = 𝛾𝑎𝑐 =
∆𝐼𝐸 ∆𝐼𝐵 ∆𝐼𝐵
High (20 to few High (20 to few
8 Current Gain (A I) Less than unity
Hundreds) Hundreds)
9 Voltage Gain (A V) Medium Medium Less than 1
Phase shift between input
10 00 (or) 3600 180 0 00 (or) 3600
and output voltages
 For impedance
Matching b/n
 For high source of high
frequency internal
Circuits, impedance
 As input stage and load of
of Multistage low
Amplifiers,  For Audio impedance.
11 Applications  For driving frequency  Buffer stage
high circuits b/n a high
impedance impedance
load, source and
 Matching low low
impedance impedance
source. load (i.e. b/n
oscillator &
load).

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 FET & FET AMPLIFIERS

Comparison of BJT & FET:

S.No Parameter BJT FET

Control element Current controlled device. Input Voltage controlled device. Input
1 current IB controls output current voltage VGS controls output drain
IC. current ID.
Device type Current flows due to both Current flows only due to majority
majority & minority carriers and carriers and hence the name uni –
2
hence the name Bi – polar polar devices.
devices.
3 Types npn & pnp N – Channel and p – channel.
Symbols

5 Configurations CE,CB & CC. CS, CG & CD.

Input resistance Less compared to JFET (Input Higher compared to BJT (Input
6
section forward biased). section reverse biased).
Size Bigger than JFET. Smaller in construction than BJT,
7 thus making them more useful in
Integrated circuits (IC).
Sensitivity Higher sensitivity to changes in Less sensitivity to changes in
8
applied signals applied signals
Thermal Less. More.
9
stability
Thermal run Exists in BJT, because of Does not exist in JFET, because
away cumulative effect of increase in drain resistance 𝑟𝑑 increases with
10 IC with temperature, resulting in temperature, which reduces ID,
increase in temperature in the reducing the ID and hence the
device. temperature of the device.
Relation Linear. Non - Linear.
11 between input
and output
Ratio between ∆𝐼𝐶 = β ∆𝐼𝐷
= 𝑔𝑚
12 ∆𝐼𝐵 ∆𝑉𝐺𝑆
input and output
Thermal noise More in BJT as more carriers Much lower in JFET as very few
13 cross the junction. i.e., carriers cross the junction.
recombination is more.
Gain Band High. Low.
14
width Product

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Comparison of Transistors
COMPARISON OF N – CHANNEL JFET & P – CHANNEL JFET:

S.No N – channel JFET P – channel JFET

2 Electrons are the current carriers. Holes are current carriers.

3 Mobility of electrons is large. Mobility of holes is poor.
4 Input noise is less. Input noise is more.
5 Large transconductance. Large transconductance.

COMPARISON OF FET & MOSFET:

S.NO. Parameter JFET MOSFET

 N – channel 1. Depletion type MOSFET
 P – channel
N – channel Depletion type
MOSFET &
P – channel Depletion type
MOSFET
1 Types
2. Enhancement type MOSFET

N – channel Enhancement type&

P – channel Enhancement type

2 Symbols

Depletion mode Both depletion & enhancement mode

3 Operation mode
High( i.e > 10 M Hz) Very high (i.e.,> 10,000 M Ω)
4 Input impedance
Gate It is not insulated from Insulated by SiO2
5
channel
channel Exists permanently Exits permanently in depletion mode, but
6 not in enhancement mode.

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COMPARISON OF DEPLETION TYPE MOSFET & ENHANCEMENT TYPE MOSFET

S.NO Parameter Depletion type Enhancement type

1 Symbols

Channel is physically absent. It is

induced after application of positive
gate voltage above the threshold value
2 Channel Exits permanently for n – channel enhancement type
MOSFET and negative gate voltage
above threshold value for P – channel
enhancement type MOSFET.
Can be operated in depletion mode Can only be operated in enhancement
3 Operation
as well as enhancement mode. mode.
Drain current flows on application Practically no current flows on
Current of drain to source voltage VDS, at application of drain to source voltage
4
flow VGS = 0V VDS, at VGS = 0 V. current flows only
when

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COMPARISON BETWEEN N – CHANNEL & P – CHANNEL:

S.NO N – channel MOSFET P – channel MOSFET

It is costlier and difficult to manufacture It is cheaper and easy to manufacture
1
than P – channel MOSFET. than N – channel MOSFET.
Since the hole mobility is 2.5 times It occupies large area than N – channel
lower than the electron mobility, N – MOSFET for the same ID rating.
2
channel occupies less area than P –
channel MOSFET for the same ID rating.
The drain resistance is lower than the The drain resistance is 3 times higher
3 identical P – channel MOSFET. than that of identical N – channel
MOSFET.
It has higher packing density. Twice Lower packing density than N –
4 packing density than P – channel channel MOSFETs.
MOSFET.
Almost 3 times faster than P – channel It is slower than N – channel MOSFET.
5
MOSFET in switching operation.

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SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF BJT AMPLIFIERS

COMPARISON OF TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATIONS (FOR R L = 3 kΩ )

COMMON COMMON
S.NO: PARAMETER COMMON BASE
EMITTER COLLECTOR
1 Input Resistance Very Low (100 Ω) Moderate (1 KΩ) High (500 KΩ)
Very High (500
2 Output Resistance (R S) Moderate (40 KΩ) Low (25 Ω)
KΩ)
3 Input current IE IB IB
4 output current IC IC IE
Input voltage applied
5 Emitter and base Base and emitter Base and collector
between
Output voltage taken Collector and
6 Collector and base Emitter and collector
between emitter
Less than unity
8 Current Gain (A I) High (- 46.5) High (47.5)
(0.98)
9 Voltage Gain (A V) Medium (131) Medium (-131) Low (0.99)
Phase shift between input
10 00 (or) 3600 180 0 00 (or) 3600
and output voltages
 For impedance
 For high Matching b/n
frequency source of high
Circuits, internal
 As input impedance
stage of and load of
Multistage low
Amplifiers,  For Audio impedance.
11 Applications  For driving frequency  Buffer stage
high circuits b/n a high
impedance impedance
load, source and
 Matching low
low impedance
impedance load (i.e. b/n
source. oscillator &
load).

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Small signal analysis of transistor amplifier:

S.NO: PARAMETERS
𝒉𝒇
1 𝑨𝒊 =
𝟏 + 𝒉𝟎 𝑹𝑳
𝑨𝒊 𝑹𝑺
2 𝑨𝒊𝒔 =
𝒁𝒊 + 𝑹𝑺
𝒉𝒇 𝒉𝒓
3 𝒁𝒊 = 𝒉𝒊 + 𝒉𝒓 𝑨𝒊 𝑹𝑳 = 𝒉𝒊 − 𝒉𝟎 + 𝒀𝑳
𝑨𝒊 𝑹𝑳
4 𝑨𝑽 =
𝒁𝒊
𝑨𝑽 𝑹𝒊 𝑨 𝑹 𝑨𝒊𝒔 𝑹𝑳
5 𝑨𝑽𝑺 = = 𝒁 𝒊+ 𝑹𝑳 =
𝒁𝒊 + 𝑹𝒔 𝒊 𝒔 𝑹𝒔
𝒉𝒇 𝒉𝒓 𝟏
6 𝒀𝟎 = 𝒉𝟎 − =𝒁
𝒉𝒊 + 𝑹𝒔 𝟎
𝑹𝑳
7 𝑨𝑷 = 𝑨𝑽 𝑨𝒊 = 𝑨𝟐𝒊
𝒁𝒊

H – Parameters for three different configurations at normal room temperature:

Parameters CE CC CB
h11 = hi 1,100 Ω 1,100 Ω 21.6 Ω
h12 = hr 2.5x10-4 ≅1 2.9x10-4
h21 = hf 50 - 51 - 0.98
h22 = ho 25 μA/v 25 μA/v 0.49 μA/v
1/h0 40K 40K 2.04M Ω

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H – PARAMETERS CONVERSION TABLE:

T EQUIVALENT
SYMBOL CE CC CB
CIRCUIT
ℎ𝑖𝑏 𝑟𝑒
𝒉𝒊𝒆 1,100 Ω ℎ𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑏 +
1 + ℎ𝑓𝑏 1−𝑎
ℎ𝑖𝑏 ℎ𝑜𝑏 𝑟𝑏
𝒉𝒓𝒆 25 X 10−4 1 − ℎ𝑟𝑐 − ℎ𝑟𝑏
1 + ℎ𝑓𝑏 (1 − 𝑎)𝑟𝑐
ℎ𝑓𝑏 𝑎
𝒉𝒇𝒆 50 − (1 + ℎ𝑓𝑐 ) −
1 + ℎ𝑓𝑏 (1 − 𝑎)
ℎ𝑜𝑏 1
𝒉𝒐𝒆 25 µ A /V ℎ𝑜𝑐
1 + ℎ𝑓𝑏 (1 − 𝑎)𝑟𝑐
ℎ𝑖𝑒 ℎ
𝒉𝒊𝒃 - ℎ 𝑖𝑐 21.6 Ω 𝑟𝑒 + (1 − 𝑎)𝑟𝑏
1 + ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑐

ℎ𝑖𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑒 ℎ𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑜𝑐 𝑟𝑏

𝒉𝒓𝒃 − ℎ𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑓𝑐 − − 1 29 X 10−4
1 + ℎ𝑓𝑒 ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑟𝑐
ℎ𝑓𝑒 1 + ℎ𝑓𝑐
𝒉𝒇𝒃 − − -0.98 -a
1 + ℎ𝑓𝑒 ℎ𝑓𝑐
ℎ𝑜𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑐 1
𝒉𝒐𝒃 - 0.49 µ A /V
1 + ℎ𝑓𝑒 ℎ𝑓𝑐 𝑟𝑐
ℎ𝑖𝑏 𝑟𝑒
𝒉𝒊𝒄 ℎ𝑖𝑒 1,110 Ω 𝑟𝑏 +
1 + ℎ𝑓𝑏 1−𝑎
𝑟𝑒
𝒉𝒓𝒄 1 − ℎ𝑖𝑒 ≅ 1 1 1 1−
(1 − 𝑎)𝑟𝑐
1 1
𝒉𝒇𝒄 − (1 + ℎ𝑓𝑒 ) - 51 − −
1 + ℎ𝑓𝑏 (1 − 𝑎)
ℎ𝑜𝑏 1
𝒉𝒐𝒄 ℎ𝑜𝑒 25 µ A /V
1 + ℎ𝑓𝑏 (1 − 𝑎)𝑟𝑐
ℎ𝑓𝑒 1 + ℎ𝑓𝑐
a − ℎ𝑓𝑏 0.980
1 + ℎ𝑓𝑒 ℎ𝑓𝑐
1 + ℎ𝑓𝑒 ℎ𝑓𝑐 1
𝒓𝒄 − 2.04 M
ℎ𝑜𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑐 ℎ𝑜𝑏
ℎ𝑟𝑏
ℎ𝑟𝑒 1 − ℎ𝑟𝑐 ℎ𝑖𝑏 + (1
𝒓𝒆 ℎ𝑜𝑏 10 Ω
ℎ𝑜𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑐 + ℎ𝑓𝑏 )
ℎ𝑓𝑐
ℎ𝑓𝑐 ℎ𝑖𝑐 + (1 ℎ𝑟𝑏
𝒓𝒃 ℎ𝑖𝑒 + ( 1 + ℎ𝑓𝑒 ) ℎ𝑜𝑐 590 Ω
ℎ𝑜𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑏
+ ℎ𝑟𝑐 )

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SPECIAL PURPOSE ELECTRONIC DEVICES

COMPARISON OF TUNNEL DIODE AND CONVENTIONAL PN JUNCTION DIODE:

S. NO: TUNNEL DIODE CONVENTIONAL PN JUNCTION DIODE

1 Impurity concentration is high (1 part in 10 3)
Depletion region width is about 5 microns
1 compared to the tunnel diode.
2 (5 X 10 -6), which is 100𝑡ℎ the width of the
typical PN junction diode.
The carrier velocities are very high at low
3 forward bias, hence can punch through the
depletion region.
The V- I characteristics shows the negative
4
resistance region.
Impurity concentration is low (1 part in 10 8)
The width of the depletion region is high
The carrier velocities are low at low forward
bias; hence cannot penetrate through the
depletion region.
The V- I characteristics does not shows the
negative resistance region.

The materials used for construction are The silicon is most popularly used.
6
germanium or gallium arsenide.

The switching time is very low of the order of The switching times are very high.
8
nano to pico seconds.
Used for high frequency oscillators, high speed Used in rectifiers and other general purpose
9 applications such as computers, pulse and applications.
digital circuits and switching networks.

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COMPARISON OF TUNNEL DIODE AND CONVENTIONAL PN JUNCTION DIODE:

S.NO: PARAMETER PN JUNCTION DIODE SCHOTTKY DIODE

1 Junction Semiconductor to Semiconductor Semiconductor to metal
2 Carriers Minority and Majority Only Majority
Reverse recovery
3 More Less
time
4 Barrier potential More about 0.7 V Less about 0.25 V
5 Breakdown voltage More Less
6 Switching speed Less High
7 PIV rating More Less
8 Frequency range Up to 10 M Hz Very high more than 300 M Hz
Mainly rectifiers and low frequency High frequency devices, digital
9 Applications
devices computers, radar systems etc.

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IMPORTANT SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES AND THEIR SYMBOLS:

S.NO: NAME OF THE DEVICE SYMBOL

1 PN junction diode

2 Zener diode

3 Photo diode

4 Tunnel diode

5 Varactor diode

6 Schottky diode

7 LED

8 LDR

9 Transistor (BJT)

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10 JFET

11 MOSFET

12 SCR

13 UJT

14 Thermistor

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