UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING

FEB 540: ENGINEERING DESIGN PROJECT

2014/2015 ACADEMIC YEAR

PROJECT TITLE:
DESIGN OF A MICRO-HYDRO POWER STATION ON RIVER THIBA

CANDIDATE NAME: OKECH RHODA BELINDA

CANDIDATE No.: F21/1699/2010
SUPERVISOR’S NAME: Mr. STEPHEN C. ONDIEKI

A Report Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Requirements of the Degree

of Bachelor of Science in Environmental and Biosystems Engineering, of the
University Of Nairobi
4th MAY, 2015

F21/1699/2010 i
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this design project is my original work and has not been submitted for a
degree in any other institution of higher learning.

Signature …………………………. Date …………………..

This design project has been submitted for examination with my approval as the University

Supervisor.

Signature ……………………………………… Date

......………………………………………..

F21/1699/2010 ii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this project to my parents; George Okech and Agnetter Okech for their unending
support throughout my academics.

I would also like to thank my brother Kevin Ochola who has been my role model and source of
inspiration during this whole process.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank The Lord Almighty for His inspiration, guidance and the peace He instilled
in me during the design process as it was quite stressful at some point.

I would also love to acknowledge the invaluable support of the following;

My supervisor Mr. Stephen C. Ondieki for his technical support, guidance and critique during
the supervision visits.

My parents for their support in form of encouragement and for giving me the resources I needed
for completing my project without any hitches.

My friend Jacob Mutua, through whom I gained a perspective of the design process.

The Department of Environmental & Biosystems Engineering and the entire staff for having
been helpful and supportive during the whole design process.

Water Resources Management Authority and Kenya Meteorology Department for availing the
data I required to use for my design project.

F21/1699/2010 iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 : List of Micro- Hydro Power Systems in the World ....................................................................... 9

Table 2 : Turbine type and their Efficiency ................................................................................................ 14

Table 3 : Classification of Turbine ............................................................................................................. 14

Table 4: Analyzed Discharge flows for Kutus Waterfall ............................................................................ 33

Table 5: Work Programme .......................................................................................................................... 50

F21/1699/2010 v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Google Image of the Site ............................................................................................................... 4

Figure 2: Hydropower Head ......................................................................................................................... 5

Figure 3: Catchment Area ............................................................................................................................. 6

Figure 4: Broad crested weir ....................................................................................................................... 11

Figure 5: Typical Settling Basin ................................................................................................................. 12

Figure 6: Typical Micro Hydropower system ............................................................................................. 15

Figure 7 : Types of Penstock Material ........................................................................................................ 25

Figure 8: Turbine type and Typical Site characteristics.............................................................................. 27

Figure 9 : WHO MAPS; Low flow Discharge ............................................................................................ 30

Figure 10 : Topographical Profile of the site. ............................................................................................. 31

Figure 11: Flow Duration Curve ................................................................................................................. 34

F21/1699/2010 vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
RGS – River Gauging Station

HDPE -High Density Polyethylene

PVC - Poly Vinyl Chloride

FDC – Flow Duration Curve

WRMA – Water Resources Management Authority

F21/1699/2010 vii
ABSTRACT
This project addresses the problem of inaccessibility of electricity in rural areas. This is due to
exorbitant costs related to connection and bills amassed from the use of electricity from the
National grid. It focuses on Micro-Hydro Power as a renewable source of energy. This can be
used in an off-grid system so as to cut on costs related to electricity from the National Grid.

This project consists of five chapters. The first chapter gives a brief history of Hydro-electric
power generation and its current development in Kenya. In this chapter, the objectives of the
project are highlighted as well as the scope of the project. Site analysis and inventory is also
covered here.

The second chapter deals with Literature Review. Various forms of energy are discussed here
and it Micro Hydro Power Systems are discussed in detail. The following chapter; i.e. Chapter 3
focuses on theoretical framework, and it contains the formulas needed to design the Micro Hydro
Power System.

Chapter 4 is on the methods and procedures followed to achieve the objectives of the project. It
also focuses on generation of design as well as selection of design for the project. Chapter 5 is on
Results and Analysis, and this is followed by Conclusion and Recommendations, Work
Programme, References and Appendices.

vii
F21/1699/2010
i
Table of Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Problem Statement & Analysis ........................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Site Analysis and Inventory ................................................................................................................ 4
1.3 Overall Objective ................................................................................................................................ 7
1.3.1 Specific Objectives ...................................................................................................................... 7
1.4 Statement of Scope ............................................................................................................................. 7
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................................... 8
2.1 MICRO HYDROS .............................................................................................................................. 9
2.2 Types of Renewable Energy ............................................................................................................. 15
2.2.1 Wind Energy .............................................................................................................................. 15
2.2.2 Geothermal Energy .................................................................................................................... 16
2.2.3 Tidal Energy............................................................................................................................... 17
2.2.4 Solar Energy............................................................................................................................... 18
3.0 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................................................................ 20
4.0 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................... 29
4.1Generation of Design ......................................................................................................................... 29
4.2 Design Selection ............................................................................................................................... 29
4.3 Data Collection ................................................................................................................................. 30
4.4 Data analysis and Presentation.......................................................................................................... 31
4.4.1 Determining the head of the river .............................................................................................. 31
4.4.2 Determining design flow ............................................................................................................ 31
5.0 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................... 35
5.1 Siting the power generating plant ..................................................................................................... 35
5.2 Estimating the power generation potential........................................................................................ 35
5.3 Design of the Structural Components. .............................................................................................. 36
5.3.1 Weir............................................................................................................................................ 36
5.3.2 Intake Canal ............................................................................................................................... 37
5.3.3 Settling basin/Fore-bay .............................................................................................................. 40
5.3.4 Penstock ..................................................................................................................................... 43
5.3.5 Forces acting on the weir ........................................................................................................... 45
6.0CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................... 50

F21/1699/2010 ix
7.0 WORK PROGRAMME........................................................................................................................ 50
8.0 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 51
9.0 APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................................... 53
9.1 APPENDIX 1 .................................................................................................................................... 53
9.2 APPENDIX 2 .................................................................................................................................... 54
9.3 APPENDIX 3 .................................................................................................................................... 55
9.4 APPENDIX 4 .................................................................................................................................... 56
9.5 APPENDIX 5 .................................................................................................................................... 57
9.6 APPENDIX 6 .................................................................................................................................... 58
9.7 APPENDIX 7 .................................................................................................................................... 59

F21/1699/2010 x
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Rural electrification is a major focus in the world right now. Energy goes a long way in creating
jobs and offering many opportunities such as running of new businesses. Rural areas are
characterized with poverty, lack of electricity and various amenities. It is mostly known for its
stagnating nature in terms of economic development. The main jobs available in the rural areas
require manual labor.

Economic development is normally observed in the urban areas as opposed to the rural areas.
This is the main reason why poverty is related to the rural areas. The poorest groups in the
society are often bypassed by economic development and it is quite true for the people in the
rural areas. Rural poverty arises from lack of assets, limited economic opportunities, poor
education and capabilities as well as disadvantages rooted in social and political inequalities. The
livelihood of rural people is shaped by particular set of vulnerabilities in different ways that they
are experiencing. Thus, the repertoire of decisions, choices and options that they can pursue are
similarly assorted. The lack of access to electricity is normally the cause of disparity between the
urban and rural areas in terms of income and employment as well as the unavailability of basic
infrastructure and services.

Kutus can be described as a rural area, and according to the governance of the country it is
mostly the urban areas that have access to electricity. Currently government policies are geared
towards rural electrification. Technological advancements allow some of the jobs which are
known to be of a drudgery nature to be done with ease with the use of certain machines-which
require electricity.

This energy crisis calls for a need to adopt technology that would provide alternative sources of
power to compensate for diminishing/unreliable supply. Reliance on power provided by fossil
fuels, large hydropower and geothermal source is not adequate to meet the rising demand in
Kenya especially in the rural areas. Therefore alternative sources of power supply have to be
investigated and exploited in potential areas. Electricity has the power to give a face lift to a rural
place and help it advance. There are various ways to produce energy to aid in rural

F21/1699/2010 1
electrification. This includes use of natural resources such as hydro power, wind power,
geothermal, solar, and biogas.

Hydropower is one of the oldest sources of energy and was used thousands of years ago to turn
paddle wheels for purposes such as grinding of grain (Priyantha, 2007) The Greeks used water
wheels for grinding wheat into flour more than 2000 years ago. The energy sourced from water
was also used to saw wood and power textile mills and manufacturing plants (Priyantha, 2007).
In the case of Kutus, hydropower is the perfect choice as it will use available water source from
River Thiba to generate the power.

Most rivers in Kenya are found in rural areas yet it is these same areas that lack access to
electricity.

Harnessing hydro power to provide energy has been a major concern. It is necessary to utilize
four physical resources to make a major change in Kenya in the energy sector. These are; energy,
space, matter and time.

Micro hydro falls within the range of small hydro. Distinction can be made between mini hydro
plants whose capacity is below 1MW, Micro hydro whose capacity is below 100 kW and Pico
hydro whose capacity is below 20 kW (Wim Jonker Klunne, 2007). They each have their own
specific technical characteristics. Micro and Pico hydro installations are typically used in
developing countries for energy provision to isolated communities, whereas mini hydro tends to
be grid connected. Micro and Pico hydro can also differ from mini hydro due to the extended
possibility of using local materials and labor, while mini hydro typically involves more
traditional engineering approaches and will usually need a heavy access road for delivery of
materials and electro-mechanical equipment.
The installation of such can provide power to a small town.

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1.1 Problem Statement & Analysis
The lack of access to affordable electricity in Kutus, Kirinyaga County.

In this time and era, electricity is a very crucial factor as it is needed in every sector of the
economy. People in the rural areas are at a disadvantage in nearly every aspect of their lives. This
energy can be provided from the natural resources within its environment, in this case the use of
the available head in River Thiba.

In developing countries, rural populations are largely excluded from the national grid. There are
many reasons due to this and one of them is poverty; that being that they can’t afford to pay for
the transmission to their villages. There is also lack of local capacity to design and develop small
hydro power schemes for areas sometimes considered too remote. Generally, most of the countries
lack specialization to undertake feasibility studies, detailed studies that would include detailed
design and costing of the schemes to make a meaningful impact on utilization of small hydro sites.
Other reasons include bad governance as the focus is majorly towards the urban areas. This is
however changing with devolution.

Electricity plays a major role in economic development. There are various economic activities in
the rural areas and most of them are done by manual labor which ends up being time consuming.
The energy sources they are able to afford e.g. use of kerosene or diesel in small amounts ends up
being expensive in the end- the cumulative amount of money spent. No meaningful development
can take place without access to modern energy services. Likewise without electricity, extending
common democratic norms and values through radio and television will be a very difficult and
unaccomplished task. Hence rural electrification is an indispensable factor for socio-economic
development of the community.

Various benefits accrued from rural electrification are classified into two: quantifiable and non-
quantifiable. The quantifiable benefits among others include its industrial, commercial, domestic
and agricultural applications. Non-quantifiable however is its effects on socio-political and
employment creation for the people including rural populace. The micro hydro power will provide
a reliable, affordable, economically viable, socially acceptable and environmentally sound energy
alternative for their economic activities/ development activities.

F21/1699/2010 3
River Thiba will offer an infinite potential to provide sustainable energy to the community of
Kutus. The free running water and the available head will aid in rural electrification for the locality
of Kutus. Having electricity means the ability to study at night and get an education, set up
businesses/factories. Therefore the lack of it is a setback for their development.

1.2 Site Analysis and Inventory

Location

The location of the site from Google earth image lies on the following coordinates 0° 34’15.03” S
and 37° 19’ 19.85” E.

The micro hydro power generation plant is to be on River Thiba near Kutus Bridge. The site is
next to a waterfall. The bridge is the boundary between The Upper Thiba and The Lower Thiba.
The river has a head of about 4m as obtained from the River profile in Google Earth. The image
is seen below, in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Google Image of the Site

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The head coupled with the river flow, given it is a perennial river and the given rainfall patterns
of the area, would have a substantial power output. The head obtained is the distance between the
Fore-bay and the turbine, as shown in the Figure 2.
Figure 2: Hydropower Head

(Monition, L.N. 1984)

The river is in Kirinyaga County, Kenya.

I used a Digital Elevation Model Data to obtain the catchment area for River Thiba using
BASINS 4.1 software. This is seen Figure 3 and in appendix 2 and 3.

F21/1699/2010 5
Figure 3: Catchment Area

Climate

Description of the Catchment Area

River Thiba is in Central Kenya and it cuts across Kirinyaga County. The map is attached in
appendix 6. The source is Mt. Kenya Forest. The river gauging stations considered were 4DA10
and 4DA11. The annual mean temperature is about 17.7°C for Nyeri Met. Station, and 21.8°C for
Mwea experimental station. These were the nearby stations to the site.

The mean annual and monthly total rainfall for the catchment area was obtained from Kenya
meteorology department. This is seen in appendix 1.

F21/1699/2010 6
1.3 Overall Objective
To design civil components of a micro-hydro power plant as an alternative source of
renewable energy.

1.3.1 Specific Objectives

1. To determine the optimal location for siting the power generating plant
2. To determine flow indices so as to get the flow to be used for the estimation of
power.
3. To estimate the power generation potential on River Thiba
4. To design structural components such as weir, intake canal, settling basin cum fore-
bay and penstock

1.4 Statement of Scope

The Micro hydropower system design will combine different aspects of already existing designs.
These designs will encompass different design parameters of micro hydro power stations in the
World. This project is reliant on a Run of The River Scheme (ROR) and thus will focus on the
available head of the river.

The focus of the study is to focus is in designing technical components of the Micro Hydro Power
System rather than the other factors such as the distribution of electricity and other social, financial
and environmental implication. The focus is to estimate power generation potential of River Thiba,
near Kutus Bridge. The design will use already available hydrological data which will be collected
at the WRMA (Water Resources and Management Authority) offices. This will therefore not
include the physical activities of hydrological data collection such as run-off determination, stream
flow etc. The scope on topographical survey will involve head determination of River Thiba by
using Google Earth.

The project will focus on design of the weir as the intake, Forebay cum settling basin and penstock.

The producing of and conversion of energy in the turbine and generator will not be included in this
project, as the focus is to estimate the power that can be produced. However it will include
selection of the turbine depending on design flow and head of water. The power to be produced is
to not to be fed into the National grid but to be used in an off-grid system for use by the locality.

F21/1699/2010 7
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Hydropower is the most mature and largest source of renewable power. It harnesses the energy
of moving water and converts it into mechanical energy by the use of the turbines and finally
electricity by the use of a generator for human consumption. The energy of the flow is associated
with the gravity energy through natural or artificially created topographic water falls in rivers or
through hydraulic conveyance systems, composed by pressurized pipes or penstocks or by mixed
hydraulic conveyance system composed of canal and penstocks. Renewable energy refers to
energy sources that are continually replenished by nature; in this case water. Hydropower
electricity is generated using the energy of moving water. It has been exploited for centuries. In
the late 19th Century, hydropower became a source for generating electricity. This project is an
adoption of the already running hydro power projects/stations in the world.

Hydropower production offers great flexibility in size and can be used for large base load power
plants or small, decentralized electricity generation. Micro and small-scale hydropower systems
are the cheapest renewable energy options and can be important reliable components in mini-grid
or off-grid projects for rural electrification.

Currently hydropower is the most successful form of renewable energy. Kenya has an estimated
hydropower potential of about 6000MW. This includes large hydro power stations (capacity of
more than 10MW) and small hydro power stations. Of the large power stations, 807MW has
been exploited and it accounts for about 50% of installed generation capacity as at 2013 while
about 1450MW remains unexploited. There is more than 3000MW small hydro potential, only
about 30MW has been developed. With the introduction of the Feed-in-Tariff (FiT) policy in
2008 small-scale candidate sites are expected to be developed to supply villages, small
businesses or farms, as well as a grid supply. The Ministry of Energy and Petroleum has carried
out feasibility studies for small hydropower stations in tea growing area covering twelve sites
with an estimated combined potential generation capacity of 33MW. Feasibility studies are on-
going at 14 other sites and will be expanded to cover other areas and results used for capital
mobilization for development as stand-alone systems or to feed to the national grid, (The Energy
Bill 2014, Government of Kenya).

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Micro hydro falls under the small hydro plants. There are quite a number of small hydro plants in
the world. These are;

2.1 MICRO HYDROS

Table 1 : List of Micro- Hydro Power Systems in the World

Continent No. of Small Hydro plants. Installed Power (MW)

Africa 165 1048.27

Asia 45720 29877.489

Australia & Oceania 73 157.98

Europe (without Russia and Turkey) 17328 2398.42

North and Central America 615 4113.25

South America 438 1175.19

Total 64339 48770.599

(Janic, 2003)

Investing in micro hydro power projects would go a long way. A micro-hydropower project is an
economic source of energy and can provide power to a number of homes and communities.

Micro hydro power station being a run-of-river (ROR) hydroelectricity generation is different in
design and appearance from conventional hydroelectric stations. The conventional hydro power
stations rely on dammed water/reservoir to drive the water turbines. The power extracted
depends on the volume of water behind the dam and the available head of water.

This project doesn’t require a reservoir; it however requires an intake which will include a weir
and a canal to direct the water to the settling basin/fore-bay and then to the penstock. It relies on
a minimal flow of water to be available all year round.

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Hydro power is normally termed a renewable energy source due to:

 Low polluted energy with small environmental impacts.

 Relevant components of a sustainable development.
 Inexhaustible energetic sources, in spite of being limited or continued.

A suitable location with adequate head needs to be selected for the micro hydro power station.
The project’s site is in Kirinyaga County, Kutus on River Thiba.

The amount of head available and the flow of water is in direct proportionality to the amount of
power which can be produced.

There are different types of schemes for small hydro power projects. These are:

 Run-of-river
 Canal falls
 Toe of dam
 Renovation of existing plants

The main advantages of developing small hydro compared to other electricity sources are;

 It saves consumption of fossil, fuel, and firewood.

 It is self-sufficient without the need of fuel importation.
 It does not contribute to environment damages by resettlement, as it occurs with large
dams and reservoirs.
 It can be a good private capital investment in developing or developed countries.
 Reliable and historically proven technology.
 Water is free and completely renewable through continued rainfall.

F21/1699/2010 10
The system components of a typical run-of-river project comprises of;

i. Weir
ii. Settling basin
iii. Headrace
iv. Forebay
v. Penstock
vi. Power house and Tailrace
vii. Turbine
i. Weir
An artificial obstruction in any watercourse that results in increased water surface level
upstream for some, if not all flow conditions. A structure in a river, stream, canal or drain
over which free-surface flow occurs. It may also be used variously for control of
upstream water levels, diversion of flow and/or measurement of discharge.

Figure 4: Broad crested weir

(Charles Rickard, R &D Publication WSB-023/HPP)

ii. Settling Basin

The settling basin is designed to settle suspended silt. The river may carry small particles
of sediment which can cause the turbine wear if they are not removed before the water
enters the penstock. Sediment may also block the intake or cause the channel to clog up.
This is normally done by reducing the speed of the water to let the sediments settle and
removing them before they enter the canal.

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 Figure 5: Typical Settling Basin

Typical de-sanding basin (Harvey, Micro Hydro Design Manual, 1983)

iii. Headrace
The headrace canal takes the river flow from the intake to the forebay. Generally, the
canal runs parallel to the river at an ever-increasing difference in elevation, which gives
the hydropower system its head (Khennas et al., 2000). The canal cross section and
alignment should be designed for optimum performance and economy in order to reduce
losses due to leakage. Usually, canals are built from combination of cement and mortar,
only soil, mixture of stone and mud, mixture of stone masonry with cement and other
different types of possible combinations (Pandey V., 2011).
An open channel or pipeline (generally of HDPE-High Density Polyethylene type can be
used to transport the water into the fore-bay.
iv. Forebay

The Forebay tank connects the headrace and the penstock, serving mainly to balance the
water from the headrace. It also allows particles to settle down before the water enters the
penstock. A trash rack is normally installed at the penstock inlet to prevent floating debris
from entering and damaging the turbines.

The water level is also determined at the Forebay as the operational head of the micro
hydro power is determined through this.
F21/1699/2010 12
 v. Penstock
The penstock is the pipe which transports water under pressure from the weir directly to
the turbine. HDPE (High Density Polyethylene), PVC (Poly Vinyl Chloride) and Steel
are usually used as penstock material. These can be installed either above or below the
ground
vi. Power house and Tailrace
The powerhouse is a building that houses the turbine, generator and control units. (Nigel,
1994). The powerhouse is normally a simple structure with a solid foundation.
The tailrace is a channel leading away from the powerhouse and turbine. The water is
discharged into the tailrace after it has been used for power generation. The channel then
leads the discharged water back to rejoin the original river.
vii. Turbine
A turbine converts the energy of falling water into shaft power. There are various types of
turbine which can be categorized in one of several ways. The choice of turbine will
depend mainly on the pressure head available and the design flow for the proposed small
hydropower station.

The maximum output of turbine in watts is calculated using equation below;

𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝝆𝒈𝑯𝑸𝛈 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆

Where;

𝛈 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 , is the maximum turbine efficiency.

The tables below give the variation of turbines with efficiency and classification of
turbine according to head for small hydro power.

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Variation of Turbine Types with Efficiency
Table 2 : Turbine type and their Efficiency

Turbine(Prime mover) Efficiency

Pelton 80-90%

Turgo 80-95%

Cross-flow 65-95%

Propeller 80-95%

Kaplan 80-90%

(Harvey, Micro-hydro Design Manual 1983.)

The table below indicates the different classifications according to available head for
small hydro power. (Harvey, Micro-hydro Design Manual 1983.)

Different Classification of Turbine According to Head for small hydropower

Table 3 : Classification of Turbine

Head Type of Turbine

Classification
Impulse Reaction
High (>50m) Pelton, Turgo
Medium (10-50m) Cross flow, Turgo, Multi-jet Francis (spiral case)
Pelton

Low (<10m) Cross flow Propeller, Kaplan, Francis (Open

Flume

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 Below is an image of a typical Micro-hydropower system.

Figure 6: Typical Micro Hydropower system

(Pandey B., 2006)

2.2 Types of Renewable Energy

2.2.1 Wind Energy
Wind is air in motion. It is caused by the uneven heating of the earth’s surface by the sun.
The earth’s surface is made up of different types of land and water and thus it absorbs the
sun’s heat at different rates.

During the day, the air above the land heats up quickly than the air over water. The warm
air over the land expands and rises, and the heavier, cooler air rushes in to take its place,
creating winds. At night the winds are reversed because the air cools more rapidly over
land than over water. Wind is used to produce energy by use of wind turbines. The wind
turbine collects the kinetic energy of the wind by turning (thus-mechanical energy). A
generator is normally connected to the turbines which converts the mechanical energy to
electrical energy. Wind energy is termed as renewable as it does not run out. It is
continuously replenished by nature.
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2.2.2 Geothermal Energy
The word geothermal comes from the Greek words geo earth) and therme (heat).Thus
geothermal energy is heat from within the earth. Geothermal energy is termed as
renewable energy because the water is replenished by rainfall and the heat is
continuously produced within the earth. Geothermal energy is generated in the earth’s
core, about 4000 miles below the earth’s surface. Very high temperatures are produced
by the slow decay of radioactive particles; a process that occurs in all rocks.

Geothermal energy can sometimes find its way to the earth’s surface in the form of;
 Volcanoes and fumaroles
 Hot springs
 Geysers
When magma comes close to the surface it heats groundwater found trapped in porous
rock or water running along fractured rock surfaces and faults. This is then released to the
surface as high-pressured steam.
The most active geothermal resources are usually found along major plate boundaries
where earthquakes and volcanoes are concentrated. Most of the geothermal activity in the
world occurs in an area called “The Ring of Fire”. This are borders the Pacific Ocean.
Naturally occurring large areas of hydrothermal resources are called geothermal
reservoirs; as in the case in Olkaria. Geologists use various methods to look for
geothermal reservoirs. Drilling a well and testing the temperature underground is the only
way to be sure a geothermal reservoir exists.
There are three basic types of geothermal power plants;
 Flash Steam Plants: These plants take high hot water pressure from deep
inside the earth and convert it to steam to drive the generator turbines. When
the steam cools, it condenses to water and is injected back to the ground and is
used over and over again.

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  Dry Steam Plants: Dry steam plants use steam piped directly from a
geothermal reservoir to turn the generator drives. The first geothermal power
plant was built in 1904 in Tuscany, Italy. It was a place where natural steam
was erupting from the earth.
 Binary Power Plants: In Binary power plants, heat is transferred from
geothermal hot water to another liquid. The heat causes the second liquid to
turn to steam which is used to drive a generator turbine. It then condenses
back to its liquid state and is used again.

2.2.3 Tidal Energy

Tidal energy is a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into electricity or
other useful forms of power. Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for
future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar
power.
Tidal power is the only form of energy which derives directly from the relative motions
of the Earth-Moon system, and to a lesser extent from the Earth-Sun system (Pamedo,
1978).
The tidal forces produced by the Moon and Sun, in combination with the earth’s rotation,
are responsible for the generation of tides.
Because the earth’s tides are caused by tidal forces due to gravitational interaction with
the moon and the sun, and the earth’s rotation, tidal power is practically inexhaustible and
classified as a renewable energy source.
A tidal energy generator uses this phenomenon to generate energy. The stronger the tide,
either in water level height or tidal current velocities, the greater the potential for tidal
energy generation.
Tidal movement causes a continual loss of mechanical energy in the Earth-Moon system
due to pumping of water through the natural restrictions around coastlines, and due to
viscous dissipation at the sea bed and in turbulence (Pamedo, 1978).
This loss of energy has caused the rotation of the earth to slow in the 4.5 billion years
since formation. During the last 620 million years the period of rotation has increased

F21/1699/2010 17
 from 21.9 hours to the 24 hours we see now; in this period the earth has lost 17% of its
rotational energy. While tidal power may take additional energy from the system,
increasing the rate of slow down, the effect would be noticeable over millions of years
only, thus being negligible.

2.2.4 Solar Energy

Solar energy is the conversion of sunlight energy into electricity. To do this, a photo-
voltaic cell is needed to convert solar energy directly into electrical power. It is also
known as a PV or a solar cell. Sunlight is composed of photons. These photons contain
various amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar
spectrum.
When photons strike a photo-voltaic cell, they may be reflected, pass right through, or be
absorbed. Only the absorbed photons provide energy to generate electricity. When
enough sunlight energy is absorbed by the material (normally a semi-conductor),
electrons are dislodged from the material’s atoms. Special treatment of the material
surface during manufacturing makes the front surface of the cell more receptive to free
electrons, so the electrons naturally migrate to the surface.
When the electrons leave their position, holes are formed. When many electrons, each
carrying a negative charge, travel toward the front surface of the cell, the resulting
imbalance of charge between the cell’s front and back surfaces creates a voltage potential
like the negative and positive terminals of a battery. When the two surfaces are connected
through an external load, electricity flows.
The photovoltaic cell is the building block of a solar energy/photovoltaic system. One
cell normally produces 1 or 2 watts, which isn’t enough power for most applications. To
increase power output, cells are electrically connected into a packaged weather – tight
module which can be further connected to for an array. Array refers to the entire
generating plant, whether it is made up of one or several thousand modules. The number
of modules connected together in an array depends on the amount of power output
needed (Kadete et al., 1978)
The performance of a photovoltaic array is dependent upon the sunlight. Climate
conditions (e.g., clouds, fog) have a significant effect on the amount of solar energy

F21/1699/2010 18
received by a photovoltaic array and, in turn, its performance. Most current technology
photovoltaic modules are about 10% efficient in converting sunlight.
The simplest photovoltaic systems power many of the small calculators as well as wrist
watches. More complicated systems provide electricity to pump water, power
communications equipment and even provide electricity to our homes.
Some advantages of photovoltaic systems are;
 Conversion from sunlight to electricity is direct, so that bulky mechanical
generator systems are unnecessary.
 PV arrays can be installed quickly and in any size required or allowed.
 Low running costs.
 Infinite energy resource.
 The environmental impact is minimal, requiring no water for system cooling and
generating no by-products.
Photovoltaic cells, like batteries, generate direct current (DC) which is generally used for
small loads (electric equipment). When DC from photovoltaic cells is used for
commercial applications or sold to electric utilities using the electric grid, it must be
converted to alternating current (AC) using inverters, solid state devices that convert DC
power to AC.

F21/1699/2010 19
3.0 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

1. Determining the flow duration curve.

This included use of hydrological data of River Thiba.
𝒎
Weibull formula was preferred compared to Californian method which is; 𝑷 = 𝑵 .

This formula is not preferred as it shows a 100% probability of a flow being equaled
or exceeded which is not feasible or guaranteed.
The Weibull formula shown below eliminates the error experienced in Californian
method.

𝒎
𝑷𝒎 = (1)
𝑵+𝟏

Where
 Pm is the probability that the position with rank m is equaled or exceeded
 N is the number of observations
 m is the number of times a certain value has been equaled or exceeded.

Plant flow capacity should be developed with reference to the flow duration curve (FDC)
of the river.
The following preliminary criteria are suggested;
For isolated plants: QP = Q90%
For grid connected plants: QP = Q35%
Where:
QP = plant flow capacity (m3/s).
QT% = flow equaled or exceeded T% of time (the Gaia foundation, 2013)

F21/1699/2010 20
2. Designing the system components;
i. Weir
Weirs are overflow structures built across open channels to measure volumetric
flow of water or to be used as an intake. In the design of the weir the following
will be considered:
This will include determining the height and width of weir.

The height and width of the weir will be dependent on the volume of the pool of
water you need behind the weir to submerge the intake-in my case, a canal which
serves as an intake to the settling basin cum Forebay.

ii. Intake Canal

A concrete canal will be constructed at the side of the weir and it will be
used as a side intake. It is to be submerged by the pool of water behind the
weir so as to avoid air pockets.
The type of canal that will be used will be a rectangular channel.
The first thing needed is to determine;
 The cross-sectional flow area of the canal.
This is given by;
Q=A*V (1)
Where;
Q = Design flow in (𝑚3/s)
A = cross-sectional flow area of the canal in(𝑚2)
V = Channel velocity in (𝑚 /s)
 Optimum height of canal (H)
𝑨
H = √( 𝑿+𝑵) (2)

Where;
A = cross-sectional flow area of the canal
X= 2 √(1 + 𝑁 2 ) − 2 ∗ 𝑁 ; factor used to optimize the shape of the canal.

F21/1699/2010 21
 N = the side slope of the canal
 Optimum width of canal bed ( B )
B=X*H (3)

 Optimum width of the top of the canal (T)

T = B + (2 * H * N) (4)
 Critical Velocity
To ensure that the water flows in a stable and uniform flow in the canal,
the velocity of water must be 80% less than the critical velocity where
critical velocity (𝑉𝑐 ) is;
𝑨∗𝒈
𝑽𝒄 =( ) (5)
𝑻

A = cross-sectional area of canal

g=gravity
T = Width of canal top

 Wetted perimeter(P)
P = B + (2*H) (6)
 Hydraulic radius (R)
R = A/P (7)
 Slope of the canal (S)
The slope of the canal is determined by using manning’s equation which is
sated below;
𝟐
𝟏
Q = V * A = (𝒏 )* A * R 𝟑 * √𝑺 (8)

Q = design flow (𝑚3/s)

V = channel velocity
A = cross –sectional flow area
𝑛 = Manning’s roughness co-efficient for the channel
R = hydraulic radius
S = channel slope

F21/1699/2010 22
  Head loss
This is determined by;
Head loss = L * S (9)
Where;
L = Length of the canal section
S = slope of the canal
 To allow for uncertainties in the canal:
a) Free board of 300mm if design flow is less than 0.5 𝑚3 /s
b) Free board of 400mm if design flow is in between 0.5𝑚3 /s and
1𝑚3 /s
iii. Settling basin/Forebay
 Width of settling basin
Rule of thumb dictates the width of the settling basin should be 2 to 5 times
larger than that of the canal taking water to it. It can be made as wide as possible
depending upon the available width of Micro Hydro Project Site. Pandey B.,
2006).
 Length of the settling basin
Length of the settling basin is given by the equation below;
L 𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 = (2 * Q) / (W * V 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 ) (10)
Where;
Q = design flow (𝑚3 /𝑠)
V 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = fall velocity
W = width of settling basin
 Silt load
𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 = Q * T * C (11)
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒;
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = Silt load (kg)
Q = discharge for the flushing canal.
T = silt emptying frequency in seconds.12hours * 3600. (Pandey B., 2006).
C = silt concentration of incoming flow ( 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
Thus, Volume of the silt load is;

F21/1699/2010 23
 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑡 =
𝑆𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑃𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

Where;
𝑆𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦= Density of silt (2600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 is generally used)

Pfactor = packing factor of sediments submerged in water-0.5 is generally

used.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑡
𝐷𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
L 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∗ 𝑊

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒;
𝐷𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = Average depth required for sediment storage
N/B: Design of the settling basin is similar to that of the fore-bay tank.
The only contrary is that the fore-bay is connected to the penstock.
Generating electricity using micro hydropower system doesn’t require as
much components, thus the settling basin is combined with the fore-bay so
as to have one structure. Thus the name settling basin cum fore-bay.
 Submergence head
This is the depth of water above the penstock pipe. This is important as it
prevents pockets of air in the pipe/ air from entering the pipe which often
leads to explosion of penstock pipes. The submergence head should be big
enough to avoid entry of unwanted air in the pipes.
The equation below is normally used to calculate the submergence head.
Hs ≥1.5 V 𝟐 /2g (12)
Where;
V= flow velocity in the penstock

Hs = submergence head

 Flushing Canal
The flushing canal is used to flush out the sediment stored in the settling
basin from time to time. The formula below is used to determine the
diameter of the canal that will be used for that.

F21/1699/2010 24
 Q 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 = C * A * √𝟐 ∗ 𝒈 ∗ 𝑯 (13)

Q 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = Discharge flow for the flushing canal

C = Co-efficient of discharge
A = Area of the orifice
H = height of the orifice
g= gravity

iv. Penstock

Several factors are considered when it comes to selecting the penstock material of
to use. Mild steel and HDPE-High Density Polyethylene are normally used in
Micro Hydro Power Projects. There are several factors to be considered when it
comes to selecting the material to be used. The table below illustrates shows
different kinds of materials to use based on various factors.

Figure 7 : Types of Penstock Material

Cost will determine the material of the penstock to use.

Determining the penstock diameter is also essential. The penstock diameter, d, in

metres can be computed as shown below
Q=V×A
𝑉𝜋𝐷
Where; Q =
4

F21/1699/2010 25
Therefore; the diameter D is;

𝟒𝑸
D=√ (14)
𝝅𝑽

Where Q = the discharge rate of flow (𝑚3 /𝑠)

V = the velocity of flowing water (𝑚/𝑠)
D = inside diameter of the pipe
A = cross-sectional area
 Head loss
It is also important to calculate the head loss in the penstock. This is given by;
𝒇∗𝑳∗𝐕 𝟐
𝐡𝒇 = (15)
𝟐∗𝒈∗𝑫

Where;
h𝑓 = Major head loss
f= friction factor for pipe material
L = length of pipe in metres
V = average velocity inside pipe
D = inside diameter of the pipe
 Determine friction factor
𝟏.𝟑𝟐𝟓
f = (𝒍𝒐𝒈 (16)
𝒌 𝟓.𝟕𝟒 )𝟐
𝒆( + )
𝟑.𝟕𝑫 𝑹𝒆 𝟎.𝟗

f = friction factor
k = roughness height
D = inside diameter of the pipe
Re = Reynolds number
𝟒∗𝑽∗𝑹
Re = (17)
𝝂
𝑉 = average velocity
𝑅 = hydraulic radius
ν = kinematic viscosity
v. Turbine

F21/1699/2010 26
 Although this study is not concerned with the functioning parameters of
the turbines, it is relevant to select one for the project depending on the
parameters involved such as design head and discharge. Crossflow
turbines are normally used for low to medium flows, about 0.1 – 5𝑚3 /𝑠 .
Kaplan turbines are normally used for flows of about 3 – 30𝑚3 /𝑠 . This is
seen in Figure 9 below.

Figure 8: Turbine type and Typical Site characteristics

F21/1699/2010 27
 vi. Power Estimation
The formula to be used in determining the power potential is;
The power equation applied to a conventional hydro-power plant is also applied to SHP.
The power available at the generator output 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 watts is given by equation below;

𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝑷𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 × 𝛈 (20)

Where 𝑷𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 is the gross power in watts

η is the overall efficiency of the hydropower scheme.
The gross power is the product of the gross head (H) in metres, the design flow Q in m3/s
and a coefficient factor that is the acceleration of free fall g in m/𝑠 2 . Hence, we have:

𝑷𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝝆𝒈𝑯𝑸

Where is 𝒈 assumed 9.81m/s2

The use of equation (2) in equation (1) yields:

𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝝆𝒈𝑯𝑸𝛈

Where η = η 𝒄𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒍 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 η 𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒄𝒌 η 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 η 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 η 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 η 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆

η 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒓

However given the efficiencies of turbine and generator preference over others as the major
determinants of the available power from small hydropower scheme, equation 3 can be modified
as;

𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝝆𝒈𝑯𝑸𝛈 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆

Turbine efficiency is read from Table 2 above.

F21/1699/2010 28
4.0 METHODOLOGY
4.1Generation of Design
Preliminary review of the site was carried out to determine the feasibility of the project. First
hand data was collected to determine the feasibility of the project. This include determining the
topographical nature of the area using google earth.

Data from selected literature pertaining to this project was required so as to be able to come up
with the most appropriate design for the project. This also included technical parameters of the
project to be considered. The literature was available online from research papers and e-books;
this created a perspective of how micro-hydro projects are or should be.

4.2 Design Selection

This was determined from the data collected as well as the literature review.
There are various designs of micro-hydro projects, the conventional one includes;
 Weir intake
 Forebay
 Headrace
 Settling Basin
 Penstock
 Powerhouse and its components.

The design of this project was however manipulated and its components include;
 Weir
 A side intake, a rectangular channel
 Forebay cum settling basin
 Penstock

This was done so as to maintain the head of water available. If the conventional method was used,
a head of 2m would have been lost, and this would reduce the power that could be produced.

An AutoCAD design of the fore-bay cum settling basin and rectangular channel is attached in
appendix 7

F21/1699/2010 29
4.3 Data Collection
This involved collecting hydrological data from Water Resources and Management Authority
(WRMA). The relevant River Gauging Stations (RGS) for the particular site was obtained from
the map below.

Figure 9 : WHO MAPS; Low flow Discharge

The river flow daily data of the relevant RGS stations, i.e. 4DA10 and 4DA11 was obtained from
WRMA offices. 4DA10 daily discharge was ranging from 1967 – 2005, while 4DA11 discharge
data was ranging from 1978 – 2003. The rainfall data of the area was collected from
Meteorology Department.

The hydrological data of the average river flows is attached in the appendix 4 and appendix 5.

F21/1699/2010 30
4.4 Data analysis and Presentation
4.4.1 Determining the head of the river
The head of the river from the Micro Hydro literature is the distance between the Forebay
and the powerhouse. This profile is obtained from google earth and this is shown in the
image below.

Figure 10 : Topographical Profile of the site.

The Forebay is to be situated at 1273m and the powerhouse at 1269m. Thus the head obtained is
4m

4.4.2 Determining design flow

1. A flow duration curve was developed to get the whole scope of the power potential. It
shows how flow varies throughout the year and how many months in a year that a
certain flow is exceeded or equaled.

The curve was obtained by;

a) Arranging the flow values (daily discharge values) in the available period of
record i.e. 38years for 4DA10 and 25 years for 4DA11 in the ascending order
F21/1699/2010 31
 of magnitude and the number of occurrences of each flow value or range of
flow values.
b) From this the number of times and the percent of time each flow value or
range of flow values had been equaled or exceeded in the period of record was
obtained.
c) The duration curve is constructed by plotting each flow value against the
percent of time it had been equaled or exceeded.

The flow duration curve is the basis of the project as it is useful in that the power that can
be generated can be superimposed onto it so that it is possible to calculate the time in a
year that certain power levels can be obtained.

The flow indices to be used for the power generation will be determined from the flow
duration curve.

The equations to be used to obtain the flow duration curve are in equation 1, in the
theoretical framework.

For power production, flow index Q90 was considered. Q90 means that a certain flow
value in the river will be equaled or exceeded 90% of the time in a particular year and can
thus be used for power production. It has a 10% probability of failure in a particular year.

The FDC curve for the micro hydropower site, was found by interpolating between the
two sets of data, i.e. data for RGS 4DA10 and 4DA11. The site is near a waterfall

The table below shows the analyzed data used to determine the flow duration curve.

F21/1699/2010 32
Table 4: Analyzed Discharge flows for Kutus Waterfall

Probability of exceedance Q, flow discharge in 𝑚3 /𝑠

0 140.247
5 27.235
10 19.699
15 15.726
20 13.396
25 11.874
30 10.779
35 9.825
40 8.984
45 8.317
50 7.663
55 7.107
60 6.484
65 5.946
70 5.353
75 4.737
80 4.063
85 3.419
90 2.644
95 1.768
100 0

F21/1699/2010 33
 Figure 11: Flow Duration Curve

FDC for Kutus Waterfall

160

140

120

100

80
Q

60

40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

-20
% probability of exceedance

To get the design flow, Q90 is read from the graph.

From the graph;

Q90 = 2.5567 𝑚3 /s

F21/1699/2010 34
5.0 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
The following procedures will be followed so as to achieve the set objectives for this project.

5.1 Siting the power generating plant

The site was selected using google earth. Google earth was used to determine an optimal site by
looking at differential heads at different points on the river.

The optimal head available at the area of study was selected as the optimal site. The site is near
Kutus town, i.e. River Thiba; and it is restricted to the river bed which covers a distance of
approximately 78.1m. The site is next to the waterfall on the river

The image below shows the site and the river profile of River Thiba which is obtained from
Google Earth as well. This is seen in figure 1 above.

5.2 Estimating the power generation potential.

The formulas below will be used

𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝑷𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 × 𝛈

Where; 𝑷𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝝆𝒈𝑯𝑸

𝒈 = gravitational force

ρ = density of water

𝑯 = head of river

𝑸 = Flow of the river (𝑚3 /𝑠)

Data required for this project include;

a) River flow
b) River profile.

F21/1699/2010 35
The flow of the river Q was be obtained from the flow duration curve obtained above and it is
found to be 2.5567𝑚3 /𝑠.

The river profile was obtained from Google earth, as stated above. This was be used to obtain the
required head; H, to be used for power production. The head obtained was 4m

Thus; 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 ∗ 𝟒 ∗ 𝟐. 𝟓𝟓𝟔𝟕 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓 = 85276.1718watts

Gross Power = 85.276kW

5.3 Design of the Structural Components.

5.3.1 Weir
The weir used in this micro hydro is a broad crested weir which is basically a wall across the
river. The weir in this case is used primarily to create a pool of water behind the weir. The pool
of water is needed so as to submerge the intake canal so as to avoid entry of air.

The weir length was determined by measuring the width across the river’s site on google earth.

Length = 16.6m + 1m = 17.6m

The 1m accounts for additional 0.5m on both sides of the bank of the river.

Height of the weir was chosen arbitrarily as 0.6m, it is the standard height required to create a
pool of water needed behind the weir.

Area behind the weir (where the pool of water is needed) was determined from google earth and
it was determined to be = 127 𝑚2

The volume of the pool of water behind the weir was thus determined as;

= 127 * 0.65

= 82.55 𝑚3 /𝑠

F21/1699/2010 36
5.3.2 Intake Canal
The intake canal/channel is chosen to be a rectangular channel. It is to be made of mass concrete.
The velocity is thus taken as 2m/s

 The cross-sectional flow area of the canal.

This is given by;
Q=A*V
Where;
Q = Design flow = 2.5567 (𝑚3/s)
A = cross-sectional flow area of the canal in(𝑚2)
V = Channel velocity in (𝑚 /s), which is taken as 2. 95𝑚 /s
2.5567
A= = 0.8667 𝑚2
2.95

 Optimum height of canal (H)

𝐴
H = √( 𝑋+𝑁)

Where;
A = cross-sectional flow area of the canal = 0.8667
N = the side slope of the canal = 0; as the canal is a rectangular channel

X= 2√(1 + 𝑁 2 ) − 2 ∗ 𝑁 ; factor used to optimize the shape of the canal.

X= 2√(1 + 02 ) − 2 ∗ 0 = 2
Thus,
0.8667
H = √ ( 2+0) = 0.6583m

 Optimum width of canal bed ( B )

B=X*H
B = 2* 0.6583
B = 1.3166m

F21/1699/2010 37
 Optimum width of the top of the canal (T)
T = B + (2 * H * N)
T = 1.3166 + (2 * 0.6583 * 0)
T = 1.3166m

 Critical Velocity
To ensure that the water flows in a stable and uniform flow in the canal,
the velocity of water must be 80% less than the critical velocity where
critical velocity (𝑉𝑐 ) is;
𝐴∗𝑔
𝑉𝑐 = ( )
𝑇
A = cross-sectional area of canal
g=gravity
T = Width of canal top
0.8667∗9.81
𝑉𝑐 = ( )
1.3166

𝑉𝑐 = 6.458m/s
0.8𝑉𝑐 = 5.166m/s
2.95 m/s velocity of water in the intake canal is less than 0.8𝑉𝑐 ; thus the
2.95 m/s is acceptable for the design of the canal.

 Wetted perimeter(P)
P = B + (2*H)
P = 1.3166 + (2*0.6583)
P = 2.6331m
 Hydraulic radius (R)
R = A/P
R = 0.8667/2.6331
R = 0.3291

F21/1699/2010 38
 Slope of the canal (S)
The slope of the canal is determined by using manning’s equation which is
sated below;
2
1
Q = V * A = (𝑛 )* A * R 3 * √𝑆

Q = design flow = 2.5567𝑚3 /s

V = channel velocity
A = cross –sectional flow area = 0.8667𝑚2
𝑛 = Manning’s roughness co-efficient for the channel=0.013
R = hydraulic radius=0.3291
S = channel slope
2
1
2.5567= (0.013 )* 0.8667 * 0.3291 3 * √𝑆

S = 0.006472

 Head loss
This is determined by;
Head loss = L * S
Where;
L = Length of the canal section = 5.02m
S = slope of the canal = 0.006472
Head loss = 5.02 * 0.006472
Head loss = 0.0325m

 To allow for uncertainties in the canal:

Free board of 500mm if design flow is more than 1 𝑚3 /s

F21/1699/2010 39
5.3.3 Settling basin/Fore-bay

 Width of settling basin

Rule of thumb dictates the width of the settling basin should be 2 to 5 times
larger than that of the canal taking water to it.
W = 1.3166 * 4.5
W = 5.9246m
 Length of the settling basin
Length of the settling basin is given by the equation below;
L 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = (2 * Q) / (W * V 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 )
Where;
Q = design flow (𝑚3 /𝑠)
V 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = fall velocity
W = width of settling basin
For a particle size of 0.3mm, the fall velocity is taken as 0.03m/s
L 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = (2 * 2.5567) / (5.9246 * 0.03)
L 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 28.77 m
# An extra 3m for the tapering entrance of the basin to avoid turbulence
Thus the total length would come to 31.77m

 Silt load
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = Q * t * C
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒;
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = Silt load (kg)
Q = design flow
t = silt emptying frequency in seconds.12hours * 3600. (Pandey B..,2006).
C = silt concentration of incoming flow ( 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
In the absence of reliable data, C is taken as 0.5𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 2.5567 * 43200 * 0.5
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 55224.72kg
Thus, Volume of the silt load is;

F21/1699/2010 40
 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑡 =
𝑆𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑃𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

Where;
𝑆𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦= Density of silt (2600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ) is used in the absence of reliable
data.
Pfactor = packing factor of sediments submerged in water-0.5 is generally
used.
55224.72
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑡 =
2600∗0.5
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑡 = 42.48 𝑚3

Depth of collection
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑡
𝐷𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
L 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∗ 𝑊

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒;
𝐷𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = Average depth required for settling of sediments.
42.48
𝐷𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
28.77 ∗ 5.92

𝐷𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.249m

N/B: Design of the settling basin is similar to that of the fore-bay tank.
The only contrary is that the fore-bay is connected to the penstock. In this
project the settling basin is combined with the fore-bay so as to have one
structure. Thus the name settling basin cum fore-bay.

 Submergence head
This is the depth of water above the penstock pipe. This is important as it
prevents pockets of air in the pipe/ air from entering the pipe which often

F21/1699/2010 41
 leads to explosion of penstock pipes. The submergence head should be big
enough to avoid entry of unwanted air in the pipes.
The equation below is normally used to calculate the submergence head.
Hs ≥1.5 V 𝟐 /2g
Where;
V= flow velocity in the penstock, which is taken as 2.95m/s

Hs = submergence head

Hs = 1.5 * 𝟐. 𝟗𝟓 𝟐 /2*9.81

Hs = 0.665m

 Height of settling basin/Forebay

Submergence head + diameter of penstock + height of penstock above slab
0.665 + 1.05 + 0.3 + 0.249 = 2.265m
 Flushing canal
Q = C * A * √2 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 𝐻
The equation can be rewritten as;
𝐻
Q = C * (π *( 2 ) 2 ) * √2 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 𝐻

Q, discharge = 0.04
Coefficient of discharge, C = 0.6
𝐻
0.04 = 0.6 * (π *( 2 ) 2 ) * √2 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 𝐻

H = 0.2
Diameter of canal = 0.2m

F21/1699/2010 42
5.3.4 Penstock
Determining the penstock diameter is also essential. The penstock diameter, d, in metres can be
computed as shown below;

Q=V×A
𝑉𝜋𝐷
Where; Q = 4

Therefore; the diameter D is;

𝟒𝑸
D = √𝝅 𝑽

Where Q = the discharge rate of flow 2.5567𝑚3 /𝑠

V = the velocity of flowing water 2.95𝑚/𝑠
D = inside diameter of the pipe
A = cross-sectional area

𝟒 ∗𝟐.𝟓𝟓𝟔𝟕
D=√ = 1.05 m
𝝅 ∗𝟐.𝟗𝟓

 Head loss
It is also important to calculate the head loss in the penstock. This is given by;
𝑓∗𝐿∗V2
h𝑓 = 2∗𝑔∗𝐷

Where;
h𝑓 = Major Head loss
f= friction factor for pipe material
L = length of pipe in metres = 38.31m
V = average velocity inside pipe = 2.95m/s
D = inside diameter of the pipe = 1.05

F21/1699/2010 43
Determine friction factor
1.325
f=
(𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑘 5.74 )2
𝑒( + )
3.7𝐷 𝑅𝑒 0.9

f = friction factor
k = roughness height
D = inside diameter of the pipe
Re = Reynolds number
4∗𝑉∗𝑅
Re = 𝜈

𝑉 = average velocity
𝑅 = Hydraulic radius
ν = kinematic viscosity
Average velocity = 2.95m/s
Hydraulic radius, R = Area/ Wetted Perimeter
Area of the pipe = π * (0.5252 2 ) =0.8666 𝑚2
Wetted perimeter = π * 1.05 = 3.2987m
Hydraulic radius (R) = (0.8666/3.2987) = 0.2627
ν = kinematic viscosity of water at 20℃ is 1× 10 −6 𝑚2 /𝑠
Therefore;
4∗2.95∗0.2627
Re = = 3099860
1∗10 −6

Re = 3099860 (unit less)

D = 1.05m
𝑘 = roughness height for plastic is 3.6 × 10 −4 m
1.325
f=
(𝑙𝑜𝑔 3.6∗10 −4 5.74
)2
𝑒( +
3.7∗1.05 3099860 0.9 )

f = 0.01565
Thus,
Head loss,
0.01565∗38.31∗2.952
h𝑓 =
2∗9.81∗1.05

F21/1699/2010 44
 h𝑓 = 0.253m

The generated power after accounting for head loss is;

Head = 4 – 0.253 = 3.747
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 ∗ 𝟑. 𝟕𝟒𝟕 ∗ 𝟐. 𝟓𝟓𝟔𝟕 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝟕𝟗𝟖𝟖𝟐. 𝟒𝟓𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝟕𝟗. 𝟖𝟖𝟐𝒌𝑾

5.3.5 Forces acting on the weir

Water depth
Crest width
above weir

H4
H1
V2
V3
Weir height

H3

H2
V1 Base height

Base width U1
U2

F21/1699/2010 45
HORIZONTAL FORCES

Force of Water upstream

Horizontal pressure at the bottom = (Weir height + water level above weir crest)*weight of water

Weight of water = 10.00KN/m3

P1= (0.6 +0.2)*10

= 8 KN/m2

Force over the height = (Horizontal pressure*(weir height + water level above weir crest)

H1 = (8 / 2)*(0.6 + 0.2)

= 3.2 KN/m

Distance to the toe = (weir height + water level above weir crest) / 3

(0.6 + 0.2) / 3

= 0.27 m

Moment about the toe of the weir

Force over the height * Distance to the toe

3.2 * 0.27 = 0.864 KN/m

F21/1699/2010 46
Forces of sediment upstream

Horizontal pressure at the bottom = weir height *neutral soil pressure co-efficient * (Weight of
saturated soil - weight of water)

P2 = 0.6 * 0.5 * (20 - 10)

P2 = 3 KN/m2

H2= (average of minimum and maximum pressure) * weir height

(3 + 0/2) * 0.6

H2 = 0.9 KN/m2

The distance to the toe = (weir height) / 3

0.6 / 3

Distance to toe = 0.2m

Moment about the toe of the weir

Force over the height *Distance to toe

0.9 * 0.2= 0.18 KN/m

Total of horizontal moments = 0.864 + 0.18 = 1.044KN/m

VERTICAL FORCES

V1

Bottom width * base height *mass concrete unit weight

1 *0.2*24

V1 = 4.8 KN/m

F21/1699/2010 47
Distance to the toe = (bottom width) / 2 = 1/2 = 0.5 m

Moment about the toe of the weir

Vertical force * distance to the toe

4.8 * 0.5 = 2.4 KN/m

V2

Crest width *(weir height - base height) *mass concrete unit weight

V2= 0.5 * (0.6 - 0.2) * 24 = 4.8 KN/m

Distance to the toe = (bottom width - crest width) + (crest width /2)

(1- 0.5) + (0.5 / 2) = 0.75 m

Moment about the toe of the weir

Vertical force * distance to the toe

4.8 * 0.75 = 3.6 KN/m

V3

(Bottom width - crest width) /2)* ( weir height - base height) *mass concrete unit weight

= ((1 - 0.50) /2) * (0.6 - 0.2) *24

V3 = 2.4 KN/m

Distance to the toe = (bottom width - crest width) * 2/3

(1- 0.50) *2/3 = 0.3333m

Moment about the toe of the weir

Vertical force * distance to the toe

2.4 * 0.3333 = 0.8 KN/m

F21/1699/2010 48
UPLIFT UPSTREAM

Uplift pressure = - (weir height + water level above weir crest) * weight of water

P3 = - (0.6 + 0.5) * 10 = - 11 KN/m

The average force = ((uplift pressure upstream + uplift pressure downstream) /2) * bottom width

= (-11+ 0 /2) * 1 = -5.5 KN/m

Distance to the toe = 1 * 2/3

0.6667 m

Moment about the toe of the weir

Force * distance to the toe

-5.5 * 0.6667 = -3.6667 KN/m

Total of vertical moments = 2.4 + 3.6 + 0.8 + (-3.6667) = 3.133KN/m

OVERTURNING

Overturning will be looked at around the downstream the toe of the weir.

a) Ratio of vertical moments to horizontal moments

The ratio should be larger than 1 but for safety reasons taken as 1.5

𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 3.133

= 1.044 = 3
𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

The weir is stable against overturning since the ratio is larger than 1.5.

F21/1699/2010 49
 6.0CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The objectives of the design project were met.

The design project could be adopted by students in the lower classes for learning purposes.

7.0 WORK PROGRAMME

Table 5: Work Programme

ACTIVITY OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY

Concept
note &
Concept
Paper
Developme
nt
Proposal
Developme
nt

Data
Collection
Data Entry
& Analysis

AutoCAD
Design
Report
Writing&
Project

F21/1699/2010 50
8.0 REFERENCES
Chanson, H. (2004). "The Hydraulics of Open Channel Flow : An Introduction."
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK, 2nd edition.

Charles Rickard; R&D Publication WSB-023/HPP

Gonzalez, C.A., and Chanson, H. (2007). Experimental Measurements of Velocity and

Pressure Distribution on a Large Broad-Crested Weir, Flow Measurement and
Instrumentation.

Grumman, H., (1978). “Mean velocity of flow water in open channels”, St. Lous.

Harvey A. & Brown A. (1992). “Micro-hydro Design Manual”, ITDG Publishing.

Harvey, Micro hydro Design Manual, (1983)

Henderson, F.M. (1966). "Open Channel Flow." MacMillan Company, New York, USA.

Kadete, H. & Reichel, R., (1978). “Experiences with small hydro power stations in
Tanzania”, Dar es salaam.

Khennas, J.K, Smail, A.M and Barnett A. (2000). “Best practices for sustainable
development of micro hydro power in developing countries”, World Bank/ESMAP

Kuntz, H., (1979). “Hydro-electric power: Rural electrification through isolated systems”

Masters, G. M. (2004). Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems. Wiley

Interscience.

Nottingham Trent University (2007). “Pico Hydro for village Power – A Practical Design
and Installation Manual for Schemes up to 5kW in hilly and mountainous areas.

Pamedo, P.F., et al., (1978). “Energy needs uses and Resources in Developing Countries”,
U.S. A.I.D Springfield.

Pandey, B. (2006). Micro Hydro System Design. (www. binodpandey.wordpress. com).

F21/1699/2010 51
Pandey, V. (2011). Research report on feasibility study of micro hyrdopower in Nepal.
Bhaktapur: Nepal Engineering College.

Priyantha, D.C. (2007). “Best Practices for Micro-Hydro Development”

Sturm, T.W. (2001). "Open Channel Hydraulics." McGraw Hill, Boston, USA, Water
Resources and Environmental Engineering Series, 493 pages.

The Energy Bill 2014, Ministry of Energy Kenya

Vogel, RM and Fennessey, NM. 1994. Flow-Duration Curves. I. New Interpretation

Intervals, J. Water Resources Planning and Management.

Wakil M.M.EL (1989). “Power Plant Technology”. McGraw Hill Book co., New York.

Wim Jonker Klunne, (2007). “Small hydropower development in Africa”

World Bank, (1980). “Energy in developing countries”, Washington D.C.

Yüksek, Ö and Kaygusuz, K. 2006. Small hydropower plants as a new and renewable energy
source. Energy Sources.

F21/1699/2010 52
9.0 APPENDICES
9.1 APPENDIX 1

F21/1699/2010 53
9.2 APPENDIX 2

F21/1699/2010 54
9.3 APPENDIX 3

F21/1699/2010 55
9.4 APPENDIX 4
RGS 4DA10 MONTHLY DISCHARGE
Year Column Labels
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Grand Total
1967 3.820 3.796 5.605 16.571 10.709 13.961 12.669 13.817 18.087 19.487 15.832 12.738
1968 8.117 6.582 8.875 16.945 32.533 31.015 17.256 13.005 10.422 10.513 15.476 21.719 16.063
1969 12.563 8.447 7.530 5.342 13.931 9.244 7.042 11.090 10.118 7.999 8.276 6.384 9.010
1970 6.386 5.275 5.971 18.245 36.621 18.830 12.991 10.684 11.227 9.497 8.084 6.182 12.541
1971 4.507 3.122 2.863 5.699 18.202 13.771 10.930 10.151 7.441 6.282 5.420 4.267 7.667
1972 3.658 5.164 3.265 3.483 16.094 16.786 8.259 5.716 6.525 17.684 37.100 18.667 11.859
1973 11.297 6.998 4.622 8.904 19.826 17.959 10.292 9.376 8.089 8.180 10.849 7.749 10.360
1974 4.796 3.484 2.546 7.584 7.161 7.371 21.537 12.982 9.893 7.237 7.002 4.674 8.060
1975 3.243 2.370 2.248 7.553 16.462 12.339 10.059 8.489 6.872 6.424 5.658 4.433 7.209
1976 2.838 2.195 1.523 3.952 9.138 8.744 6.780 4.679 4.282 4.421 5.266 5.640 4.905
1977 5.069 3.183 3.072 9.216 31.391 15.625 9.042 8.290 5.898 6.814 20.732 11.916 10.895
1978 8.001 5.782 6.911 15.660 32.978 10.402 9.851 10.548 7.203 6.837 9.072 9.430 11.105
1979 7.287 9.125 7.686 10.964 36.092 37.343 13.587 9.165 7.000 6.445 8.428 6.517 13.309
1980 4.802 4.153 5.676 5.092 11.671 8.490 6.505 8.026 6.821 5.733 12.452 8.843 7.397
1981 7.254 6.333 7.757 16.813 28.823 18.067 10.083 7.857 7.695 7.958 10.105 7.781 11.399
1982 5.354 3.851 3.569 8.024 40.620 25.552 14.227 11.738 9.305 20.764 20.132 16.475 15.050
1983 8.846 6.636 4.220 9.339 40.762 20.007 14.335 8.128 7.871 7.848 7.772 7.341 12.080
1984 4.587 4.096 2.940 6.058 4.399 3.406 3.136 3.314 3.295 6.629 8.004 9.871 5.008
1985 6.295 4.481 5.078 10.249 32.285 18.859 9.873 8.810 7.605 6.443 8.550 7.920 10.416
1986 4.648 3.666 2.953 11.445 39.320 19.100 10.010 6.467 4.747 4.247 7.655 7.305 10.319
1987 5.448 3.283 2.670 5.540 16.693 15.986 5.340 3.979 3.231 2.727 2.751 2.545 5.844
1988 8.714 13.287 9.639 4.706 12.531 5.774 3.408 2.641 1.911 2.069 6.668 13.726 6.865
1989 8.968 7.724 5.641 6.359 23.053 16.098 10.954 10.756 10.092 11.358 14.606 12.605 11.112
1990 10.834 6.936 7.467 14.607 22.177 16.817 10.615 8.141 6.718 6.736 12.214 9.356 10.975
1991 6.648 4.173 2.915 6.455 58.651 31.226 10.358 10.598 5.753 7.184 10.418 6.678 13.159
1992 4.722 2.521 2.090 16.259 16.953 19.505 13.569 10.075 7.537 6.889 10.438 12.536 9.838
1993 12.390 10.274 5.944 7.714 30.085 18.366 12.954 9.785 5.616 4.852 4.967 8.175 10.922
1994 3.219 1.694 2.523 14.974 61.977 31.272 6.749 13.466 47.955 24.048 20.576
1995 9.549 6.037 5.033 5.932 43.837 21.643 11.482 17.946 12.757 17.935 24.558 14.407 16.674
1997 0.406 0.149 10.724 16.707 6.420 6.999 4.574 1.131 30.401 102.474 14.021
1998 10.894 4.387 7.818
1999 2.111 1.088 1.737 9.679 14.509 11.833 7.811 7.781 6.610 10.241 7.387
2000 4.841 2.499 1.155 1.768 1.310 1.445 1.563 1.084 1.881
2001 5.362 3.327 2.581 4.471 3.742
2002 1.992 0.527 2.293 11.782 32.495 14.819 7.053 5.458 4.143 6.540 27.229 16.310 11.653
2003 8.673 3.232 2.102 11.015 29.431 21.799 9.934 7.211 17.763 14.114 12.044
2004 7.745 3.891 2.456 10.225 14.153 5.752 3.360 1.584 3.045 6.714 22.963 13.315 8.323
2005 4.745 1.920 1.863 4.811 3.594
Grand Total 6.315 4.928 4.281 9.051 25.351 15.948 9.864 8.270 6.998 8.744 14.358 10.187 10.345

F21/1699/2010 56
9.5 APPENDIX 5
Sum of 4DA11-Thiba-Discharge [m3/s] Column Labels
Row Labels Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Grand Total
1978 36.503 143.99 212.137 159.445 552.075
1979 125.603 149.341 136.302 159.848 688.912 421.897 186.559 143.228 105.771 128.34 122.527 89.754 2458.082
1980 62.08 49.546 91.272 172.368 96.273 113.796 123.92 89.085 167.086 191.483 117.44 82.178 1356.527
1981 90.078 264.857 686.625 377.235 167.693 168.459 195.094 176.141 141.028 131.137 91.709 74.25 2564.306
1982 62.813 76.352 885.951 697.183 226.773 190.607 159.616 595.519 443.792 261.793 122.63 81.319 3804.348
1983 97.939 104.297 1265.4 474.832 321.19 139.05 92.635 125.582 128.152 134.689 89.133 56.403 3029.302
1984 47.269 59.981 61.407 49.493 62.85 59.213 92.226 164.682 186.836 101.426 151.633 66.305 1103.321
1985 106.532 502.807 361.584 212.187 116.14 251.246 254.255 177.051 175.86 85.852 73.201 64.291 2381.006
1986 282.009 1098.997 825.451 143.579 96.919 100.55 75.549 130.291 116.207 73.163 50.684 99.984 3093.383
1987 290.223 419.752 159.142 140.621 116.655 62.054 153.933 77.341 41.893 41.792 884.374 794.402 3182.182
1988 387.065 111.571 141.54 282.781 199.826 311.284 124.843 78.656 132.831 511.471 214.868 199.308 2696.044
1989 191.472 165.878 258.48 219.676 198.226 107.93 113.995 257.265 564.184 366.512 159.844 132.706 2736.168
1990 122.158 121.287 220.955 175.764 114.951 72.324 68.06 188.819 1259.032 259.431 201.148 160.989 2964.918
1991 119.207 102.776 104.545 58.448 30.506 19.066 69.928 229.998 162.557 163.93 124.621 92.844 1278.426
1992 111.154 120.24 177.847 160.652 124.728 87.847 474.206 305.185 221.164 171.28 102.064 68.042 2124.409
1993 75.978 76.793 41.135 19.618 54.429 689.783 1310.197 267.682 174.516 101.292 74.349 1067.212 3952.984
1994 536.134 136.375 108.568 88.906 207.338 556.686 200.058 100.858 264.851 151.077 299.709 300.552 2951.112
1995 182.704 94.785 65.962 54.675 759.927 286.08 242.634 572.169 189.012 185.585 662.587 264.977 3561.097
1996 183.011 163.548 177.855 110.119 142.144 81.5 76.849 630.201 415.304 549.166 20.29 2549.987
Grand Total 3073.429 3819.183 5770.021 3597.985 3725.48 3719.372 4014.557 4309.753 4926.579 3753.409 3774.948 3854.961 48339.677

F21/1699/2010 57
9.6 APPENDIX 6

F21/1699/2010 58
9.7 APPENDIX 7

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F21/1699/2010 60
F21/1699/2010 61