Jonathan Fineberg

JONATHAN FINEBERG
University of Illinois
ART SINCE 1940^

o
Prenti<e Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. 07458

1 995 North and South American educational editions
published by Prentice Hall, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
10987654
1995 British edition published by Laurence King Publishing
Copyright >C) 1995 Prentice Hall, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Passages from William S. Burroughs, Naked Lunch (New York, 1959)

are reprinted by permission of Grove/Atlantic, Inc.
The lines from "Cape Hatteras" are reprinted from THE POEMS OF
HART CRANE, edited by Marc Simon, by permission of Liveright
Publishing Corporation. Copyright (C) 1986 by Marc Simon.
Passages from "Dog," in Lawrence Ferlinghetti, A Coney Island of the

Mind. Copyright (& 1958 by Lawrence Ferlinghetti Reprinted by
permission of New Directions Publishing Corp
Excerpt from "Howl" from Collected Poems 194 7-1980. Copyright©

1955 by Allen Ginsberg. Used by permission of Harper Collins
Publishers, Inc.
Passages from Ernest Hemingway, A Farewell to Arms reprinted witfi

permission of Charles Scribner's Sons, on imprint of Mocmillan
Publishing Company, from A FAREWELL TO ARMS by Ernest
Hemingway. Copyright ©
929 by Charles Scribner's Sons. Copyright
1
renewed 1 957 by Ernest Hemingway.
"The Red Wheelbarrow," William Carlos Williams, The Collected

Poems ol William Carlos Williams, 909- 1 939, vol. Copyright 1 938
1 /. ©
by New Directions Publishing Corp. Reprinted by permission of New
Directions Publishing Corp.
Front cover Clockwise from upper left: Elizabeth Murray, 1 991

(©Brigitte Lacombe); Joseph Beuys, 974 1 (ci Estate of Peter Moore);
Jackson Pollock, 950 (© Estate of Hans Nomuth/VAGA, New York,
1
1 994); Ann Hamilton, 1 991 (© D. James Dee, New York, courtesy

Sean Kelly, New York)
Back cover Diagonally from lower left; Alice Aycock, 985 1
(photographer unknown); Robert Arneson in front of C.E.O a ,
large painting of 1990 (©James Woodson); Robert Rauschenberg

(right center), 963 (lO Estate of Peter Moore), Christo, 983 {<c> United
1 1
Press International).
Frontispiece Willemde Kooning, Wonian, 1961. Pencil on paper,

11 x8V2in(27.9 01.6cm).
Private collection, Chicago. © 1994 Willem de Kooning/Artists Rights
Society (ARS), New York.
ISBN 0-1 3-045469-9
This book was designed and produced by

CALMANN& KING, LTD.
71 Great RussellStreet, London WCl B 3BN
Design and cover by Ricfiard Foenander

Typeset by Bookworm Typesetting, Manctiester
Printed in Ctiina
I (» \l;iii;iiiiii'
Paiiiiinii is a slate of l)eing

self-discovery. Every good
arti--t paints what he is.
-.1 \( K>()\ P()I,l-()( K

Aikiiciw l«ili;iiriiiil- 1 1
Pivfa..- l.'i
1 Introduction I4
\|.|.rM,irlinii: \ii ;,- ., \|, nlr ,,1 rh.,ni:lii U

Tllr( .in.-.'|M ..I ihr \\.llll-(.;i|,|r 1()
'l'li.-(.nliral I'min o| \ i.u ,,| iliiOJ.u.k 17
2 New York in the Forties 20

.New York Becoim- iln- ( inirr 2((
Sunealisin 2(1
.\merican Prairiiiitiiîn ami -ucial Relexance 24

The De|)ie—.inn and the \\ nr k-^ Pn(iries> Adiiiiiii-lratioii
\\.R\ 2<.
CONTENTS Tlu' \vailal.ilu\ nl r,mM|„.anM.MlrnH-iii

Till- KiiTo|iiMii^ ill New \ (irk 'M)
28
The SeiiMMifa .\e\\ Mommih-hi in \i-\\ \ ork ."51
Cioinmonaliiies ami Dit'ti-rrmr-. ViiKnit; tlu' \rii-t-. nl iln
\.-\vV,>rk •>,li..,,| ;V2
Auiiiiiiauîii ami Vclimi in tin- An nt ihi- New \ ink

Sthooi .30
Acrioii aiiil E\i--tfnliali-ni ."56
C:ivfford Still 38
Ariolph Gmtlii'li 3t>
Fiaiiz Kline 3*^>
Frienils In ami Vrniiml llu- \i-\\ \nvk >ihiMil 40
3 A Dialog with Europe 42

Alexander (âli 111 42
Cakiers EarK amniii-im- 42Lilr
4o
Calfier in Pal•i^
Cosmir IinageiT ami iIh- \iiiliili~ 4()
1 laii~ 1 Inlniann •>2
Stylistic Le---iin- I'nnn F.iiro|ii' 02

Hofmann'sAri IIiiihn .')3
Hofmanns Painiiiii; .')4
Aishile Cork) o9
Gorky's Life Real ami linaLiimd o^
Tlie Deyelfjpmeni nl ( .nrk\ - "-ix If Ol
GorkyV L.ate \\ iirk~ (>.")
Robert NIotlien\ ell (»7
Intellectual At't'iniiii- wiili dir Knrn])fan MimIihi- ()8
RecuningTIienu- in \liiilien\eir> Vi nrk 6Q

Teachino;. \\ rilini;. and Eiliting in Motherwell - Early
Gareer 69
Mothervxell s PainiiiiL' 70
Content]
Will.nMl.-K.M.iiin.; 74 An l,ii(OUiilei \\ iih llie l'h\>i(aht\ ot the Nhilerials in
Dv Kddiiini; > Training; ami Flarly (Career 76 Km-ope 148

The DisMilulioii ol Analoinv into Ahslraclioii 77 A Nhiterial Rearhiii: of Action PaiiniiiL' in New ^ mk l.~)."5
Tlif Aiialoinical l-Oriiis DissoKc into IJnisli>inik(»> 80 (ifeenl)eii; > Definition of Modern i-iii 1.14
De Kooiiiiii.'- AbstractioiiMit tilt- Fil'lio 84 llie(;ieenl)eigS,h(M,| |.-)4
The -W omen' of the Sixties an. the ate W ork- 84 I I t oiniah-t Paintini: 1.").")
.New lnia::es ol \lan in I Jir,,|„- ainl \in,-ii,a lo8

4 Existentialism Comes to the Fore 8(i
TheCloBrA 158
The Figurative Hi-\i\al olilie Fillies 1()2
Jackson i'ollo, k 80
Figm'ative Painting in the Bay Area 169
PonockM'.ailvI.ifean.llnfhienee- 8«>
Existential ImaKist Art in (Jlucacro 170
Pollo.k- Breaktliron-h of llie Railv 1 oilies 89
Poll,,, k - GeMnial
Tran-.ition to a Pnie Style 90
The l)ii|.|.e(l and Potiied ( ;anva>e> 92
Pollock in the Fifties 97 7 The Beat Generation: The Fifties in America 172
"A (ioney Island of the Mind : The Beats and John (age 172
Haineii Ni-w man 98
John Cage 1 74
llie Re\ elation of \ewman s Oiu'inciit I 1(H(
Merce Cunningham 17.i
The Paintings of the Late Foiries 102
The C:age "Flyeni ol l''")l! 175
and Other Work-.
fir Hcroinis Subli/iii.s , if i In- 1 ifii,- 10."?
The "Stations of the ("toss" 106 H,>I„TI Raiis,l„.nl.erg 176

The Self as a Minor of Li fe 1 76
MafkH,.ihk,i 106
Rauschenberg's Early Career 177
Rothku- I iirniati\f \ eais 1((7
The f Combine Paintings 179
Tnining to (
'lassical Myth 108
The Drawings for Dante s Infernn and the End of the
SniTealisin. Psvchoanalvsis. and "the Spirit of
Combines 180
Mvth" 109
The Silkscreen Paintings 183
"Heroifvitii:" the Ineffable 1 1 1
Performance and the Prints of the Later Sixties 185
The\IuraKan.l()lli,TFaI.'\\,,rk 11:?
1")
\]ipro|iiiating the Real: Junk >ciilplure and
David Smith and the Sciilptin-e of the \,\\ V,,ik S, li,,ol 1
llaiiiienings 186
Smith's XôiM 1 17
hiitiatioii into the Ait
Junk 186
The Aesthetic of Machines and the I nconscious 1 18
The Cen.'sis of the Happenings 188
The Pictogfams and Hudson Hirer Land.srapr 120
The Judson Dance Theater 191
An Fxistential Encotmter with the MateiiaK at Ian, 121 I I
Fluxus 191
Career Success and Personal Sacrifices 122
W alk-in Paimin-s 192
The Figural Presence ami di,' \V,,rk of ih,- ast 1
Decade 123 Clai's Oldenburg 196

The "Côld Existeniialisi the "Ray (.tin and The
Street 196
5 The New European Masters of the Late The Store Da vs 197
Forties 128 Soft Sculpture 198
Proposals for Monuments 202
Jean Diihuffet and Postwar Paris- 128
Realizing the Monuments and the .Vrchitectural
Diihiiffet s Painting of the Forties 131
Scale 203
Dnhiiffet's Philosophical Premises 132
A Focus on Matter in the Fifties l.'i4
Jasper Johns 205
A Grand Style of Entropy 1 37 "Nature" is How We Describe It 205
Painting as a Discourse on Language 207
The Existentialist Fiiiiiration ,,f Allien,, (iiacometti 138
An "Found Expression 208
Aesthetic of "
Emotion and Distance 208

1' rancis Bac, 142
Incoiporating Objects: What One Sees and \Miat One
Knows 209
The Paintings of P'.')'' 211
6 Some International Tendencies of the Fifties 148
The New Emotional Tone uf the Early Sixties 212
Punli,-,l Al,siii„ii,,n 148 Explorations of Linguistic Philosophy 213
Contents
Direr of VHrl 214 W.-M C.a.l P..p 278

Periscope Hart ( nini- '1 1 .">
I link \ii 278
Til.- I'.'iv.'ipniai (:(iiii|>i.-\iiv(iri,o(,kiiiii 2i() P.l.-l \o,|lkn, 281
lli.llalrli Mark Paiiitiii--. 217 III.- Polili,i/.-.l Cnhiiial ( liiiial.-ol ill.- S|\li.-s 282
Dnrnniuil,.. H,.M-t\r 21« William 282 \\il.-\
L.IKi.-nhol/ 284
I \ P.,p 284
8 The European Vanguard of the Later Fifties 222 K..I..-II \ni.-M,ii 28(>
\(iiire<iit Hi'dlisnif 222 \ 111. --on - Hi, -Ilk w nil ( um\ ,iiii.,ii.il ( .laini,'- 28(i
^\(•^ KIriri - lîinianliirûi 222 rilrToll.-|> 280

l.r l„/r 224 \ l.-.liiii.al Rr.-aklliniii-h 288
riu'-LivinuHni-ir 224 ()l.|.-.is,.lili.-\li.lSI\ii,-. 288
rii.->.-IM'.iniaii> 28'>
St'fkiiii; liniiialfiialiu 22()
KleiiiV Demise 228 l)i-...\.-nni;a P..lili,al \ oi. .- 2'>;{
liilr.is|M-,li,,ii \ la P..ll.i.k 2'>;{

The A oiireaux Hcdlisit .s 228
.ln>r|,|iHrii\. 2;{ 1
|{i-\ i-aliiii; llir \iiinii>in In \anirc 2."{ I

10 In the Nature of Materials: The Later Sixties 2«)4
'I'll.- \rn-i a- Shaman 2."i.'{
An a- ili.-Cr.-ative Lite ..f ili,- Nhnd 2;{4 Ba.k hi I iiM l'iiii,ipl.---\|iiiiiiial \n 2^*4
Frank Stella 2Q7
Rrili-li Pii|i: I i. iin ill.- hi.l.-|i.-iiil.-iii ( .r(iii|i In l)a\ iil Donald .hi. Id 2W
llnrkney 2;i(» Tony Smith .'ÔO
Ki-y [• imn-.--- Ill ill.- Iiiili-[ii-iiil.-iii ( .riiii|i 2."{(> Ca.-l' \n.lre .'iOl
lli.-K.-\ 1 xliihiii.Mi. 2;57 Dan 1 hiMii :i(i;{
l'a.il.i//i anil I lamiil.in a- \ilis|, 2."{8 Roh.-n Moms ;{04

R.-imeixraliiiu Piipular linaL;<-r\ inl.i I liiiii Arl 2.'{^* Sol L.'Wiii :UHy
David Hocknev 240 Lh.- L..S Angeles Light anil Spa,-.- \lo\,-m,-nl ;507
Ohj.-.t/C.n.-.-pt/lllusion in Painting .'JO^*
A Idciison Surface Hanilling in Painting ."{lO
9 The Landscape of Signs: American Pop Art 1 960 to Eva Hesse and hn.-stigalioii> nl \lal.-iiaK ami Pimi-ss ."ill
Eva Hesse 311

1965 244
The Direct Sensiialit\ of Mhi-rgla-s an. Lat.-\ ."il.'J I
I he Eie.-ininic tionseioiisness ami N.-w \ Hrk Pii|i 244

A luniiiiir Point in Theor'v 244 Rnici- \amnaii ami Riihai'.l ."-^.-rra 315
The Event> that Shaped tin- P.ipuiar ( Jons.i.iiiMi.-ss 24(> Bill. I' \aimiaii 3 15
Collating Ri-alii\ mi P..]. Vn- Neutral Screen ..f Ri.hanlS.-na 318
inuiL'.-^ 24()
Aitists Working in lli.- I.an.ls.api- 322
An. Is Waihul 2r>0 Michael Heizer 322
\\ ariiols HaekgroumI 250 Walter DeNhiiia 325
Selectiiii; Noii-Sejeetix itv 251 Rolieit Smithson 32(>
Eliitiinatiiis the Artist s lunch 253 An A.-.-id.-mal Riihn. 330
A Terrifying Emptiness 258
The FactoiT Scene 256 An.- Po\.-ia, an. a I P.-f-..-\ .-ling Rapport with Xaliin- in
Business An and the •Sha.lnws' that Linger Behind ll 257 Em-op.- 331
Ri)\ i,i. Iiii-nî.-iii 25'*
1 1 Politics and Postmodernism: The Transition to

.lames Ri)M-tii]ni>t 2<).'5
the Seventies 33()
H.C. \\e>tennann. Peter Saul, and i
-llair-\ Who 264 R,-Ra.li,ali/iiilh.- Avant-Canl.- 33()

H.C. Westermann 26<) The taitical .\tmos|ihei-e of lh.- Eat.- Sixties 33(>
Peter Saul 272 Eaiigtiage and Measure 338
ThelhiirvWh., 27.-} \ ito Acc.inci: D.-lining a ( nii.-.-pnial ( )ciii-r<' 341
Contents
Bu(l\ An 342 Fraiicesci) ('leiiiente 416

IVrl'ofnu.ri.v \n :U:{ The Internalioiializalidii of \e(i-Fx|nc>--.iiiMi~m 418
Tlir WorUa- \rl :{44 ilirl'r, iiliai(,aM-,,rili,. Rn^Man^ 418
\i I iriiii Natiin- .{4.")
\ani Iniii- I'iiik^ l-.li'iinniii Nainic ."{47 ,|i-niiilcr RarlleK. Sii-aii Hniln-nlurL:: New IniaL'i^l Fainliiii
l)iic( I I'oliliciil ( oiiiiHcMil .{4'l ami >(nl[iliiie 422

Th.'l'uirniial lorl?n>aJ,-i I'.ililiral \,lioi, ;{4<»
Fli/alieth \luiia\ 428

( liii-l.. ;{4<» The Origins of Mnna\sÎ\le 428
\ll ni ihr lllralrl nl H.-.ll 1 Arnt- .-{."id Puisiiiiii: ihe Liigii 111 ihe >lia|iiil ( aii\ a> 431
rill- Sliil'i 111 ail \irliilc(liiral Scale .{.")."{
Till' l.iiL:i-tir~ 111 llii- i'rojects Soo

I lir Smriiiin<lc(l Ishiiiil.t .S57
( liii~iii III ilii- MiiflicN .'JoM
14 The Eighties Till Now 434
AFroh l.M,,kal MiMiarli.in 434
FnMin.MliTiiiMii:5<tO
SiiZlliaiPiilkr .{«)(( Aineiican .\e(i-Fx]iii-~iiiin^ni 43''
CiTlianlHi.liliT ;i64 Jonathan Bonifsk\ 443
.liiliii Balili—ai-i .-{Oo Graffiti Art 445
Keith HariiiL' 44()
Tlie Fast N'iilage Scene of the Fi-htie-, 448
12 Surviving the Corporate Culture of America in
jean-Michel Basipiiat 448
l)a\iil Wojnarowie/ 4.11
the Seventies .«>k
A \i-\v Flinali-iii ;«.« Apino|)iiaiion 4.>4

Art and Feiiiiiiiîn .ST.'J L sing the Fangiiaue of Media lor Per^mial
The ProTiliilfiiri' ut I'licilni;! a|ili\ in llir ( 'niili'M iit' Fxjiiessioii 457
Paiiiiini.' 374 The Aesthetic of Consnniei iîn 4.5*'
ADazzlinirPlioi.iivalism .•{74 Political Appfojiriation 4()1
Emeriiit; the Real S|iaii- 377 Retnm tu the Body 465

Piihli.Siie> 37») Reijaiinini: ( iillnre from llie Media 4(i*'
Aj)|)ioiiiiateil Site- 3K2

(a in 1(111 \Iatla -Clark' - '-'ite ( lit ii|iii'~ 382
rilr( .iMI|ilr\ll\ llial l-( llhllir 3«4
15 To Say the Things That Are One's Own 472
HiiinaivHianlrii 3«4
Hi-anlrn .Cnlla-.-Mil lla-SiMie,-, 38b
Alire \\iiMk 388 Notes 474

Meta[)hi.r Replaces Phvsicalilv in Avcick- Wmk uflhe Bililiogiaphv 481'
Kiiihlie-. 3t>l Index 491
Philip (.ii~lon - Fall- S|\le395

(.ii-ion - Early Câreer 396
(Ill-ton's Action Paintings of ilie I iliie- ;5*'8
rlle HeenU-liienceoflhcFi-niv ;5''8
13 Painting at the End of the Seventies 4i)4
New Fxpie>-ioni-l Painlint: in I iiiii|ie 4(14

.loi-g hnmendoiff- Pnliiiral \nal\ -i- of Pami mil: in ll
Seventies 4()()
Gra[)pling with ldeniii\ 407

Georg Baselitz and A. R Pen, k 40*'
Anselni Kief'er 410
Italian Neo-Expre--iiini-in 414
Urilil I w Kile llii-< l)iM)k I iii'M'r- niK li-i-ioiid ilm-r a^ il once
M't'iiii'd Id lilt' iiii-lodiMiiKilic (•\|iri's-.ii)ns dI iiialiliHlc In
tlu' aiitllor s liusbiiiul di will- willicml wIkhii ilii-. ccinliln i
lijnc hct'ii wrillcn. I iiiiw icali/c llial cillici lli(i>i' aiillioiN
Iciiiiid tlifir liiMik- ra~icT Ici wriir lliaii I lia\r mini', or dii-\
disciix I'ird. as I liaxr. thai llicic iralK i-. im \\a\ adi'i|iMit('l\
hi i-\|nrs, ihf contliliiilidii in\ w ifr. Maiianiir. has niadi- lo
ihis lidiik. iiilidlectiialK and spiiiliiallx . I am aUn di'i'jiK
firatefnl lor tlir jiaiiiiK r ol iin (•liildi'rn — Maya. Naomi, and

Hfinv — wild L:a\f ii|> a loi ol mv liiiic dial was riuliliiillv
theirs over llif dfcadi- wlifn I sai liiiiii-(l in m\ liiiiaiv
iTsearcliiiiK and w riliiit; ihis. I linl Ma\ a — ihr cldisi — con hi

It'll I lit- shi- wan I I'd lo In- an ail historian alliT w alchini; this
|irott'ss lonihi's mi' moic ilff|il\ than I can sa\ ihoiiiili
I seciellv hope for law school

I also want to ackiiow Ifdizc ihc llnt'c iiieatt'sl teachers ol'
mv life: Harolil Roseiiliei!i;. (^hristo. and my fatlier. Henry H.

Fineher^. M.D. The influence of Harold's imcompromisinf;
commitment to intellectnal values will never leave me:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS fifteen vears after his
shoulder, needlins me and
death I can
scrutinizing
still hear his
mv
\-oice
argimu'iii as
over my
I
write. Cihristo s ideas change and time,

alioiit in ]iarliciilar.
w I'l I' too raflical for me e\en to acknow ledge at tiist. hci aiisc
ihi'V revolutionized my thinking so fimilamenially: I still
find the effect of his ideas continuing to unfold in my life in
new ways. Finally, mv father's psvchoanalytic |iersj)ective

on the influence of social interaction as the kev to iinilei-
standing the mechanisms of art shaped my pers|M'cii\i' on

and is at the very heart of this hook's preniist'.
the worlil
An ongoing conversation of now fifteen vears' ihiiaiion
with m\ friend .lohn (larlin has greativ enrichetl mv life anil
I want to iliank him warnilv for thai. Likewise. am I
t'liorinoiisU Liraiefiil to nianv friends who Iuim' geiifroiisK

gixcn llii'ii Hint' and shared their iileas with mc. Some
1)1 thi'iii t'M'ii siil'Ifri'il ihroiigh extensixi' |iaits ol this
li'\l in iliall for which I am especially indeliled : in
particular. I want to acknowledge Katherine .Manthorne. die

late Robert Motherwell. Richard Shiff. anil Larry Silver. I am
also ven grateful to Ste[ihen Fiiieherg. Lôis Fineherg. Philip
(iraham. and Boh Holinan for being tlieie when I most
ni'i'dt'il iht'iiK
hnportanl con nil in lions in niy nmli'islaiiding of \ a lions

issues came from tliscussitwis w itii .Manuel Btirja-X Mary
illel.
Schmidt Campbell. .Teanne-( Maude (ihristo. Rene Conforte.

(Caroline Côx. William .I.R. (inrtis. Gabriella tie Ferrari.
Ebon Fisher. Henry lôiiis (lates. .|r.. Alma (iotllieb. Anne
Cioffin Hanson. Michael Heizer. Gracie .Mansion. Elizabeth
Murray. .lohn Neff. Gharles Slichter, Tim Spelios. Robert
Thompson. \ icente Toiloh'. David Weinstein. ami
FaiTi,s
Jessica Weiss; I thank them all. I have also been blessed

with a succession of remarkably talented current and Im-
intr grailuate students at the L niversity of Illinois who
lieljietl ill numerous ways 'and also graciously accoiii-
inodatetl to mv preoccupation with this project during its

various jjhasesi: I especially waul to thank Roaiin Banis.
Gandace Bott. Maiy Goffey. Gharng-.liimn Lee. Lorraine
12
Acknowledgements
Mi'iuir. Rt'iii' Meyei-(iriml)eii;. Mnmkiii lî/k. l'i'L'i;\ (l;if. Oldi-iiimiL'- -iiiilin. l)a\ Id Mail ol tin- Kriili I lining
>ilinick. Zaii Si'liii\vt'ilfr-I);i;il). and I.i>a \\ aiiiw rii:lii. 1 iiiiiidalinii. Sarali 1 ai;i:iTi a( tin- -.nnliddl .la^|M'i juliii- .iiid
on the oni-landiiii;
Tlii> eiilire eiiteqjrise re>t> in pai'l \niiandi- i\f 1 riiiiiniaii, din-i im ul llir Idiidalion Iran
work i>t Other writers on ])ostwar art wlio-.e hooks and f~-a\ » DnhnlTii
Ihave read and admired: in [larlicnlar want to mention I I M-rxhudx miiihl lohaxea iriend hki- ( ail Hiainll mv
Dote Ashton. Robert I hiiihe^. and ir\ iiiLi >aiiiller. altlii)iii.'li aL'eni: I want to llumk liim lor maii\ liiiiir~ nl li-iiaiiiii;
there are main others, too numerous to li>l indiv iiliialK . |iatieml\ and ilien liadini; im of iii\ ininiiidi iiiii~ w iili i
w lio>e works ha\e lielped teach me tliis siii)je(t. iiiitailini;l\ -omul jinliiini'iii Hnd llnricn ai I'niiihi' kill |
I want to tliaiik .lane Block. (:hristo|)her (,)iiinn. and the \\a- w ondei inl low oik w idi ami I .iiii riiorinon-K iîairliil
staff of tlie Ricker Lihrarv at tlie I ni\eisii\ ot Illinois, who thai In- had ciiohmIi laidi in iiu- lo kii-|i an o|n-ii mind .ihoiii
have come to the rescne repeatedly. I here are a ~o a mimhei I iii\ i acliral iiaii-loi luaiion ol iln- |iio|rri a- ii wi-iii atom;. 1
of [leople on the staffs ol nni-emn'- and iialleiie- w ho wcni ronlil noi lia\ e hecii more pira-i-d with die w ork o| cn \oiic .-i
ont ot their wav to help; 1 am espeeialK irralelnl to l)a\id al aliiiann \: KIiil:. when' ihf |irodih ijoii ol ilii- hook wa--
(
\nfain and l-ahele De \ oe of the National t.aller\ ol Aii: imdii lakeii: e-pn iall\ wain lo ihaiik Rirhaid ociiaiicli-r.
I I
1 .arn Beck of the Sonnahend (iallerv: Brnno BischolherLiei Daiiiian lioiii|i~oii. Diana \ ow le-
I and alio\i' all i-iila I
and .Vndrea ( âratsrii at (ialerie Bruno Bi>choflieri:ei: Diana >adie who ~killliill\ ami paiiciiiK (noidinaled die whole
Riilinan at Roheil Miller ( ialler\ : Stephanie ( anniz/o at die jiroiei i
I iii\er~il\ \il \ln-eiiiii. Bi-rkelcN : l.ane ( (ihnrn at the 1 ow i- a |iro|oiiiid ilr-lii lo ihc Rc-earrh Board of the
Nlarian (.oodman Craller\ : Maiahi-th ( oheii- Fv ler at 1 \ lei I iii\ ri-ii\ ot 1 Hi noi-: 1 do noi know aiioilu-i iii~iiiiilioii that
( .ra|ihic>; Ki'\ in ( ^Jinerford and Anneirreth N ill at the Dalla- doe- ihr joh ol -ii|i|ioriiiiL' -( rimi- re-i'ar( h -o w ell. 1 am mo-t
\lii-eimi of \il: (iarol ( iorev at Knoedler CjalleiT: Anita uialeful to die Dean
and \|iplied \rr-.
of ihr ( ollri;c o| 1 im-
|)u(|iieiir- aldie \\ hitne\Mitsenm; Louise Eliasoff and Ellen Dr. Kathrxn Maiiin iiialK wain lo -a\ how iiiiich Ted
1 1
.Vdain- at Andre Emmerich (ialleiy: Karla Fox at the Pace Zernich - h ieiid-lii]i and -iippoi lia\e meant to me o\er the I
(iallerv the staff of the If nmkin- Adams (iallerv Stacy E.

: : \eai - -iiice he a--iiiiied the diie< im -liiji of the School of Art
(.eio at the Blum Helman (.alleiT: Bruce Haikne\ at Da\ id and De-ii;ii at die I iiixci -ii\ ol lllinoi-. Ted always come-
\I( Kee (,aller\: Rohin .laffe at the \ ale Eniver-itv An tliroiit;h foi ine -oniehow. and de-erves a good deal of credit
(.allery; Kathleen .lones at the Kraimert \rl Mnsenni; the foi helpiiii: me make ]ii\ time at the I iiiyersity of Illinois the
-laff- of the Phyllis Kind (iallerie- in hotli liicago and New ( mo-t productive \carol my career.
ôIk: Tracv Lew at (iemini (;.f,,I,.: Ei-a Euedtke at the
l'hilli|i- ollection: Iidx Maiei at Baiiiara Gladstone CJal-
(
ler\ Moniijiie Meloche at the Museum of ('otitemporarv .Art.

:
(hicago; Ruth Phaneuf at Nicole Klagshrun Gallery: Amy

Poll at the Eeo Gastelli (,aller\ Margaret Po>er at the Tonv :
>hafra/i (iailery: Samar (,)andil at the Giiiigeiilieiiii
Mn-euni; Mary Riheskv at the Seattle Art Mn-enm: >lierri
>cliotllaeii(ier of E.A.Mo( \: H\ Schwartz at (hristie-:

I.Min Sliarpless at the Marino Eea\in (.aller\: Nata-ha
Signnmd of the Paula (Oojier tialleiT: Sicjue Sjience at the
Nanc\ ilolTman (iailery: Sandra Staii' at the .latne- ( or-
corail (ialleiy; Mhrighl-Knox: .lane
Daisy Stroud at the
limkeii ofTimken Puhlisher-: Aiiihea Wei— at the Walker
\il tile staff of the Michael Werner (iallery: Hazel
Gentei:
Willi- atAnthony dOffay (iallery: Sue Wood at the De>
\loine- \rt Genter: and Sn-an \ iiiii; at Ronald ililman I
I nil- \ri.
I al-o ttam to thank Boh Panzer at \ A(.A. Ted edei I
and Katia Stiegliiz of AR.S. and Glande Pica-o of SPADEM

for gra<ionslv tak iiir lime to help me iliroiii!li the laliv liiith
of •rights" in tin lesalislic world of the ninetie-. 1 am

enonnou-ly gratefi. naturally, to the artists and to tho-e
who work with theiii tor their estates. especialK Be\eiiv
( oe at .lim Rosen(|uist -onljo. Paula (^)urt. .lane ('raw ford.
Heloi-e Goodman of tli ;idy W arhol Foittnlation for the
\ isiial -Arts. Robert Gurbi i ! the Estate of .Andre Keriesz .
Karen Kuliltnan at Da\Hd ll > mh ys studio. Shelley Eee for

Roy Eichtenstein . \b-. Aniial' r Wwinan. David Platzkei at
i- iii\ \ irw llial uirai work- niail an-r I'kmii iIh- rltort cii
II
.\( c-]ili('nal iiMli\ iiliiaU In .(unc \i> Iriiii- w illi I lie lari,-^ n\
llii-iriAi-li-iin- — willnii ilii-iii-<l\ r- am I in llic wniM, liiMifar
arli-r- i-\|icrii'ii( r iiiiii lir- nil ilii- (Aiiia ii'iiii- III (ii1iit>.
a- ilu-
In- III' llrl wiirL nllrl- ,1 liv-ll |

irl -| in 1 1\ r un .Mill- li M'
-.i.inriinr r\î- Iimi. iliiini;li ihal i- mil ii- |iin|iii-r- In lla- -rn-i-
lliai aili-l- i-\|il(iir ilii-ii iilral-ami -|H-inlalr mi ilic niraiiiiii:
(if inallrr- iiT ilrliinni; nniiinlanrr In llu-iii in llirir an. il i- a
-liiriliial riiilra\iii, lliai i- lla- a-|MTi ul an nm-l wnrili
iimliT-iamlini;. rrnii'nil"-iiiii;. (li-rii--iiii:.
>iiinr nia\ riiliri/i- llii- lunik lur |irr-rnlnii; '

lirriiic-
iiarran\f-" wlic-n ilic nillciiiM- a-]M-ti nl ln-.iiir\ i- ln-iui;
fni|ilia-i/iMl III iiiiiiriii|iorar\ i rilici-m. >o nimli ilic lirlli-r.
\ni-l- -lami ai;aiii-l llli- ccmi mialr r\|MTii'm r ol cnllinc: llir
niiicii-l- (if
•
lirKii-in ilc-i I ilird liriv rciii-i-l "I -rral Iral- "I
iniaiiinaiidn ami iIhiiiliIii. \ (iiliiin- williniii -iic li iu-inii
iiarraii\r-" in iii-|in v n- i- a l;I in |iiii-]irri imli-nl.
Tlii- liiink allcin|il- 1(1 -iir\c\ an li l"4(l m ilie
|iic-ciil a- an acciiinnlal i( m nt iiniiliic ((111111111111(111- liv
PREFACE iikIixkIiuiI
((imcrii ilif
ani-l-. inici
liKiadci ((iiiicxi nl
-| icr-C( I
ilic -i\
Willi a lew
(Iccacles treated here.
cliapKi- lli.il
Tlic-f liniadcr cliaincr- imliidc a niinilier of other wonder-

liil, iT !(-- Iii-KHK alU (Ciiiral. aili-l- w h( un -pace doe^ not
|icriiiii iiic 111 (li-< 11-- III Lircalcr dc] uli. I lia\c iricd Ki take a
Iniii; Mcw aliiinl iln- -nlijcci and h.i\c made a |iidL:nieiil
alidiil wim li aiii-l- -cciii I c l.i lia\c -lia|ic(l I heir ciiliiiral
aiiiiiieiil in llic iiio-i -iîiiIk am wax-: in ]iarli(idar I ha\e

iried (o l)e a carcliil lidd Wdikcr in li-lcnini: m wlial aili-ts
Iia\c Kild iiic all llii- Wdik dial ha- iiilliicnccd ilieiii.
\c\crdicl.---. dii- |ii(i( (-- (il -(dc( lidii ha- al-n hccii |iaiiiliil
hir inc -nice. Ii\ die-e iiilcria- I ha\e -aid lililc aliidil— (ir
(\cn Icli (Mil — main ani-i> w Ikuii I (lcc|il\ adiniic

I -Ik (11 Id add dial die iinml ici ( d illn-iral i< m- iiichided liy
mdixidiial aiii-i- 1- iKH -iiiiiK |

m (| mi I k dial m iii\ c-lima-
liiiii III ill. -11 inriiicmc: -(iinciinic- 11 mcicU lia|(|(ciie-(l dial
iiKiic |ii.liirc- were mcdc.l m cxiilam an idea. \l-(( I haM'

iiiliddiiccd die delailc.l (( (\ cia-c (d liii|i(inam arli-l- III die
iliniiidldiiical cdiiicM III winch ilic\ had llicii iiid-i -iiiiiili-
canl ini|ia(l. Ihii- ani-l- like (.11-1. m and licarden. Idi'
exam] lie. ciini.' n|i in rclal n mid llicii ( IcriniiiL; rdle> in llif art
(if the -excniic- cxcii ilKdiiili IkhIi were alrca(l\ iiii|idrianl
aili-l- in llic laic hdlic-. hiiialK, I wain Id |i(diil din wlial
-hdiild lie (ili\i((ii- — dial dii- i- inlendcd a- a -iii'vcn of
|jir((|ican and 'imcrican an and dial clid-c die dpeiiiiii; I
dale (if ]'l-tll hccan-e ii wa- llieii dial a lari;c |iart df die Pari^
an -cciic iiidNcd (7/ iiiiissi- Id New Ydik. (Ichiiiii\ cK trans-
IdHiiini: n ini(( die an caiiiial df the wdild.

h w ill liri (imc ( lear Id die reader dial (di die w lidle I dii
mil helicxe ill iiiox enicnl-. ddiey -eeiil 10 me an efhnt to
-iiii|ililv wliai need- i(( icniain complirated. \Mieiea:- in

-cieiice (die a-|iire- Ki die -im|ilest ex]ilaiiati(di nl the
|(lieii((incn(di niidcr -cnitinx. die whole |idiiil of an and die
linniaiiiiie- i- u< (ipeii our mind- m more aiieriiali\e.- and

aniliiLiniiic- in die w a\ we -ee die world.
Approaching Art as a Mode of Thought
iiiir w liii I- iiiM\ III li\ \ III! nil \ .111 .i.:,:li - iln n- 'airs
Aii\ ( I
oj Sillies lii;. 1,1 liiii iii-MT aiiaiii Imik ill ,i |iai|- 1 1| mM

wink liiml- Hi;. I J wiihoiu a liili ii--niiaiirr Iniiii \an
(.iiL'll- W oll(l\ ir\\ . Ill llli- |iaillllllL'. nil'- ~ii-- llli' ~Imii-
lliiiiiii;li llli- aili-i - i-\i-- anil in ô iluiiii; l"i!iii~ In kimw iIh-
ani-l. In llii- wax llir aili^l -|ii-ak~ In IH lliriMii;li <inr

i-ni|ialliic ir^|iiiii-.i- III his aiinlinl nl i-\|ifriMiir. lit- i~. a-
\\ I III l-w HI I 1 1 ilc~iriiiril llli- |Mii-i. -iiiLiini: a -nrii; in w liirli all
lininan lirini;- join w iili liini. '
Makiiii; ail i- a Inrm iil lliinkiiiu thai wr acci--- lliniiii^h

iinpailix I 111- iliinkini: in a work dT an i- imi iic-ii-~~aiil\
\rilial. lliniiiili lliai nia\ nilci in Inn. Iini nsinil llimkiilii.
1 wliicli
whirli
lllf likr.
ran
iiia\
lllr
|iiriniial i-li-nii-nl- |un\iilr~ a nmilrl Ini

lir
î-i-in
i-c|nall\
-inirllirr
In innriTii niil\
rii;nrnii-.
lllal lIli-
l.\i-n
i---nf-- n|
alll-l
in an
rnnii-i\ f-
aliÎiarl
rnlnr. tiinn.
niiâni/ini; i-\|MTi-
tn|-
work,
ami
llin-i-
fiiri-. lial innilfl rnn-liliilr« llir aili-l ~ '-U If" ami ri'~i-in-
INTRODUCTION
I
lili-~ a |"r-iinalil\ in ilir -rii~i- ilial il- Irail- aif rli-aiK

rnii-i-ii-nl. A- \\ illi-m ilt- Knnnini; |iiil il : \ nil M- i|i-\ i'ln|ici|
a lillli' iiiluire tor \()iir>flt. Like \oirlmil. a> long a> vnii kii|i
-nmclliiiiL: nt tile iititritial micf()he>. tlif initMiial tliiiii; in ii
will Lirnw nil I. ."Ml I liail — likr nin^t arii-i — ilii~ mi^'inal lililr
-I'll -a inn. ^nI I (Inn I lia\ r In w nrr\ a I mill i:rlliili: -tiirk. "
I lir ilii]iliril iniilriK iiir ,ii|ijrrl mallri nl ninilrrn all i--
alwa\ - I 111- [iri >niialii\ nl ilir arii~l in ii^ riirniiniri w iili ilir
wnilil — ihr nlli-il |iailirili inlri>rrlin|l nl 1

1-\ ( llnlni;iral
Inrrr^. inlrllrrl. ~nrirl\. ami r\rni~. Bni-liwnik. lilir. rniil-
|inîlinll. i-X rll rr|ilf -rnlalinllal lllatirr rnM--lillltr mrta]llliirs
Inr lllr aili-l -- r.\|irrirmf nl r\ fill- ami r.xlrrnal

iiilrriial .
and ill i:i\illjr {onil in llirsr -.nliirrlisr rxpniriiro llir aili--l

ai-fivcs at what .\. \. \\ hiirhrail. tin- ()\lniil |iliiln-.n|ihrr.
rallril "-x nihnlir tnilli. I lir ilrtinilix rl\ imiix iiliial iialiiif
nl thi~ aclixiu makr- llir rnllininii n\ri-iin|i|iliralin|| 111
iniMlrrn ail iiitn '

inn\ rinriil-- iinplati-'iMr. \i inn--i niir ran
â\ lliai all arii^t^ iirrr-.-'arilv finliark Irnin rnnininii rlr-
mrnl~ nl' ihr \ iîial laiiL'uai.'r and r.\|>rririirr nl ihrir limr
w hirli i- al>n ilirii/'<v.vr)^(r//ex])efienrr . I hi- rnnnrri- iliriii
In nilirr ai li-l- in wa\ - that often lead to thr rniiiinnnalitir-'

nt -t\lr 111 -iililrri ilial. ill liii'ii. lia\e gi\rii li-r In ihe idea
nl nio\rlllrllI-.
Ill \\ r-irin an Irniii anrirnl liiiir- wrjl mln ihr iiiiir-
Irriilh rrnlilix r\ril the IllOr't inilo\ali\e ani-l-- dr|iriiilril

ii|inii ]iaiinii- ami a |iiil)lic that measured i[iialil\ in rrlaiinii
In wrll-knnwn -laiidani-- n| --iilijrrt inallrr. Irrhniijiir. ami

-t\ Ir. In llir iw i-niirih ri-iiiiir\ w « lia\e conir im rra-inr|\ to
\ahir an aiii-i - work iim-i nl all tnr it-- -iirrr-- in rhaiiuiiiL'

ihn-r -lamlard- h\ llir Inrri- nt il- orii:inalil\ . But llir i-
1.1 (opposite,)^: Vincent van Gogh, Three Pairs of Shoes, oriL'inal an arli-i - \i-ioii ihr iiinif hi- nr hrr liainr nl
1886-7. V on convas, 193e x 28' 2in (49.2- 72.4cm).
i-eieifiiif will \ai\ Imni wlial ihr if-l nl ii- think and
Collection, Horvc: verbify Art Museums, Camb'. age Moss Beqtes!-
collection of Maurice •'. ' • - "
'06. --ee, 1 llli- ihr inili\ idiialil\ that we |)ii/e --o hitrilK in an
ani-i - work iiiakr- nndeistaniliiif; the wink a nuiiii inoif
riini|ile\ inlri|iif li\r la-k; llir niraiiilii; nl alt Indax i-
1.2 (opposite) A pair c* work shoes on a choir, Les Beaux,
France, 1968. lar Ir-- accr--ililr III II- ihail lirw an wain ihr aniliriirr--
Photograph c by Jonathan Fmebeig ot eaiiiei' era-.

15
Introduction
y\
16
Introduction
I,, nannv jii-i

r.-p,Mi(l,-d
The Concept of the Avant-Garde li'id a- In- lunnd ii. iliai In- had
l""l^'''l an open imnil lallin iliaii ii\in- k, pcilcci
Willi
Tlif |iai;iilii:Mi of iho uuiilfiii aiii-i a- a lliinkiT iil' natmi- accnidino lo die cii-niiiiarN rai - >A idral jpcanlv.
iiTie\|tecie«:l tlioiijilil.--. rxpoiiinlcil ii|M>ri in ilir iii.-ia|ili(ir- >o Coinlicl \i~i-A -i\lr a- a \i-iial iiii'la| i|i, ii . paiall.l lo
i>t \iMial t'linii. lias its origin ill tlie mid iiini-icnnli iiuni In -iihjr,!
.
\ lii- inain-1. lor ilir \\a\ in wlmli hr ivnardrd iIm'
liS-'io the official Salon the large, [nihlii rvhiliiiion n\ \\"i"ld. In liolh iv-pr, I- In- 1 1 an-( i ipiinn nl naliiiv ..n lo
painting held annually in Paris rejecied two woik- li\ a can\a- -inick nio-i of In- innn-nipi narir- a- i Invci and
young l-reiu-li |>ainter named Gustave Coinhn. in frn~ira- <'on-r(|iirniK a- inaiii-ii, , W hrn t\|)ical S,ih,fi ani-i- clio-r
lion he withdrew elexeii a»-ce|ited pietures. coiistriuted a p>'a-aiil -iih|c,l- tli,\ idealized the -elliim. (|,|r,l ihe
-mall teinpoiary building on a neaih\ and set up his ow n
lot .
li-nrr- lo look like ilir (,icek and Roman -laliic- in ilu-
one-person "siilon" w ith a catalog prochiimiiii: hi> ne-w -i\ |r l"iiî''- Inii-lird ihr
"
îHil -inlad- wiili niaii\ la\i-r- of
of "feali-ni. lira\\ \arni-li, li woiiM n.\ci liav.' o( rnnrd lo micIi an
Courltei militantK a(l\(icateddeinocrac\ ai a nnicwhrn ;iili-l I" iniluii- In- OI-. raivK. Iiri work wnli a di-ideni
an emperor Loiii> .\a])oleon ruled P^rance ami ilir arii>i |)olili(al pliilo-iipli\ .
intentionally embodied his radical ])olitics in hi- painiini;-. Nooni- at lea -I no one eniional
in (diix cir<-les wauled to
I hrongh my affirinaiion of the negation of the ideal and all heaialioni ( ombei- poliiiral idea-. I nrtherniore hi- -ivie
thai springs from the ideal I ha\e arrived at the einancijia- did not look way mo-t
ill.- ]ieoij|e lliongin il wa- -iippo-,'d m.
lioii of the indi\ idnal and finally at democracy." he wrote. hldeeil. to iiiain of ( diirbet- \iewer-, hi- work di<l iioi |o,,k
"*
Realism is essentially the detiiocratic art. like art at all. and b\ conremporary standard- il wa-n'l! Bui
In relation to subject matter. Gourber',- political -lam e (ombei jiaintnl wiili -o much conviction thai o\ei liniehi-
meant de|)icting ordinary laborer.- and other nnidealized way ot -eeiiii; wcin o\er more and more arri.-ts and ob-erver-
a.-pects of peasant life, a- he did in his Stonebreakers [[\s..
1.3 . But it was much

Conrbet's .snle of painting that
as
caiTied his political message. By Salon standards his tecli-
ni(|ue looked markedly crude in te.xnire and dierefore hasrv 1 .3 Gustave Courbet, Stonebreakers, 1 849. Oil on canvos,
5ft2'2inx 8ft 6in (1.59 -.2.59m).
in a|)plication. Courbet deliberately created the impression
Destroyed 1945, former collection Dresden Gemoldegoler.e. Neue Meisler, Photogroph
ot ha-ie to imply -poiitaneitv; he wanli-d to -tre-- that he courtesy Deutsche Fctoiek Dresden, Sdctisische Londesbibliothek.
V'.VOUW
17
Introduction
Id hi- |ii)iiit nix icw . Ill llii- la-liioii he dTi-cliN i'l\ iliaiiL'i'il iIh' piiririialiiin of an a- an anil ninii- ab-l raclion. He defined
ili-liiiilioii iplitrl 111 iiicliiilc liiiii-i-ll. Ill aildiliiMi llif ililli'iriiii- ihi- a- |iii:li an. w liicli aiieinpi- lo e.vpimge all references
liiMWfiMi lli> Wdik ami wlial llir |iiilili( i;tni ralK ii-riii:iii/i-(i 111 die world, a- ii|i|iii-ril 111 'kitsch." or ])opular culture.
a- ail parallcli'd llit- (lil't'cifiii i- lii-lwi'iii lii>\i<-\\ ol ihc \ôll(l So main lale iw rnlieih-centun' critics, especially in the
anil the |ir«'\ailiiiL' mif. in ilii> aci ol refiefinition. Courbct L iiiled States, grew up mi Clreenberg's narrow definition
|irii\i(lc(l a |>ara<lii.nii (il'ilic modfrii artist as someone vsliose that it- iini\ersal iriilli i- an a-snm|)tion of much coniempor-
ae-ilietif runs coiiiin'r to ilie normalizing f'oive of tradition. ar\ ilienrx. So. ino. i- ilir noiiiin iliat the major iwentieth-
II li- model tor 1 lie relalioii ol' llie \ i-iial artist to societ\ eanie crmiir\ arii-is ^llll-l•ribed lo the separation of "high art
III Im- know II a- llie riiiice|il ol I lie "a\ aiil -Liaiile. from life as (ireenberg did. Btit the latter is by no means the
'
\\aiil-i:aiile '
iiii;îiialei I a- a I reiirli niililar) lerm. ca-e: indeed ihe eclecticism of modern artists, their radical
rrlririiiL; lo llie --iiiali i;riiii|Mir-oliilei- lliai went out ahead ol opeiine-- lo di-parate sources of coiUent, is one of the most
llie main lone-, lo -roiil lor llie ineiii\ . In ail "avaiU-garfle I on-iani — ihiiiigh not always the most explicit — features of
or \aiii:iiarir in KiiLili-li de-irilie- llie situation in wliieli niiidirni-iii. In lad much of the "historical avant-garde"
an arli-Mliink-llial 1 hi- m liei ail e\| ires-.es ideas aiul tiial luiiiri>m. dada. coiistructi\ism. and early sunealism)
J ilm-e idea- iiol iniK diller tnim wliai llie re-t of society sought boimdaries between an and
s])ecifically to disrupt
In addition life and lieiween "high" and "low" art as a means of under-
'
lieliiM-. lull llial lhe\ rniiie rln-er lo die Inilli

die nil 11 epl ini] llie-- dial '> an ha- a lieaiiiii; on imdei-tand- mining die in-lilnlion of art and broadening the crilique
ili;: die |ire-eiil and |ierlia|i- e\eil an inllllellie on die tiiliire. iilvaliie>.''
\ aiii:iiaiili-m |ilaie- Liieal ein|ilia-i- on die new lie-- and the (ireenberg notwithstanding, this wish to revolutionize
|iriiliiiidil\ 111 in-ii.'lil in an arli-l - I hiiikiii;;. mainstream values is the defining role of tiie avant-garde,
I he ciiiiiein 111 die a\ aiil -;.'a I lie eMiKed from the which is. by most accounts, inseparable from modernism. To
moxemeni- lor deiin icral ir ie\olulioii dial dominated a great extent vangnardism has emanated from and been
Kiini|)e and Ameriea fniiii ihr lliiril ([uaiter of the eighteenth paid fill li\ die bourgeoisie. Vet the avant-garde has
(eiiiiir\. Building on die idea- ol the Enligiitennient /j/»'/o- ciiii-i-iinil\ aimed its most vehement attacks at the
sDjilii-.^. the French stale-man Raioii fingot oiiilined a liiiiiigiiii-ie. making vangnardism a fomi of self-criticism.
T-")!).
dm-irine of progress at the Soiiionne in I Indeed a Sell-ciiiiciMii. in turn, is central to the aspirations lor
growing had already begun to

belief in the idea of [U'ogress objective analysis and innovation that modernism (and
rejilace the static assumptions behind the hierarchy ol democracy 1 reveres, hi the art of the late twentieth centuiy.
hereditaiT power and social class. Between the mid seven- howe%er. the vanguard attack on d'adition has become
teenth centuiy and the mid eighteenth the jihilosophers such an acknowledged aspect of the artistic process that
Thomas Hobbes. John Locke, and then ,lean-.Tacques Rous- the avant-garde and even innovation itself have ironic-
-ean discussed the "natural rights" of man and the "social allv become traditions in themselves, as Harold Rosen-
contract" that underlie the idea of democracy, hicreasingly berg pointed mil in lii^ famous essay. "The Tradition ol
peojile looked to the inrroduction of new ideas in open the New.""

debate— the mechanism of democracy — as the vehicle of Rosenberg obsened that the veiy expectation of novel
progress. Not onlv public opinion, but also the ideas of the ideas in art today has undermined the abilir\- of art to shock
individual, started to matter more, and the emergence ot an peo|ile any more. This obsenation is what underlies the most
ariistic avant-garde echoed this new jiolitical model. intriguing new element in the discussion of the avant-garde
One important impHcation of tliis stress on innovation is since 1970. namely the w idespread sense of its demise. Such
die idea that if a work of art redefines standards, it must be critics as Hal Foster have come to regard the w ork of artists
" 'to reconnect art
measured against its success at fulfilling the standards it sets like Robert Rauschenberg who attempt
lor itself. This dream of an autonomous work of art — an and life' ... as farce."'" Moreover, such critical theorists as
abstract idea that responds only to its own internal criteria .lean Baudrillard and Fredric Jameson, instead of looking at
rather than to an external referent in what is commonly the actual work of artists, have accepted Greenberg's
called "nattu-e" — has often been iinder-iond as the signattire separation of "high" and "low" art as the detennining trait
ormodernism. "I >iioulfl like to w lin- a k about nothing." I
of modernism and then mistakenly defined "postmodeni-
die French winter Custave Flaubiri imilided in 18•^2: "a ism as an attack agaiii-t it.
look dependent on nothing external.

I
\\ liters of the lQ20s and ')3{),- mu\\ as the British critics 1

The Critical Point of View of this Book
;ii\e Bell and Roger Fiy celebrated art that deemphasized
(
aiiv reference to natiu'e as "delinmani/ed. which tiiey saw logical conmidriun in which many contemporary
The
a> a positive viitue. For them the loriii w a- die content: they themselves with respect to the avant-garde
critics find
rejected as inessential not only the reiiresentation of nattire resultsfrom the tendency to transfomi art into an academic
I lilt the psvcholog)' of the artist.^' Cllement Greenberg. the discourse (often the most pernicious enemy of art). Wliereas,
\inerican heir to Fiy and Bell, took this to an extreme in broadly speaking, the leading ciitics of the forties and fifties
I
II iitraying the avant-garde as being chiefly engaged with the responded in a literaiy style to the expressive conlent ot
.
18
Introduction
-|M'<'itic woi'ks iiikI focUM'il nn llic iiiincl nl ilir iriili\ iiliial -iminiiHA iiic:iiiiriu. lliiiiii:li I nujnl ii :i, liirr .iiiiir lallicr
aili-l. ai't writers since 1*>()(1 Ik(\c' -lulled In nliirjl ihi'iiiA ihaii niiical e\|Hi-iii(iii, lli- Im niiilaiiMn ,A -\iiia\ a- a
and "enltiiral suu lies." ii>iiii.' woi k~ of ai i a- illii-lialKHi- dl iiriwdi L nl mimn riin-iil lo dr-ial uli/r a iloniiiiaiii ii|r(i|(iM\
eilllliral eoiislnii-ls and >«)ei<)|)(ililiial Inn r-.. ( I lliral lllriii \ njiriicd iim hiimiil; |ici-|i( rli\ r- nll iiiillM'(lialr r\|ii-ririiie.
deii\e- Iroin |>liiliiMi|>liy anil llienieliealK mieiiieil -.ncin- I ml llii\ w ei r imi allnM,i ||,.| niw ,
|)c k iiii:-nin eiilal
lni:\ . (nllnral Îndies reseinlile~ nadilinnal lii-lnr\ w illi an W niiieii nl ilir IiIiicn h ( In-d an analnnnii- \ i-iial — and
i-ni|(lia-i- nil lirnad -.nrial t acinic. >ncli a- rare and i;endei\ in ne' ninic |
k p\\ ri liil — al lack nii I lie -aiiic kind n| Cln-.inv in
and with an nil n-i iriani;iia;;e i'rnin ciil ical llicni \ . a ile-laliili/in:; e\|ilnial inn nl lealilN u n li |iaiiii . Indeed. Iiiiili
I III- iraii-lnrnialiiin ni crilical lliinkiiiLi l>ei:aii wiili ilii' inm iIk' nriiîn- n| nindi'ini-ni i~ ihi- idia. ini ijaini'il ninii'
-liilt in llie eaiK -i\lie- In an ail <iil ici-iii Ininiiled nn llian a linndicd \eai- aiin li\ Bam lilan v. ihai iniaLiinal inn
|p|iilii>i)|iiiy and iiiii;iii^lic> — opecialU on ilic whiiiili- nl dec i im|i(i-.e- all (icalinn ami wiili ilii' law nialerial-
Liidwiir W illi:eii>n'in and (lie linirnislicallv lia-ed -II iicimal ace niniilaled ami di-|iii-ed in aicoidamc wnli rule- wlin-e
ailllll(i|inlnu\ nl (laiidi' 1 ,e\ i-M laii--. Ilie-e wiilei- cnii- nriiîn- niie caiilinl liiid -ax e in I lii- 1 1 n I lie-i di'| ji |i- nT hr -nnl.
i
"
ceiiied ilieiii-el\ c- u nil |ilnln-(i|ilncal (|iic-iinn- nl nieaniiiL: new w mid.

'
h cicale- a '
and know ini; in cnnlia-l in die ein|ilia-.i-. nn e\i-ience li\ ihe in 7'Ac /.ijYy <nii/ I lie l<l I n-iid de--( i ihi-d a |
mm -e\ ci ini;
critic- ot the lorlie- and lillii--. I In- Incii- nf ililic- in lln- |]|e--ine I mm die niicnn-( inii- in mil in iîaliK il- w i-lie-
-ivties then e\|)anded m lakc- in wlial came in Kr calleil direciK in die wniid. Ilie le-i-iame in die allainmenl nl
I reiicll "post-tflictniali-l llienix, I lii- lieiân In make n- -iicli immediale "lal iIk almii Irnm nlliei- ni Ir die
mafk in die mill -i\lie-. nnlaliK in die work nf .laci|iie- inalei lal cniidii inn- nl die w m Id iiece--nale- die ci eali il'a
l.acail. die laler Knland liaillie- In- eaiK work \\a- menial meiiiam-m — w Inch lieiiil called die "etin" — I lial
-iniclinali-l . Michel Iniicaiill. anil.laci|ne- Deilida wlin a--e--e- wlial i- |in--ilile and mieniale- die imcnii-cinn-
|iin||eered "decnn-l incl inn I lle-e | in-l -I l nil in all-l - W i-he- inin he I realil \ . I le e\|>alliled die mil nca I di men-inn
I
eilhei- elahofaied nn or reacied aâin-i die -iniclmali-l nT llii- idea in < /////ri///'/// <(//'/ //.v />MC(y///c;//.v. Ihi- leii-ii m
reilerillilioil ol hiniiail e\|ieneiice a- a deci| iliei aide helween the iline|- -elf and ihewnild i- wlial. ill m\ \ iew
construct of iaii<:iiai:e. |iin\ ide- die Innmlalinii Im dial ha|i|ieiiiiie nf iniiir' in ail
III iieneral the tran-ilimi in an I mm ah-iracl e\|ire--inn- w Inch \lai liii I leideêcr de-i lihed in I ''^ !').'*
I nr him a w mk
ir.m In j)o|) an. liaialleled in ihemx h\ a -wilch Imm oT ail needed In he ili-cii--ed in leiin- ol die |
iince— nf n>
e.\i>ieiitiali-iii to >lriictiirali-m ai die heuiinnini; nl die -i\iie-. creaiinn. |iieci-el\ hecaii-e cieaiintx i- a lorm ol -eeiiie nr
e\|)ri>--ed a hroad ciillinal -hill linni a coiiccin willi kimwiiii:. Bnih Den ida and faille "irw niii nl ihi- -ame
alii-iiation and oilier -|iiiiiiial mallei- lo cnii-nmeri-iii and a ha-ic |irinci|ile Irnm I leideener and .dmimd I llii--eii
material leadiiii: oT an. \rnmid l'l()(l |in{> an remade annlhei ( .eriiian |iliiln-o|iher and die mie nn whom
c-on.-iinieri-t nnlli- iiiio icon- — and Irnm ilii- |irnce— Derrida wmie hi- hnnk
lir-i 15nl Ir , llieie. de|ieiidiiie
e\ol\ed a new kind ol iconoL;ia|iliic |iaiiiliiii;. a- in die w nik on w lial line nt rea-nnine nne Inllnw -. niie can end nji a I
nf Alids \\ aiiinl. Unland Bardie- did -nmelhine -iinilar in Sarlre. al ihe |in-l-l rnci nrali-in i<\ Michel Inncaiill. al
\lylliit/ii<j:irs 1 '*.)". iran-laled iiiln I ,iii:li-li m \'>~'2 . w Inch Derrida. nr al the |in-iiinii iinderK iiii; I hi- hnnk — iianieK .
examines some familiar [iliennmi'iia of |Mi|iiilar ciilime a- a lormalK ha-ed iimde nf aiial\-i> dial Innk- in ihe spirit-
elemeiits ill a laildsca|>e of Siiiii' -\-lein-. iial c erii- of die iiiili\idnal a- die nrieiii and definiiii:
I lii> -.|)ht lietwcen llie spirilnal and die Inrmal emiindie- rule fnr die Ininis. Mnren\er. ihi- a|i|irnach a--nme- dial
a |ieremiial ])liilo-o]phical pularilx . a- ceinial In die ieii-\ear llirnni:h die hiriii — lne,.|her Willi nilier e\pre--ion- of
hattle ill tile journal- helween .jean-l'aiil >arlre and ( laiide inleniion li\ die arli-l— one can make a meaninehil ami
I .i'-\ i-Straiiss a> it wa- lo die conlia-lini: appmache- of \ erifiahle inierpreialinii.
Harold Roseiilipri.' and (lemeni (.reenhere. llowe\er. I lieiân m\ iiiirndnciinn in iln- I k w iili \ an ( aii^hV
( .reeiiherii - retreat from die e\i-leiiiial hicii- of ah-lracI pamlini; nl -hoe- a- a hniiiai;e lo I Ic-ideeeei. w ho opened iiis
c.xpn.'s.'.ioiiiMn in estalili^liiiie a crilical Inn ndal inn fnr die -o- -eniinal leclnrool' 1 ''.!.")/() nn die •Oriein of die \\'ork of .\rt"
called •color field painliiiL:" nl die laie liliie- -ee( liapnih wiili die -ame example. I'lie-e lecmre- affirm tile fouiida-
al-o iii\o|\ed a denial of die -ocial and lii-lnrical cnii-irnc- linn- nl lerii art in die e\pre--inn of heiiif.' rather than in
lion ol iiieaniiii; in paiiiliiii:. In llii- -eii-e (neenheri:- pure Iniiii. \l\ |iei-i-lenl Incn- in ihi- hook i- on the work of
Iniilialisin di-^tiii2ui.-lieil itself from Irench -inicliirali-m. e\l ranrdinarx indix idiial-. I liaxe -iihordinaled die role of
which more closely paralleU the collai;e ae-iheiic of pop an mox enieiii-" and collectiM- cnllnial con^l||lct^. dlii-
hke l.pvi-Strauss's hrico/duc^' in il- -ire-- on die -n.ial approach e\pre--e- nix lielief that the imioxations of iiidi-
inii'irration of liie ol)jeet. Riit lioili -iniciiirali-m and Aiiiei- \ idiial-. in le-pnn-e in w lial tliex tlieniseKeseiieijimter in the
icaii lormalist :iiieism ceiiieied on die material objeci. xxoiid. plax die mn-i -ienificani role in drixiiifi the narratixf
unlike e.\i-lenlia in. w It ich com eiiiral cd nn the nature and nl an hi-lorx thoiiiih 1 d it w i-li to di-comit the illljiaet of
respoiir.e ot the sir x ei nai iilai-. traililioii. -.ocial. jiolitical. or ecoiiomir factors
1 arlmire Derri iinaiiiiialix e ami deliheiale n-e nl in definiiii: "whal the aili>t eiicounteis" . \loreo\er. this
-txle ill del (in-triiiii ! to Iriiîrale aiiempi- al lindine narralixe i- heiiiL: coiiliimallx" revised to include prex ioii-lx
19
lntn)duction
hilri .iriiiiiiT lii^liiriral 'iiîiili- iradiiiLL nl n irw i'I> — alli-rt tilt- li'xcl mi w liirli others experi
iMiiii- ilui iiit;li il r rr-.|piin^r- nl ^lll i~ri |i in II aililiriirr^. ICC cMiii^. I lie -.iiiicinral >iraici.'ics in a work of art
\ injiii-ii am. Iiir lirllri ami \\iir~r. iiinii-iiialiK iiiiii\aic(l li\ wliai I \\i>li lo call "strategies of bein"" i
can
i-M-i-: liciiir . lie iii^c iiumialilx ami icci|iiiicii\ . wiiicli tuiiii |iiil llii- \ icwci in a ccrlain frame of iniiul that he or slie can
llii' l>>iiii<l.ili<>n I all civihzed iniciai limi. rc(|nire aizrecil- ilieii luiiii.' to liear. a- a postiire for qiieslioiiiii<;. on real
iijii III iiiinii-.: J il w or»e. hccan^c a niai 1 1-1 ica 111 can heconic iMiii-. One 111 llic ha/anis of onr educational system's
a l\ raiiiix III iiK jiiniN \aliic-..'" \licniali\c iiaiiali\c- ciiii- ciinceiii wiih iccliiiical ma>Ier\ ha-. Iiceii in liirei;riiiiml
linualK laki' m iicw ini|ioilaiicc |i\ rcijcliiiiiit: ilic iiiaiii- |ii-liir\ in ihc lii-loi'\ of art at die cii-.tmoreof the
Îri-aiii 111 iiicli ilc tlieiiisehes a- ( nnrlni iliil . \iii-i-' iminediale liiii al\\a\- liaffliiii.' and inconchisive experience
cicalix c -iniiiiilc III reconcile their incli\ iiliial iniaLiinaliv c lilc 111 die ail it-.elf. 1 hiiiie iliis liook will help us revert to a
Willi llicir social e\i>lence can — llnoiiiili ll in|uilliic jiealllliel -tale nl iLMIoiailce.
.
New York Becomes the Center

Willi llic l'i'i'ii('liaii<l Hi'ili^li I'liliaiii'i' iiilo W iirlil W ai II III
Scplfiiihcr l*>,'59, anisic ami iiiullii iiiaU lii-<;aii Ik-fiiit;
I'aiis. \\lii<-|i had lieen the woilii ' ail i apiial Inr nunf riian a
cciituiy. "rhesiiiTt-alists liad (loiiiiiialiil ilu- ilii i\ iiii: iiilciw ar
art srene in Paris, bill liv l'H2 llic iiiliial ina^^ nl llif
in(ivernent"s key fifjiires — Aiidn'' Brt'lidi. SaKaiiiir Dali. Ma\

Andre Massoii. Malta. Kiirl Si-ligiiiaiiii ami
I'lnisl [fi<;.2.2J.
Yves Tangiiy |fi«;. 2.3] — had all gone to New ^<llk. In

aiJdition frreal cubists, abstract artists, and otlu-r^ rinrii the-
School of Paris had come over, too, ainoiip them Feinaiiil
2
Iêfier. Piet Mondrian. Marc (ihagall. .lacques Lipchitz. and
Aniedee Ozenfant. Of the major artists only Pablo Picasso

and the seventv-three-\ ear-old Wassilv Kandinskv re-
mained in Paris for the duration of the war. This book begins
at the turning-] loint of I'HO. when the centerof the art world
New York, preparing the ground on which the
NEW YORK IN THE
shifted to
nascent New York School would almost immediately seize
die leadership of the avant-garde.
FORTIES Surrealism
Surrealism evolved from the shock tactics of dada around

1924. under the direction of the poet Andre Breton.
Influenced bv Freudian psychoanalysis, the suiTealists
looked to the imconscious mind as the source of artistic
subject matter. In the first Surrealist Manifesto of 1924
Breton defined surrealism as "pure psychic automatism by
which one intends to express verbally, in WTiting or by other
method, the real functioning of the mind. Dictation by
thought, in the absence of any control e.xercised by reason,
and beyond any aesthetic or moral preoccupation. "'
The French surrealist Andre Masson created his Battle
of Fishes [fig. 2.4] by spilling glue on the canvas and then
pouring on sand; the sand stuck where the glue fell and he
used the forms produced in this random fashion as a
springboard for free association. He then modified these
chance shapes with paint to accentuate the subject matter of
his associations. The finished painting "reads'" like a poem
rather than a naiTative: instead of interacting in logical
ways, each image moves off into seemingly different trains of
thought. The underlying coherence of meaning in the work
relies on metonymy, as in the s\inbolism of a dream where
ideas are represented, often cr\ ptically, by associated ideas.
This is a classically surrealist application of "psychic auto-
matism."" As a device for generating fonn. automatism
would become central to the artists of the New \ ork School.
After 1930 many suirealists undeilook a more literal,
illusionistic rendering of dream images. In a work like Rene
Magi-itte's The foice of Space [fig. 2.5], for e.xam[)le. the
free-associative element resides in the selection of the
2.1 (opposite) Adolph Gottlieb, Romanesque Fa<;ade, 1 949.
imageiT rather than the technique or stv'le (which, in this
Oil on canvas, 48 ' 36in (1 21 .9 y- 91 .4cnn).
case, is academic illusionism). Despite its conser\ative st)de
I, Museum and Kinkead Povilu
Kronnert Art I, University of Illinois, Urbona-
Chompoign. Purchosed out of the "lllii lis Biennial' exfiibition of 1 951 illusionistic suiTealism continued the movements radical
21

2.2 (above) Max
Ernst, Tofem and
Taboo, 1 941-2. Oil on canvas
28^8 x36'Min (72.1 X 92.1cm).'
Collection, Staolsgoler.e Moderner Kunst, Mun.ch
Lent by Theo Wormlond-Sliflung.
g 1994 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New
York/SPADEM/ADAGP, Poris.
2.3 Yves Tanguy, Through Birds,

Through Fire, But Not Through Class, 1
943.
Oil on canvas, 40 x 35in (1 01 .6 x
SS.Vcm).
Collection, Minneapolis Institute of Arts.
Gift of Mr. and
Mrs. Donald Viînston in tribute to Richord S. Dovis. © 1 994
Artists Rights Society
(ARSI, New Yorl</SPADEM, Paris
23
.'^7
2.4 (above) Andre Masson, Battle of Fishes, 1 926.

Sand, gesso, oil, pencil, and charcoal on canvas,
14' 4 ^28^4in(36.2 - 73cm).
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Purchase, ici 1 994 Artists Rights
Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Pons.
2.5 Rene Magrine, The Voice of Space, 1931. Oil on

canvas (unvarnished), 28^8 21%in (72.6 ' 54.1cm).
Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, New York. Peggy Guggenheim
Collection, Venice. Photograph by Myles Aronowitz -ciThe Solomon R.
Guggenheim Foundation. New York. iCi 1994 C. Herscovici, Brussels/Artists

Rights Society (ARS|, New York.
' -
24
New York in the Forties
e\()loratioii ol ih,- i-,iiiti'ni ami inerlianisnis of rli<> imrdii-

scious mind: but it was finally of less conseipum i- i<.
\ni.Tican arii'^r-. of ill.- forri.'- rlian aliviraci ^nrrr.ili-iii.
American Pragmatism and Social Relevance
Tlif -unvali-l- I'lvn,, iipalHiii uiili ilir liiJilrii (,,]|i.-iii

"I ill.' mil!. I
and ihc loniial vocal.iilan of Eiiro|>.'an
m.ideniiMn ('-.periajly t\ventie> ciibisni and PicasM)
MMTealist-intluenced expressionism of the thirties [figs. 2. 10.
^.2r>. and 5.20 i
piwidcd die imellerliial and ae-lhnii

iiiLH-edients for the New York School. Hm rh,- innramrd
values of intensar .\merican eidtiu-e (dii-iiiiii.d ili,- oilin
half of the mix. Reinforred by the exixrini. of i- tli.- -i.ai
Depression, die Federal Art Project of the thirties, and
l'\ the war itself. .\merica's penasive Protestant edii. had
in-iilled in these yoimg .New Yorkers a commitnitiii lo
social relevcUice or "usefidness."
hi .\merican ait of the thirties relevance" meant either
the easily recognizable neatment of political themes or the
promotion of stereonpical .American values." Ben Shalins
The Passion ofSacco and fanzetti fig.2.6\ an example
of
ihe former, concenied the famous 1927 trial and
conviction
ol two Italian-.\iiierican laborers in
Boston fora hold-u]) and
-hooting. The jurors reached their verdict entirely
on the
lla-.i^ of circumstantial evidence,
and many people at the
lime believed that the jun's attitude toward the defendants'
radical leftist politicsand their ethniciti,- plaved a decisive
role. Shahn portrayed the two to the cause of as mamTs
social justice. Thomas Hart
Benton's celebration of hain-
chested .\merican masculinin- in his painting The Arts
of the
Hest [iig.-l.l] and Grant \ôod's well-knowii American
Gothic exemplify- the alternative to Shahn in their affinua-
tion of the .\merican national myths of the
u-ild West,
country- religion, and the heartland. This kind
of painting "
"
was refen-ed to as 'regionalism.
.Meanwhile Mexico like Germany and Russia had had a
leftist revolution during the period
1911-20. and the
L topian aspirations associated with it engendered a brilliant
efflorescence of fresco painting in the twenties. \ews
of a 2.6 (above) Ben Shahn, The Passion ofSacco and Vanzetli,
.Mexican mural renaissance" spread through the New York 1931-2. Tempera on canvas, 7ft ijin x 4ft (2.15 x 1.22m).
an press in the late rRenties. and the leading artists
-Diego Museum of American Art, New York. Gift of Edith ond Milton Lowenthol in
Collection, Whifney
memory of Julrono Force. Photograph by Geoffrey Clements, New York. ©The Estate of Ben
Rivera. David Siqueiros. and Jose Clemente Orozco
— began ShohnWAGA, New York, 1 994.
receiving important public commissions around the
United
States as well. Rivera executed major frescoes in Detroit.
San
Francisco, and in Rockefeller Center in New York:
Orozco
painted cycles at Dartmouth and Pomona Colleges and at the
.New School for Social Research in .New York: 2.7 (opposite, top) Thomas Hart Benton, The Arts afthe West,
Sicfueiro-,
made his best-knowTi fresco at the New School. 1932. Egg tempera and oil on linen mounted on panel
In addition Siqueiros .-.et up a workshop in New

8- 13ft (2.44x3. 96m).
York by Collection, New Britain Museum of American Art, Connecticut. Harriet Russell Stonley Fund.
Lnion Square, in which he introduced his apprentices Photogroph by E. irvmg Blomstrann. ©The Estate of Thomas Hart Benton/VAGA, New York,
among them Jackson Pollo( k to experimental techniques,
including paint .splattering and the use of industi-ial
"Duco paints. On account of the
and as a pun on latter, 2.8 (opposite) Diego Rivera, Detroit /ndustry, 1932-3 South wall
Siqueiros's radical politics, some of the younger painters fresco, 43 X 67ft (13.11 -20.42m).
at
c Detroit Institute of Arts. Founders Society Purchose. Edsel
the time jokingly refened to him ii- -ll' Duco B. Ford Fund and Gift of Edsel B.
""-a double
25

—
26
entendre ou Diico |i;iiiii anil "11 Diice tliejiopiilarepiilici ol reader with adjectives and rejects seinimentalitv. Eientenaiu
liif Italian Far-ci-t. Mnssulini . Politiis was ven iniicii in ilu' I lemy. his "hero" in. 4 Fcireirell to.Arms. sav- bluntiv: 'Ye-.'
air. and I nion Siiiiait". whii-ji took its name from ilii' maiix I lied. I love you." ... I knew I did not love Catherine Barklev
lai)ur iniion lii*ailiiiiariers iocaieil around it. |(rovidt>d ilir nor had any idea of lov ing iter. This was a game, like bridge,
[ifrft'tM lot-ation for a leftist artist. Dnriiii; tlie I'XSOs thf area in w liiiii \ on -aid tiling- iii-tead of phiv iiii: caul- "
\ihI Liter:
was electric with laltoioriraiii/iti!.' and |iolitical rallie>. 1 \\a- made to eai. M\ (.nd. ve-. Fal and ilniik and -lre|)
Of all the Mexicans Rivera had the mo>t |)owerfid in)|iaci w ilh ( aliierine.
on the vomiirei' generation, not h\ teachinir hut eniireU .•similarly the painter (.eorgia O'Keeffe and (he coniem-
thrmish the fre>coes he painted. In his Detroit Indnstiy poiarv imagist poets \^ allace Stevens and William Ciarlos
I're-coes Hi:. l2.8 he transformed the Ford Motor C\)ni|iati\'s \X illiam- -ought a kind of matter-of-fact objectivitv in their
Ronj:e Rixer in(hi>trial complex into a s\ni[ilionv of liic wiirk. \v\ ilir\ al-ii -iTin In ha\i- expciieiiceil a -en-e of
itidii^trial fiitme. Allhoiiijh he denied an\ conneclion in iiiinaiilii liaii-|i(in iii ilu- cln-cK oii-ei-vcd detail of nature
socialist realism. Rivera deliheraiely chose to work in a and. unlike Benton, " Americanness
felt lorn between their
>im|>lif"ieil. momnnenial si\ le so as to educate the masses in and iheir reverence for the -ubtlelv and de|>th of European
the ideals of the leftist I lopia. and his masten of fiunral moderni-m. In l')23 William- wrote a ])oem called The Red
coin[K>sition on thi^ |>nlilic scale is imeijualled in modern ari. \^lieelbaiTow. which exemplifies this attitude.
"
Ben Shalm. in pariii'ular. knew and admired Rivera s

The Red \\ heelharrovv
work and actually worked as an assistant on Rixera > murals
.<(! iiiiicli drfjcnd.f
for Rockefeller (Center. But RivcraV »cale and hi^ midti-
upon
laxered conteiU also profonndK iidliiemed Pollock atid
(I red wheel
other vounger artist*. Rivera s -tvle hrings together a riih
hfirrnir
matrix of historical and conceptual references: the sjiiriiual-
ic/dzed uitli nun
it\ of Renaissance frescoes, the idealism of classical pro|)or-
water
tions. a sense of the origins of hi> art in pre-C'ohnnhian
beside the irlute
civilization, shallow- ciiliist space with its overtone* of
r/iirkeus"
F.ui'opean modernism, i-onsiriictivist comjjositioiial dvnain-
i*ni. and a I topian eniim>iasm for the machine age. The subject matter of the ])oem is realirv . It siin|)lv tells voii
Nevenheless Rivera sought an iniligenouslv ".Vmerican -omething. in a style that seems like prose. There is no
art by which he meant Mexican that was at the same lime rarefied language, no nieia|)hor. W illiatiis's poem is serious,
not proxincial. In hi> aulolnograjiln he desciHljed him>elf a* involved with fact: it re|)oits information from dailv life.
imdergoinga kind of rel)irth through native culture w Inn he .Neither the [lainrings of Keeffe nor this kind of jxietiT were
reiimied to Mexiid from Paris in 1Q21.* h) hi- Detroit anti-intellectual, they merelv sought an indigenoii- .\nter-
Industry frescoe*. and e\en more oliviouslv in the (.\\\ ican character in their simple facticiU". \^ illiains rejected
Côllege of San Franci-<o fre-co of l''.'?'). Rivera conceived ideology as anritiietical to individnalitv: he admired origi-
the great machines a* modern tran-ionnations of ancient nalitv. independent thought, and direct contact witli the
Indian gods: intleeil one can find direct sources in \/lec jmlse of the I nited States. But he also recognized that it was
-taniaiy for some of Rivera > industrial image-. ^ Ihi- the European- who had cast off tradition and brouirht art up
iransfonnation implie- a sense of coininuous and inc\ iiaMe to date w itii conteniporarv seiisibilitic-.
cultural evolution, which Rivera modelled on tiie \l;u\i-i
view of hisiorv al-o suggest- Rivera's sense of the h iiml
. It ri(
The Depression and the Works Progress
mvsterioiis pre-ence of ancient foice- linêrinir liehind ihc
torms of the modem world. Administration (W.P.A.)
Benton aiul his fellow regionali-l-. the Mexican-, and the
social realistslike Ben Shahn all sought idealistic transfor- Till- -lock-market cra-h of l'*20 and the en.siiing great
Dejires-icMi intensified the pressinv for social relevance in
mations of society hy |)rogrammatic a]i[(eals to the ma-seon
an. George Biddle. who came from a jiatrician Philadelphia
an e.xpansive public -cale. using an ea-ilv legible stvle. Thev
familv. studied painting in Paris, and went through Groton
agreed on verv little exce|)t on the imjjerative for social
and Harvard with FD.R.. wiole to R,,..-evell on Mav 9.
relevance and on their opposition lo Ktno|)ean modeniism.
VKVA:
whose rarefiefl language seemed to them elitist thotigh
earlier in their career- all of them had immersed them-elve- The Me.rir(ui artists hare produced the greatest national
in it . Tlie denial of seii-ibilitv and retreat fiotn cultivation, school of mia<d painting since the Italian Rentnsstmce.
w Inch was synonviiioii- with Em-ope in the minds of most Diego Rirera tells me that it iras onlv possible because
|ieople.was also evident in .such writers of the periofi as Obregon f]>resi(lent of
\ alloired MexicanMexico. 1020
Ernest Hemingway. His straightforward, journalistic stvle artists towork at plumbers wages in order to express on the '
addressed "the 'immon man. emphasizing fact and action

( " walls of the gorernment buildings the social ideals oj the
over contemplatii'M and -en-itivitv. He never coaxes the Mexican Keroliition. The vounaer artists ol America are
27
idiisiiiiiis (ISl/ii'\ hare never been of the social reroliilion
lliiil our (oniilry iind ririlization arc iôing throniilt. and

l/ii\- Niiiild he caiivr In (.(/(/c.v.v t/icsc idea.'! in n /icniKnicnl
(III Idiiii . . .
I III- ;i|i|"al w a- iiii( \ icw icl iiii-Mn|iMllirl iialK ; 1 .D.K. Iiaij
alivaiK liail aiti-l- nil llif |pa\nill wliili- i;ii\ i-rimr nl New
^ Ol k, \-. lllc- l)|-|ll|-'-'-i(l|| lllT|l|-lU-ll. lill- ^ll\f|-linil-|ll -ll'|l|lCll
ill w iili ilir I'lililir W iiik>()f.\rt Pnijfii ill I'l.'H, (•lllllllli^-illll-
il|H iiiiiiaU anil lii-U-iblltillJi a I kill iiii Hi\ria - hf-rn

liTliiiii|iir III rrri[iii'iits of comniihîdri.-. . 1 lif Wmk- i'm-
Liic-- \iliiiiiii-.|iali()ii iW'.P.A.' began the Federal \ri l'iu|rri
Irr lliili;ri- (aliill in 1')35. expanding: ilir i\|ii--- "I
riiiiiiiii--iiiii- III i-asi'l iKiiiiliili.'. scillpliire. and iiiIht iiu-dia.
ill add i I inn I lie 1 anil .Secuiitv Adtniuistialion (iiniini---iiiiii-il
an r\iiii-'i\ 1- |ili(it()gia])liir project, dofiimenliiii: dir riniii-

ii\ - mral aiea> and workers a* well a- tlte pligln nl die
III lian |)oor [tig. 2.') |.
1 lie projecl [irodiKi-d liiindieds ol tlioii>aiid> nl wmk-.

and li\ 1 '»•>() il einploved around 0.000 artists, liall'm iliin-
i|iiaili r- nf iheni li\iiiu in New ^dlk. .\ltlloiigll the >li]penil
|irii\iiled niiU II gh III gel 1 1\ nil around S2.^ a week .
i;ii\ei iiinenl |iairniiage oi'l'ered arli^t? dignity, a --en-e ol

\ ahie. and a plaie in .Vnierican .society, h also tunned a real
rill in nun il\ nt ailisis Ini- tlie first time. e.specialK in ( .reen-
wiih \ illai:e in \eV Wnk. Stuart Davis. Jack-mi I'nllnrk
W illeiii lie K ling. \rs|iile (iorkv. I.ee Kiasiiei-. |)a\iil
and Mark Knllikn — ninsi of tile key arti-.lMif die \e\\

>niilli.
2.9 Dorothea Lange, White Angel Breadline, Son Francisco, 1 933. \nik "scl — all winked on the jtroject. tliosr wlmsr
I
Photograph. inrnine nr eniplnx ineiil -latus disqualified lliein leli like

Courtesy of the Dorotheo Longe Collection, Oakland Museum, Gift of Paul Taylor
S.
oulea.st.s. Barniii Newman, who had a teaching: jnh in die
Depression -aid. i paid a severe price for not heini: mi die

Project w iili die niliergu\M in their eyes I wasn't a |iaiiiiei : 1
ilidnl haxeiliflaliel.""
2.10 Pablo Picasso, Guernica, May 1-June 4, 1937, Oil on
canvas, lift 6in x 25ft Sin (3.5 x 7.82m).
Collection, Prodo, Modrld. © 1994 Artists Rights Society (ARS], New York/SPADEM. Pons
28
iiiilil l"'i''. ( .ii'.'ênheim rciiiilarlv o|ii-iiid liidi-finiiive

The Availability of European Modernism
c'olii-ction ol Kandiii-k\ - aii-lraclinii- lo \ nnn;^ arli-l- in his
D>':<|iil('
lilt' \\ i.>li aiiKiim ?ti iiuiiix |iii>iiiiii<'iil liuiiro on llic New ôrk a|iarimeni from l''.3()oii.'
iiiifrwar New \uv\i. ail scent' m ilnow tilT the \\ei<ilii nl Picasso- (ii/ermra had parliciiiai iiiipui laiicc lo
I .in't>|)('an nioili>riii>in. its prcM'iiit' iiicw ilranialically in tin- \(iiiiiger |)ainli'rs because il combined a |«)werfiil pol-
lliiitiesiii New \ork. i lie tVum<liiiL'<>l llie Mii-eiini nl Mniliiii ilical statement with the best Kiirojiean foniial sophistication,
Vn in l'*2') made available masriiiliient works liy (^t'zaiiiie. riie title refers to ihe lillle Spanisii low ii nl ( .in riM( a. w iiicli
Si'iiiai. van (inirli. Gauguin. riinloiise-I.aiiirec. Picasso. die (German Liifliraffc. under din-ciioii- Imhii iIu- >|iaiii-li
Matisse, ami Lesier as well as special exliihilion- ul c iilii-.|-.. Nalioiiali-I (î-iii-ra! I raiico. |r\.-|i-(l in I'M". \\i|iinL; oiii
^nriealisis. abstract artists, and Baiiliaiis art and ilc-imi. lie I 111(1-1 of llir drirn-ric-- ii\iliaM |
m i| iillal ioll. Wlirn llie
\ alemine (iaileix . wliicli had iield |)arliciilarl\ iiolalilc He]piibliian (.oM-rnnient of Sjiain in the midst of ci\il war
-liows of Matisse and Brancii~i in the iwenties. exhihili-cj wiili franco commissioned Picas-o to jiaint a work for its
Picassos enoriiioiislv influential paintini: ditviiiitd tii:. pa\ilion at the Paris E.V[)osition Lnirerselle of 19.'57. the
-MO; ill 19.30. aflerwhich the MuseiiiuolModern An k.pi ii arii-i re-ponded with Giwrnica. The inomimental scale and
on display continuously lor nearly forty year^. pow work, and the use of a cubist
erful e.\pressioni.sm of the
Tiie New .\rt (Circle <faller\. founded by ,1. B. NcMinanii in \ocal)iiian fora tragic theme, set an ini|)ortant ])recedent for
l''2.S. was anioiiiz the earlie-t bui li\ no means the only [ilace American anists. Its influence can be seen in the use of a
where voiini; arlisis iniglil --ee ( ,erinaii e.\])ressionisiii — gi'and scale with a shallow cubist depth in the great drip
iiicliidiiiL' works 1)\ Beckniann. Klee. and Kircimer. In paintings of Pollock, for example [figs. -1. 1 and 4. -5 — 1. 10 : it
addition the (>allaliii (iollettion —w illi work- by e/anne. ( underlies lie Kooning's black paintings of the mid fonies
Seiirat. the cubisis. Moiidrian. aiirl such artist- of liie [fig. 3.4-3 and Mothei"weH s "Elegies "
figs. 3.33 and -3.34].
Hiissian avant-garde as Nauni Gabo and El Lissitzky — w tni SuiTealism also profoundly affected yoimger anists even
on lt>an to New ^ ork L iiiversity in Vi ashington S(|iiare: and before the arrival of the siinealists themselves. Some of it
although the Mn-eiiin of Non-Objective Painting iaiir in IkiiI lieen imported secoiulhaiid into .\merica in the thirties
become the Solomon R. Giii:i;rniicliii Mu-i-iun did rim o|iiii li\ -mil |iaiiiter- a- Peier Bliime and Loiii- Giiglielini. who
2.11 (left) Joseph Cornell,

Untitled (The Hotel Eden:, 1945.
Assemblage with music box,
15>^ 15=8x43, in
(38.1 X 39.7 X 12.1cm).
Notional Gallery of Canodo, Oltowo.
c The Joseph ond Robert Cornell Memorial
Foundotion,
2.12 (opposite) Jackson Pollock,

Male and Female, c. 942. Oil on 1
convas,6ftlin x 4ft lin (1 .85 x 1.25m).

Collectron, Philodelphio Museum of Art. Gift of
Mr. ond Mrs. H. Goles Lloyd. 6 1994 Pollock-
Krosner Foundolion/Artists Rights Society (ARS|,
New York.
29

30
liihi ^niiiii'il ill I".iii(>|i<-. riic .Iiili.'ii I.i'w (ialli-iy Itciiaii :i\iiiil-i;Mnli' lliai iiirn|iri~i-i| aiii-i- oiil-idr -in n-ali-ni a-
i-xliiiiiliiii; llif woik and |(iilili>liiiii:
laiin|.caii -iinrali-i-. well. When Hnhni cdilrd ilir lii-i caialoo lui l'rui:\
iiaii>laliiiii-. (il dii'ir wririii;:- ai ilir nid of I<>:!|. ih.- ( .iin-niliciin - \ii ..I Mil- (cninix -alhrs in I'l-lJ he
I'icrrr Mali>>«' (âlliTV >lio\\fil \lin> and \la--(in lidni iiiilndnl i,ai~ and iiianilr-mr-. Ii\ rnlnn-i-, li\ (.al">aiid
'»•?•">. and the Mux-mil lit' MculiTii
1
\il - ini|iurlaiil 'Dada. I'r\-nir li\ i5in Nn IimI-mh and Mimdiian. in a<ldiii<<n in
Miirt-aliMH. anil r"aiila>lir An "
rxliilpiliun nl' 1<>.'5() madr a ilio-r li\ -in ivali-i- I iii-i \i |i and Inin-rll .
-iiiniiiiii: array nl' llii'ir |)aimini;-. oliji-ct-. and wiiiiiii;- 1 la\ iiii; ilir arii-i- |Mi-..iiall\ on ilir -c mr in \i\\ ^ oik
axailalilf rir-lliaiiil. In l'»42 liii' • \rli-l- in l,\il.-' -how at \\a- \i r\ diHriinl Iroiii |ii-i lookiii- ai work- \<\ dinii in dir
Pii-nr \lati-M' and l)lirliam|i- "I li-l Pa|irr- ol>inrrali-iir' occa-ional -how or lollciiion. Thr ljii(i|.raii niodrni-
-liow. -taL'fil in a loniHT \r\\ N oik inan-ion. wnv al-o |iio\ idi-d a roni|ii-lhiii: m-w inod.-l ol w hal an aili-l w a- lo
i-\i-i-|itiiniallyiiii|)(ii-taiil. ihrni an and ViU- wm- iii-.|.araMr and ih.-\ h\id ihi-
Thf Aiiii'ni;an> .Iom'|iIi Cunii'll and \i-hilf ( .ork\ lo hriiihnnrd (Ai-nnrr i\\,iii\ -Inm I
- a da\ . In ( on\ii-a-
whoin \\i- will ri'tiint in ('ha|itrr M hoili hriâii -how iiii; al lion w iih dir \ mn Vnicncaii- lhr\ al-o ini|ianril ihrir
.hlhi'ii l.r\\- i;allri\ w illi tlli- -nni-ali-l-. and lloni hi- lii-l iii-iLihl iiilo ihr iiioir -iilulr loinial roiKiin- o| |iaiiilini;.
rollai:i'- of l"."il Corii.-lj di'iiion-iiatf- liu- inlln.-nri' o| ihrri-li\ ini|ih(nl\ iiicoiiiaLiiiiL; ihiii onir ii|i lo ihi-
-iirn-ali-in— althoiiiili. a- In- wroii- in l'*."i() to \hivd Ban ai-lhnic lr\cl ol l.iiio|„-aii inodnni-in. \--o,iai iiii: wnh
ihr Din-ilor of iln- \in-i-iim of Modnii \n who oiiiani/i-d ani-l- i- a liincdionorfil wa\ for ihr \oiiiiu lo Iran |n-l
Dada. Minrali-in. and I anla-tir Vn" "I d I -lian- in the , lafl. hiil what it niran- m he an arti-l. I lir |Mr-ini ! of
ill.- -iilii-i>ii>iit)ii- and iln-ani llii'orir- of ihr -niii-ali-i-. '
'
thr I'aii-ian \aii;;naril in \rw \ ork liiialK -a\r \oniii;

( oriifll mill riimpli-x. iiieMneri/ini: -loi ir- with found oh- \iiii riraii- an o|i|ioniiiiii\ to -rr iliilii-ih.ind iiraiini: tin-
jri-i-. and iinaij;r>. a--t-iiil)li'il in tin- -rlf-coinainrrj inaiiical h-nilr -oil out of w liirh ihr nrw Ainn iraii a\ ani-ii.iidi- -irw .
wiirld- of liilii)xi'>. I Ir jo I in-|iiiation not oiiK in ihr Thr I .iiio|praii- loiiiid lilr in \rw N oi k i|iiiir ddfrivni
lanla-tii- lollaL'f- "f \la\ laii-l. wliirli hr -aw at thr .lulini jrom thai to wliirli lhr\ wnr arrii-loiurd. Pan- i- a rii\ of
l.rw (,allrr\ when il o|,rnrd in I "o 1 . hill al-o in ihr iiriohhoihood- and ihr \ italit\ of rarli iirii;lihorli Iiadi-
-iiiiM-iiir- and old rard^ In- -aw in thr -hop- aioniid I iiiir- air- Irom ii- rair-. ( on\ri-alion o\ri a iwodioin rn|i of
Square, in llie niii-Ii-llaliull-- [laiinnl on ihr rr ilini; of (, rand rofirr wa- an iiidi-|irii-ahlr in-rrdirnl of Paii-ian inlrllrr-
Ci-ntrai Slalion. and ill an\ ntiiiihriol uiliriidiinnon iliiii;:- nial lilr. Ihr inrmhn- of I'ari-ian an moxniirni- had
thai a lf» imaginativt- oxniuuk a- onhiiaix
iiiiiid tni<.dit . alwax- hri|nriiiril |iaitiinlai liaiint- in Pari-, ami for ihr
111 C:i.nieir.-> The lli,h-l Ijln,
liititledfir. 2. II for . -in r.-ali-l- il w a- tin- ( ah- ( \ i ano iirai Pii:allr al w liirli i lir\
i-\aiii|)lt'. the "Hotel Eden" seem- to hr a -to|i|iiiir plan- in a would run inm on.- anoihri alnio-i dailx ami mrjor in
niaiziral dream voyasre. filled with rxoiir hir.l- and -iraiii:.- |iioira.i.-il ili-i ii--i(in-. \ii\ \oiinr arii-i iiii.-ii--h-d in -iir-
M-ieiilifii-ilevire>. tle>eeui-ilelil>rrair|\ lo -iirM,--l a lall.-r.-.l r.-ali-m roiild -iiiipK ilr.p|i h\ ami atta.li Inni-.-lf lo llu-
Paradi-eallertiie Fall, liiikini; llii- work tootln-r hox.-- w hi. h rroiip. \.-w \ oik ha. I no -ii.li I radii ion: tli.- paii- of Id.- wa-
lefer III pimi-^lied loNi'i-- — Adam and E\e. Paul ami \irgiiiia loo fa-t and ili.- . ii\ too |)ii|inl(ni- lak.- a calV- -o, i,i\
tnim llie e|Kmyiiii)ii> i-"reni-li luixel. |>u|nilar in the iiiiir- |i.>--ililr. hi adiliii.>n tli.- arli-t- had t.i >.alt.-r lo fimi h.iii-int;
leeiilliceiilmy . Paoliianil FraiiceM-a from Dante .Tlie-wirl- .|iii.kl\ wln-ii ih.-\ aiii\i-il. w hi.-li efTerii\.-l\ iiirani dial no
inj: -|>iraliii tile ii|)|)er left may n-li-r III ihe //.;/.//) /A'//»- on.- n.-i-hh.irh I roiild h.- i.lrnlifi.-d with a parii. iilai
.ifj/irrc iif .Marcel Diii-|iam|). wiioiii ( ..rm-ll hrlrirmlril after iiio\i-im-iii. altlioni;li ( n.-.-nw ich \ illar.- would -. h.-.-onie
Du.liam|i^ renim to New \iirk in 1'4:^. ( ..rnrll nad wi.l.-U. a lo. n- for ihr \.-w \ ork ^. lio.il
e>]iei-iall\ in Freiieli literature, and had a faM-inalion wiih Iln- x.mni: \lii-.-iini ol \lo.l.-rii \n o|i.'m-d ii- ijooi- lo
HiilK wood Mars. But externally lie l.-d an utterly -im|ilr Iif.-. 1 1.- ih,- -in nali-l-. ami to -oiii.- rxt.-ni ili. .hilirii I .-x \ ami Pi.-i r.-
Ii\ed on I tiipia Pai-kway in Otierii- wilh an iii\ali.| hr.ilh.-r. Mali—.- :;all.-iir- liil|M-d idin| i.-ii-.iH' lor ili.- lo-- of iln-
hi- inollier. and Ili- L'randfather. Ih- larr.-ly -ii|i|ioni-il all of .--lahli-h.-.l Pari- in.-.-iini; |ila.-.--. Bin ili.- ino-i iiii|>..i laiii
them, lakiiii! ruiiliiie jol>- in the i.'arni.-iit indii-ir\ . ralh.-rinr -pot w a- thr pri\ al.- L;all.-r\ of P.-rr\ ( .iilii;. nil. nn.
lallr.l \rl ..f Tin- ( .-iilnrx. In I 'N2 al..n.- -h.- -Ii..w.-d w.nk
The Europeans in New York ''^ ^'p- '•'"-' '^'""- \iî""iilani^nN. \iariiii.-. oaii.
Biaiim-r. and ( .ia. -0111. -tli. Bin llii- \ri ol 1 hi- ( i-iiliir\ al-.i
Wh.n die turopean- iiiialK arri\.-d in |M-r-oii in \.-w ra\ .- .im--iiian .-\lii|iilioii- lo 1 h,- \iii.iiraii- .lark-oii Polloik
ôrk. Marcel Duchain|i and lli.- -iirrrali-l- li.-l.l tli.- Ii-._'.1_' I Ian- I lohnann. Mark Holliko. ( K fford Mill.
Iimelii.'lit.They were self-confideiil and lived holiemian William B.i/ioi.-- |fig.2.13. aiifl Roheri Moth. iw. 11 liu.
lite^^yle^. a- if money never worried iliem tlioiigli many of 2. 1-t . In a.l.lilioii there was liv then a Ira.liii.ni of \iiirri.an
them were e.xreedin<rly poor They coinmiinicaled a M'n>e of . •liltle iiiai,'a/iiie>
"
that w.-rr aciivrly pnlili-hini: \aiii;iiaid
ciinviction ah' nt the importance of art and of New ^.irk a- art. and the siirreali-t> -laitnl up -onu- <eem that when-\.-r ili.-\ w.-i.-
! and /// w .-re |)articiilarl\ -ijiiiificani Ih.- fii -1 i--iii- of / /cm-
was ipso fdcto t. renier. Moreoxer. Breton ami ili.- oihri rani.- 0111 in Sepiemlier ]''42 iiiider tin- .-.liioi -hip of ( hail.--^
-nrreali>l> hafi a roni; -eiise of li.-l.inLriliL' m a imifi.-d I l.-iiri F.n .1. \t fir-t it w a- in.i-ll\ lit.-iar\ in .iiaia. l.-i. hiil hv
31
The Sense of a New Movement in New York
v,^,A^
2.13 William Baziotes, Green Form, 1945-6. Oil on canvas,

3ft 4in .4ft (1.02 • 1.22m).
Collection, Whitney Museum of Americon Art, New York. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Somuel M
Kootz and excfionge. Photogroph by Geoffrey Clements, New York.
I'H-t II |iiii\ iilfil all iiii|iiiriaiii Imiiiii lur \iîial arli^l--. Piiilciidiiifiia in ilu- I liird \lanifi-N|(i ol Siin<'ali-.iii or
/ / / — lliiiiiuli il iiiil\ la-'leil liir iliiff i-.îii--. — fir^l a|i|ii-arf(l IJ-c" . and llii- \iiifi icaii-- RiilnTI .MollifiAM-ll. Hariild
ill .liiiif 1
''-f2 ami was erlitefl li\ a \ iiiiiiv; Anil riiaii înl|iliir l^nx-iiliiTi;. I.iniifl \\>r\. and William Caiins Williams,
iianifd Da\id I laiv. The I'rlitniial ^lall nf /// included 1 lii-uiiuh .sucli cullaliniaiii in- In the aallerie- and jniiinals.
Aiirlre Bi'elnn. \Ia\ l.iii-i. ami Marcel l)iirhain|i widi die presence of the Enr(i|ieaii nindei'iis ôon lli iwi reel inlci a
i-i>ntril)iiti(>ii- Irdiii ( laiide l.i^ i-Miaii--. Am In- Brenm die cln-.e liaison with the Miinii;er Ainei'ieans.

l''-f.'i lalk 111 die eiiiei i:em 1- ill ,1 new nii i\ el iiei 1 1 had ill that -.liiiw — ti lufther with iitliei--. Ill wliiini the imist
B\alieaiK liet!iin lo-|iifad in lln' New \iul an wnild. In iiii|iiiitaiil w t-re \\ illeiil de Koniliiii;. Hnliert Mntheiw t'll.
die -|iriMi: 111 l"-t.') the \ri iiiriii,( riiiinN i:allei\ iniiiiiiied a Barneti New iiiaii. Cilvfford Still, and l)a\id "imitli —
-liiiw lalleil \ Piiilileni Inr { i it ic-, elialleiiL:iiii; the ail |iriHlm-eil a Imdv (if wofk which placed .Vniericaii ..rt at the
pre-- 1.1 ideniih ilii- m-w '
ni.i\ eiiieni . I lie -hdw im hided Inrefiuni nl die international avaiit-gafde for the first time.
Will k- li\ die ali-traii -uireali-i- I Ian- \r|i. \mlii'- .\la--iiii. .\- a iiiiinp which thev never were in any sysi' uilic sense)
and Juan Mini, as well as by the \niei n an- Han- I lofinann. these .\inerieaii aitisi- raiiie In he kno\X' - "abstract
.lai L-iiii I'lijliiek. Vrshile Ciork). \diilpli (.iittlieb lfiii-.2.1\ expresîonj-i-' nv. as the artists themselve vferrerl. "the
and Mail Hmlik... Beiween l'»-t_' ami l'»."i(). the Americans New Nmk Selinnl.'
32
2.14 Robert Motherwell, Poncho WiUa, Dead and Alive, 1 943.

descrihinghimself for some time. Ironical K I lofmann. of I lie
Gouache and oil with cut-and- pasted paper on cardboard, 28 >^ 35' sin major New \ ork School artists, had the least in common w ith
X 91.1cm).
(71.1 the rest, \side from the difference in age and background, he
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Purchase. <ci Estate of Robert MotherwellA'AGA, New conlimicd in Itr |iii-nc(ii|iicd wiih the fonnal principles of
York, 1994.
Kiirn|ieaii iiindriiii^rn n\ cr and aliiiM' any con scions concent
w illi an iiili'nspccii\(' îilijeci iiKillcr.
K.xcepI lor llolniann. wlm wa^ lill\ when he Irfl
Commonalities and Differences Among the Germany and si.xty-five 1)\ die mid Imiif^. die arii^N nl die
New York School faced inan\ ol ilic ânic IninialiM'
Artists of the New York School
philosophical, and
ciilliiral.
ae--llietic i>-.ne-.. riie>e inchideil: the

lii^lonaii- ItcmEii ii-ni;: llic h nil ali-lijct r.\|iifs- ini|)erative of uncial rclexancc: e\iîentiali->ni: snrreal-
Arl li;i(.l llie
>ionism" at the end ot'W mid \\ in in n Irr in K;indiii>.k\

1 ists intere>t in die imcoiixioii^ mind Iraxeiicd li\ an
iind other Europeans who itaiiilcil jiliîriu il\ wiih cxpro- .American inatler-ol-lacliies>: die Me.vican influence; and
sionist bni.shwork. In a 1*)4(i re\ii\\ Im ihi- \(7/- inrkcr. the fonnal vocabiilaiy of Enro|)ean modernism — especially
Robert Cloates a[)[iliffl tlie term for ih<- lir-.l tiim- in die wmk Kandinksy's abstract expressionism of lOK) m |Ql4. \Ioii-
ol an .\ineriran ani->t of tlie forties wlien lie dix liln-d die drian. Picasso s (,'iirriiiiii. inieiwar cnlii^m. and aliîiact
'"
paintings of Hans h 'I'mann as "abstract E,\[iii>-'iniii-.i. surrealism. From ciibi>ni die\ look die -hallow jiii lure s|iace
I If ra[iiializeil tlie E to indieale that he regarded Hofinann's and the concern with the pictine [ilane. The biomorjihic
work a- a ty[)e nf |-!\|iressioni>in "
in the tradition of foniis and anlnmali-t elements came from siirrealisin and
Kandinsk). which - |)riii>elv Imw I Inrinann liail luiii Picasso's Willi nf ihr lliirtie-. Karh Kandin.-ky [fie.3.1^>l
33
l{( )M \\ ri(!ISM II -i>i> ligoiou^ ilrliniiiuii liiii ili'-i'm-- all anfin|ii here since it np again. It is a personality
will ttmie
nan iliai tran.-(en(l> rnlnne and liine. altliontili ilie paiadiizniaiic examples are and ^Titers of the laie
artists
eiizhteenili and earlv nineteenlli centuries, such as the Enirlish painter Turner and the poets Coleridge and
\\ordswonh. The romantic disposition favors the dynamic, the disordered, the contimious. the soft-focused, the
inner, the .seiisate world. The concept generally involves a faith in progress and change, the subversion of institutions,
and an emphasis on rlie inspired indi\ idiial in sonio special contact with nature. The roiiuintic is "toii iiiiicli of words
and sensations in hr a iii\ ~iic \ ci In- \ rarri~ for ilic iraii-cciidcnial ami iiiii\ ci-al. "
inspired >ome of die freedom of hrushwork and the |)ainterli- inrtuences to achieve a distinctive personal style, and all
iiess. aiifl his moral tone fueled the ethical seriousness of placed paramount emphasis on content or meaningful sub-
purpose. To these .\merican artists of the forties Kandinsky ject matter in their art. which was predominantly abstract
represented romantic emotionalism and spontaneirv. as except for that of de Kooning and Gorky . They took this
iijiposed to Mondrian. who stood for ~trict |)Ianiiiiii:. the stance in opposition to the widespread practice of a banal
ijcnial of personality, and intellect. Inrmalist abstraction dominated by the .\merican followers
-\lthough each of the New \ ork School artists responded of Mondrian Tfig. 2. 1 . hi addition they all strongly believed
differetitly to these sources, they were at roughly the same in the absolute individuality' of the artist, for which reason
-tage of personal development in a paiticular time the they imanimously denied the idea that they coalesced into a
forties and place New ôrk . E.xcept for Hofmann. they movement. Indeed all but Hofmann strenuously objected to
were all students in their rênties and early thuties w hen the tenii "abstract e.ypressionism. " which, they felt, linked
Benton and the Me.xicans were prominent in New York. A- them and abstract aitists of preceding
to the e.xpressionist
young men and women, many of them worked on the generations: by contrast they saw their work as arising out of
\\ .P.-\. — Gorky. Pollock. Krasner Lfig.2.151. de Kooning. unique acts of indi\idual introspection.
Rothko. Gottlieb. Giiston. and David Smith all did: but The aitists in this circle also had a general interest in
Motherwell. Hofmann. Kline. Still, and Newman did not. nuth as a source for the universals of the human psyche.
Moreover, between I'^H'l and l'^4f* all the aitists of the Tiiev looked to ancient Greek literatui-e as well as to
New \ork School except Hofmann transcended their early iiriiniti\e cuhures for a more authentic connection wiiii
2.15 Lee Krasner, Whi>e

Squares, c. 1948. Oil on
canvas,24 >• 30in (61 ^ 76.2cmi
Collectron, Whitney Museum of America-
Art, New York Gift of Mr. ond Mrs. B H
Friedman. Photogropfi by Geoffrey
Clements, New York, c Pollock-Krosne'
Foundation/Artists Rigfits Society ;ARS
New York.
34
2.16 Burgoyne Diller,

Third Theme, 1946-8. Oil on
canvas, 3ft 6in » 3fl6in
(1.07 1.07m).
Colleclion, Whitney Museum of
American Art, New York. Gifl of Moy
Waiter. Pfiologropfi by Geoffrey
Clements, New York, ci Estate of
Burgoyne Diller/VAGA, New York,
1994
(III- mi(li'i-|\itii.' Ii)|-(i-- (il ii;iimi-. t-.|)i-iiiill\ liiiinan ii;iiiii-.-. Iiiitj-lniim-t I iln i m^li is\ chic nifiaiiii n |iliiiî- ii--iiii: -.iiiiial-
I
ihaii contemixM-ary W c>iciii -.(M'ii-i\ ^ccnifd m |)i(i\ir|c. i-l aiiniiiiali-.iii . 'Ilii> |inicciliiic was diicciK ai ndtK w illi
Around 1940 Pollock and Hodiko in |iarlicnlar hail hcnnn ihc |iifnnMs ,,| hi- IricmU dc Knoniiii;and I'ollnck. whiin-cd
rcailini; the llii-orif- ol llit- |i-.\cliiianal\ -.1 (iail .liini:. wlin |iainlini; a- an acr i il' di-ci i\ ri\ lathcf diaii ii'| ii i--.rnial iiiTi
|iu>iulali-<l •arclici\|)i-- in die indixidnal unci in-cinii- w hicli -ncli |ii cdciciniinalinn iiii|ilir- . Mndiri w ell- | n-i -,is-
wliicil bclontred toa (•ollccii\c iincon-iioii-." cnnnccliiii: all Icnl -cn-c nf Iniiiial ciiniiniiii\ wiih liciich nn idriiii-ni.
ol liimiaiikiiid. and which inanirc-n-d ihcni-cKc, in ni\ ili i-|iciiall\ \laii--r. -ci Inin a|iari I ruin dinidiii-.. and miK lU'
I'ollock had iitidci-L'oin- -onic .liiiiuian iht-rapx. am! in Ki inniniiccnlcn-d hial Irnlioii Im iiiusi uf hi- career oil die
L'l-iieral the w-rithl,2> of liolli .luiii: and IVeiid were a ina|iii Iniinan I'iiiiire. .'^niilir- Inrnial relali -nireali-t -lyle
lojiic of discii»ioii ainoni.' edii.aled |ieo|ile in ih.' Inriie- remained clo-e ihroneh die hiriie-. Inn like Hohnanii he
anil lilties. Myih- of rehirdi and rem-wal had a ]paiticiilarl\ cnm iined hini-eU le— w idi |i-\cli(ilou;i( al iiiiro-|ieclion than
keen anraciion fm- llie arli-i- of ilie New \ink School a- die mher-. \iid Newman - auiomati-i d He- in ilie earl\
a nietajihor for dieir increa-iiii/K -|Hinlane(iu> nielhod- lorlie- ra|iidl\ <j.\v\\ -u in\iil\i-d widi nieia|i|i\ -ic- thai
ol paiiMinu. e\|ilorinLi die indi\ idiial nncon-cioii- -eenied at lie-t taiiiien-
\t-[ for all that ll, \ had in coinnion. the cenlral fii;ure- lial. e-|ieciall\ alter I'Ht).
ol the New \ork Sclioo; had iin|iorlaril |.hiloMi|>liical differ- llamld Ho-enhert; w ho w a> as nilich a |iail of die ofoiip
ences too. Hofinaiiii. foi e\arn|>le. ili-liked -iinealisin and a- an\ of the arii-l- once reinaiked that the onl\ thing on
-liiiiiiied the p.sycholojiiral crieiilation of lno^t of the other-. w Inch llie-e arti-t- coidil all ajiiee wa- that there was nothing
(.orky centered hi> aesthetic on a hidden but predefined im which thexconld agree." and in hindsight the differences
suhjeci matter in the nianiler of Kaniliiisk) . which he in llieir sl\ les and theories nf an -eeni a- |ironiiiiiicei| a- die
35
similarities. In a broad sense their radical individiialiiy sKiod wiped oui the surrealists' theatrical distance. Increasingly
in op])()sition to liie einerjience of ina>s <Miliiirc. wliicli Pollock. Motherwell, and bv the end of the forties Smith
l{o>.>iil)er.; (liscnss.-d in a 1Q48 essay .nlill.d ilir H.nl nl viewed automatisin simply as a more direct means of
liulc|(t'nclcni Minds." He wrote: conveying the subjective e.xperieiice itself. For them content
was intrinsic to the act of |)aintiiig or putting fonns
. . . f'.i(irtl\' in so far as he touches the roniinon situation oj
together, in the case of Smith in that the process unearthed
man in the twentieth centiin: Kajka goes against the
a vein of intensely felt experience on which the artist
common experience: he undermines the self-confidence oj
deliberated in |)aint. The encounter was never oriented
offuidl high cnllnre. u-hich rests on a system oJ assumptions
either to past sources psvchological or art historical nor to
which are as 'fa'-U io recdity" as the formulas oj beharior in
an anticipated future: the artist li\ed the painting eutiielv
a best seller: aiul for this reassuring common experience he
ill the present, and tin- obiect wa> li-ft over as an aiiilact of
substitutes only the tension of an indiridual struggling jor
that e\ent.
self knowledge, a clouds- aiul painful seeing and not-seeing.
In this sense a ])ainting by Pollock, de Kooning, or Kline
Along this rocks road to the actual it is ordypo.'isible to go
embodied a spontaneous act of origination that defined the
Indian file, one a I a time, so that "cni" means "breaking up
style of the painting, the identity of the artist, and even art
the crowd — not "reflecting" i/s e.vperience.
"
'*
itself, in the process of ])ainting. These aitists turned the

coiue|)tual enacmient into an object. Thev sought an
embodiment making order out of
of the individual's act of
Automatism and Action in the Art of the chaos, but not the order Mondrian had. These artists
itself, as
conceived each work as an uncompleted thought, still in
New York School
process, and their canvases engaged the immediacy of the
the ideal device for artists so |)resent -Rith such directness and spontanein' that todav.
Amcoiuenied
aii-m
with
-.i-i-mril tci l)e
radical individualism. The artists of the nearly half a century later, they look as if the paint is still wet.
New \ork School viewed it as a technirpae for generating Ill 19.">2 Harold Rosenberg coined the tenn "action
form that did not impose style, hi the beginning Pollock. painting. "
modelled on his intimate knowdedge of de
\lotherwell. Roihko. and Gottlieb used automatisin to create Kooning s working process. His essav. "The -\inerican
liinn- \\liirli thevwould develop through free association as Action Painters."'' brought into focus the paramount con-
ilir ali-iiac I and Masson had done.
surrealists Matta. Miro. cern of de Kooning. Pollock, and Kline in particular though
Then in tlie mid forties Pollock, and increasingly Motherwell Rosenberg did not single them out bv name with the act of .
loo. departed from the siuTealist concept by using automat- |iainting. Lee Krasner [fig. 2.151. Elaine de Kooning, and
i-'Ui as a device for ol)jectifying an intense conscious e.xperi- .loan Mitchell might also have been included, though their
cnce as it was imfolding. rather than as a means of bringing work was not then discussed in this comiection. For the
Inrtii unconscious material for association or of using action painter the canvas was not a representation but an
thought processes to modify imager)
mil nn-.cioiis . extension of the mind itself, in which the artist thought liv
Rothko abandoned automatism entirely as lie eniereil changing the surface with his or her brush. Rosenberg saw
his manire sr\'le in the late forties: and it remained only as a the artist's task as a heroic e.xploration of the most profound
backgroimd source in Gottlieb's work. In Gorky's mature issues of personal identity and exjierience in relation to the
work from 1944 he was selecting his subject matter in a large questions of the human condition.
ill-liberate classical fashion, using automatisin only to The model of (jreek tragedv was often raised as a
ramiuiflage and enrich the images. Hofmann. Kline, and ile meiajilior liir ilii^ heroic feat of introspection, although it
KoDiiiug had never picked up on the suirealist technique, \\a? iinjKiriant us a couscions prototvpe onlv for .Newinan.
although the spontaneit\ of their improvisations resembled Motherwell, and the early Rothko among the major aitists of
the gestural freedom which Pollock and Motherwell gleaned the New York School. Like the tragedy of Oedipus, which
lioin automatism in the later forties. In the mid forties the mitolils as the protagonist lives tlu'ough each episode, what
artists of the New York School gradually stopped evoking ilie about him or herself takes the
|)ainter's actions reveal
classical nivili- in which both smTealist artists and the artist by suiprise. Rather than dominating events with a
existentialist writers made frefpient recourse; and thev preordained scheme, the action painter throws him or herself
looked beyond siuTealism toward a subject matter of even in with them and the art theoiy emerges only in hindsight. In
more immediate and personal introspection. To the extent 1 *);5Q Breton wrote a widelv discussed article for the last issue
ihat the artists of the New \ork School reached universals of of the French surrealist magazine Minotaure called "The
the human psvche thev did so as a bv-produci of the search Prestige of Andre Masson. In it he discussed "risk" and
"
lor self. |iorrraved art as an "event. the significance of which derives

"
Wlieie the surrealists attemjded tu ili-iuii-iil llie \ iewei- not from its cpialitx" as a finished object but from its power of
and ])rovoke unconscious revelation--. Inr wliirh they sought revelation. He too had in mind the model of classical tragedy
|iaiallel> in the mvths of anti([uit\. tlir arli-l- of the New a> well as contemporaiT existentialism, and this essay no
^l||k >rli(Mi| iiiiniMi awav from ilic \ii'\\i'i- ahiiL'tilicr and diiiilii infliii-iicefl Rosenberg s idea of action painting.
36
Action and Existentialism
Til.'
I).|in>-ii.iiaii.l ihr W.I* A., ilir S|)aiii.-.li ( iv il War. and
Wdilil War II i;a\f ri,-<e to |>()liliial aciixi-in and a
Mifntalilv (>r action. I'olloc k. ili- Kdoriini.'. and ollii-i arli~i~ in
llicir lifclt' t'.\pie>sf(l tlli> widi a -l\lf in wliiili tin- aili-l
dftiiit'ii art ill the art of inakiii>: it. No pail ot tiic |>|•lH•e^^ in
an action |)aiiuin!,' i> |)iirclv tcciiiiical: cvciTtiiiiif; i> a

nieaniiiiiliil i.'t'.stiiie iii>f|iaialilt' IVom llie l)iof;ia|)li\ ol die
artist, accoidiiit: to Rosciiix'fg. Likewise, in liie conleni]Mir-

ai\ wi-itiiiiis oi" .lean-Paul Sartii'. action wa-- die mean- i<\
knowin;: oiieselt in lelalion to the world.

In an es>ay ol I''44 Sartre tlie leailini; postwar existen-
tiali,--t explained: in a woifl. man mii-i create lii.s own
essence: it i> in throwini; liiiiisell imo ilie world, in -.nfleriiii:
it. in sinmiiiinw with it. that — little li\ liiile — In- drlines
hiinseir."'" In his fiction Sarlie w lote ahoiil situations ratiier
llian characters, as in 'F/ic U all a classic short stoiTof 19.'^*l
where a confrontation with death causes the characters lu
ree.xperience e\er\ tliiiii.' as if new. The dull lerror of the

ahsiird in the novels and short stories of Franz Kafka aKn
created an existential dilemnia lor liis characters that
demanded a fundamenlal reihinkini; of experience. This
sense of starting fiom scratch wiili oiil\ immediate experi-
ence parallels the commitmenl of the New ^ oik School
artists to the tm|)iemedilated act of painting.
Like ahsiract expressionism, e.xistentialism was also a
iion-mo\-ement. The major e.xponeiits of existentialism —
."soren Kierkegaard. Kvodor Dostovevskv. Friedrich Nietz- 2.17 (above) Clyfford Still, Untitled, ]945. Oil on canvas,
sche. Rainer Maria Rilke. Franz Kafka. .Martin Heidegger. 42% xSSysin (108 X 85.7cm).
Museum Art, New York.

Karl .laspers. and .lean-Paul .Sartre — were so concerned with
Collection, Whitney of American Gift of Mr. and Mrs. B. H. Fnedrr
69.3. Photograph by Geoffrey Clements, New York,
inili\ ithialitv and the uni(jueness of subjective e.x])erience
that all of them except Sartre rejected the term as well as

2.18 (opposite) Franz Kline, Untitled, ^948. Oil and collage on
the idea that they belonged to anv school of thoughi.
paperboard mounted on wood, 28' 8 " 22' Jin (71 .4 x 56.5cm).
Kierkegaard, w ho deliberately a\ oided systematic argument Collection, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Gorden, Smithsonion Institution, Washington,
in his writings, asserted thai DC. Joseph H Hirshhorn Foundation, 1966. Photograph by Lee Stalsworth.© Estate
Gift of the
of Franz Kline/VAGA, New York, 1994.
'tin' indindiiar IS ihc cdtviionlhrniiicli iihirli. in ii ri'liiîoiis
respect, tills aire, all liiston: the liiiitiaii race as a irliole niiisl
pass. And he irhn stood at 'rheriiiopylae iras not so secure in

Socratics'" because he l)elie\ed that Latin mistranslations of
his position as I who stood in defence of this narrow defile,
Greek thinkers had vitiated all subsequent [)hiloso])hy. This
'the indiridiial. ". . . throiiich which, howerer. no one can
was an e\pres,i(iii nj Heidegger's sense of urgency about
pass e.reept by heconiinii the indiridiial.
'
starting o\ei liom one s own inmiediate experience, for an

in \otes jroin the I nder^raund I)osto\evskv put forwaid aiiilieiiiiciix in philosojihical thought that jjarallels the new'
individuality, no matter how perverse or tormented, as the woili! consciousness of the aiiists of the New York School.
highest good: Nietzsche wnjte: "Noone cancoiistrucl lorxoii f lom the point of \ iew of postwar .\merican art.
the bridge upon which [ireciselv vou must cross the sireani of existentialism hail most significant influence froin 1945
its
""''
life, no one but von vourself alone. and 1940. when ihe wuiks of Kaflâ. .Sartre, and then
riie existentialists rejected systems ol belief and they Heiflegiier liegaii m appear in English. Kierkegaard. Dos-
shared a dissalisfaclion w ith traditional |)hilosoph\ as being io\e\sk\. anil Nietzsche wi-re all available in translation
shallow, academic, and. worst of all. remote from the earlier and had alreaiK had an enormous effect on modem
immediacy of life. .|as|)ers. who disliked all doctrines, artand thought. Sartre s preoccupation with dread, failure,
ihouglit that gcniiiiie phiiosojihv must well up from inside a and death, his focus on anxier\- and ambiguity, and most of
mans individual i \istence. 1 le regarded reason as siibphilo- all his search for a direct and spontaneous encounter with
sophic and declared that philosopliv begins onl\ where ones|.|t characterized all the existentialist writers. .\ j)ersoii
reason fails. Heidegger insisted on going back to the jire- liisi exist-, in .Sailre s \ iew . then line encounters onesell. and
37

38
onlv rlieii iloes one detino nni--i'ir. \^ il I'lnliiirkiiiL' rnnii ceiiler ol die |iicliiie w illi a la/or. rolled ii up and lel'l.""
|ii'ciisely this jxisilioii on Ih'IkiII oI ilic ;i( lion painn r-. B\ I'M."., when he , amc ha.k I.. New \n,l. Mill was
1 larold RostMilierit asscncd in I'M" iIko cmcIi aili-.l i~ paiinini: w lial seemed like- cidss-secl ioiis cil iêoli inical sirala
l;iiall\ aware lliat only wliar lie c (inîiiici^ lniii-.rir will i\rr willi jagged jieaks crackini: ihroiiLih s| lal ilical ions ol color
III- real to liini.""" SiinilarK MhiIutw rll ilc-ciilii-il iIh' aho\e dieni (HI a \erlical plane lig.ll.l"" . I liesi- Imiiis
al):>trart e.\|)res-<ioni-'l > rr-.|)on-.(' lo niodriii lilc
'
in 1 ''.")! a-. del i\ ed I roll I Mill s i'\piessi( ii lisi ic lignies iil die I hill ies a id I
"
. . . rel>eilion>. iniii\ itlnalislic. umonxenlional. M'n>i(i\c. relaiii an ohscnre sense nl Inimaii presence willioiil.
iirilalile . . . (Iii> allilnde aro-e Iroin a leeiini.' ol' jjeinij: ill al howe\er. Iieing lepiesenlaliiHial in e\en die mos| indirect
ea>e in du- nni\<-r--c' ... 1 lie nei-d is lor li'll i'\|prrieni e. "' sense. I he composiiidns <le|\ s\innieti\ and e\eii seem lo
deiix ihe liiiiils (i| die caii\as. ihiis exokin^; a sense ol
Clyfford Still
hoimdiessiiess and piimaix Imki-. In l''")l Hciihko said.
"Still expresses die I lagii-religioiis ihama which is generic
Modierw i-li
Nodranialically
einliodied
arli>l
ilian CKI't'ord
>
Siill.
(iiaratliTi/alion nioic
Still wa^ [,-.\\. ;i
Id all in\ ills a
me. Stills
I all
piiiiiiial
limes,
dramas
mi mailer w here
are all
ilie\
an exleiisinn
occ iir .
nl
. . loi-
ihe
[laranoid eliaracler. wlio ln'lie\ed dial lir wimld iliaiii;i- du- (.n-ek P('rsc/>lii)iif nivtli. \s he liiniseH has i-\pressed ii.
w Olid witli I lis |)aiiiliiigs: ii' sniiieoiii- inadr one laUr ^\r\i in his pailltilliis aie Hl die Karlli. die naimnd. and ol
I'ont'inniim tliis. the relalion'-lii|i w iih ^lill \\;is |iirii|iiloii-.|\ ihcBecrealed.'"-^

and irrevocahly oxer. Bhini ]iiononii( eiiirnl- like |iaiiilinL; is In des( rihing the experience ol painting. Siill |poitra\ ed
"a matter ol conseienee. and "aiix lool can |iiii eoloi on himself as if jiosscssed and spiritually iransportefl: "\ great
canxas. — coiixeyed the impression dial lie saw liiiiiscH as free jo\ smges through me when I work. " lie wrote. "And as
the anoinled |iio|ihfl of |iaiiiliim and dial his riio<lel was the lihies iir ie<|s m- hlacks leap and i[iii\fr in their rentioiis
.John Brown, imi ( hrist. -I ie iisi-d I eir<ir ladies." Moiheiwell amhience or rise in austere thrusts to carrx their [jower
reealled. lur e\aiii|ile. in his .lai^nar he had a passion lor inlinileK hounds of die limiling field. 1 nioxe
lie\oiiil die
cars Still had diixen onl
-alilornia: he wauled a Iroin ( wiih diem and find a resurreciion from the moribund
'
|iaintiiig itack minor New ^ oi k School
IVoin Ossorio la o|i]iiessioiis that held me only iiours ago. hi Still's mature '
painter and patron and Ossorio had said no. Siill did\ e oiii painiing die complete ahsorjition of the figinaiixe elements
lo I'.ast Hampton when Ossorio wasn home: a sci\aiit lei I |ir(i\ ides a metaphor tor the fusion of sell and nature. This
him in. Ie wiMil iiilo die lioiisc and ciil a liii: |iiece onl 111 die
I hisidii amplities die image ol the ailisi as a microcosm ol
2.19 Franz Kline, Chef,

1950. Oil on canvas,
4ftl034in ^6ftlV2in
(1.48x 1.86m).
The Museum of Modern Art, New
York. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Dovid M.
Solinger.® Estate olFronz
Kline/VAGA, New York, 1 994.
39
<i
2.20 Mark Tobey, Universal Field, 1 949. Tempera and pastel on Franz Kline
cardboard, 28 44in(71.1 • 111cm).
1'' came to action painting in
Collection, Whitney Museum of Amencon Art, New York Purctiase 'c- 1 994 Artists Riglits Fiaii/ Kline lig-..2. (land 2. 1
Society (ARS), New York/Pro Litleris, Zurich. F'-fi) from an e\|iii-.-,iiinist stvle of figure painting,
without working throngli the ciiliist and Miitcalist .stages

Irniii which so inaii\ nl the other New ^ll|l^ School artists
Mil 1 11 If llnniiL;li w 1 1 id I f<i-,inii- toiTP^ --iiriiv :iiiil il iîlmililli-^^ cMiKcd. Kline irrcw lip in iiiirtlieas|i-rii Peiins\ l\ ania and his
inllliriiccil li\ llic ^liJiiKilli^lll III llir llliliails Iriiiii Stills sicplallicr was a railmad roreinan. Particular trains — like
li;ili\r IcuiiiM, lllf I'iirilir linil liw i--,| ih.' (ihief"— as well as s[)ois that Kline loved in the
landsiape of the Lehigh \alley recur persistently in the titles
of iiianv of his later paintings. As a boy he enjoyed watching

Adolph Gottlieb
the Trains speeding bv. and he later captured that snisr nl
Aili>l|ili (.uiilicli licoan iiiiiiitiiii: lii^ |)iit(igra|ili.-- fig. \elocitv and mass in motion in the bnishwork nl his
_'. I .iriiniKJ I'm. ami in În-^-îiig tlie importancp of paintings. T\picall\ Kline siailcd his paintings l)\ tirst
ciinifiil. Ill' NiM liiin-i-lf a|iai 1 Irniii iln- |per\-asivp formalist setting down tin- iiioxcnicnt with fast gcsuiial strokes in
aliîrailinii nl llir mill-, ill I'H-i (.iilllifli and Rotiiko black and then cutting back the black w itli wliiti-. mndil'x iiig
collalioralcil on a Iriirr lo ilir .\cir ](trk '/'i/ncs in wliicli llie\ and clarifvitig the idea. The |)aintings concern weight and
proclaimed: "Tlieif > im -uiii thing as good |iainlinL; ahoni moM-ment rather than conlntiis nr foniis.
notliing. "" Tlif idi'a nt iicaling free-associali\i' f|iiîidi'^ in b.laine de Koniiing a friend since l')-+.i recalled that
boxes caini" linin iln- êfjiiential narrative traiiif^ in iaii\ ariutnd 1**4(") Kline enlarged sniiie nl' his (|ni(k bnish
Italian Renaissance ]iaiTi tings, Frf)m a comiiosiiiunal |iiiinl ol sketches in an n|ia(|iie prnjeclnr and "a Iniir li\ li\e inch
view this allowed an isolation and î Iiaiiriix nf s\ nilmls briisli iliawing nf die mckiiig chair ... Innnied in gigantic
that paralleled the ninltipliiilv ul lr\rK in llic nnrniisiiiin-- black sirnki's which eradicated aii\ image, the simkes
minfl. and a-- a luniial drMci- niadr it iiussililr in uni- e\|iaiidilig as eiililies in iheillseKes. imrelated In aii\ realilN
aiitomali-.iii tn-i-K wliilr ai tin- saiiii- tiiiif inainlaining bill dial nf their nw n existence ... Irniii llial da\. Iran/
ciinlrnl ii\ IT llir pirtnrial sirnrinri'. Kline's st\ le of painling I'liaiiged ci mipleti'K .
" Klines
40
powerful gesnires. ciiaracItTi-licalh lilack mi wliitr .mil

liiij:t' ill scale, are a kiiul of gram I inaiiilr-iu uT ihr \i\\ \ mL
Si-|iiii>l -. i-ni|ilKi~i- III! llir ilirrii r\|iii---ii m i il |ici-i malils .
Friends In and Around the New York School
Tlir' arii--!-. of ilif \r\\ ^ (irk >ilii"il iiu-i iiiturinalK. iinl

liri|iirriil\ . in ci-rlaiii liar- like llieCedar Tavern jn-l
.iliii\ r \\ a-liini:tiin >i|naii- . in aninnial- and cafetena-. or in
-tudiu- aruuiid (ireenw icli \ illage. The critics (lleinent
( .rernlieri:. 1 and Tlionias Hess, as well as
larold Rosenl)erg.
tile an lii-iorianMeyerSchapiro. were an integral part of tills
iiiiwii. (ireenberg — writing chiefly for the Xation and
Pariisaii Review — liked Hofmann's "laws" and attacked

-111 realism for reversing the anti-pictorial n-end of cuh-
isniand abstract art. He criticized Mondrian's Brnadiniy
Boosie n oogie as wavering and awkward and denoiniced
Kandinsky for his non-cubist picture space. \^ riting in tiie
\iiti(>ii in 194-1. he admonished: "The extreme eclecticism
now pie\ ailing in art i- imiiealtliv and it should be counter-
"'"^
at led. e\en at tile I'i-k nf ilogmatisiu and intolerance.
Thougii seemed to
lie want eveiyone to march in -tei). he
often demonstrated a keen eye for fomial qualitv.
Rosenberg came from a literaiy background and loved
to defend intellectual values deep into the niglit. Like the
existentialists he championed individualitv and the un-
e.xjiected and he felt genuine svmpathv with the creative
sntiggle of artists. Instead of laying down the law to artists,
as Greenberg increasingly tried to do. Rosenberg, more than
any other \\riter. entered into a dialog with them. Bv
identifying cio-eiv witii liirir wmk. Rosenberg successfulK
extended the issues they raised pictorially into the realm of
words and at times caustically took them to task wiien he
fotmd their ideas ethicaliv (fuestionaiile or inteilectualiv
-iiaiiiixv.
Both Rosenberg and Crreenberg iiad tiieir own creati\e

agendas as writers, and neither can be taken as a spokesman
fur the artists' intentions. Hess prtmded a more objective
aci iiuiii III the artists but probablv influenced them and the
scene les:> as a result. Scha|)iro's gneat contribution was as a
teacher and friend whose eye the artists respected. Scha-
piro s lectures at Coliunbia. a.s Motherwell had pointed out.""
inaile an ~eem important and worthy of serious thought; as
a friend, he talked with artists in their studios about their
work and often imindiiced them tu new ideas as well a- in
one another.
Ihere was ai-n iiiurii aii-.tiactiiiii mi tile \e\\ \ mk -i eiie
in tlie thirties and fonie.-. that liad nothing to do wiiii tiie
motives behind the .New \ork School, even though many

artistshad ])ersonal ties which crossed these boundaries.
Burgoyne Diller fig. 2. lb for example, took his inspiration
.
from a formalistic reading of Mondriaii and of the Parisian

2.21 lsamuNoi.>chi,Koi;ros, 1944-5. Pink Georgia marble, on Abstraction— Creation group: vet in the earlv forties he was
slate base, 117x34 42in (297.2 x 86.6 x 106.7cm). an im|jortant friend to .lackson Pollock. The classes of Hans
Collection, Melropolilon Muse - of Art, New York. Flelcher Fund. Hofmaim also turned nut manv formalistic abstract
41
2.22 Isamu Noguchi,

Water Garden, 1963. Black
river stone, granite paving.
^
Chase Monhotlon Bonk Plozo, New Y
Photograph courtesy Chose Archives,
New York.
painters — indeed ilie liaid core of geometric abstraction was Brancusi also fostered. One of Noguchi's greatest gifts was in
a group founded in 1Q3() and called "The American Abstract the design of spaces, particularly the dance stage and small
Aitists. more than whose organizers were former
half of sculprm'allv landscajierj gardens [fig. and plav-
2.22]
pupils of Hofmann s. Ad Reinhardt [fig. 6.13]. who became gruiiii(U, w hrrr his -,i-nsiii\ ii\ lo subtle changes of form and
a prophet of the sixties minimalists, was perhaps the most material pla\ an important role. He did his first dance sets
articulate and interesting member of this group. for the Martha Graham dance compan^ in 19.3.5: his ideas
Mark Tobey [fig. 2.201, who founded his abstract .style for outdoor jjarks began in the mid thirties anrl reflected the
on Zen Buddhism, had lived primarily in Seattle and Emope influence of Japanese garden design.
rather than Xew \ork. He was nevertheless a contemporaiT By the fifties the New York School was w idely recog-
of the artists of the New York School and showed at the nized as the leading edge of the international avant-garde
Millard Galleiy alongside Da^^d Smith. Like them he and many younger artists adopted its stylistic grammar. BiU
reacted against the materialism of the burgeoning mass the starting-point of these second-generation artists tended
cidtin-e of the late forties. "\X e have occupied ourselves too to be an appreciation of the painterly fpialit)- of the abstract-
mtich with the outer, the objective." he said, "at the expense expressionist brushstroke rather than existential motives of
of the inner world. '"^^ Bom in 1890 Tobey traveled to the Far the sort that ]irompted the work of the artists of the New
East in the thinies where he studied Zen calligraphv in a Yoik Silidol. In this sense the true heirs of the New York
Japanese monasteiy. During the forties he develDjied lii> -.u- School \\ ere not the gestural painters of the fifties but the
called "white WTiting" and a((|uiie(l a inajnr iiilcnialiorial ^Titers of the '"beat" generation and the funk assemblagists
reputation. isee Ghapter 7). who metamoiphosed the New York School's
The contemplative sctdpture ul Kan in Noguchi romantic imagen of the alienated genius into the militant
[fig.2.21J also owes more to Zen than in p-\rhological social pariah, as exem]3lified by .\llen Ginsberg, Jack
introspection, but the style has an i'\i(lciit debt to the Kerouac. and Norman Mailer. By 1960 other movements
biomoiphism of .\r]3. Noguchi wem to Paris lor two years on witli their own radical ideas had emerged, and the New York
a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1''2''. worked briefly as a School had tumed into a disparate handful of old masters.
studio assistant to Brancusi. and befriended ,\lexander Ne\ ertheless David Smith made some of his most innovative
Calder. Noguchi was bom in Los .\ngeles in 1904. but spent work between 19b0 and 19b.5. and the late stales of Guston.
much of his childhood in .lapan. His aesthetic reflects a de Kooning, and Motherw ell went on to break important new
Japanese feeling for natural materials and spaces, which liround in the sixties and seventies.
Alexander Calder
AliAJIlili'l ( alili-l^lliiw rd lliillr (i| ihr ililrii^|icrH\c liiill-. Ill
Miih ailisi, a- Pnll.irk m \l. H lin u rll: Imi likr llinii hr

-iirrr^^hilK a-->iinil;ili-il iln' rm niiriii iiiii ami ~iili(lii\ nl ilir
irilri w ai I .ii|ii|ii'aii \ aiiLIiiJiiliiilu an \iiiri nan -l\ Ir, alilri (
li;iil .-I |ila\liil ii|icriiifs-,, al mirr iiai\r and ^rll-i nilii Irni i
iiiriiiii- ;inil lillnl wiih a li\rl\ ^ni^r nl wuiidrr alidiii ihr

wiirld. I li~ w 111 k 1^ ii|iliiiii^ln . i:ii-i:ai ii m^. w ill\ . iiic\ ci riii
^ liiiii--. i'\fii liauiK. Iiidri-d a w i \ . \ankiT -rn-r "I
liiiiiidi. Ill llic Iradilnni nl Mark I wain, rliararln i/n I Imili

( alilci ^ |irrîiiialil\ and In^ w m k. In In- \n/iilii(ii:rii/iln . Im
3
r\ain|i|r, ( aldri' dilil llii' >|iii\ nl a liiilliila\ |iail\ iiri:ani/cd
|i\ III- ilrairr ( ml \ alnilni. liir w liirli,
////////, \l/n;ill,inu///ir Miisriiin nj \l,j,/,rii \ii inis In

sii/iph //ic iiiki- (I IK 1 1 in IS rci/iicsin/ Id ilcsiaii ii tiiiiillr fur il.
I Inuk lini i>liiiiilicr\ niiiillcs fill llic A-.v iiikI uiic fur llir
A DIALOG WITH tnrsii:
mill ihf
1 1 If s/iiiii/i/iTs
liriiil inis
(I
llic liiitt
nil II nils irrrr iinnlr
mil u/n Iniiiil /iliiiiiliri's luinllr.
li\ n /mirl/i nin/lc. i
/'Ill firms I iiimir in ill ii s/mii/i nfmi iirilmm\ ri'il rmiillr. \ll
r irks irrrr riirrril rlrmi
EUROPE llir I
/inirrrilril In ilii lliis llir

sii
rrrrliilimi inis
lliryriiiilil lir
ilisiislriiiis.
'
III. imil irlu'll lie
\/i/iiiniilh . It'll ini.i liiinis llir ijiiirkisl.
Calder's Early Life and Themes

AlrxandiT ."^lirlini; ( aldiT was limn nnl-idi- l'liiladrl| iliia
in li".";'i. Hi- i:raiidlalli.T Al.-\andri- Miliif Caldi-i' and

In- lallici al-ii naincil MfxaniltT Siiiliii!^ (balder wi-ii'
.siicres.stul -c nl|il(ii> 111 {inlilic innnnnicnl- and lii- iiihiIiit
wa.s a pailUfl'. (balder - |iarcm-. had irlali\rl\ lililr r\

hut rlifv -I'fiii In \m\f iiianat;f(l wfll w iili w hat thev had. .\l
I lit- ai;!- nl -ix. hnwever. the voimg ( aldri and his eight-vear-
iild -i-ii-rhad 111 lit- Ict'l w idi IVifiids I ma \ car when his fatlit'i'
wa- iliai:nii-cd with iiilii-iinln-is and went, alont; wilh

( alilrr - iiiiilliiT. 1(1 a lieallh lanrh in \ri/niia. Tile taiiiil\
iciinilcd mi liie laiicli in ihr -.iiiiiiiiiT nl l'H)f). and in flu- lall
llii-\ all niiiM-il 1(1 I'a-adcna. ( alilmnia. w heie the cliinate
-ei'ined liclicr Inr In- lailiri- - hralili. In hi- liitobiou'riip/n'
( aldri ilalrd hi- eailir-l iniere-l III the [ilaiiel- and -lai'-- —
winch liccaine c-.|ic(iall\ iiii|imtaiii In the icmiiigra]ih\ nl
hi- iiKiliilc- — Irmii cM'iiiiig- -|icnl ga/ini; up al ihc iiiglil
-.k\ willi hi- |iareiit- mi dial ranch al die lime nl die

laiiiiK - rennimi.
( ihildhnod ineinni ic- -el main ihciiic- Inr ( âldci' - later
art. \i\id recnilcciimi- nl Irani-, die >aii Iranci-cn cahle

car-,and ln\- ha\e cclioe- in In- laler -( iil|i|iire li^.-'Vli .
Pa-adcna - mirnameiil nl I |{n>es. which he attended I're-

(|neiiil\ lieiw cell the age- nf -ix and tweKe. climaxed with a
cliai im race. |ii-l like the C irriis lie later ci'ea ted in Pari.s i
fig.
A.'.] . I .\ en die w ire jewclr\ w liich ( aldei made thl'oilghmit

hi- cai'ccr lietian ill hi- \ (iiitli a- a ciillalinralimi with hi- si-tei'
3.1 (opposii 'Mexander Calder, Performing Seo/, 1950. Painted
tnadmnherdnll>.
sheet nnett d steel wire, 33 •
23 36in (83.8 x 58.4 x 91 .4cm).
Museum of Conlerr Art, Chicogo. Promised of ond Leonard
I Vmii the age nf -e\eii. Calder alreaiK di-|ilayed the
. gift tfie Rutfi J. Hoiwicfi
Family, f^ • : 6 ; 1 994 Artists Rigtits Society (ARS), New Yorl</ADAGP, Paris- iinii-iial iii\cnli\ file-- with tnni- and Inmid material-' that
43
Alexander Calder
44
A Dialog with Europe
3.2 Alexander Colder,

On/y, Only Bird, 1952 Tm
cansand wire, 1 1 17 39in
(27.9 X 43.2 X 99cm).
Phillips Collection, Woshington. DC.
c 1 994 Artists Rights Society (ARS),
New York/ADAGP, Pons.
3.3 (below) Alexander

Calder performing his
Circus c. 1926-30.
in Pans,
Photograph by Andre
Kertesz.
c 1 994 Estate of Andre Kertesz,
45
Alexander Colder
(|i;ir:iiiiTi/r(l hi- aili-lic cmiiti- ami adnll lilr. \~ an ailiill.
Iir -nil liiiki-|ri| III! CN-anl l\ Willi I iiiliiiiriilai \ iii\ ciil ii in-,
iii.ulr w nil iIm' -inijilr iiMiU ami llir inalcnal- al liamL \l mii'
I'lMiii, 111! r\ain|ilr. \\f iii;i:i-(l ii|i an ai raiiLU'iiirnl (il |iiilli-\-
|i\ III- lir.l III Mil n nil I III- -|ii\ ( 1 1 II rdlTi-r in I lie lllnl llill:;, II II
I III In I wink III' w mil I I 1:1 I ii|i. ir|iair il. ami ilini l;ci liark iiiln
III 'I I ralliri ilia 1 1 jn-l in in mi llir Inn in in 1 llir mn iiial was .
I In- inriliaimal a{iliniilr alliarlnl ( aMri In an m-

îiii'i-iini; iiplli'iir. Irniii wlmli In- 1:1:11 Inalcil in I'M'': Inn
allcr a x'liuenri- 1 il nn-ai i-l\ 1111; ji ili- lir i:a\ i- ii| > mi <-iii;im'ri-
iiiin ]'y2-2 \vrUn'2 nmliTi,l,-,l aiimil whal loiln. Iirlnnk

w mk a- a rmnmmi -raniaii mi a -ln|i -ailiiii: In mii \rw ^ mk
III San 1' lanci-rn \ la llir I'anaina ( anal, ami in llir 11 nil -i' nl
llie x'oyasie. ( aliln hail an cNiMnirmi' thai -iL;iiirirainl\
rriiil'm-ccd hi- rliili Ihi mm I inirrr-l in ihr -lar- ami |ilanrl-. Il
wa- rarU mir inmniiii:. Iir n-callril. "mi a ralin -ra, nil
( aiali'inala. w In n 1 1\ n in\ rmicli —a rnil nl n i| 11 — I -aw llir
liri:iiiiiini; III a lii-i\ icil -iinri-r mi mir -nlr ami llir iiinmi
Innkini: likr a -iKi-i rnin mi ihi- nilicr. ( )|'
1 Iir w linlc iri|i llii-
illl|iir--ril llir iiiii-l nl all: il Irll 11 ir w illl :1 hl-lnii; -rii-:ninil
nl ihr -iikir -\-li 111.

"
I hirn-inir ini:ii;ri\ liiiin'ril iiii|Mn-
l:iiill\ in llir :irli-l - I'ir-I -lalnir- :niil in llir Liriir-i- nl' ihr
iiinlnlr. an.iiml l'':'.(l.
Clalder studied al ihr \v\ Sindrnl-. I .rariir in \i'w ^ mk

iVom 1923 to 192() and llnni wmkrd hi- |ia!.>af;r a( in-- llir 3.4 Alexander Calder, Fishbowl with Crank, 1 929. Wire,
15' sin (40.3cm) high.
Atlantic to Paris 1
still tlir iiiiili-|niird an rr nterj. (laldcr had
Private collection, New York :C' 1 994 Artists Riglits Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Pans,
made a miinher of draw iiii:- nl llir i irrii- in l^'J"). nii
(miiini--inii from i\\e \ationiil I'nliic (i<izclli\ :iiiil hx ihr llir high-wirr arl. and ii-iiig an air Inilli and wnndni lilnrk-
enid nf I'fjl) he had befiiin his iirral ]iniirci nl ihr I'CJd-. ihr Inr Irg-. Iir liginril mil lliiw in iiiakr llir rlrpli:nil llln\r w illl
w in- ( I If (IS. At the end of tlie twenties ( aldrr had :i Irw mir- llir animal - l\ piralK :iw kwaiil linnhrr.
iiiaii .îun\> in New \ork of iiis wire |Miiiiail- and aniiiKil- riir (inns grrw Irmii iwn -iiiira-r- hill nl pniniiner^
(includingsoine canned in wood : in mir rxhiliiiimi hi- wmk and prnp^ in I ''"J" In li\ r b\ l'».l(). riirii (aldrr inmr nr less
appeared side bv side with a di-|p|;i\ nl riiiliirrndi-rrniinx -lnp|ird winkiiii! mi il. :illliniigli Iir rmiliinird In pill mi
inrrhanical birds in cages thai iii;i\ h:i\r iii-|nird tlir grar- [lerhiniianre^ In ilir mil nl hi- rarrrr and lifi|iiriill\
di'iven >inl]itiires like die Fislihoirl icilli ( riiiik rfir.:J.-f , reliiriird in rinii- iliniir- in hi.- ,-ciilpliirr, as in the
altliouiili llie\ al-ii urrw liallll:ilK mil nl ihr ar-lhrlic nf magnificriii /'fifiininiiL: Seal <>{' 19,50 [fig. 3.1 . in the early
llir Circus. (lav- Cialder nctasioiialh rhaiged admission to these per-
formances to make his rent, lint he generallv |)iesented the
Calder in Paris Cin-ns free to his friends and their friends, and in this way he
mil iiin-i advanced artists in Paris in the late twenties.
111 die
C:ililri n|iriird llie pi'lfiiniianrr-. nf hi- (inns willl :i In ihr hill u\ 1928 Calder met the artists Man Ray. .hiles
-I 1:11 ill \ recording on thegramojihmir. \- ihr xmi r nl ihr P:i-iiii. and iim-l inipmninlK Miin. willi wlimii Iir iiiain-
nnginaîrr. "Monsieur Loyal." Cialdrr wmild :inni r: laim-il :i lilr-lmig fiiriid-.liip. In \lairli nl l''."i() ihr p:niiler
"Mesdames et Messieurs je \ini- pi-r-rnir . . .
"
and ilini I rniaiid Leger. Frederick Kie-ler a \ iennese archilni wlm

ceremoniously march in each of ihr :nnnial^ and pn Im inn - drxrlnprd close ties to Peggv Ciuggenheiin and m llir
in hi^ (hick, paw -like hands. He performed the (inns mi lii- paiiiin- nf ihr New York School), the de StijI artist Theo van
liands and knees, making the soiinrls of the fliffrirni :niiiii:il- Dnr-lnng. I .r (lorbnsier. and Mondrian all came to see the
as they entered the ring. The e\rni im Imlnl >wnid -w:illnw -
(inns, riir (inns r\rii made an appearance in Thmiias
ers. acrobats, clowns, lion tamer-, and :i xaiim nl nihri ari>. Wnllr- l'»;'i-+ iin\i-l ) nil ( (ui't Go Hiww .Agcdit- aiti^v .i l'»29
Many of iheperfomiers actualK moved, through some clr\ prilnrinancr in a .Nrw ^ nrk a|iartment.
mechanical invention: Rigoulot, the weight lifter. I>ent o\rr. In Pari- (.aldrr sliaifd Leger's interesi in niarhiiie
hooked his wire hands on the l>arbell and lilird iiiln ihr :nr: il I iillinr and llir\ I'siabli-hrd a hisl friendship. Bin il was
die seals tossed a ball back and hnili: and iln- :ii mbai- (balder- rnrnimlrr willi Mnndiiaii ihat played the most
(using a simple catapult device) sprang, liilai'imi-,U Iiom . important pari in iran-lniiningCalder in In a sriimis abstract
one place to another. People were fascinated b\ Caldri- artist. After Mmidrian rame to see the ( inns ( lalder re|jaid
inrliriilmi- allrntinn In driail: Iir |nil sah-|\ nrlling lirlnw die \ i-il and la r r dr-nibrd llir
l Diilrhiiian - -Im lin ihi- wav:
46
// mis (I rene.rritinp; ronm. Li^hl came in from the left aiul
Jrom the riiilit. aiicl on the xoh({ irull between the uin(h)us
there were exjierimental xlunis u-ith eohred rectangh's of
ranlhniud t(wked on. Eren the rictroln [ilie record plaver'
irhir/i had been some nnnhly eoh)r. was pointed red. I
siiissxested to Mnndrion that perhaps it ironhl be fun to iii(d<e
these rectaniiles oscdkite. And he. with ii ren' serious

rountenance. said: ~\o. it is not neeessan: my painting is
~
(dreadvreiyfast. . . . This one risil <i(u-e me a shock thai
"
stinted things. Though I had often /leard the u-ord "modern
"
before. I dul not conscioiish '
know or feel the term "(ibslnn I.
So now at thirty-two. I wanted to paint caul work in the

(distract.'*
('alder swil'tlv assiniilaiiMl ilir inirrhilicni liriw iin Mmi-

driaii s meta|)iiy.si(> ami ilir lnrinal -.iiii|iliri(aiiiin dl his
-lyle. Tltis revelarion in liini -.Jiilled ( aliler - cniue-in of his

own art (111 to a new level of |)rotiiiidi!\ . Foriiiallv Moiidriaii
inspired in C'alder a new use of flat ]ilane>. priniaix color-.—
e>])ecialiy red — in o|)|)o>ition lo Mack and wliite. a iihk rni
for I lie ei|iiilil)rinni of ~|iace and >niface. and the idea nf nim-
svininetrical lialaiice. He also niafle Calder more aw air ol
die relation of stvie to the definition of a worldview . ( alder
3.5 Alexander Calder, A Universe, 1934. Motor-driven mobile:

painted iron pipe, wire, andwood with string, 40V2in (102.9cm) high.
TheMuseum of Modern Art, New York, c 1 994 Art.sts Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP,
i>
47
Alexander Calder
3.6 (above) Alexander Calder,

Objecfin Y, 1955. Painted metal,
7ft9in X 1 lft6in (2.36 x 3.51 m) (variable).
Photograph by Ellen Page Wilson, courtesy Poce
Gallery, New York. iS; 1 994 Artists Rights Society (ARSI,
3.7 Alexander Calder, Object in Y,
1955. View 2.
Photograph by Ellen Poge Wilson, courlesy Poce
New York, ic- 994 Artists Rights Society (ARS),
Gallery, 1

48
Ne\ertheless it seems that (gilder was nioif interested in

3.8 Alexander Colder, Non-Objective, 1 947. Painted metal,
58 > 84 36in (147,3x213.4 x 91 .4cm).
events he could not predict and sought to make a work that
Phoiograpr counesy Poce Gollery, New York, c Artisls Rights Society (ARS), New York/ woidd spontaneously respond to unpredictable inteiyentions
ADAGP. Pons.
\\ithan infinitely yaried. adapti\e equilibrium: the mobiles
provided that. Cialder talked about his mobiles as "abstrac-
fiioiis:li. He went to rlie Murium otModeni \n in l''-f.'^ rn •-(•i' ions which resemble nothing in life e.xcept their manner of
'""
(ialder > .4 I nirersc. ami atlt-f standing in tinnl (if it tui' •(acting. Calder's invention of the mobile in 1Q30 was a
Inriy-rive ininiilo and waxing awav i-M-nnni- wlm adical innovation in scul|)tin-e: it literally incoiporated into
a|i|)roa('iipd. lie repoiit-ilK niiHteii'<l. "1 wish I had diiiii;;lii cul])nne: time fomth ilimension
the movement, and .
i)t iliat." Calders[)ei'ulated that Einstein was "waiting to êe elative variations in speed and distance among the compo-
die --anil' fOTTibinations come iij) again so that he could wtnk lent parts. The time— space— matter continuum — a central
out the ratios of the rlit'tereni |iait--. I liail -i-l tin- nici\ i-im-niiiiii'iin of ad\anced science since 1905 — tied in with
in a ratio. I think, ol nine to li-ii. -n ihal tlif \\ hulf iiiaciiiin- aider - (I i-niiilogical interests. Movement set off the relativ-
had do ninety cycles before it repeated itself. As .\llie]
to i i\ of the oliject: "I went tomovement for its contrapuntal
Elsen has pointed out. Calders ability to \isualize a work able." Calder ex]jlained."' Calder also created a number of
that iiiyc Ued such coriipie.x permutations among the part>. abstract drawings on cosmological themes around 1931—2.
in cycles listing as long as forty minutes, was an e.xtra- which, along with the Circus drawings from the same time
ordinan' fet. of cunceptiialization." [fig. 3.9 . are Câlder's greatest works on paper.
49
Alexander Colder
( mIcIi-i'-. nidliilr-. ,i-.-iMlcil ;iii iiiiitK ilinVii'iii ilrlinilii ill J ino\e elloille----l\ . criMliii!.' a seemiiiiih infinile varietv of
(p|' ^cnliHiiii' lli;iii lliai wIikIi liail r\i~ir(l îrici' jinH|iiil\. loiiii. Like llir plailcN llic\ conlimialK redefine iheir
WIr-ii' a Willi like Hfiiry Mdnic - Hfiliiini'j: I'lîiiv ifig. iclal ion-- ai I die ihllcicni cerUers of er[iiilif)riinn and
4.44 i- a tixrd lonii siltiiifr on a |itili--ial llial separates it i;ia\il\ dial ihrarliî lia^ iimniniilv composed. The jierpe-
from tlir real '|iaif ol'llie viewi-i likr ilic liaiiic nn a |iiilnri' . inallx chanuinr; relations wiiliin (he mobiles fiivc diem a
CiMi-y \nn-()h/cctive sei^m^ u> final lircK in iln' \li\\ri

•- ^ ineta|)livsical identity that relies un temporal meninrx lo
own >|ia(V. Thi- iilra of iii(iii'|ioiatiii<; the I'cal N|iacc aidiiiiil a^-emble die se(|nence of partial definitions com])risiii<; the
llii' -.(iil|ilini' mid llir work callfd ojicn-lorm" scnl|>lmf more complex ideniii\ of the whole. Tliis gives the mobile a
wa- |jioiiri-n-il li\ llir |
irrw aniilii^l^ am rmmisis ami li\ llii-
I kind of pliNîcal iran-'pari'ncx . revealing all ils iiiiernal
Hii^îaii a\ aiil-i;anli'. rN|ic(iall\ \lacliiinr lalliii. who in- piiMrs>c> in a manner dial greatlv extend-, die sialic
sisted on rral malcriaU in ii-aU|ia(r. " Bin ( aldi-r rrali/i'd iian^parencv ot prewar cubism and Inlmism.
tile idea in lili-ral lei in^. 1 he masteiT of coniimioiis. iiii|iredicialilf change is a
In their preci-e oinline^ and Mi])iii>ti(ale(i meehanic-'. ceiinal theme in Calder s art. Its roots go liack lo (he
liie mobiles refleeliil aldii - eiigrineeiin;: tiaiiiiiifi at Ste-
( fiei[iieiit and die
dislocations of his iinsetrled childhood
vens Institute. In particular he remeiiibeied a wa\e nuirhiiu- strain caused bv his father's illness. This background seems
from a kinetics course as a forebear of his fascinaiion w iili lo have produced in the adult artist a surface resilience and
meclianical action. \> a genre Calder's mobiles ail have a an ahilitv to keeji emotional tips and do^xns out of sight bv
celrsiial melaplior inherent in their stnicture. since they wax of a drv \\ it and a disinclination to look inward. A Life
siijigest the absence of a fixed frame of reference — an analoi.; magazine reporter once asked if he ever felt sad and ('alder
to ol)jects in space, llir pail^ of \i)ii-(>h/f(iirc or ( )l)/fi/ In re|)lied: "No. I don't have the time. When I think iniglii I
start to, I fall asleep. I conseiTe energv that wav. '"
hi Calders strikingly cool account of ilu' year-long

3.9 Alexander Colder, The Circus, 932. Ink on paper, 1
from his parents in 1905 and lÔb. he described
sejKiraiion
20Vix29V4in (51.4 X 74.3cm).
one III his mothers letters to him about the train trip to
Courtesy Perls Gollenes, New York. © 994 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP,
1
.\ri/iiiia With a txjiical Calder pun that belies deeper
(^liUx^ji.
50
Iccliiii.''- Ill' it'cmimed: She alxi widir jImmii ilif ll;ii\(\ liliidrrn- — iiidrrd llir '>|iani-li arcliilni .lu-i' I liii- SrrI a-krd
( iim|iaiiv — il lii'ld llie place ut llir diiici iii iIki-c (hi\^ — liini 111 riiair llir \li 1 1 iin idiinliiin li u llir >|iani-li Kr| nilili-
wliicli ga\t' lliein a tray of I'uofI ai our -ialii>ii ami incik ii oiii ran l'a\ ilimi a I llir I'M" 'an- W mid I - fail h i accmii|iaii\
al I lie next. We >eeiiied to lie li\ iui: mi ira\ ^ in ilm^c ila\ ~ — I'lia-i. - Cnrnn.;, and Mim - llir llr,,/,rr -In- ilralrr.
irav hu'il.'"'' The e\|iiTieii(i' niii-i lia\r r.ni-ril ruii~iilcialilr I'irllr \lall--r- |irii\lilril llir pllinalA -llnwca-r lul llir
-tre-ss for the child, and \ri he iiê> hiiniin in In- \iitii- I III 1
1|
Iran -111 I rail -I - III Nrw ^ m k. and nii n r and iiim r i il I lir
bioiiruphy to nerrale the subject > eiiinlioiial rharjê. i In- aill-I- ( aldrl klirw lliilli I'an- lirâii rnneial lll^: In Nrw
iiiirfoi-s ihe ceiitial metaphor for ihe moitile-: liie leâinini; ^mk 111 |iri-..n llir ( aldrr- had r-prriall\ rln-r Irlalimi-
of from the chaos of the iinr\| nci rd
e([iiilil)riiiiii willi llir -inirali-l |iaiiilri- \liilir \ia--mi. Ka\ >av:r. and
111 .lamiarv W^X f'alder married dni-a Janic- ilii- i ^ \r- 1 aiien\ w hii w a- liiai rird in >arr . all nl \\ linm li\ed
L'i'aiid-iiiece of \\ illiain and lem\ .lann- w he had inn I . I i ill ( iinnriiiiin .
oil a |)assenger >iiip fill \e\\ N mk in .Iniir l''J''. I\\ii\rai- ( aldrr - |irr-mial lir In -nneali-ni and dada w a- iiiipm-
la I IT die\ miixed iiark m \r\\ "^
mk and Lilri L:hl a hmi-'e I laiil . I II- I 111 II I ml I
ill 11 a 1 1-1 rar inn w a- ada|ilrd
I liniii -in iral-
111 niial Rii\lim\. ( onneilirnl. wlirrr ( aldrr wmkril hoin i-m and ( aldrl 11 rdilril Mini Willi riimii ratlin: In- In illiani
I'l.'iil III I'l.").!. 1 lie( aldrr--' lir-I daiii:litrr. Sandra. \\ a> limn cnlnr-and pirlrinirr Inr -iiiipir n\al and riiriilai Imiil-.
in i''M.") and Mai\ . tlu-ir -ernnd. ranie Imir \ rar- later. Calder- wmk lia- iimir nl ilir -inirali-l- cmirrrn wiili
Both (:alder> family life and In- career -eiiled iiiln a micnii-cimi-. |i\ -rlinliinical iKiiainii- imr aii\ nl llir -mil-
L'ood stride liv the mid lliinie-. flic Pierre Nhili>M- (.alleiy -rarchinr mini imiali-in that -iiiirali-m in-piinl in the
lieL'an -Imwini; his work on a rejiiilar hasis. the Nhiseiim ot ]iaiiiter> 111 llir Nrw \ mk School.
Mndiin All acijiiired one of his sctilpttires. he desisiiied sets hi l''-+.'i w lirii aliiniiniim (jt'cw scarce hecaii-e i if the war.
lor Martha (.laliam s dance troupe, and was uenerally \ery Caliler made a -nirnl w noden "constellations" Iii: .'i.lO
iiuicli on the New York scene in the thirties ami forties, hi which he -.aid were )ianiciilarlv iiis|iiied liy the l''-tll-l
addiliiin alder had otahli^hed clo-.e lie- willi llie Kuniliean

( cmi-trllalimi-. in iinnarlie l)v his friend Min'i.' '
They al-n
have a Imiiial allinilx with tile shajie-- in the painlinu- nl
TaiiLnn fii:.l2..''i and w itii ( dacmnetti'- The I'hIik r al -f<i.ni.
3.10 Alexander Calder, Constellafion, 1941 .

Painted wood and {\'j..~>.\-\ . which had lieeii on di-pla\ ;it the Mii-nmi nl
wire, 51 -4612- lOin (132.1 -118.1 -25.4cm). Mnderii Art ill New ^ mk -iiice tiie mid thirties. But whereas
Collection, Whitney Musem of American Art, New York. Promised gift of Dr. and Mrs, B Scott
1994 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Pens.
the -inreali-i ( .iai ninetti ii-,ed the frame of the platform and
Severns, P.3.81 . c:
the cajif in 77'c I'dlnri- ut 4 a.m. as the setting for a dream

and ju\ta|iii-ril images in psychic free associatimi. it-
( Tallin'- Cniishlldtiiin lir.-''>.10" coheres around an r\|irri-

meiilal itiiiii-it\ aliiint -irtictiire in the universe, (balder
treat-- the |ilatlnmi m wall matter-of-factly as a frame ol
and In- wnrk recalls a range of associations
-]iatial refereiicr.
linm Tinkertnx- dr\rlnprditi I'lH to the solar sy-tem. hilt

mil tlir imrmi-rimi- mind.
^mne nf (balder- wmk- rmnr dirrciK Irmn natural
-iilijecl>. >ttili as the plant Inrin- in hi- Ihiiiijiiiiiirillfd fig.
• !. 11; otiieis are deri\ed imt linm the a|iliearaiicr n\ nature

hut from an ahstract idea, \i-tialized in the mind with
-iifficieiit particnlaritx In -rrni rral. a- in \iin-l ll)jc< lire m
tlir rnn-trllatimi-.
Lerrr niirr ralird Mill a leali-t." Kallieiilie Kull
reminded liiiii.
'
I Inw dn \ mi Irrl ahmit tlii-?
Vr-. I think I am a iralist . . . Because 1 make w hat I -ee.
It- niiK thr pinlilrm nl -reiiig it. you Can imagine a iliiiir.
If
cmijurc it up in -parr — then voii can make it. and Imifi' dv

suite \n\\'\i- a irali-t. I In- universe is real but ynii can t -re it.
\(iii haM- In iiiiaL;iiir it. Once voti imagine it. \nii ran be
'"
reali-tir almnl irprndiiiing it.
B\ thr l'4(l- become an established arlisl.

( aldrr had
Ihe Miisenm nl Mndnii Ml gave him a one-man exhibition
in I'H.'V-tand im le-- a hgure than Jean-Paul Sartre wrote
the catalog intrndm timi Inr his 1946 gallery- show in Paris.
B\ the end of dir Inriir- he was receiving increasingly
important riiinnii--iiiii- Irmii armmd the wnrld. In I''. 1^5 the
51
Alexander Colder
3.11 Alexander Colder,

Bougainvillea, 1947. Painted sheet
and weights,
metal, wire
6ft4lnx6ft11in(1.93x2.11m).
Private collection. Photograph courtesy Christie's,
New York. Si 1 994 Artists Rights Society (ARS), Ne
York/ADAGP, Poris.
3.12 (below) Alexander Colder,

Flamingo, 1974. Painted steel plate,
4ft Sin (1.35m) high.
Federal Center Ploza, Chicago. Photograph by
Jonolhan Fineberg. © 1 994 Artists Rights Society
(ARS), New York/ADAGP, Pons.
Calders bought a seroiid liou-t- in Sache. France, and Itegan

spending more and more time in Europe again. Although
Calder died in 1976 at nearly eights' years of age. hi>
development never tapered off. .\romid 1940 he took the
mobiles off their siipponing annarures and started hang-
ing them from the rafters. Then he began to e.xperimem
•with scale.
The
stabiles, which also originated in that first body oi
work of 1930 and 1931. started to take a different
abstract
fomi around 1936. Calder defined the new stabiles with
large flat planes of metal, fabricated in an industrial sr\le.
These gre\\- in size during the forties too. and when the
commissions for both mobiles and stabiles on an architec-
tural scale started coming his way in the late fifties. Calder
began collaborating with industrial fabricators in their
construction. Calder's magnificent 1974 Flamingo ^fig.
3.12j in the Federal Plaza in Chicago— like the other largi
stabiles— not only appears to be constrticted like the hull of a
great ship, it is. Yet this work also maintains a supple, avian
grace on a scale and in a stvle that holds its own brilliantly
against the steel and glass skvscrapers aroimd it.
52
Hans Hofmann
liling ihe eineiging \liliTiiali \aiii;iiaiil ii|> hi a \r\i\ nl
Stylistic Lessons from Europe
jiiriiiai ôiihi-'ticalion liiilirrin liii- ûlc |ii(i\iiiir n| iIh'
Like ( alilii-. I lan> 1 hjlinanri |iiii\ ided an iMi|i(Hlaiil hridj,'!' European inoderiis.
I)ri\\<'t'ii l-.iinipcan modcniisiii and llic new American In Stuarl Dayi> • llnusc miil Sirci-I fig..i.l.! . nnr i an
a\ aiit-uardc. ahiioiigli I lofiiianii rctaiiiffi a Kuropean sensi- see the limited exieni to which iiilerwar Ameiican painlini:
liilitv that nt'itiit'r (ialdcr nor (lie Ainericaii-honi artists of had assimilated European styles. Dayis wa-. an iin|iiiriani
the New \\tr\i. School c\cr dcxeioped. This "European He had si tidied wilh Iôlurl Icrii and
painter of the |>eriod. I i
sensibihtv" is difficult to define |)recisely. hut it has to do gone to Paris in the twenlie-.. l]nl like dilin ad\anir<l
with a conception of the artist as a \ehicle for the forces of American anists betu-een the war-^ he -.oughi lo riniodil
nature and indeed as inseparable from nature in the artist's European modernism into a "descrijjtion of .America w iili a '
di-finiiion of him or herself. The idea goes back to the sociopolitical agenda. Wliile he recognized that no Aimi-
romantics of the late eighteenth centuiT and contrasts with ican artist had "created a style which was coin|)letely . . .
the more pragmatic. luatter-of-fact attitude that artists of divorced from European models." he nevertheless wanted to
the iiuerwar [leriod singled out as a characteristically distinguish himself from his influences: "I am an American,
Vmerican trail. boi-n in Philadelphia of .\merican stock. I --tiidied art in
lofmann was a German who emigrated to America, and

I America. I painted what I see in .\merica. in oilier \\(ii'<ls. 1
"'^
Irom the mid thirties through the late fifties taught young paint the American scene.
American painters the formal subtleties of European mod- Despite his radical simplification of the subject matter in
ernism: luiances of handling [)aint and color (based on his House and Street. Davis still emphasizes the description (of
firsthand ex[)erience with fauvism and Kandinskyj: an an American city- scene). The strength of the work lies in its
analytical approach to pictorial structure (from his study of presentation of "facts" in a disengaged st\le that is at the
(Cezanne and cubism;-, and a spirituality- (as he found it in
Kandinskv s i-omantic abstraction). Hofmann's seriousness
3.13 Stuart Davis, House and Sfreet, 1931. Oil on canvas,
of purjjose and his intensity toward the formal issues of
26 42'4in(66 • 107.3cm).
jiainting set an example that the young Aiuericans emulated. Collection, Whilney Museum of Americon Art, New York, Purchase, Photograph by GeoHrey
.\s a chai-isinalic teacher mi llir ^ccne. lloriiiaiin helped Clements, New York, ici Estote of SluortDovis/VAGA. New York, 994 1
53
Hans Hofmann
"
-aiiif limi' (li>liii(ll\ Aiiicriia and "riKKliTn in il> ( alifornia in Rerkeley. and in (lie fall of 1931 he moved to
-lialliiw ^|Kici- ami il- Hal |ilaiir-- i iiii;lil (dliii. a> III I ii-iiili \r\\ ^ (II k ( :ii\There Hoftuann taught at the Ait Students
.
ul>isiii ot llii' iwiiiiic^ . \i\ \>\ Hilia^l l'iia--ii. r\cri in I .eagtie h)r two years and then opened his own school. In
those pliaso \\ liri r In^
I
lainliiii; i> \ it\ Hal a^ in ( Fin'riinn (ir I ''35 he also started up a suitiiner school in Provincetown,
The Studio figs. li. 10 and -^J") . al\\a\~ ha- a Inrinal on die liji where Rol)ert Motherwell, Jack
of (!ape (od.
elegance, a richly worked surface iliai i> inieif-.iini; lo lnok at and ullier arli-t- iil the New York School would
l\\(irk(i\.
eiltiiei\ on the le\el of paitlt sit li ace. 1 o ac(Hlil<' this sense of regularly spend their summers in the forties.
w hat the I rcnch call hi'llc peintnrc the heantifiii lian<llini.'ol Hofmann taught an aesthetic approach: to hirn art had
jiaint ic(|iiiiiil inure nKMJrrn I reiicli |painiini: m lie on nothing to do with politics or social consciousness. He
(li--|iia\ in \c\\ \ (nk anil llic |jrc-enci- nl |-.iii(i| icaii- like -tiessed drawing and lectured on pictorial structure, paint
I liplniann 1(1 leach w lieiher e\|ilicitl\(ir li\ c\ani| ile Imw hi handling, and on intuitive expression through materials.
iiiiilei-.|aiiii till- a-.|pecl cil |iaintiiiL:. Mthough Hofmann's interpretation of fauvism. prewar
licnii in Bavaiia in lIlIiO and -|ieiil hi-
lliilniann \\a- ciiliism. Cezanne, and Kandinsky was formalistic and
Xdiilli dnniii; Munich -\iiiliiili-t |ieriod. Iroiii l''()-t Id
the twenty years behind the developments on the European
I'M-f he painted in Paris and fre([iiente(l iheCâh'dii Dome, scene, it nevertheless carried tnuch authoritN' for his young
where he met niaiiv of the leading Parisian anists. including American students. Hofmann had a hea^T German accent
Pica--ii. Bra(|ne. Pascin. Rouault. Picabia. Matisse, and and a hearing problem, which made communication
I iLLef. \hh(iiii;h he had no personal contact with die difficult;but instead of interfering with his teaching, this
World War I. Hofniaini
(.erinan e.\|)ressionists until after seems to have given an Olvtupian rlistance to his charis-
stored some of Kaiidinsky's great prewar paintings iti his matic personality.
Nhitiich studio from 1')14 to 1918 aiifi later rec(>ived two of
them in thanks lor his kindness. Hofmann's Art Theory
A weak lung got flofmann excused trom military servite
and enahled him in 1913 to open the Hans Hofmann School Hdfniann also wTote essays on art theoiT, pervaded by the
for Modern -\rt in Schwaliing the artists' ([uarter of spirituality of Kandinsky and Mondrian. "The artist's
Munich;. The best kimwii nf ihe many American pupils he technical problem," Hofmann WTOte, "is how to transform
attracted was the sculptress Louise Neyelson. who attended the material with which he works back into the sphere of the
Hofniann's last session there in the spring of 1931. In the -piiii. '"
But Hofmann detaciied the spiritualits" of Kan-
sttmniers of I'l.'iO and 19.'^ he faimlit at the I niyer-iiv of diiiskx and Mondrian from their radical social aims and thus
3.14 C6zanne, Monf Samfe-

Vicfoire, 1902-4. Oil on canvas,
27"2x 35' 4in (69.9 A 89.5cm).
Collection, Philodelphio Museum of Art,
George WEIkins Collection,
54
essentially missed tlie point ot iln-ir wuik. \\ Ikii lir nndci illtlnriii r-: l')r|itll. ill a piiti ilial. |ila-lic -eil-e. i- nnl i Tr-
stood well abont their paiiuiiiii \\a> il> \i-ual ~irih imr ami ain I 1 1\ I III- aiiaiii:riiirm iil nliji-ii-. niii- alter amilliri low aid
In dii- he intuitivelv attached an (•iiiniiiiiial dinn-ii-niii. a vaiii-liiiiL; pniiil. in llir -rii>e of Renai^ân(l ]irr-pi-il l\ e.
whi.h he ideiititied a> "spiritiialitv . 1 lir main |iail ot Inn nil I III- rniitiai \ and in alisolnte denial of llii- di nil inc .
lliilniaiin' theories, however. eoiicern> >i)atial d\iiaiiii(s Ii\ lllr liralliill (it tiilcr- 111 lllr -lil-r i\\ piis/l din /ill/l .
''
and \ i'lial ti'ii'-ions. I"or exam|>le. he reasoneil tiiat |)ainlinL: lliiliiiann - imirrpl nl pii-li and pull' a--iit- that all
|>u^>^^ê^ tuiidanieiital law-. I hr-c law- aie' dirlalcd h\ iii(i\ cmriil w illiiii a paiiiliiii; iiri r--aril\ iiii|ilir- a n-iipn ical
linidatiieiital perce|iti(in-. ( )ni' nl ihc-i' |iiT(i-|iiiiiii~ i-; die iii(i\ (iiicnl III llic (ippii-iiit; diri'itidii: iik i\ liiiiiit iiitii picidi -
f— i-iH'c (it the pirlnie i- ihr |ariiiic |ilaiii\ The rs-riicf of iai -|iacc (Iriiiaiidrd a lialaiiiiiii; ad\ am T tiiw aid llif \ iewer.
till' piiline i- il- tw o-(hniiii-iiinahl\ 1 lie lir-l law i- ( )iii- can -II- till- direct mtliiiiici' iil tlii- idea in Louise
theii deriM'd: the pitttne plaiif inii-t In' |ire-.er\i-d In ii- \i\il-(in> works Jig. "7. 17 which simultaneously moye .
'"
iwo-diinensionaliiv. 1(11 w aid and hack from a h\-])othetical jiicture jilane. Yet this
1 hi- idea deri\c- In mi I luliiiaiiii - -iiid\ ni the w m k- nt and other aspects of Hofmann s teaching may have had their
I'aiil ( I'/anne i
f'iu.-i. 1-f in hiiii- nl iiiin-ii|-ilie--rriiiiir\ niii>i profound intluence through the inteipretations of
I ii-iiili llieoiA. a- in Mainirc Dein- lainoii- -lali'iiicnl nl tdiinalist critic Clement Greenberg. who stated in 1*545 that
l«'.''n;
••
\ pictiiif — hrlorr lieiiit: a hattle lloi-i-. a nude he owed "more to the illumination received from Hofmann's
woman, or -onu- amiiloli— i- r--intially a plane surface Ifctiire- tiian tnnn aii\ other -onrce."""
eoMicd with iiiliii- a--i-mlili-d in a certain order."""
(e/anni'- promineru lun^hwork. and such compositional
Hofmann's Painting
di-\ ii-c- a-' hi- and regularized sv^lcm
tipjied-np |per^pe(ti\ i'
III --implitx iiiL' tmiii-. I'latti-ni-d mit the pictorial space and
iinpha--ized tin- -iiilaci- ot tin- raii\as. The work of the

Onandthe whole.HisHofinann did painting between 1915
energies went mostly into teaching. Lee
l''H8.
little
prewar ciihists carried >iill tnrther this accenriiation of Krasiier studied with Hofmann around 1940. and through
the |)ieture plane, the shallow space, and the systematic her he met Jackson Pollock and other artists in their circle,
application of paint. Ilnfmann hy|iothe>ized from these êt Pollock s concentration on existential introspection was
3.15 Hans Hofmann,

Landscape, 1941 Oil on .
plywoocd, 30 -^
35in
(76.2 X 88.9cm).
Private collection, m Estate of Hons
55
Hans Hofmann
em]ihasizing the surface, as in the fauvist works of Matisse
[fig. 3. 16 lidfmaim s laiid~(a|ics arc raw: dicv brim over

.
w illi excess i-ncii:\ and so did lie..
I iidrr llir |iicssiirc nl llic new idiinal de\ ices iit

siiiicalism in the eaiiv follies, ihc \isiiili- link lo nature in
I lot maim s painting ga\e w :i\ lo :i nion- e\|ierimental mode.

In parlicular in ihe drip |iirniies of l'H2 m I'H-t like
/(inlrtsia [fig..!.!" Ildlmann slrcss,-, spi iiiiaiieil\ li\
s|il:itleriim lite paml rallier than ap[)l\ iiig il widi a brush.

I his amdiiiaiisi ie(hnique frees the gesttire of the hand. But
I I 111 ma I III had ltd interest in using an automatist gestuie as a
means nj iiiiiliini: or exjiressing his imconscidiis mind.
Indeed lolmann jiointedly ex])laine(l: "My wiirk is noi
I
aceideiilal and not planned. The first red spot on a while

(aiuas ina\ at once suggest to me the meaning of morning
ledness' and from there on I dreaiu further with my color.
"''
.^s distinct from surrealist free association, Hofmann in-
sisted that his work proceeded from an "inner necessity" that

was psychic rather than ])svchological: its claiiu to tiitth
3.16 Henri Niafisse, Promenade Among the Olive Trees, 1905. Oil centers upon a re\t'lation of the content to die artist as it
on canvas, 17' 2 - 2P4in (44.5 x 55.2cm).
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Robert Lehman Collection, 1 975. c 1 994 Succession
H. Motisse, Poris/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
3.17 Hans Hofmann, Fontasio, c. 1943. Oil on plywood,

51' 2 365 8in (130.8 . 93cm).
1(1(1 |i~\(li(i|(ii;i(al till lldlniaiiii. \\ lii-ii Kia>iifr liriiiiîhl
Collection, University Art Museum, University of California at Bei I elev Gilt of the
Pullock Id H(itmaiiii> siudin lor the first time in 1942.

Hotiiiunn >iu(\ to Pollock: "\ou don t woik from nature. \on
work bv heart. This is no good. Vou will repeat yourself.
Knowing that Hofmann was at this stage more of a teacher
than a practicing painter and hadn even shown his work in t
New York \t'\. Pollock res])onded defianth to this aMincidar

ad\ ice: "I iini iiatm'e Put up oi' --hut up. ôiif llicniic-
. . .
don interest inc. -

t
As a pain 111 Inlmaiiii did all ot his iiiijiorlant work in

. I
America. cari\iug laii\isi coldi and handling into a free

abstract expressi(iiii-.m. hmigli ilic paimcrK liaiidliiiL;
I
reseinbled Kandiiisky - canva-c> ni l'*!:! in l')U. Ijiil-
mann's work lacked Kandinskv s depth of subject matter.

The strength of Hofmanns work derives from a ])assionatc
engagement with the ma>terv of [laint ap]ilicatioM and
composition in themseKcs. In addition Hofmann s w mk
always maintained a shallow. orderK space. meticuloiisK
derived from (lezanne and cubism.
I idiii die mid diiTties into the early forties Hofmann
paiiiicd iiiiiiiciiiiis ~iimnier landscapes of Ca])e Cod [fig
3. 15j .\ltlioiigh they are dated by their st} listic affinity witii
.
prewar Paris, the paintings' unitfue fusion of fau\ist coloi

and cubist s|iacc makes them powerful nonetheless.
Throughout ihis jn-ridd Hofmann remained committed to
nature: whether in the studio or out of ddurs in the
landscape. Hofmann constantK tested icaJiu w hilc siimilia-
neously asserting tlir aiitdiKimv of these paintings as jiaim-
itigs. The translatidu nf diree-dimensional space on in the
picture plane acknowledges the flatness of the canvas: the
ecstatic palette of Itrilliant and energetically applied color
agitates the cmiic smTacc wilh imitufm iiilciisiu rnillicf .
56

57
Hans Hoimann
ilid lor Kaniliii-.k\. tVcmi wlumi I |ii|in;niii liurniwi'd ilii- i-xrii Ili- -indent- -axx hi- work in the thirties: he permitted
icriii iiirni iircf-îl\ '

1 lif -|j|iil in a unik. Ilnliiiaini iiiilx a -inall numliii nl i-lii>e friends into his studio. Samuel
a~-iTlc(l. j-. ^\ iKiiix niiiii- willi il- (|nalil\. I lir llciil in arl Kiiiii/ lii-iian -hiixxing llnlmann's paiiuings at die end of
iir\ CI i|ii->. l)fcauM' il~ nal inc i~ |ii rdiiininanl l\ -[liiilnal. l''4~. allri xxliirh linn- hi- xxmk became bellci knoxxn. In
Tlic rii'li. Ill-ax il\ a| i| iliri I

|
laliiic ol I liiliiiaiiii •-
|
lainliiii; I'l-tJ'i ilii- liiiiiiiilil him an \ini-|-ii-aii miHi'iim -Imxx xxiili an
riif Thinl lliiiiil lii:.-!. ir. lake- nl't' IVom liii' rdinanlir ariiiiii|iaiix iiii: ini iiiiit;ra| ill and a iiiaji ir i-\hiliilii m in Pari-.
• loud-, ,,l c-olnr III ill,- ,-aiK kaiidiM-k\ nj:.;5.1M . Hi,- Hill i-\rii a- III- Liaini-d x i-iliililx a- a |iaiiilri- In- i iinlinin-d In
iridi\ idiialiix nT kandin^kx - --iialial x i-i<iii and tlie se(-n-li\r |inr-nr a \\ idi- laiigr nl -l\ Ic-.
cliarai-li'iiiriii" i(-iiiiiii;ra|ilix ra-l die- aili-i a-, tin- iiicdiniii lni Vii gi-neraled on a prt-dominanlK formal basis, rather
C'()smi(- lnidi~. I luriiiann - \i->iip|i n-iiiaiiii'<l ^mnrxxliai iiKin- iliaii mil of a long-term ]ihiloso|)hical commitment, runs the
-.rciiiai-. Inrn-t-d a^ il xxa^ on a ^x-lriiialic i-\| ili iialinn ul i'i>k 111 lacking srvli-tic continuity. Hofmann tiimself was
lr(liiiii|iir and >l iik-i lire. \i-\ lii- dcclaialinn ol |
iri-^ciK-r in i-xidi-nllx lonci-nii-d alioni this when In- louk pains to
hi~ iiwii liaiid|>i'inl pKixid,-- lln- âim- kind (il roinanlic- I on-iini I a philosopln that deliberately rejetieil the adop-
((Miiilrr|Miiiil III lii^ nix ^li-i inii^ riiliii arliiili-. Ill addilinn iioii III a particular stxle: he insisted that he viewed painting
lliilniann likr Kalldill^k\ and (idif|- >\ iillKili^l-inllin-iK i-d a- a di-diiation to individual, sjiontaneotis e.xpression. and
|iaiiiirr- liad a nix-^tic's fascination with synaesiiifiir (-mrc- took a- hi- model the stylistic diversity of Paul Klee. "If lever
"-"
laiinii^ |irix\i-rii idlorand somid: he invoked niusii- in lonie find a >t\ le." he told Kootz. I'll stop painting. Vet in 1^58
111 hi- iiilr~and ill ihe subjectivist "orchesnation of colofs. "
Hofmann gave up teaching— he closed Imtli the ,\ew \ ork
111!I lai III had liis first one-man show at the age of sixry-
II and Provincetown schools and turned to painting full time —
liini: iiiiik ])lace in 19-^4 at Peggy Gnggeiiheini's Art nf
il and lor the last eight years of his life focused on a unified
riii> ( ientiii'v gallery. Vi riters fre([uently blame this late siait -ixlistic development that resulted in some of the best
on the eiierg\' that Hiilinann -^ teaching siphoned off. But paintings of his career.
Hofiiiami was not a man in a hurry: he lived with his Hofmann's late painting from 1958 to 1906 centered i
|iiii-|ii-( lix t- wife NUz for rxxenfv-eight years before making on a defined opposition between hard geometry- and painter-
ii|i III- iiiiiid 111 marn- her: he painted for forty-four years liness. as in The Golden Wall [fig. 3.20]. Some late works
lirliirr Ili- lir-i niie'-iiian -liiiw; and he did noi (-nniinii iIII lull- on Ix loose gestures or precise, geometric forms. Most.
I
hiiii.-.ell sIxlisticalK niilil In- xxas seventv'-eight years old in howi-xn. inxolve a new SMithesis of, on one hand, the fau\'ist
l''58,l. He mav not haxr Irh confident enough about hi- pali-iic and die Cezanne-inspired structural rationality of
wiirk in the fortie- in riiinnnl himself to a single direitiiiii. die landscapes with, on the other hand.
laii-diirties
and pi-i-|ia|i-. thai lu-ld him liark rnnii -^hoîiig his work. Not Kandin>kv's free brushwork and hi- ronuniiic -jiatial
organization. These paintings reflect the pretision ot
llobnann's analysis of color relationships and their sti-uc-
iiiial implications, as set out in his essay "The Color
3.18 (opposite) Hans Hofmann, T/ie T/iird Hand, 1947. Oil on
canvas, 5ft' ein ^ 3ft 4in (1 .53 1 .02m). Problem in Pure Painting — Its Creative Origin :
Collection, University Art Museum, University of Coliformo at Berkeley Gift of the ortist
Since crvry color can he shaded with any other color, an
niilitiiitcil rariation of shading, within eren color scale is
3.19 Wassily Kandinsky,Sfcefch J for Compostfion VII, 1913. Oil
/)iissil>le.Although a red can he. in itself, bluish, greenish,
on canvas, 30^4 - 3938in (78.1 lOOcin).
wlldwish. hroirnish. etc.. its actual color-emanation m the
>-
Private collection, Germany c 1994 Artists Rights Society |AR5;. New YoikADAGP, Pons
/lii/iiriid t(italit\u-ill he ihv conditiouvd result if its
\ny enlor simile nilhiu
relalKinshij) In idl the iillier enliirs.
any innnienl. llie hriilge In
line iiiliir Slide eiin heenuie. nl
inn niher entni- Slide. This leads In an intenmren

eniiniiuninil of eiilnr scales nrer ihe entae /mlure
surfiiee ..."
W idl die rectangles, wiiith dominate Hofmann's composi-

1 ion- 1 IX 1958, the artist leads the viewer around the space in
a processional way, as in a plan for a classical building. The
X iewer discovers the spaces through these defining fonns.
Miindrian's wTitings on the conti'ast of rectangles to other
lorms helped Hofmann refine one aspect of this language,
and the picturescpie complexin- of Kandinsky's spatial
systems informed another. Hofmann's distinction between
-hifting and overlapping rectangles— both reti-eating and
aiUancing in space — is a subtlet)- that grew out of his
(iiniepl of 'pii-li and pull.'
58
Tlie large area> of iiitt-n-'i-K •'aliiiaird colni- in llcil-

3.20 Hans Hofmann, The Go/den Wa//, 1961 Oil on canvas,
.
inaiin's paintings infliienced tlie so-iallcd color lii'M

4ft 1 1 y2in X 5ft lP/4in (1.51 1.82m).
painters of the late fifties and sixties [figs. 6.9— 6. 1 1]. In tliai Colleclion, Art Institute of Chicago. Mr and Mrs Frank G, Logan Prize Fund, 1962,775,
period, in wliicli much absd'act painting was dominated li\
I 111- formal ipiestions discussed by tllement (ireenberg. nuinv

and
aiiiî-- critics looked to Hofmanii as a heroic pioneer. studied with llolniaun. The st\ listic premise of the grou]i
Meanwhile Hofmann himself sounded like something was abstraction, purified of external reference. Hofmann
-itaiglii out of Clement Greenberg. N^'riting in l')()2. Hof- was a master at assimilating stylistic ideas without regard to
mann e.\ lained; the content from which they originated; even his sensual
landscapes of 19.i6 to l')4l and the great last works of 1958
/ (im often , how I approach my work. Let me confess: I
hctl
to 1966 have an almost polite resene in the wav that the
hdhi myimiu md myirork free from any association foreiirii
artist segregates the language of intuitive e.xpression from an
to the act ofpa. Ung. I am thoroughly in.s/>irci/ and n'îtated
overtly personal content. In this respect Hofmann had a
by the actions tht >selres which the dcrelopmnil nftlic
'^' profoimd effect on such ]iainters of the sixties as Frank Stella
/lainting contirniou 'v recj aires.
and Robert R>inan [fig>. 1(1. l!. 10. -f. 10.5, and 10.23] but
In W-\~: . when the A. erican .\bstra( t Ani^N group was it set him a])art from the likes of de Kooning, Pollock,
foimdi'fl in New ^'oIk. '
ilf the foundini: members had and Newman.
59
Arshiie @orky
Arshile Gorky
1 -hill' Ciorkv was a >elf-P(liicalcMl iniflli'iuial. ami iliii- all arriiiiliiii; to I la roll I Ri i-mlii-ri;. (.iirkx -iir--id the idea of
A llir ninri- iMiiii'-i in his readiiif; nt hlfraUirc and in In- i;eiting emotion into draw ing li\ hiring a 1 Inngarian \ iolinisi
I In he at inn III an. Ilr carrii'd small hooks oti artist- an mini in 111 plav during the class!"'
his pocki'is and talked about art incessaiitlv — in \\ ashiiiL'ton (iiiik\ svstematicallv constructed an artistic image for
St[iiart'. in bars, or at parties. He would stand in front of a liiin-iir. beginning bv a change of name just prior to leaving
\ frineer or a great Titian in the Metrojiolitan Mnseiun and Huston. 'Arshile "
is a cognate of Achilles, the heroic wairior
srniiinize it. sometimes exjiostiilating aloud to himself a- I if the llidd. who flew iiuo battle out of rage at the death of his
he examined eaeli detail, .\fterwards he and de Kooniiii; Ill-loved friendPatroclus: and "Gorky" means "bitter" in
or other friends would go out for roffee and disruss dn- liiissian.Thus Gorky, in effect, named himself "the bitter
[lainting for hours. For Gorky art was the vehicle thro\igh Achilles. no doubt in reference to his rage and soitow at the
"
w liich he experienced everything and a inatter of the utmost death of his mother and his enforced exile. He also deliber-
iiii|iortaiire. atelv chose a Russian name, which seemed not only glamor-
ous, but also registered his admiration for Chekhov and
Gorky's Life (Real and Imagined) Dostovevskv. He even claimed to be related to the Soviet
writer Maxim Gorkv in order to enhance his intellectual
Giiik\ wa- liurn \ osdanik .Adoiaii on .\pril lo. 1404 in jiedigree. Of course "Maxim Gorky" was also a pen name,
I Armenia. His mother descended from a noble
urkisli jirompting Rosenberg's crack that: "In making someone
line of priests from the fifth-centuiy Armenian .\postolic else s alias his own name, ,\rsliile involved himself in the
Chinch, and she imbued him with a love of the ancient higher mathematics of pseudon)Tiiit\'."'"
cultm-e and language. The rich manuscripts, architectme. Almost evervone who knew him recollected Gorkv s
sculpture, and wall car\ings in the 3.()()0-vear-old citv of character as humorous in its melodramatic expressions and
\'an inspired an early interest in art and blended in his in his fabrication of biogi'aphical details. In the summer of
memoiy with his deep emotional attachment to his mother 19.36 he had a brief affair with the female jiainter Michael
and to the majestic sceneiy of his native region. The central W est and sent her love letters plagiarized from the French
theme of his later life and art was a vivid, animistic re- artist Gaudier-Brzeska with sections from Paul Eluard."
creation of his familv and childhood sunoundings in the Tliev were qttite torrid too: he even signed one of them "In
"*'
village of Khorkom and on the shores of Lake ^ an in far flames. Arshile. In addition, Gorky's friends joked about
eastern Tmkey. how he enjoved playing the exotic .\niienian peasant at
Long \nctims of religious persecution bv the I-lamic ])arties. complete with shepherd dances and folk songs
Turks, the Annenians suffered a systematic cam|jaign of [fig.3.2L. Even Stuart Davi^. a close friend in the early
genocide during \^ orld War L Wlien Gorkv was fom'. his thirties, described Gorkv and hi- studio as if the artist had
father fled to the Liiited States to avoid conscription into the
Turkish army. Two vears later the voung Gorkv had to
evacuate to the stronghold of Van uith his mother and
3.21 Arshile Gorky dancing at a party, c. 1945. Photograph by
sisters, and in 191.5 they set out on foot for Caucasian V, V. Ra/ikine.
Aniienia in the infamous "death march." The Turks
slaughtered stragglers and by year's end they had extennin-
ated a million-and-a-half Annenians. Gorky's family anived
in .luly. and in the fall Gorky's elder sister and half-sister
emigrated to the I nited States, leaving him with his mothei
and youngest sister V artoosh. Conditions for the refugees
were appalling and in March 191Q Gorkv s mother literallv
died of starvation in his amis. He and \ artoosh then began a
circuitous, year-long journey to reach the I nited States.
Februaiy 26. 1920 — sixteen vears old and

On
destitute — Gorky
annved at Ellis Island in New York vvitli
\'artoosh. Three days later the husband of their half-sister.
Akabi. picked them up and brought them home to VV ater-
town. Massachusetts. After some odd jobs and a couple of
years in a Boston art school. Gorky moved in late 192-+ to
Sullivan Street, near \\ ashington Square in New York. He
took more ait courses in New York and then joined the
teaching staff at the Grand Central School of Art where.
60
~iai;i'(l oxen tiiiiii:: ii was an "arristir-type ^tiidid ciiniii- world dial had di-appeaied and w a- ill aii\ I a-e -11 lurei^n in
|M'(I with tlif |iaia|ilii'iiialia |>opularlv beliiMil lo \>r ihr e\elA le-peiilii New ^ i ilk ll lal I le had 1 1
1 I edejil le h i Ill-ell a-
a|i[>n)[n-iali' sij.Mi id ilic iiiif aili^l iiu-|ii(liii<; ...a Irw II II High CI' itihild. Ill e flee I he wa- a iialiiial eiiil h idiiiieiil of
|ila,-.ier cast.^ anuinii. ami a >liiiii!iMl musical iiisiniim-Til nl die e\i-tentiali-l liene w liu cicale- hi- idem II \ III die piiM,- —
soiiU' kind to coinpli'ii' the M'ttiiij;. " III eiieiiimleriiiL; him-ell. ;iiid e\peiiemi-- e\ er\ iIiiiil: a- if
At six feet tliiee. the lean. (Iafk-(ciin])le\iiinfil. Iiand- new. W hal Hu-enlieiM Mined I, liiim kafka aliniil -larliiii:
'ome artist wiiii larue. |ilrailiiii: war-orphan i-\ r~. a^ III nil -era eh
I ill one - a--e--mem (if e\ em-. ( .iirk\ di-eii\ eied
[Rosenberg desi'iil in I lin-m. ami a ^lidii;^ loiriLrn acii-nl iiiaiii- III hie.
an iinlViigettahle inipiession. (ioik\ acciMitualcil ilic ilt.ci .\er\iiiie w liii knew
I .cirk\ ha- remarked on the aci liu
(
hv |>iilhiiga black veloiiihat (low n low o\cr hi- imclicad and and fre-hne-- ot In- \ i-iial iii-inhl. hi- rightlv baffled diem I
weafing. buttoned up tight nmlci ilic ihiii. a Jmiu. lilac k heeaii-e had the elh-ei ot -uhstanliating die arli-l's
it
oNciToat that flowed liki' a immk - i a--ock down in ilic iilherw i-e imbelii-\ahle ael. 1 o (ioi-kv. the false |iieleii-e of a
ankles. (Jofky did stage e\iT\ iIiiiil: in die -rii~i- dial In- lijiiod lelaliun lo Maxim ( .orkv. the impo— ihle claim of
cafef'iilly selected and s\ •iciiKiiiialK riiiiilaird ( main lia\ 111^ -iiidied w iih Kaiidiii-k\ for three months in 1920. '''
means of in((>i|ioratiiig
lainotis aftists an(i intellectuals as a and die -enuence of styli-tic charades of Cezanne. Picasso,
w hat lie admifed. le did this at the easel and in sha|>ing hi>
1 and \lirii in his painting — all had an intellectual \ividne.sA
arti--iic persona, in r»emf. In- leii he had to iii\eiit die
aiitobiogra|iliv that wonlil lead in die intellectual and ani-iic

pi)-ilioil he had lakeii. lo the -ophi-lieated New ^(l|ke| ii 3.22 Arshile Gorky, Nighnime, Enigma, and Nostalgia, 1931-2.
-eeiiied like a plll-oli. hill e\eii hi- friend- llKi\ lia\i- Ink on paper, 24 31 In (61 ^ 78.7cm).
iiiidere-timated the iiaixe ilireiiiie-- wiili which (.iirk\

Colleclion, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York 50lh Anniversary Gift of Mr. ond
Mrs. Edwin A. Bergmon. Pfiotograpfi by Geoffrey Clemenls. New York, c 1 994 Estate of Arsfiile
pieced toaelher a self-iina<;e and a -l\le. He came Irom a Gorky/Arlists Rigfits Society (ARSl, New York
61
Arshile Gorky
iIkii rn;i(li' llirm 'iimI In liiiii. (iTlaiiiK iiolliiii^; imiM he- '\'et iii'-|iite Gnrk\'- nb\ inn- ili-bl- In niln r artists in
lc^~irrilililc iIkiii llii-acliuil Inil - dl hi- imiK lilr. 1 1 i- iiol iIkii \i[^hlhiiic In- rn-iiin nl ihr liiiiiniir|ili- wiili the liigliU
( .iiik\ W.I- 1 11 1 1 (i| I (II nil w illi ii-iilil\ : lallirr. lie lii-licx cil iIlii -II iii'iini-il -pari- i- Inr ihr fji-i liiiir iii In- career a style
li'iic iiili'llc-( inaU iiiil-l idii-lnicl llirii ciwii iralil\ ami iTingiii/aliK hi- iiwn: il i- -rH-rniirii Irni and evocative, hi
iiili-llrciiial i:i-iiraliii;\ . llif claiiu ami cniiN icr inn willi ailililiiin ihr ilil|iin\ i-atinli nil Inn nan inii-rlr- and bnne- ill
which III- |iir-riiiri I llii- iiiiliciii w a- an ini|jiirlaiil iniilrihii- llir lii:nir nil till- right ami ihr -lia|irnl ihr \ nlinm-i i ir
lliin hi llir ili\ rln|iiniail iiT -r\rial iil III- Irlldw ai'li-l- ill llir all-Iran rniiil- Irll i il' i-riiln- i-\ i il\ i-il 1 1\ rr the nr\l di'iadr
\rw ô|k "-.IlmiI. inlii llir liimlaiiirnial riniinn- nl hi- great painting- ni llic
( .nik\ lanL:hl lln-ni a m-w |iri-| icclix c i in lad- ihal w a- liirii(>s. Ihe -olid jtaiteriis of the anatomical parts and
;iI-ii an r\i-irniial i-MTci-c. Mi- |iaili(nlar hi-lnrv \\a- a ilnthing in Gorky s portraits of the thirties [fig. 3.23] and the
(iini|ili'li'l\ aiilhi'iil II' laiii nl hi- arli-lic -lalcini'iil. 11 if colorlul (ilanar shapes in such abstractions of the mid thilfie^.
inlflli-cinal |i(i-iliiiii -li niil in hi- ail \\ a- in turn hi- -Irategv as Organization [fig. 3.24], the Khorkom paintings, ami -till
Inr -ni\ i\ al. ( .ni L\ li \ rd hi- ail w iili ali-niiile dt'ilication at later the three paintings entitled "Garden in Sochi fig.
all lime- ami in (Ininu -n |iiii\ ii Iril an example of the 3.2t)] derive from a flattening out of the organic. snil|)tural
-iTioli-nc-- 111 ihr riiilrax III : III- ri i| 1
1|
ilrle -linTllilcr of forms in these drawings of 1931 to 1932. In addition the
hini-i'll. ImiiIi in In- lilr ami hi- ,iil. In ihr ilriiiami- nl lii- anatomical variations later provided a basis for handling the
ai--llli-lir lirl|iiil In |ia\ r lilr W a\ Im a ilrr|irl 1 1 111 Irl-I am li Illi figiuative eleinents in works of the final phase of flnrkv s
III llir mm Inn iin i\ I'lnrnl- i il l.iii'i i{ ir. style, such as The Liver is thr Cuck'n Comli ami The
Calendars [figs. 3.28 and 3.29]
Gorky's career began to have some modest success in the
The Development of Gorky's Style
thirties, highlighted by the inclusion of three works in a 1*'3()
I III' mill iw i-mir- ( .nik\ |iaiiilril in an im|iii'— imii-'l -l\ If. exhiliition at the Museum of Modern .\rt and a one-man
In
llifii 111' lifiiaii iilakiiio jii»'tiii'f> llf a\ilv iiifliifiicfd hv show in 193-i in a Philadelphia gallery. In 193.5 the W.PA.
( ('zaiinf. 1 If laiiif to dfvelo]) a portrait style based closeh on commissioned Gorky, at roughly $100 a moiuli. to work on a
the faiU work of Pirasso, and for a time lie imitated the nunal for Newark .Airport. The mural showed the systematic
Spaniards clean-edged cubist pictine- nf the twenties. transformatinn of airplane parts using a combination of
Between \^)'2o and the late thirties Gork\ painstakingly aped biomoiphic abstraction and cubist flatness, heavily influ-
the snles of one major modern master after another. He also enced by the color and compositional rhythm- nl IcrnamI
learned about the Etnopean moderns through his contacts Leger. But this elegant iiuiral did nm liaxe the studied
with other artists. In 1928 Gorky met .John Graham, a derivativeness of Gorkv > w mk nf the l'''_'0-. am! it received
Russian-born artist who began making annual trips to Paris' considerable attention.
in 1930, establishing friendships with Picasso and Breton During the Depression, radical pnlitic- tnnk nvir frnm
and keeping abreast of the French art scene generally. vanguard art in many quarters. Painting was widely \iewed
Throughout the thirties Graham played a critical role for as a tool nf agitation, best exemplified by the Mexican
Stuarl Dayis. W iliem de Kooning, and Dayid Smith (all of muralists. Gorky took quite the opposite view —that the
whom Goiky met in 1929 and 1930) as well as for Pollock genesis of a true work of art is in the history of art. not as a
and (Jorky in kee[)ing them u]> to date with current eyents in product of the wider socioeconomic milieu. Although he
Paris. In 1929 Gorky also met Da% id Burliuk. an old friend of attended -niiii- nf the lenniing meetings that sought a
Kandinsky s from the Blue Rider |)eriod. and (iorky must Marxist appinach tn |)aintiiig. it seems that he went to speak
lia\f heard firsthand about Kandinsky s abstractimi. only on behalf of artistic values.
(.orky's drawing .Xi^littimc. Eniiiiiin. (ind \(ist(ilî(t Aroimd 1930 Gorky moved into a grim\ commercial loft
[fig. 8.22] belongs to a closely related group of pen-and-ink building in I nion Scputre. But friends reported that he
coinjtositions done in 1931 and 1932. Gorky used tiie scrulibed the lloor so thoroughly and so frecpiently that it
\()cabiilary of biomoiphic abstiailimi in reatf the Aqi-like i came have the washed-out look of driftwood. He wanted
to
three-dimensional forms that he -it in a shallow and to create a beautiful refuge not only from the pressures for
.siibdiyided perspecti\al sjjace. While Nighttime derives its "social relevance" in art but from the desperation of his owni
geometiy. cross-hatching, shaip contotns and contrasts, and poverty. He lived off occasional teaching and help from
its depth from cubist j)ictures of the twenties, the compart- friends, but in his world of paiiuing he made no concessions;
mentalization of the composition and the dramatic juxtajto- despite the Depression he stock] liled supplies (only the best
Paolo Uccellos Miracle of the
sitions suggest the influence of ones) with an air of aristocratic noblesse oblige. Stuart Davis
Host, of which Gorky had a life-sized reproductiijn on his remarked: "outside of an art store. I had never seen anything
'^
sttidio wall.^'' The enigmatic objects and situations in the like this,"
paintings of Giorgio de Ghirico also seem to have ins[)iiril Gork\ had the same iincnmprnmising iilealism in his
ihese drawings; Gorky knew de Chirico's work from the image of family life. Marny George, whom Gorky married in
(iallatin fiollection and probably also from the 1928 de 193.5, later remarked that Gorky had tried to mold her into
( Jiii'iin I'vhiliitinn at \ alentine (ialleiT.'"' what he iinaiiineil In be the ideal wife for him. liiit tnnk little
62
notice of wlio >lii' actiuiliy was. Tlii? icil ic> liu- lirtak-u|i nf no doiilii leanieil ji hum ( .oik\ . (airk\ ina\ in linn ha\f
ilieir inaniasie in under a year.'" A miii~ oI poiiiaii^ n\ dc\ i^fil II liiiiii loiikiiiL; al die inaiinificent liiiirc- poiiiail nl
liini>eli'. Iii.-- mother, and hi-- -i-.iei' \ ailno-li in w I i Ik- Miii/iinir <li- 1 Idiissiimillf. w Inch had lerenlK been ai (|iiiied
remained clo-e tiiroiifziionl III- lili' ]iiii\ Idt-d ilu- In ~i (l(i|i|\ b\ llif link ( ii||f( liiiii. Mic analiiiinial êgmeiilal n m in
lelt snl)jeet tliatter ul' (.orkx - laie.r. Alllioiiuli (.orkv (.iiik\ > porlrail. \\hnli i I'-cnible- hi- planar iiiniiioiphic
liimselt sigiu'd aii<l dated matr\ ol ilie-i- [laintini;- a> it llie\ ali-irariion- of die kilc lliinif-. al-o iiifhicnceil die i-arK
luul l)eeii completed in the l\\enlie-.. llie\ |iriiiiaiiK ilair Iniiii lii:nraii\i- paiiiiiiiL:- ol In- a I IVn-iid de Kooning. In I'H''
tlie later 1930>. lie kiioiiiiig wroic dial wlini. al I fifteen year- aiô. I
Gorkvs paiiitiim ot T/ir \rlisl <iii<l llis Mullnr Iil;\ walkfd into .\r-liile •- -iiidio lor die fir^t time, the alino--
.'5.23 is tlie tiiost moxitii; nt the |iiirirail -.i-ni~ lirwnrkrd phfif \\a> so beautiful dial 1 goi a little dizzv atid when 1
tioma 1*^)12 pliotoiiia])li oi hini-iir \\ Itli lii> mother, taken in raiiir lo, 1 wa.- bright enongli to take lla- liinl Jiiimi'dialeK ...
the city of \ an. three yeai- In Inn' her tragic death. .\Iakini; II i- about im|)()ssible to get a\\a\ li In- |io\\eiinl
careful drawings from the iiiiotogia|)li. he painted two fiill- iiiniii-nce.
.•ized \ersioiis. elimitiatiiig detail atid refining hi> nioiher^ In die mid tliiriie> (iorky began obseNsi\el\ painling
face iino a hpaiiiifiil system of jjerfect ovals and aii>. ab-tractions. like Urganiz<ition [fig.3.24j. that derived from
Furthermore in- rnni|Mi-.ed the jtictme like an icon, with a Picasso's work of the late twenties [fig. 3.25]. According to
tripartite divi.îon that >ngge>ts the throne of the \ irgin. In Ro-enberg. Gorky came to be known as "the Picasso of
one version the enlarged black [ntpils of the eve> and the W a-hington Scjuare. '"*"
\Xlien Julien Le\y w em to Gorkv'.-
iransparent iininaterialif\ of the shoulder seems to iian--- -nidio for the first titne in 1Q32. he sensed Gorkv's taleiii bin
toiin the mother into a niiii-(iir|)oreal vision of pure >|iirii. conliln t reconcile himself to the artist's peculiar, ahnn-i
Gorky attained ilie ^hiny. glass-like surface In repeat- -n|)er>titioiisly faithful, apprenticeship to Cezanne. Pica— o.
edly scraping it down w ith a razor blade and repainting. riii> and then Miro. i was aith Cezanne for a long time, and now
techni(|iie becatiie a stock procedure forde KooniiiL' ton. w hn iiainrally I am with Picasso." he told Le\y; Le\T promi-ed
"""
liini a show some day, "when you are with Gorky.
The series of paintings in homage to Khorkoni the
\illage of Gorky's childhood dominate the strikingly i
origi-
3.23 Arshile Gorky, The Ariisi and His Mother 926-36. 1 Oil on
nal abstractions of the late thirties. In these compositions
canvas,5ftx 4ft 2in (1.52 > 1.27m).
Collection, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York Gift of Julien Levy for Moro and Gorky expanded upon the vocabulaiT of free abstract forms
Natasha Gorky in memory of their fother. Photograph by Geoffrey Clements. New York aimounced in Organization and aiuicipated in the drawings
® 1994 Estote of Arshile Gorky/Artisls Rights Socle^ (ARS), New York.
ot l''.U and 1932. The rich, sensuous surfaces were so
liea\ily painted that the pictures weighed as niucli as

-1 iil])tines. It became a regular joke in his studio to ask some
unsuspecting visitor to go over and pick one up.

BetTveen roughly 19-tO and 1943 Gorkv also painted a
>erie> of paintings called "Garden in Sochi" 'fig. 3.26]
•^tyli-tically the sequence shows a transition from the strong
influence of Miro's relatively thinly but

flat, brilliant colors,
opaipiely painted, an even denser impasto than the to

Khorkom paintings, and ending with a feathery and trans-
parently brushed canvas set off by drawing with a fine black
line. Sochi probably conie^ from the .\nnenian "sos" or
'-o-i meaning a "poiilar tree. Gorkv's sister recalled, "it
w a- cu>tom in our family at the birth of a son to plant a
tlie
pi liar tree which would later have the birth date and name
1]
(aiM'd on it. (jorky as a child loved his tree and took great
pride in caiini: for it."''"
3.24 (opposite, top) Arshile Gorky, Organizaf/on, 934-6. Oil on 1
canvas, 4ft 1 %in x 5ft (1 .26 x 1 .52m).

Collection, National Gallery of Art, Woshington, DC, Aliso Mellon Bruce f=und, 1 979. © 1 994
Estote of Arshile Gorky/Artists Rights Society (ARSl. New York.
3.25 (opposite) Pablo Picasso, The Studio, Paris (winter 1 927-8;

doted 1 928). Oil on canvas, 4ft 11 m .--
7ft 7in (1.49 x 2.31m).
The Museum ofModern Art, New York, Gift of Woller P. Chrysler, Jr. « 1994 Artists Rights
Society (ARS), New York/SPADEM, Pons.
64
3.26 Arshile Gorky

(Vosdanik Manoog Adoian),
Garden in Sochi, c. 1 943. Oil or
convos, 31 X 39in (78.7 ^ 99cm)
The Museum of Modern An, New York.
Acquired through the Lillie P. Bliss
Bequest. P 1994 Estate of Arshile

Gorky/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New
York.
3.27 (below) Joan Mird,

Flame in Space and Nude
Women, 1932. Oil on
cordboord, 16' 8 x 12*'8in
(40.9 X 32.1cm).
Collection, Fundocio Joan Miro,
Barcelono. c; 1 994 Arlists Rights Society
(ARS), New York/ADAGP. Pans.
In l'»-+2 lilt- .\IiiM-uiii (il MiMJiTn An Ikiii-Iii ilu- I'Hl

\fi>it)n ol Giinleit in Soclii and a.--ke(l G»iik\ to wiife a
-latement ahinit tin- -erier-. His text indicated that his
tatlier's garden ^\a~ liic uiiiieilvinr; theme iif these woiks. He
1 ailed it "the Clarden tit \\ i-li Fultilinient' and fecoiinted:
iiftcn f IkkI -seen my mother and otheiiilUige iromcn

(i/>i'iiiriir their ho.soms (ind taking their soft and dependent
breasts in their hands to rub them on the rock. Abore all this
stood an enormous tree all bleached under the sun. the rain.
the cold, and de/irired of tein-es. Thi.s iras the Holy Tree . .
/i(ii/>/e . . . irould tear rohnitinih' a strip of their clothes and

at Inch this to the tree. I has ihniiigh main' ^êars of the same
act. hkr II of banners under the pressure of
rentable piinide
irind alt personal inscriptions of signatures, reiy softly
llie.-ie
to my innocent ear used to gire echo to the sh-h-h-h-sli-li

of the silrer leares of the poplars.^'
In the tir>t \eision. tlie hare-breasted figure i~ 'till legible

ailing the left edge, with a Initterfly overhead, the trunk of a
tree in the upper renter, and perhaps the pennants of cloth in
I he The oiit-of-scale shoe in the center may refer
iipjjerriglit.
III a pair of sli]ipers given to Gorky by his father before
li-aving for .\merica. and consequently of great s\inbolic

>igiiificance to the artist. But the shoe probably also relates to
Nhro's Still Life with an Old Shoe of 1937. which was at the
PieiTe Matisse Galleiy in New \ork and featured a shoe
lillinix a larce area of the forei:iiiuiid. (Jiirky's use of
65
Arshile @cd(y
antomatist foiin control to tiaiisfomi natural subjects. compositions begun after 1*^42 successfully embody the
i-s|)eciallv ligm-es. is heavilv iiulcbied to the inetainorpliic deep resonances of Gorkv's .\nnenian past in the describable
fi<rines of Miro [ii'^. 3.27] and Picasso [
fifj. 5.20] . The precise present of his family in Connecticut. In an .\pril 1Q44 letter
crises, thin planes, silhouettes, and flat aroinids in the first to Vartoosh about The Liver is the Cock's Comb [fig. 3.28]
( iardi'ii ill Sochi" paimiiii: •>\-" ii'\ i-al tin- intliicuce ot Mini. Gorkv i^Tote. "... it is as if soine ancient .\niienian spirit
within me moves iny hand to create so far from oiu'
homeland the shapes of nature we loved in the gardens,
Gorky's Late Works
wheatfields and orchards of our Adoian family in Khorkom.
l'H2 cMMNihini; came tojjether in Gorky's painting: he Our beautiful Amienia which we lost and which will I
III
( larilied for himself what he wanted to paint and inore or repossess in my art."""'
Ir^- hiiw III' liad III do ii. With iiii> aesthetic self-assurance. In 77;? Liver a figure stands at the tight edge of the
die laî -i\ \rar- nt hi- lite iini oidv proved the most canvas with a rooster's comb on his head and a feathered
|irii(hnii\i- of 111- career Imi yielded work of unifomily pelvis. One might speculate that a female figiu-e stands in the
luilliaiii c]ualitv. Incii-ed mi a subject matter with liighly center bent at the waist inspecting a varien- of tall plants and
specific referents in nature, .\ndre Breton was on the right that a dog lies at the bottom, tight of center. Gorky's
track when he said Gorky "niaintains a direct contact with inetamoiphic figures seem to condense multiple images into
natin-e — sits downi to paint before her.' ''"'
one fonn. as in a dream. Drawins* make such nuesswork
Scholars have pointed out that the seemingly abstract
works which Gorky made in the forties contained figines.
3.28 Arshile Gorky, The bver IS the Cock's Comb, 1944. Oil on
often familv members before a fireplace, or details of plants
canvas, 6ft 1
' 4in ^ 8ft 2in (1 .86 ^ 2.49m).
"Garden in Sochi pictures still
or landscape.^' \^liere the "
Collection, Albnghl-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York. Gift of Seymour H. Knox, 956.
1
have a predominantly emblematic character, the new © 1 994 Estate of Arshile Gorky/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
66
easier, tliouirli one is always mi<riiaiii alidiii ilu- |iii< i-r a lacei 111 dii- lliiiikiiiL: iiiind . . . nmi-lenliiii; ^puniain-ilN i>
itleiitiiv of ilie iinaires. Tliose wlio kmw (.uikx will lia\i' chads."'" I5\ I'M" when lie de-,iilied lln- -iinvaliMs a-
foiifirined that the iiiiai;e> (ieri\e fiom iiatmal tniiii- — -u. "dniiik wiili p-.\ rliiainr -j Knilaiiriix and iiiixpln alilc
too. iioe>(;ork\ hiiiiselt'. as in tiie letter to \ aiioo>h. \ \r\\ the diraiiis. " his (iwn cniirriil n\ painliiiL; was IniiiU csKiIp-
ileliheiate working-out of the forms in |irrliniinar\ -iikIIi- lishi'd as anxllnni: Inn aim niialisi. lor (.iiik\ lliis hmsi-r
iiii i)a])er makes it elear that (iorky had -omethini; -|ir(ilir 1(( liiii(|nc uT \lalla - hrlpi-d liiiii 1(1 s\ ,t,-iiialiiall\ disniiis,- a
in minil. II iliscK ins|\ iinici aird s|i|i|i-(i ,
(iiirkv al-.o cunceiNeil llie [lii iiirr iiilr- dl ilii' Inrlie- ti> (...rk\- dcl.l \n ihr kandiiiskv nl I'M.; h. I'M-t Ili:.
link ii|> rlo>elv with their siihject. ]piu\ iding ninlli|ilc mcaii- .!.l'' in Ills painling nl lln- Inllics inlllil In- seen III die
ingsand referenees. Manvaiiciein and inediex a I ii\i-. irlirin xnlnpiiiniis pli'asinr nl llic snilai r applicalinn nl paiiil. lull
llli-li\er not the heart a> the riMilei' dl |ia~~iiiii. Ilu- "ciMk- alsn ill lllr indi'pi'lldi'lli r nl I'ninr. Inrni. and linr llnlll nllr
conili. '
at (inee the headdre— and llie elalii nan-K Icallirrrd aiinllii'i: ill llic llnwiiiL!. nlicii sci 1 li -1 1 a II spa ri'iil . Iinllianl
genilalia of the figure along the liLiln -idr nl die c an\ a^. Iia^ cnlni': ill the rniliaill K |sin nl linishw (irk and palcllc: and
to do with vanity and \irilit\. On nnr IimI ilii^ inxitr-- the alio\e all in the handling nl die sniijcci mailer. Kaiidiiisk\ s
iiMerpretaiion that the sonree cil |ia-'-iiin i^ iiln-ical lii-r. nn eai'h alislraii |iaiiiliiigs i-ninain inan\ disguised nlijecis
another le\el that living itself is \aiiil\ ihe lixer meaning which an\ carelul xieweicaii see. lint, as in (.(irk\ s wnik.
"one who live? ."' lint necessarily identily with cert aim \ In 1 'M-i ( .nrk\ w mle
At the heginning of l''4l2 the \iinng >ini'eali>t Matta In \ artoosh that his fathers garilen in Klmiknin was "a
w hum (iorkv had reeeiitlv hetriended enconiaged Gorkv to secret treasure to which I have been entrusterl the key.'' and
add more nnpentine to his pigtnent:''*' this immediately gave Gorkv maintained the secrecy of this treasure by disguising
( .orkv"? painting a looker, more spontaneous
effect. But the snbjei Is (\\' his jiaintings. Thus Gorky s claim tn lia\e
\lafia roiireived of the terhni([ue a> a w ay of fostering free studied with Kandiiiskv in 1920. although untrue in die
a>>oriation. which he used for generatini: new fiirm>. literal sense, nexerilieless reflects a real imellectiial and
whereas Gorky already knew preciseK what lie wanted ici aesthetic link.
paint. In a letter of 19-39 Gorky rejected such suneaiist \Mien Gorkx married Agnes Magnider "Mongniicli in
devices for their lack of control: "I do not believe in anarchy l''4l and started liis nw n laiiiiK she and the children jniiied .
in art. There mii-i \>r -.nine -iiiicture . . . For me. art must lie tlieiiallerv of InM'dnnes" nr inxeds" that included liimself.
3.29 Arshile Gorky,

The Calendars, 1946-7.
Oil on canvas, 4ft 2in >- 5ft
(1.27 X 1.52m).
Deslroyeid, former collection N.
Rockefeller. © Estate of Arshile
Gorky/Artists Rights Society (ARS),
New York,
61
Robert Motherwell
"^^'
\ artoosli. lii> moilicr. his [jaiiiliiijis. and ilic laii<l>(a[)e ol lii> die uncommon.
rhildliooil. wliicli lie |)('rM>iiifiefl in his imagination. Ilir-'r Tragedy |nii-iicd (.ork\ rcleiiile-.-l\ . On .laniian 26.
"loNcd ones" arc llic- sfiirt" -iihjcil nialli'i ol (nukx - I ''-ft) he had a siiidio lire and lost about thirty caii\ases.
paintiniis. l-url .iiik\ lln- -i-cniilv nl a taiiiiK . \\ hie li hi- Id-l in Mter watching burn, he prodticed two pictures called
iliiiii
cliiltlhdod. toiik on ihf rimî |niil'iiiind iinjtonance. AIiit ( whose titles refer directly to the lost
hiirred Belorcd.
niarriaire and ilu- hiiih~ n| lii- dauiiliifi- Maro :
19-+H and ]iaintiiigs. Late in FebruaiT 1946 he underwent a cancer
iNatasha i
I'M") . |ioma\ a I- nt ihc laniiK lifcanu- hi> nli-i--- operation. He bounced back with an extraordinarily produc-
sive subject. ii\e year in 1947. luaking neaily .300 drawings and twenty
The ('(ilfiiiliirs hi;. .4.2'' -how- jii-t r.n(li a lainilx |iaiiitiiigs. Then in December 194? his father died.
••iiMir. \\idi (.iiik\ siandiiiiiat thi- v\\i\n riaihiifi a niagazini' Gorky's last works are filled with the sense of immaneiu
l)i-liind hi- -ratrd wih- Vtrni'-- widi hlaik liair I'orkini; a death. Gorky's last painting was so titled— La.«/ Painting—
ciaillr. Ihc iildir ( liild -iial lill in a hiri;i' L'ra\ chair and the subtitle. The Black .Monk, is a revealing allusion to a
liKikiiii; (iiii 111 ihc windiiw al an inaimc sunset. A log is ( liekhov ]jlay of the same name, bi the play an apparition of
engnlfed in tlanips in the I'iicplacc renter and in front of the a black monk tells Ka\Tin (the hero) that his frail frame
fireplace {- what may lie a |iiain. A large dog sits in the center cannot bear the weight of his getiius. and then he dies. Gorkv
loici!iiiiiiiil looking out. Two tN'jjes of calendar are on the had suffered severe dejuession. which led in turn to maiital
wall alio\e ihi> xene: a pink bathing beauty on a while ]iroblems. and during the winter of 1947/8 he tiied killing
beach with explicitly exposed genitals and a nanire calendar himself several times. Ott one occasion his wife recalled
with a fluffv bird. Perhaps the "cheesecake calendar and .-.eeing hiiri take a rope and march up the hill: she sent the
the narure scene reflect two sides of his sexuality, a theme (liildren out after him. telling them "Look. Daddy is going to
that resembles that of The Lirer is the Cock's Comb. build a swing. " so that they would unwittingly divert him
bi a further disguised form. Gorkv re-created ihe long enough for the mood to pass.^"* But on June 26. 1948
comjiosifion of The Caleiulars in a nearly monochrome .hilien Levy and his wife were dii\iiig with Gorkv in
painting called The Opaque. He repeated the composition in ( Connecticut and had an accident in which the latter broke
seyeral works in progressiyely more disguised forms. (»oiky his neck. He temporaiily lost the use of his light ami and
had endured such loss and depriyation in his childhood that became despondent and difficult: he thought he would never
he may haye deyeloped these disguises to protect hiiuself paint again. Agnes began to fear the effect of this depression
from further yulnerability. This trait was eyideut in the on the (liildren. so she took them to her parents' house.
personal dissimulations of his earlier career and it was also Three weeks later Gorky hanged himself in the woodshed,
"''
present, in a symbolic sense, in his organization of a class on leaving a note on the wall that said. "Goodbye, my loveds.
camouflage painting at the Grand Central School of Art in Gorky, more than anyone, gave vanguard painting in
1'142. As he stated in the brochure he wrote to adyertise the the foities a tragic image. \ et he also symbolized the triumph
class: "An epideiuic of destruction sweeps through the world of aesthetic experience over the vagaiies of i
even a poten-
today. The mind of civilized man is set to stop it. \^liat the tially tragic) life. His work brought the individual's experi-
enemy would destroy, however, he must first see. To confuse ence of the past 'real and imagined) into the immediate
and paralyze this vision is the role of caiuouflage. ^^" .\nd in a |iiesent as an ineluctable element of one's ongoing definition
short essay about his murals for the Newark .\iiport he I if self I
in the existentialist sense and demonstrated tliat ait,

i
di-cii-êd "ihe mar\el of makiiiL' huni the common — if not life, is an act of intellectual w ill.
Robert Motherwell
Jack-on came Irom a
Pollock r lamiK and nc\cr | kept compaii\ with the other- and lived meagerly in the
fini-hed high school. Gorky barely escaped with his life t( irtie-. \ et he ne\"er suffered the same poverty as they did or
trom the Amienian refugee camps, de Kooning stowed aw ay went through the lengthy tiial-and-eiTor process of bad
on a ship from Holland and arrived in New York with -indent works. Before Mothei'well ever picked up the brush
nothing but the clothes he was wearing, hi addition mo>t of he knew precisely where he stood in teniis of modernist stvles
the outstanding artists of the New York School educated and ideas; as a painter he s|)rang. so to speak, fully grown
themselves by reading and debating with other artists in from the head of Zeus.
cafeterias and bars near Washington Sc[uare and began made him the most
Mothei-well's splendid education
painting in less than modest circumstances during the late and articulate of the major New York School artists,
literate
twenties or early thiities. By connast Robert Motheiwrll but nowhere in his upper-class background or education did
attended ])rep school, toured Europe in the Depression, he have any exposure to the bohemian existence or coimnit-
received a bachelor's degi-ee in philosophy from Stanfoifl. inent of genuine painters. Mothei'well grew up in San
and was well on his way to a Ph.D. at Hanard. funded bv his Francisco amid affluent suiToimdings. The family sum-
father, when in 19,39 he decided to become a iiai liter. He too mered li\ the sea in Aberdeen. Washiiiirton. and his father, a
•onsen ative bank cliainiiaii. fully experted his nnl\ --iiii lo showed them at Peggy (iuggenheim's gallen the -aine \ car
lii-ail straight IVoin rollege inio liusiiiess or law . Df Kniiiiini; Motherwell took to collage so naiiirallv tiial lor liiin ii
once quipped that all the best painler- wiif la\\\i-i^ and |iio\idci| till- e\pii-ssi\ I- fii-i-dom that the i;c-iiiial ciri|i lalir
doctors: '"
the pressure on Motherwell not in In- an arli-l w a- l.'a\e I'olldik. îM lln- (iillcii-ncc in tlwir appiuaili lo
lorniidalile. Bin Mothei-wells decision to become a painii i indderni-in i- aisc) characterized ii\ liie- ((iniia-i lirtw.i-ii
wa- onlv po>tpoiied by his education and pre^ûle Irnm Molhciwrll s atlinitv for assembliiiL; lonnd fiai:nicnl~ and
hi- iaiher. I'ollock s slain r ol lictiininiii: troin zero, w nlioiii rrlnrinu lo
aiiMlniiL; licxdnil ilir inh-railii m ,,{'
(In- ,nli~l willi liis
iiial.-rial- lii:s.2. 12 ainl 2. l4 . MmiIhtw I'll's adiniialion for

Intellectual Affinities with the European ilic analxlicai and turiiiai liaililinns nl I ri-ncli art —
Moderns i-inliodii-ci in cnliisi riillaLir and in the painting cii I'icassn and
Malissi iiiiiil liii liini in perpetual counterjioinl to liic
IH-lead ot going back to Har\ard in llic fail of l')4(). iniinediacN nt nnoiinnal experience and ilii~ (i|i|"isniiiii
Motherwell went to Columbia to stmlx an hi-t(ir\. llitn- |iro\ idf(l a ceniral llicm.- in his art.
lie met Mever Schapiro. a vouiig iii>iniciiii in the ilepait- MiitherweH's fhienc\ in the language ot cnllaLT di-m cd
ment. who encouraged Motherwell to ilrn|i out anil -tarr troin his ongiiing dialog wilii the European niodiTn-. In
|iainting. Schajiiro introduced him to -nnii- of tin- Euro])eaii 19.51 he explained: "Eveiy intelligent painter laniis die
surrealists who had come to New \nrk. including Kurt whole culture of modem painting in his hea<l. ii i- his nal
Seligniann. with whom Motherwell >tiidied engraving. subject, of w liicli e\ eiything he paints is both an homage and
Soon Motherwell had befriended Matta. Diichamp. Enist. a crititpie. and e\frything he says a gloss.""" This speaks to
W ifredo Lam. Masson. Tanguy. and Breton. W ith an inter-
est in psychoanalysis and a strong intellectual background
he fitted in well with the cerebral siinealists. Thev shared
an appreciation of the romantic and symbolist tradi- 3.30 Robert Motherwell, Tobacco Roth-Handle, 974. Four- 1
color lithograph and screenprint on HMP handmade paper,

tions, especially in poerr\". and Motherwell became fascin-
40V2x305 8in (102.9 X 77.8cm).
ated with their teclmicpie of automatism.
Published by Tyler Graphics Ltd. Collection, Walker Art Center, Minneopolis, Tyler Grophic
The problem for the artists of his generation, a- Mother- Archive. :c: Dedalus Faundation/VAGA, New York, 1 994.
wellsaw it. was "to bring American art nji to ilii- \r\r\ of
huropean modernism without being deri\ ati\ e. .Automat- '
ism >eeined to him a \'iable means of accomplishing that,

because it offered "a creative principle that did not impose a
style." * Instead it brought out onlv what was native to the
individual, and the aesthetic of the New York School came to
center on preciselv that point.
Vi hereas the surrealists used automatism to explore the
workings of the imcoiiscious mind and then turned to more

conventional means to describe what thev found. .Motherw ell
and theotheraitistsof the New York School sawaiuoniatisui
as a means for generating a form that would directly embody
their existential struggle for self-definition. "Even' artist s
problem is to invent himself. Motherwell wrote in 194^.'"
Automatism provided the ideal tool for the painter in seanli
of T>elf who wanted to retain the vitality of each moment of
discoveiy as it unfolded. Because of his fine education.
Motherwell probably understood the implications of auto-
matism for his contemporaries" aspirations sooner and in
greater dejitli than anyone and plaved an important role in
communicating its possibilities to Pollock and others.

Shortly after Motherwell met Krasner. Pollock, and
Bazioies in 1 'H2. he experimented writing automatist |)oein--
with them. The following year Pegg\' (Tiiggenheiin told him

that she would be ha\'ing a show of collages by varion>
European moderns; she suggested that if he and Pollock
wanted to tiy making some, and if they were good, she would
include them. So ii: 1943 Motherwell and Pollock made their
fir-.t collciges [fig. 2.141 side by side in Pollock's studio and
69
Robert Motherwell
3.31 Robert Motherwell m his
Greenwich Village studio, 1943.

Photograph by Peter A. Juiey.
oiil\ mil- -iilc 111 and \rl llii- Iniliiul

MiilliriWfir- ai'^tilflir the SI hemallr. controlled siTiictiu'e ol\erticals and horizon-
traditions ot Kiifitjiean niodefiiistiihad a deijit'c nt iiii|iiirt- tal-. Ill a shallow lubisi space -holding the emotions in
aiice for Mother-well tliat ditfereiitiates him froiii tin- ntlifi- check . Ilie formal opposition of ovals and vertical stripes
major artists of the New York School. It also accounts for his antici|)ates Moihei-well s most famous series, the "Elegies .
-iiccess as the outstanding |>rintmaker of his generation [fig. which he began in 19-l8. In some form, this opposition
.S.30 ."' although it was oidy after his retrosjifcrive at the lietween the formal and the emotional defined virtually all
Museum of Modern Art In ]H(i.^ that he liccaiin- di-f|il\ Mothei-well's future work. Finally the implicit reference to
ln\-ol\-ed in ]irlntniaklrig. the refinemeiu of European art and culture— here spnbol-
ized In the collage technique itself, with its allusions to
Recurring Themes in Motherwell's Work Picassd and Matisse — would also be a recurrent preoccupa-
tion with Motherwell.
UiiliLi- |irintniakin^. lullagi- wa-^ a iiiaiii-'ta\ iil Miitlit-r-
wiir^ de\el()iiment from the outset. Pancho I ilhi. Dead Teaching, Writing, and Editing in
iiiitl [lire Jig.2.H . ttne of his first collages, was purchased Motherwell's Early Career
for the Museum of Modern .\rt out of Peggv Guggenhelni ^
l'*4.'^ show. He later talked about the immediate Inspiration Ho\\e\ei much Motherwell lelt Intellectually at home
lor the work, a Mexico with Malta In the --iiinmi-r of
trip to amongst the siin-ealists. he did not identify with their
l''4l. and lie noted: "l was fascinateil with Anita Bren- . . . |ialntings. Instead his sensibilin- gravitated toward abstrac-
iiiM- s fabulous book of photographs of the Mexican Revolu- tion. A look at the interior of his studio in 1945 [fig.3.31].
tion, called Till' II iinl Sirept Over Mexico. One picture idinplete with a photograph of Baudelaire pinned to the
•howed Panclio \ Ilia aftei- he was shot, spread out- wall, shows the depth of his roots in a broader European
"'
sprawled out. rialK —In a Model T. covered with blood. fiadition. He admired Mondrian as the painter of pure
The dead inan In thl> collage is bullet-ridden and wholly intelligence: he was drawn to Arp. Klee. and of course
bereft of the sexual attributes e\ldeiu in the vital figure on Picasso. Miro. and Matisse, who were in the mainstream of
till- active backdrop to the right. classical French modernism. Thus in 1941 he not only
In this earlv collage Mothei'well had already set oni the sought out the surrealists in New^ York but he met Mondrian.
most important and prevalent themes of his career: life and Chagall. Leger. Li](chltz. Caldei. Ozenfant. Zadkine. and
death, violence, and re^()llltion. He also instigated a formal Xoguchi as well.
o|i])osition between the intensely felt emotional elements In Peggs' Guggenheim gave Motherwell his first one-man
the eccentricallv drawn ovals, the painterly areas, and the show in 1944 at the Art of This Century gallery, and in 1945
lullllant touches ot roloi — boili plmncnt and cnllaL:!' ami he simied a contract with the dealer Sam Kootz. which gave
70
liim some steady income. He also taiiglit. In tiie smiinici^ nl' (if dii- -niicali-l joiirrial / / / and llirn in l''-t-t hiok nn dir
l'H5 and again in 1951 Moilu-nvell gave classo ji I5la( k (i|ii(ir-lnp 111 dir Diiinnirni- nl Muiliin \ri -rm- Im iln-
Mouinain ('olleiê. tlie progressive seliool in Ncrili ( ioolni.i pnlih-lin and I k iIimIi-i (.i-mur W ii irnlmrn, I lie Dmii-
lin'ongh which \\ illem de Kooning, .losel Mini-. Nhur nirni- -ri ir- |iiii\ iiird 1 1 aii-lal ii m- i il niaim |iiiniar\ li'\l- nl
('uimingliani. Jolin C'age. Robert Ranschnilni l:. :ni(l -n nil nil Til ail and had a < rnrial i nlr in inakiliL: llir arl llirni \ nl
many otiier interesting artistic and hterarv |pi -iiikiIiiii- i l.niiipran nindi-i ni-iii axailalilr In \niiiii; \inrnran aili-1-.
passed in the decade after World W .n II. Mnilni w rll Miillirrwi'll a -n I w nlr a Irw rnliral
I i---a\ - Inr llir /'iiiiisiin
collaborated with Da\id Hare. William Ba/iolr-. \laik li'crnir. and in i''-+n In- rdiird ilii- jnninal l'i)S.iihililics with
R..thko. and initially Clyfford Siill in I'Î'. and l'>-f'» i,, llainldHn-rnl.eri;.
oriiaiii/i' a -chool in Greenwich \ illaur ralli-d "îiliji-iiul
ihe \rli-l. named to stress llnii ((uiciin

-11 wuli rdriiirii.
Motherwell's Painting
de-|iitc their commitment to al>>tia( lion.
I he mill ic meetings and di>(ii--ion- held
I
al the Snlijecl- MnllliTwrll -prill llir -nniinri- nf I'H.'i and l'»-t() ill Ka-I
ot dif Arli-l -chool provided a rocu-. Inr -on I the \ilalitv 1 la nipt nil. w liii II had lirrmiif the -nniini-r nnlpn-l nl tin-
ol the t.reenwich \ illage art scene. Immediately after the .New \ork School. There he [lainted a number of metamor-
school o[)ene(l and Barnett .\ewiTian took his |)lace
Still ijiiit ]ihic liirds [fig. .'1.32' bv Picasso [fig. and figures influenced
on the staff. The ne.xt year Tony Smith took over the ."1.20 and Miro [fig..3.2'' In 1^4:' Motherwell built a limi-i- .
organization, closing the school btn keejting ii]i the jirogram ill Ka-t Hamilton, and in 1<H8 he began the "Elegv tn the
of lecinre- and meetings. "Subjects of the .\rtist ' nans- Spanish Re|nilihr -irir- with a little pen-and-ink drawing
formed into "Stiidio.^.T" theaddress was35 East 8th Sneet that he made to gn with a ]iiiem bv Harold Rosenberg called
and then merged "The Club, which continued to host
into " K Bird for Every Bird Inr the plannrd -rcmid i--iir nl
interesting meetings: butby this time Motherwell and his Possibilities . The issue iie\er materiali/nl and Mnilinwrll
contemporaries had only an occasional invohement. -tuck the sheet in a drawer, forgetting abmit it Im ilir biiier
in addition to teaching. Motherwell's intellectual in<li- part of a year. In 1949 he rediscovered the -ketch and
tiaiiiin> led him info an active schedule of lecturing, writing, reinteipreted it in a small painting which he called 1/ 1- ire 11/
and rditinti: in the forties. In 1Q42 he'WTote for the fir.-t i^slle the Afternoon [fig.3.33j. after the refrain in Garci'a l.mca -.
jioem "Lament for Ignacio Sanchez Meji'a-.

In this painting the aiisteritv" of the nioiinrluiiinr |ialrite
3.32 Robert Motherwell, Untitled, 1 945. Gouache and ink on and the regimentation of the composition iiUo regular bars
cardboard, 9^ j x 8' 4in (24.8 x 21 cm).
and o\als provide a dramatic foil for the s|)ontaneous
P-.vate collection, Chicago, c Dedalus Foundolion, VAGA, New York, 1994
emotive elements, stich as the loose gestural brn-hwnik. the
paint drips, and the free irregularity of the arii-i - nlirllinn
asainst the self-imposed compositional order nl alinnaiiiig
bars and ovals. The resistance to order embnilinl m the
personal eccentricities nf the work stands for resistance to
nriier on wider I mi 11 - — psychologically. politicalK. and
culturally. It ha> a cnmple.x layering of meta|ihiirical niraii-
iiig that i- s|)r(ific in ii- a--iH-iationson several Irxrl-. dr-pite
'
its abstract vocabular\ ."
The specificity of the subject inattei- in the abstractions

of .Motherwell and of the nther New York School artists has
been stressed li\ all of tliriii. When Motherwell recalled
painting this enlarged version of the drawing, he spoke
alioiit metaphors of "abandonment, desjjeration. and
helplessness.'"'' In the act of painting he transformed these
emotions into a poetic vision on a tragic and universal scale.
A- he recallefl it. '\\ hen I painted the larger version— 1/
till- ill l/ic \/lcni(iiiii — \[ was as if I discovered it was a

triiijile. where Harolds the small version he had made
Inr Possibilities was a gazebo, so to -prak. \iiil wlini I
I'ecognized this. looked around Inr... what llir irmplr

I
should be cniiseci-ated In. and that ware|ire-eiilri in llir I
wiirk ot Lorca.
The executiiin nl the ;^|ianish pnel. Garcia Lmca. b\ tin-
Fascists in the -Spanish War of the thirties became

(!i\il a
s\niibol of injustice. For many artists and intellectuals it
71
Robert i
After painting .4? Fire in the Afternoon Motherwell did a

iiiiiiilii T works on the same compositional principle
of other
iif and ovals over a white groutid. and
lihirk alternating l)ars
ii;iiiii il hem alter various Spanish cities. He then went back
I
and entitled the whole series "Eleg)' to the Spanish Repub-

lic and began numbering them: this theme persisted for the
remainitig forix \cai'- nf the arri>t s career [fig.3..'S4 1.
(ieneralh Moilnrwill |iainifd ilii- "Elegies" on a large,

inmal and worked bv composing the major forms
--call-
anil ilii'ii. I. tilling them in. The contours and drips

laii
w i-re modulated at the end of the painting process, and it i'-
these areas that carix ilif inn^t intense expressive coinint

in the compositions."
The "Elegies' ciin-iitiiieil tin- first of several major
I hematic structures in .Motlierwells work. The second to
(merge was the "Je t'aime" series [fig. 3.35]. most of which
he painted between 1953 and 1957 during the latter half of
lii> second maiTiage 19.50— 7j. Motherwell s two daughters
i
3.33 Robert Motherwell, At Five in the Afternoon, 1 949. Casein

were born in these years: his friendship with David Smith
on composition board, 1 5 20in (38.1 x 50.8cm).
Collection, Helen Fronkentholer, New York. Photogroph by Peter A. Juley & Son, New York. also dates from this time (1950): as did his shift from
ici Dedoios FoundotionA'AGA, New York, 994.
1
summering Hamptons
in the to summering in Pro\incetowni
The ".le t aiine
as of 1956). "
series are characterized bv the
French phrase meaning "I love you" i
written across the
embodied the modernist confrontation witli established canvas. The inscription is redolent of the elegance of
ciiltinal values. As Mothei"W"ell once remarked, the theme of mediteiTanean culture and is usually suiTounded by tetnpes-
all the "Elegies." is the "insistence that a terrible death tuous color atid raw brushwork.
happened that should not be forgot."'^" The tenn "eleg)" Motherwell based the third major series, the "Opens,"
itself means a funeral dirge or lament. Lorca's poem
concerns a heroic bidlfighter who is gored in the ring, and

3.34 Robert Motherwell, Elegy to the Spanish Republic, No. 78,
three symbolic colors create aiu'as around the key images of
962. Oil and plastic on canvas, 5ft in x ft' '4in (1 .8 x 3.36m).
poem — the
1 1 1 1 1
the red blood, the bleaching white light of the

Collection, Yole University Art Gollery, New Hoven, Conn. Gift of the artist, .c Dedoius
sun. and tlie blackness of deatli ant! shadows. Foundolion/VAGA, New York, 1994.
72
emphasis on direct experience in The Blue Painting Lesson

3.35 Robert Motherwell, Je faime No. 2, 1 955. Oil on canvas,
4ft6rnx 6ft (1.37 X 1.83m). number one differs markedlv from the brooding tone of a
Collection, Mr. and Mrs. Gilbert Morrison, New York. © Dedolus Foundotion/VAGA, New metaphysical work like In Plato s Cave fig. 3.3" w hich. as .
York, 1994.
the artist explained, refers to Plato's
famous image of art as the shadow cast on the dark care's

wall by persons passing bv the fire. For Plato, art is an
on a compositional de\ice. He bepan them in 1967/8. just
inferior third order of reality (like a shadow;, just as an
after his marriage to the painter Helen Fraiikenthaler ended.
individual person is an inferior second order of reality, as
These works involve a geometric di%ision. usuallv a three-
compared to the primary reality of an archetypal,
sided window or box motif coming down from the top of the
metaphysical person. ~In Plato's Cave" is also the name of a
canvas. The austere claritx' of their structural architecture
superb poem 6r. . . Delmore Schwartz.''^
seems to equate to the emphasis on analysis promoted bv
foiTnalist critics of the sixties notably by Greenberg. who hi the seventies and eighties Motherwell began generating
was close to Frankenthaler Nevertheless the proportion
. more and more distinct series and subthemes within series.
and often e\en the dra\îng of the "Opens rely on an " The subtler\- of his work and his range continued to grow
instantaneous gesture which is as spontaneous as the gestu- RTth increasing fonnal self-assurance. It seems as though
ral elements in an "Eleg\\" eveiy new work generated fresh and unresolved issues for
Despite tie limiting parameters of the format, the him. while at the same time fitting precisely into the complex
"Opens" have i broad expressive range. The Blue Painting totalir\' of his aesthetic project. For Mothei-«ell. more than
Leiison fig. 3.36 a five painting sequence, has a rich, wann anv other major figin-e of the New York School, painting was
blue that evokes tli refreshing sensualirv" of the seaside. The a process of philosophical elaboration.
3.36 Robert Motherwell, The 6/ue Painting Lesson:
A Study in Painterly Logic, number one of five, April 20,
1973. Acrylic on canvas, 5ft 1 in x 3ft 8in (1.55 ^ 1.12m).
Collection, Dedalus Foundation. (5: Dedalus Foundolion/VAGA, New York,
1994.
3.37 Robert Motherwell,

In Plato's Cave No. August } ,
19, 1972. Acrylic on sized

canvas, 6 > 8ft (1.83 2.44m
Collection, Dedolus Foundation.
Photograph by Steven Slomon, New York,
!c, Dedalus Foundotion/VAGA, New York
74
Willem de Kooning
Willrin lit' KoiiniiiL'^ llofiKiii (IihI liirvvle l'igs.3.3<! iiiid
I"-'!'
il -tale III irdcliiiilioii. \o ai;f i- more diaii a
i.-U' is a (liizt'ii (iif'lt'icni |iaiiitiiii.',-. r-ii|)tMini|Mi-.ii| mi li-iiipiiiar\ piiiiil III niii/c lo a iii p{>i'o\iiiia(ion. I hi'
iMic' aiKitlier. Patches ol raw (aii\a> I if al I lie l)ottiiin cili:!- nl iiilnrriilK iinlilii-lii-d. al\\a\- 'ili pnue-- rliaiarler
till' i-()m|)osiiion afljacfiil in vji'Diiu'iric lonii-- in Ihii iirirri. ol Ar koniiiiii: - work iiiakr- dii- raii\a- -eeiii a- Irr-liK
if>eml)liiig the l)ackirfotiii<l- in hi> --ealed w (imen nl llic rai l\ paiiili-d Ioila\ a- il did wlirii llir aili-l iiiadi- il ili-aiK half a
lorties. As tlie \ iew it luok- up Iruiii ihe Inw cr ccIl;!' ul // niiKin reiiliiiN aL:o.
and Bicycle, the aiialniiix nf iln- |i-fi and raUr- di-inlrLiran-^ \)i- Koouini; - iiialiililN lo fini-li" a iaii\a- \\a- alrraiU
into tile turbiileiit cin-.-daM rini; n| luii-liw (hIs. Miiikr~ ol liLiiudaiN .''>onietiine in 1950 RoM'iilieig
ill till- I'aiK loiiif-. "
e\iT\ color and speed crniPl in all diiec lion-, llic inlinîlv ol 111 iiiiiiied and thinking that the [lainting
-leiui; lliiiiKin I
each one cancelling' oni die one hrlore ii. I.iiilit w i-.|i-. danri' lookid finished. But as he and de Kooning started talking
over thickly applied iiia"i--, ol' |pii;iiifnt: tonctnl \niiir> nt alioiii il. die aitist slijiped hack into the tfain of thought that
contrasiinir coloi's collide in -kiiiiii-.hr- of die lirii-h dial had Ird ii|i lo il: dim he |iirk.'d up a loaded lirii-li and
a|(pearan(l then (li>a|)pear aiiaiii under die i|iiick -iiieai ol a -la|ipi'd aiio-- ilii' rnilrr:
il \\a- Iwo moii- \t'ai- lieforr '
il
palette knife. die aili-i III the pictine go. \et the charactefistic "1111-
Here and ihere a -eii-e of tlie limirr roiiic~ inid lorn- and lini-lii'd ipiality of de Kooning's work expresses iiis under-
"
i|iiicklv onl again. "Content i- a L;liiiip-e of -oiiieihini;. an lying ae-theiic. He once described one of the large "NX onian
i-nconnter like a fla-h. " the aiti-i lAplaiiird. I he enonnous pictures by saying: "It's not finished but it's a very good
tle>hy hieasts bulge hiiward. then ihev are a fkit cutout tiiat painliiii;. " If it were fiiii-lied. one iniaiiines. it siu'eK would
ilings to the surface of the |jicTiiie |)laiie. .\ -econd Lniiining not look so good.
nioiithhangs afonnil iIh' nerk liki- a ghttefing necklace; it De Kooning ciilti\ ated the inherent ambiguities in eveiT
temains fioni a piexjoii- |MP-innii o| the head, an eailiei- -ituation. hi floniaii and Bicycle he created extreme spatial
coin|)(i-itioii. now laigi'h iid--fd oiii. Tlii- i- a ]iaiiiliiii; in a 1
1|
ipi i-iiions: and
the breasts read alternately as a flat pattern
a- liilKrounded forms: the energetic biaishwork creates an
ex|)an>i\e surface plane that provides a background for the
same time absorbing it: this active surface
figure while at the
3.38 Willem de Kooning, Woman and Bicycle, detaiL
in turn seems to hover in front of vet another plane of flat
© 1 994 Willem de Koomng/Arlists Rights Society (ARSI, New York.
background implied at the bottom edge. De Kooning height-
ened the disconcerting effect of the figure— ground relation-
3.39 (opposite) Willem de Kooning, Woman and Bicycle,
-liiji- by constantly dissohiiig and reformtilating contours
1952-3. Oil on canvas, 6fl 4' ;in 4ft 1 in (1.94 x 1.24m).
anil forms. All these expressive oppositions seixe to create a
Collection, Whitney Museum of Amencon Art, New York, Purchase. Photogroph by GeoHrey
Clements, New York. ® 1 994 Willem de Kooning/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York, figure that is simultaneously menacing and sensuous. Even
the bold and authoritative handling is undercut bv a frenetic.

1)1 TM 111-, and tentative Hijiside.
U iinuin and Bicycle l)eloiig» to de Kooning s famous
series of slightly over-life-sizedwomen, painted in the early
The style itself is an attack on closed systems, finality,
fifties.
and any fixed way of looking at things. "There is no ploi in

painting." de Kooning told Harold Rosenberg, "li - an
which I discover by. and it has no message.
iHiiiiiiiii e So '
lie Kiioniiig used the act of painting to examine things
around him. keeping all possibilities o])en and maintaining

''
an atmosphere of uncertainty'. He had "slijiping glim])-e-. "
a- he called them, of things as they glanced in and 0111 nf

a]i]irehension. In pursuing a thought, he might obliterate
ilir pnieding idea or tlirection completely. This open-
riidid wiirking process embodied Rosenbergs idea of the

action painter, and it is a fundamental assertion of exist-
ence, ol lieing alive, of resisting dissolution in the chaos of
niiidern life.
De Kooning read widely in ]ihilii-opliy anil literature,
and he particularly liked Kierkegaard s idea that eveiything

iiece— arilv contains its opposite. "That's what fascinate-
me. '
In- told Ro-eiiber!.'; "to make -omelliiiii.' dial \iiii will
76
never be sure of. and no one else will Tiiai- ilic \\ a\ an . . . mid lliiilie-. when (iinkx wa- -i iii:L:liiiL; in
1 iir lAaiiiple. i
is." '
Kooning di<\ not have tlir saiiu- ili~iiri( n\il\
Vei (le \ain (II achieve -nme
Mini- ellecl-. lie liniied In de nl
Vmericanconseiousness of Pollock or Niw man. lur i\aiii|p|r. Koiiniiie wliii -hiiwed him Imw lo ii-e a liner- Imi-li a
who promoted the idea thai ilie\ ^laried Ihmii -iiah lacli Ii -peiia mild lai led iril-l i-ed III pa imim: preci-e deem a i\e
I li I I I I
linie thev hegan to |)aiiit. De Koonini; n'lirnd lo ilial iioiidn line- nil die -iile- 111 amninnliile- , \ccnrdiiii; In Hi i-e||| leiu.
as "niaking art out of .h)hn Brown's iiodx -.laridirii: all . . . ( .III k\ wa- -n la-cinaled dial lie -al dnw II and did at al le-i pie-,
alone in the wilderness." " instead de Koonint; celeliraii-d In- w nil die liner- lirii-h Inr da\ - allerward>. "
dee|i eimaLreuient with the |)aintini; ol the old nia'-iii- ami De K ling arrived in die I niled .S|ate> in I'i'Jd ai die
fell more akin m I ilian ami Hi'inlirandl llian in Mnmhian. ai;e nl ivveiil V -iw n. ninv eil iiiiii a Dm ill -eamaii - linme. and
Kaiidiu'kv . or the ^nrrrali~l>. Innk W nik a- a hnll-e painler 111 I Inlinkell. New .|er-ev . Inl >'<
Nr\ i'rthele>:- de Kooniui; lixed i-miicK in dn- |ire>(ni: lir a dav. Me came In \ew ^ mk a-piriiii; In a career a- a
did mu look hack to a golden aL'c or loiward loa more iicrlccl cnimiiercial aili-l. Iml when lie liiiallv rniiiid a |n|i m die
Intnii'. In ilii- rr-|ic(i hi' ami In- Icllnw |iainiri- ol ilic \c\\ held, he di -cove red dial il paid no mole than linii-e paiiiliiii;.
^ nrk ^cliniil dittrrcd Ironi -ucli rnodcirii-l |irci in-i ir- a- \i dii- pnim lie Knniiiiie di-cided to start thinkim: nl Imii-ell
Mnndrian or Kaiidin-k\. wlm had -oiiiilil in lead dn- wax to a- a line arii-l. " and in !''_'" he moved iiiln a lull mi
I io[iia ihronirh their an. "\i[ nc\rr -rem- ici make me Manila I laii - 4'Jiiil Mreet. -lill -np|)0iTing hini-elt w idi mid
jieacefnl orpine. "
de KocininmiliM-ixt'd. 1 alwav - -eem to he joh-. inchidim: cnmmercial art. departmeiil -mie di-plav-.
w rapped in the melodrama of vidgaritv. -ign painliiii;. and carpeiilrv .
In 1 ''•!•") de Knniiiiig signed on to die Federal \n I'mjeci.
De Kooning's Training and Early Career But the goverimieni liarred aliens at the end of l''.!(). -n he
had onlv niie vi-ai mi die 1. A. P. Like eveiTone <d-e on the
Koonini: \\a- horn in Hmienlam. die \eilierland-. on prnjeci he I'arned die iinw laninii-, S23.86 a week, and li\ de
De Aj.ril 2-t. 1904. His early trainini: al the' Hoiierdam Knoning s iuii([iie -IV le 111 reasoning, the fact that thi- -alarv
Vcadenn of Fine -\rts and Terhni([ne- -ire-.>ed iralt-nian- was what the goverimieni |iaid an ardst led him to cnnclnde
and there he studied foreshorteniiiii. modelinii. and the
-hi|). that it therehtre cn-i milv S28.86 a week to be an artist full
rendering of light and shadow. His .S7/7/ Life: Bowl. Pitcher, time and that seemed like a l)argainl Curiouslv the Depres-
iiinl JiiiT fig.8.4()!. drawni at the age of --exemeen. ilemon- sion was a good lime Inr many young artists and writers.
-irates his prodigious skill at rendering, \laile w idi liiile doi- While older people In-i Imsinesses or their life s savings,
of conte crayon a r\-]3e of conipre--e'd charcoal -lick . it young |)eo|)le had a -pecial o|)portunir\" through the \^ orks
I'ix als a photograph in its realism. Progress .\dniinisiraiinii \\ .P..\. There was an excitement
.
Thanks in large j»art to thi- training, ilc Koonini: had aliout social anil imelleciiial idea-, people had time to lalk.
many lechnical trick- uji hi- -leexe loi- which he wani and monev didii i mailer: il cniild not get in the wav since no
hecome well-know n amom.' C.reenw it li \ illaiê arli-I- li\ the one had any. There were im |iiciiire sales, no exhibitions, no
careers to wnnv ahnm. Miliniigh de Kooning had a great
underground lepmaiinii among artists, he exhibited veiT
little before die end III die liiTties and sold virtually nothing.
3.40 Willemde Kooning, St/ll Life. &ow\, Pitcher, and Jug, c. 1921.
De Kooning nni \i-liile (Joikv and Edwin Denbv
Conte crayon and charcoal on poper, I8V2 x 24V4in (47 x 61.6cm).
Colleclion, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Von Doy Truex Fund, 1 983. fc, 1 994 Willem
around 1927. and duv hecanie his closest frienrls. He also
de Kooning/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. spent time w ith .Inlm .lahaiii and Stuart Davis, from ai'ound
(
1929. Bv <».!(. his circle included David Smith, filemenl

I
Greenberg. Fairlidd Pnner. Rndi Burckhardl. and Harold

Rosenberg", .lolm (.raliam enli-led de Koonings partici-
pation in a 19-t2 exhihition. llnoiigh which he met Pollock.
But when Pegg^ Guggenheim invited de Kooning to show
This Gentnrv gallery, he refused. Not oiil\
at the .\rt of
was he rehicianl in slmw hi- v\ mk when he had miK in-l
liegun to find hi- own -ivlislic voite. but he also di-liked die
surrealists in Peggv (iiiggenheini's circle."" a- did his
friend .John Graham. It was nnr \uifil after his liist one-man
show at the Egan Gallerv in P'-J-J! dial de Knnning began
exhibiting acti\ elv
The doininam inllnence mi de Konning- work of ihe

thirties was that ol his Irieiid Gnrkv. through whose eves he
saw Miro. cubism, and ab-liad surrealism. De Kooning and
Gorkv associated w idi a circle nfchieflv abstract artists even
though thev were bndi paiming the figure; as a conseqtience.
77
Willemci
Unman have more affinity with the pentimenti (\asible

changes of mind in Picasso's drawings for Guernica than
i
with the automatic drawing of the surrealists. However, in de

Ki inning's painting, this appearance of work-in-progress
lacks tile elegance nf ilie Picassos. hi general, painters of the
New îiik Schmil ill the forties rejected the refinement in
iom]io>ition and touch of the School of Paris. .Moreover.
Seated Iloman shows de Kooning's discomfort with fore-
-linrtening. which he largely avoided, and despite some
iiicliiation of a space behind the figmv. the wiiole composi-
liini îi'ins to be flattened against the |iicture plane, as in
iiiliiîii fig. 3. 25,.
The Dissolution of Anatomy into Abstraction
I nuiltiplicit\ ni drawn and redrawn lines, began taking

1 1\ er de Kooning's abstraction like a speculative commentan
iin conciment painrings of women. The compositions of
the
''44 began to convey the tension of de Kooning s investiga-
1
u\e process much more vividly tlian his preceding works had
done. The drawing in Pink Aiiisels [fig. 3.42 for example. .
3.42 Willem de Kooning, Pink Angels, 1 945. Oil on canvas,

4ft4lnx3ft4ln(1.32x 1.02m).
Collection, Frederick Weismon Company, Los Angeles, g! 1 994 Willem de Kooning/Arlists
Rights Society (ARS), New York.
3.41 Willem de Kooning, Seated Woman, c. 1 940. Oil on

charcoal on masonite, 54^ j >. 36in (137.8 -^ 91 .4cm).
Collection, Philodelphio Museum of Art. Albert M, Greenfield ond Elizabeth M. Gre
Collection, <s 1 994 Willem de Koonmg/Artisis Rights Society (ARS], New York,
I public still regards them both as abstract artists, even

lie
Ihough neither ever abandoned figin-ative iinagery. De

Kooning, in particular, uearlv always worked in Ik nil
abstract and figurative modes simultaneously am in rehiiiini I
til one anothei'.

The permanent trademarks nt de KoDiiing - >i\le
emerged around 1939 or 1940 in such works as Seated
II Oman [fig. 3.41 In particular, the painting nakedly shows
.
the artist s method of working, a process which give> the

canvas its characteristic unfinished look. Here the arii-.i
-topped at a point where one still senses the ongoing struggle
for resolution, hi addition he intensified the color and
radically fragmented the figure. De Kooning talked of how a
"frozen glimpse would come to him''' in the process of
]iainting. and one can see that here, in the independent
identity of the anatomical parts as abstract fortiis.
The various altered position> ot riie cios>ed leg in Seated
78
3.43 Willem de Kooning,

Painting, 948. Enamel and oil
1
on canvas, 3ft 6^ em > 4ft 8' sin

(1.08 X 1.42m).
The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
Purchase, ci 1994 Willem de
Kooning/Artpsls Rights Society (ARS),
New York.
reveal? a (•(nirinuiiig trial and error ])roces> in ilie |)lerliiira i>t Pnlliick first ?howed hi? ground-breaking drip pictures.
rraii>j)arent overlapping?. Meanwhile tlie toriii- in the pic- 1 1 1 Kooning and several of his friends organized
1
' '48 de
ture hint at a figurative referenie. \\ hai ame to be kno\\ni a? "The Club. De Kooning said he
(
Most of the shape.'- in de Kooning's abstraction- ot the warned a -ncial chili like the store front parlors in the
fonies seem to have evoked from human anatomical paii-. v,orkini:-cla?? lialian and Greek neighborhoods nearby.
De Kooning pointed out that "even abstract shape? mn?t \\c ilidn wani in ha\e anvthing to do with art we just
I
"'"'
lia\ e a likeness. a kind of meaningful familiaiiu- that thi-ii- wanted to get a loft, in-read of -itting in those god-damned
""^'
(leiivation in the figure provides. .\t about tiiis time de cafeterias. So ilie\ pitcii.-d in and rented a loft on 8th
Kooning also seems to have begun tracing form? and retisini: Mreet. where the arii?l? could in?t rela.x together. In the
ilieiii in other compositions, therebv further heightening -iiiiiiiicr iif I'HI'i de Kooning taught at Black .Mountain
their familiarirv bv linking tlieni to other jtictures as well a? ( olli-ge in .\urili (âi'olina with Josef .\ll>ers. John t'age. and
to objects and events, hi the abstraction? of 1Q-Ki the Btickminster Fuller. He also \isited Ea?t Hampton for the
anatomical fragments woven together bv the abundant fir?t time in April 1'^^'48 w hen he and his w ife Elaine went out
linear penlimcnli began to disj)erse themselves into an Willi ( iharles Egan to see the Pollock?.
allover coinj)osition. as in thecontemporaneous work? of During HHT and 1948 de Kooning continued to paint
pollock, and they created a cunain of Hat forms that asserts the seated women alongside the great abstractions, in some
tiie siu'face of the picture plane. pictmes he also added vet another svntactical level by
.\t this j)oiin de Kooning einbarke(i on a powerful serie- |iainting in letters and lunnber?.
and Excaration ^fig. Attic
of predominantly white on black |)aintings that clinia.xed In •!.44 come the closest of de Kooning's major compositions to
1^48 and l<)-l9 with such works as the large Painting fig. (he alJiAei -.i\ie of Poljock's contemporary drip paintings
5.4-'i . This composition relies on the same vocabidar\ of fig-. 4. anil 4.") 1.8
1 —
De Kooning achieved this effect by
.
tlat-pattented anat(»mical pans as de Kooning's other ab- ituildiiig up -iicli a ilen?itv of forms that the overabundance
?iractioiis around this time. Btit because of its limited [)alette of image- fill- e\er\ available space within the confining
it creates an even greater ambiguitv of sjiace and volume edge? of the frame. This results in an even dispersal of the
than his more colorful compositions bv estal)lishing a more anatomicallv sug!.'e?tive elements across the entire surface.
contiiutous surface of iiiteipenetrating planes. De Kooning The allo\er ciimpo-iiiiin- nl imili Pollock and de Kooning
included some of the black painting? in hi? first one-man luiin ii\er wiili eneiL^v- liui wlieie Pollock is asseilive. de
show at the Ksan Galler\ in I'Ho — the ?ame vear that Kooning i- c[ui//i<al. .\iiollier difference i- that de Kooning
79
Willem d
|iai ki'il lii'^ r(ini|)o<iiion< ^11 liilliiK llial llicN -rem 111 riillapô c-prriallv in tlii' iirhan enMionmriil. wa- renlral. I'lic
ill nil lIlrin-rK r- liki' Mark llnlr-. U IliTi'a- lllr I'lillmk- -rrlll 1 1 1
iji |l I i 1 1 ill- i lll| II r--ii H I- iil I irw -| ilill I rllliaili r lllr effect of
ii I i\i Mill I < iiiiw ail llie raiidiiin nM-iluail nl -i-ii-urx iiilnniial inn ami anliri|)a(e
\ clii-c liMik al /..icdiiiliiiii and ni\ niiinjiri- 111 Miller lie ilie aiiiiiiar\ ai riiiniilalinn-. nj l^nlieri Kaii-rlienlieru's
Kiiiiniiii; [liilure- Innii llie lale Imlie- niiwanl ie\eaU ulial iimliine |iaiiilin;:- nl llie iiiiil lillie-.
look to l)e trajimeni- nl new -|iiini Inn In I nmler ilie -nilare. In I ..iciinilKiu lie KiiiiniiiL; liaiinienleil aiialnmx inln
I)e KiiiillillL' lrei|lienll\ n-eil -heel- nl new -| ia| lei In -|nw ll|i i-liail |iarl- anil ili-l lilinleil ilieni williin a ileirniiali/ril
llie ilr\ iiii: III ihi'

I
lain I. ami 11 lie did nni nw m k an aiea il iiii|iii-iliiiii. I5in lie -eein- al-n In lia\e lieen rnn-cinn- nl
rii allied a elm- 1 nl die |iliiiln::ra|ili- m inliinin- nl l\ |ie. I le de\ elii|iln^ a Lirealer ililine-- nl -\ nil mile nieanlni; williin
liked llii- el'teil I'm- II- added eniii|ile\il\ . Inn lie did iml eaili rmiii. I nr llil- rea-mi die wink I- iimie inleilerliiaJK
rnn-iiiiii a -\-leniaile liiiimei'a|ili\ aniiimi -iieli eleiiienl- In -n|ilil-liraled lliaii aiulliiui; de Kooiiiiii; had done hefoie il.
ihewa\ I'lea-i.dld in III- inilaue^ of VHl In l'M4. Im de I, ike lloiiKin <ind Bicycle. Excaration l)etiavs lis simpler
knnnlne llie eniii[ile\ilv ill llic illi!i\ idlial - e\|ieiieme. ihenialie orielns at tlie bottom <><lge. .\s tlie viewer moves
ujiwaril. llie -ii()eriin]m-eil a.--oi-iatii>iis p-ti\\ more -ulijec-
ti\e and eomplicaied.
Excavation appears to mieiiiaie wiili inipre--lnii- nl a
3.44 Willem de Kooning, Excavation, 1 950. Oil on canvas, eity s excavation site, with a liackime and -leam-lui\el
6ft8inx8ft4''8ln (2.03 x2.54m). represented in geometric forms at tlie lower right. .Architec-
Collection, Art Institute of Chicago, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Noah Goldowsky ond Edgar
Koufmonn, Jr,; Mr. ond Mrs. Fronk G, Logon Prize Fund, 1952.1. c 1994 Willem de
tural supports I
perhaps beams or piers stand in a caileiice of

Kooning/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. verticals acro,-> die Imiinni, and iiililwa\ up on die lel'i mie
80
hagmenian wav. The clearlv delineated nipple on a breast

3.45 (above) Willem de Kooning, Woman I, 1 950-2. Oil on
canvas, 6ft 77 8 X 4ft lOln (1.92 ^ 1.47m).
mutates into an eye. as in the metamoiphic expressionism
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Purchase. © 1 994 WMIem de Kooning/Artists Rights
of Picasso ^fig.5.20 . .\nd to whom do the grinning teeth
Society (ARSI, New York. belong? The nude, the painter, or the Cheshire Cat?
Excaration is not a perspective space but a mental map
3.46 (above, right) Ancient Sumerian standing mole figure, Tell of an interlocking chain of e.xpeiiences over time. It is a large
Asmar, c. 3000 B.C. canvas — roughly 6V2 by 8'/2 feet — but it remains an easel
Collection, Melropoliton Museum of Art, Fletcher Fund, 1940
[
lictin-e made up of emotionally charged than a details rather
mural to be read at a distance. "The squarish aspect. de "
rail M-c a small Itlock ot older l)uil(lini.'^. iiicliKliiig a vt-ilow -

Ki ming explained, "gives me the feeling of an ordinaiy size.
II
niof'eci tovKt^r. But tlie .scale of these buildings does not malt li I like a big painting to get so involved that it becomes
that of tiie earthmoving eqiiipmeni: despite the unitv t)f iuiimate ... looks smaller.""^ Some of this intimacy also
theme, then, there is a continuing tiansfonnation of the derives from de Kooning's brushwork. which started to take
mental conie.xi as we move up the composition. o?i a life 111 if'' own in Fxrardtiiin
The metauioiphosis of scale and foniis in E.rcar(ition
occurred through the complex and arbitraiy layering of The Anatomical Forms Dissolve into
impressions in tht busy "no en^^romnent." as de Kooning Brushstrokes
called it.^'' of New York C'lTy. He filled the upper three
cpiarters of this pan ting with an ongoing sequence of Immediately after the completion oi Excavation in the late
lonns. each suggesting he next in an increasingly abstract spring of \'^dO de Kooning embarked on a series of
train of thought. Here nothing remains legible except in a niommiemal |iaintin2> of ^\t)men |
figs. 3.38. 3.3^. and
81
Willem dc Kooning
3.47 Willem and Elaine de

Kooning, 1953
Phologi aph by Hum Nomufh. c Eslole of
Hans Namuth/VAGA, New York, 1 994.
;!.-+." -llii- iniiÎ crlrlira (I wiilk- 111 |ii> <airi-|-. ll •- iralK wa'i crucial: it looked like the work of a civilization — not one
I III iii;ikr an iinai; likr a liiiiiiaii iiiiai;f. willi [laiiil. man. The |)riniitive.sexualitvand raw textural handling of
w hen \ nil lliiiik al ml ii. he told David Svlve^tt-r in Dubiiffet s monumental frontal mides [fig. 5.8] (shown at
I ''(id. . . . I5iii ilifii all ol a Miildfii it was e\eii more aliMird Pierre Matisse in.lanuaiT 1951 ) also have a strong resonance
mil 1(1 do it.''" Liilike the planar seated women of the early w ith de Kooning's monumental women.
Till rii-.. these women are sensuoits. full-figured Aphrodites of The explicit sitbject of de Kooning's "Woman "
paintings
\u|uar warmth, like the paleolithir feniis of H i/lc/if/tir/. i-- nb\ious. but there has been much speculation a.s to their
which he cited a> an ins|tiration for the series." -.pecific ins|)iration. Thomas Hess thought that de Kooning's
I)r kdiiniiii: mil (iiiK liidkcd al Stone Age \'emisc,s in innilitr. wild had been a tough bartender in a Rotterdam
I II ink- I in I aUii wcni h
and Sumerian figiiio
i ^ludx ( \ cladic sailing bai. pinxiilrd the prototA-jje for the "monstrous"
liu. i-K' in ih<' Metrojiohlan \lii-.eiini. The huge-eved females:'" others suggested that Elaine was the subject, an
cxpic-.-.inii-' III the Sumerian idnU iiiadc them seem to de assertion that she found so preposterous that on Augitst 23.
K ing "like they were just astoni.shed about the forces of 1953 she asked Hans Namuth to photograph her in front of
nainir. ""Likewise, the lQ48e.\hibition of Giacometti s new one of them [fig. 3.47] to "establish once and for all that I did
liguial scul]ilure [figs. 5. 1.5— .5.17] at Pierre Matisse*' cmi- nut pose for these ferocious women. I was taken aback to
\eyed a sense of the fragile and fleeting existence of die discover in Hans' photograph that I and the painted lady
indivifltial in relation to "the forces of nature." Like fforiiiiii êemed like . . . mother and daughter. \\ef e even smiling the
"
''
I. Giacometti s figures have a heavilv gestural surface and same wav.
liiiNcr III! the edge of abstraciiun. t\|iliiiing their nwii If intimations of Elaine ])rovided a starting point for
lentaiixr |iiesence and scale in n-iaiiun in ilir wurld ainnnd these paimings. then feelings abotit tlie artist's mother,
llii-m. \cciiidinu in Elaine tin- Îmw "kniirkcd liiiii mil — ii abnnt the comical varietv of costume and mamierism among
82
I he ladies slioppiiigoii l4tli Street, and the jjfetty |>iii-u|)> on II nnin/i I li;i^ a ^rnall ]i(iiiiiiri nl' fhii. uiiirncli ic li:irki:iiinii(l
his studio wall all eiiteied into the roinplex seiiiitiiti' ol almiL; ilii- rdui' ni \\\i- iMii\a- in iln^ ( a-i- alun;: [\\r iiuhi
(lumtihts that led gradiialh' to the final ii«iii|Mi-iii(Mi-. 'The rdi;i- . 1 lii- alhi~i<>ii in die Hal liac kLirniiii(U ol di- Kimhiiiim'^
\l Dincn" de Kootliiifl iinised. "had in i\i^ wiili ihe Iniiali- eailicr |iainiinL;^ nl wnincn iiii|ihi'> a luiiiiiiniix in dir
painted throiiiih all the ages ... I look at iheiri 111 >\\ in I'lhO dcv ilci|iiniiil ol ilir Wonii-n nl dn- liliir- dial |iaralIiU
and thev seem voeil'eroiis and fefocioits. 1 think II had 111 d(i dun |ih\-iral i^r-lalinn. \- mir a^-nriaiion Imili ii|iiiii
with the itlea of the idol, the ofacle. and alin\c all ilir anudin. ^n die- {lanii \\a^ |>iii dnwii laxrr li\ la\i-i-. a^ i\r
hilariotisiiess of it.""* "I like beautiful women. In ilir Hi--.|i. KnomiiL: r\|i|iirrd die -iilijei i mi die ran\ a^.
e\tMi the models in mafiazities." he told one inter\ iewei'."^ Bin iiliiniaieK ihe-e W ihiiiii uI die liliie-. like all nl de
In a eonvefsation with Rosenberg, de Kooning nmed Kniinini: - |iainiiMe~. had lu dn wiili leîiiii: and niaîeiiiiL'
that 11 oriKin /also remiiifled him of water — of his childhood

in the Netherlati<ls near the sea. of working on the porch at
I eo ('astellis honse in Kasi llam|>ton when' he painterl the
fiiM --Woman" paintin-s: .nbM-.,i.entlv. even when he 3 48 willem de Kooning, Gotham News, 1955-6. 0,l on canvas,
„.'...• . , .
,1 5ft 9in 6ft 7in (1.75 ' 2.01m).
"Woman
,
painted a
I
yiicliire in die cil\. lie wiiiijii i.'el a ^ „ ,
Collection,
^,, ,_ ^^_ „ Buffalo,
Albnght-KnoxArtGallery, „<,,., New vYork. r-^ u ,.
GihofSeymourH, Knox, ,==£
p
1955. =
_ . n-
ieelillg" again of die uceall.' like lldiniin nnd Bicyc/r. c 1994 WIllemdeKoonlng/Anists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
3.49 Willem de Kooning, Two Figures, 1 967.
Oil on paper, mounted on canvas, 35% x 23-''4in
(90.8 X 60.3cm).
Collection, Toyoto City Museum of Art, Nagoyo, Japan. Phofogroph
courtesy Grele Meilmon Fine Art, New York, © 1994 Willem de
Kooning/Artists Rights Society (AR5), New York.
immediate experieme. Fliey repri

liii m tlif Mihje ideas to i)ej;iii il made no .êiise to ile Kooning even to
wilh.
lealin" of the aiti>t. Hamlil Kn-cn 1- fiia di-.tiiiguish abstrartfrom representational painting.
Kdoiiiiif.' <ni this point: Dtiring the fifties de Kooning increasingly emphasized
lainterlv gestures, muscular bittshwork. and rich color. The
W. rill- inn- \iiii sec siniii'lliiiiLi i/iic ,s7/ I iiii-iin nfccssiinlv I
central image of the figure, as an organizing principle for the

t/iiit tliut's the iniy it is. Ihittiiii : (I stick III in iter so
composition, permitted greater freedom in the process of
tliiit it looks as if it 's limkcn
painting than did the anatoinical segments, which needed a
. . .
U i-ll it is. Tliiit's till- ini\ \i)ii si-(- It.

ê]iarate structural scheme. The "Women" also showed
Illiiit ill) you nii-oii. it IS iiroki-ii.' Ij Mill jiiill It mit nj
more dearly than previous paintings all the artist's creative
till- initi-r it 's not lirokrii.
-Iniggles. Thev convey the sense not of a finished painting
drK I kiinir. But it 's hroki-ii irhilv it 's in tin- initi-r.
liui of an arrested moment in the defining of a problem, i
1^ I lit- lin-iik IS an illusion
iiiMT was interested in Imw id make a good painting," de
. . .
d.K Tliot's irliiit I mil siiyiirj. \ll /xiinliiiii is on illiisioii.'"'

Kiiiimng remarked. diilnt work on it with the idea of
'
. . . 1
\\\i- [lainliT iniiî. in de Kooiliilf.' s \ iew .

i-iilerlaiii any peilrclinii. bill \<> M-e Imw far DUe could go — but not with the
i\ |indii-î>: 111 ail line idea is as iTOod a^ anollier :' at i^sue idea nl ii'alK diiiiig it.
^ w lial ilir aili-.l dues viiili all idea. Siiici- all ail i-- a matter of I'Or the academic year of l'»ri()/l. de Kooning taught at
84
tiu- Vale Art Stiiool. wIi.tc hi- IVi.ii.l li.-d \ll>ii- IkhI \- men tinned eaiiici. de Ki Mining' put -liei't- ol iiru -papcii 111
iii'come llic (It-aii alter leaviii<; Rlaik Mdiinlaiii ( iiIIil;.'. the -iirlace n| 111- picline- m keep the paint wnikable. and
i i-ariiins.' nn ar- a dfaiiiiiig expriiciicc dial (it- Kmiiiiiii: iii\i r the trace- nl t\pe. tin- pimip- anil ad\ eil i-eiiieiit- are
ri-|ifaieil after this, hut he still \\a- not -elliiii; iiiticli and i--peciall\ pie\ aleiit in I In- i;i( nip nl ali-tia<tinn-. New -print
remained <le>pefatel\ ]ioor. Tlmnias I le-s n'<alied thai lie aitilact- nl cniiiniircial \mei ica bi-lniii: In tin- cnm|ile\it\ n|
ate ill diiiirx eafeterias: he ducked lantlioi'd-: i>nif In- the cit\. \t nlle pnillt eall\ ill till' eelle-i- nl tile lailê
reiei\ed a nussaue to iele|)lione the Mii>einn ni Mddcin \ri "W nlllell. de KnnmilL: clll nut 1 1 1 11 llernll> lllnlllll- lliim
and loiiiid that he did not have the nickel. l)c Koonini: picline- nl Wnllli-ll 111 lliaea/llle- anil i;lllell lllelll mi in lli-
joked ahoiit it with RoM-nheru: " Sidne\ Jam- warn- me in innipn-itinii-: '
" iliii- ai|\ erii-iiie aiiil the- media aliead\
[laint some al)>traction.- and -avs he can -ell an\ nnnilH r ol liLiinei I a- an imdei l\ iiii: theme nj the -erie-.
lijack and whites. But he can't nio\f llic wdincn need I iIh- W here the ali-ti art inn- 111 the late Initie- and eaiK 111 tie-
moiie\ . were an lioiwsl man. d |>aim aii-liaiiion-.

."ô if I 1 are reiiliipelal. llie a I i-t lOetii n i- nl llie lale lillie- and eail\
15m I have no integrity! So kee|) paiminL' ihe w omen.

I -iMie- are iiinie e\paii-i\e rnmpn-itinii-. leaniiiiii: lirnader
\e\iTtheless iii.IaniiaiT l*!.")!) de Kooniiii: liad a |iaimini: -tinke- and Halter, lllnie K ileal cnlnr. A leehllii nl enimlrx -
in the |iie-tiirioiir- \^ liiine\ \imual: in lime lie had one oi ilie -ide |ier\aile- llle-e |iaintine-. I lle\ are illl]ire--inlli-lie in
-i\ one-|ief-on show- in llic Vmi-rican -i-ciimi oi die \ mice inlllpal i-illl In I ..ICdrdlllill nr e\en f ,'(l/ lllUII Nc//.'.'. wliicli
Biennale; in l*^*.il the Mii-enm of Modern \il |iiil him iiiln rei|iiire detaileil and leniitliv -eriitiiix . Vrcnrdine m de
iheir im|ionant ".Vh-tiact Paiiitin;: an<l >iiil|iiiiie m \mer- Knnliing. "tlle\ le elllnlinll-. mn-l nl them . . . Iatld-ca|ie-
ica e.xiiihition: and in April of the >ame \ear l-izaii j;a\e him aiid liiL'hwa\- and -en-alinii- nl that i.e. nl laiid-ca|pe- and
'"'
hi- second one-man gallery show. The Kgan show con-i-lid liii;liwa\- . onl-ide tin- rit\ .
|i|.")()
of al)>traetioiis. eonfimiing the art world's iinpre-.r.ion ol Ar De K line - ,|i()\v of abstractions at the .Sidney
Kooning as an abstract artist. Siflney .lani- -igned n|i de .lani- (.allerx -old well and he started to make some money.
Kooning for the arti-l - (hi id one-man -how in \iaicli '>.).'?. I He moved in wiili .loan Ward when she ga\e birth m his
in which he preseiued the iiKimimcmal Wnmcii li\e ot daughter Lisa in I

''")(). altlmugh Elaine remaiiieil \ er\ much
I hem for the first time. |iait nf lii-dail\ life. In l'>.")o and again in ]9.5'>/(i(t lie\isited
The "Vtomen "

scandali/ed nian\ pcujilc. i-\en -ome oi hal\ . and alter hi- IniiliK -iiccessfnl 19.59 exhiliition of large
de Kooning > friends who found it luiid lo accept that the ali-Tiactinn- at .lani- he retreated from the scene, speiidini:
jiaiiitings were not al)stract. The \lii-emii nj Mndcrn Art le-s and le-- time in the citv. rarely attending panic-, and
lioiiglit /from the show hiil in geneial the cojlec tdi-
Uo/iiaii ne\ er an-weiine hi- telephone. De Kooning's growing nnm-
ilid not respond to the work — de Kooning had to cniitimie lier- nl iniitaini- were a real [isvchological bui'den to him. bi
living on a shoestring. \^ hen (ireenherg deli\rrcil tin- order to discourage peojile from l)othering him. he e\eii
pronoiineeineiit to de Kooning thai "it i- im|M)--ilile tndav in -iop])ed his laiiillord at o.'51 Broadway from in-talliiiL: an
paint a face. de Kooning came hack with: 'I hat - ri^'lil. and
"
elevator. In l''")-f the de Kmiiiings had rented a Imii-e in
"'"-
il- impossible not to. bl the si.\tie> .reenberg had bciiim ( Biidgeliaiiipinii. I. mil: l-laiid. with Franz Kline, l.iidwii;
openK attacking de Kooning. Sander, and \aiii\ W aid. I hen in l').'i.'i Elaine succe--fiilly
Bv lO.'3-l deliciouslv sen-iioti- fiLrnre- in the \laril\ii encnnrageil liei luniliei I'etei In bii\ a house next to the
Monroe mold had l)egim to snpplani ilii' more gidte-i|iic and Rn-eliberg-nii \ial.nllie Hnad ill Ea-t Hamilton. Ill I'Xl.'Me
lerocioiis Unman /and her si-tei-. I)i- KomiinL' e\cn lillcd Knoning built a new -tinlin in The Springs |iart nl f,a-t
one ot these new work- \fnnl\ii Maiiroc. and when >el(leii llamptnii . \aiateil hi- Manliattaii Infl. ami iimved mil In
Bodmail asked him wli\ he painted liei he -aid: I don I Emm 1-laiid permaiieiiiK .
know . 1 and one da\ — tlieic -lie w a-.

was painting a picture,
'.Subconscious Roflman a-ked. Siilxdii-i ioii-
desire'^
lieir." the artist laughed."" The Women ordieearK liltic- '
The "Women" of the Sixties and the
all inhabit the no-em ironmeiit of die cil\. where diic
Late Works
cannot tell what is indoor- or outdoor-: an anliiiec tmal
lie in the lobby of Rockefeller Center oi oiii-idc
delail could |iaitiling- of wnineii dial de KnmiiiiL; beiâii in l''()l
The
on die fa(;ade of a building. This settin;: exiend- tin- have (he same |nn-e. -en-iiniis handling as the ab-irac-
simnltaneouslv disturbing and enticing anibiLriiilN nj tin- t same] lerind. thniigh he saturated the figures with
inns of the
liirnre- them-eKe-. ri<her color and a eieaier biiildii|i of smaller luu-hstrokes.
Even the sim|ile-i nf pencil draw ing- from this time frontis-
piece have a lle-hv v nlu|iiuoiisiiess. The XN omen ol the
De Kooning's Ab:tractions of the Fifties
sixties are more relaxed and more frankly sexual: increas-
Ainuml ]'))> de Kooliiiii liiined ciua\ Imm the li;;me inglv ton. the cmiionr- nf the figure open out with a lateral
.
ii>ward complex, urban abstractioirs. niled with the -weep inin e\pan-ive -in rmmding landscapes. These nudes
liiisile of l(tih Street: in woiks such as Colluiiii \i'irs lig. belong to the tradition of Rnliens. although the bodily
.'l-t8 de Kooning poriraxed till' no-eiiviioiimenl in it-ell. function- and appetites are more ex|)licitly revealed.
85
Willem de Kooning
Tiro fiiiiirp.i ii>i;..S.49 porliax- wdiiiiii nii ilir luni li. -riil|iiiiiiv ami (i\ii llic iwM li\c \car^ lii' iikkIi' roiiglilv
Willi llii' sea ill tlie l)ackgroilTiil, in a laii(l-ra|M- lialli>-il in I w cnl \ -li\ c liinn/r lii;in r^. all cnii il(i\ iiiLMJir --aiiic' uestural
luilliaiil -iinliiilil. r\|>irall\ dr kudiiini; ii^nl ilir culdr^ Iccliniijiir and >l\lr a^ lii^ |iainliiiM^ ol llic lalf -.i\iii>. In
•-nî;i--.|r(l li\ llic en \ iiiiinniail —a nalnial |iali'llc. in runlia^l l''~l) lie rnlai iiimI llir ~rali- and liirrd an a^î^lanl In handle
III I .i-i^n nr Miiiii li iaii. ulm-c jiiiniaiN rulin^ indiralrd die îirli Irrliniral a^|irii> a^ ri m-l riicl iiil; ariiial iiir^. lull lii^
|iir\alriirr iil ilirmx and -\>lrni 1 1\ rr iialnir. I riiiii llir iiii|jrii\ i~ali(iiial iiiaiiiirr nl winking; nllrii iirro-iialrd iiii-
lii'lliniiiiiL: di- Ki II in Hi: ^ I "W unrii

i lia\ r alw a\ ^ in î mir w a\ riin\ riil ii uial inrdu iil~. In mir ra^r dr Km mint; n^rd a riikr
i>ri!:iiiali'd in iialinr. I.arli lii:iii'i' had a >|irrilii' and Iml I Ir in a la^l -ininiilr adjn^l nirni li i dir aniial in r and Irll il
indi\ idiial — il iinaLlinaiN — rliaiarlri dial 'itiiii-iI riilnrK r\|ii i-rd in llir ra>l . In >('r//(7/ // u/z/i/// n// (/ /)i7/(7/ lii;..'!..)()
iral. ()ii II (ii/Kiil \((ilii)iiii\ Ini r\aiii|ili-. Iir ^| irrnlalri 1 : 1 I ir ^1 ink |

lai I i iT a nindrlrd aiiii and ham 1 i Ml li i| i i il llir lirail.
ihiiik -hr ina\ lie i- a u Milan w Im inakc^

i lial~, Slir - kind nl alont; w illi die ^lii\ r he wine lu w im k mi llir |iirir.
I iiniix doiikinu;: ~lir ^ In-ir jni' ihr w crkrnd . . . w ell. Îir ~ In llir raiK ^r\riilic^ llir liL;inr> in dr kiiiinilliis
Illinium: inln liri lurlir^. I rnr^-. . . . She ^ ^w rri .md liirnilK ,

|
laiiil iiiLl- Llirw lim^rr and im nr di^rnil indiril. In wmk^ nl ihr
Dun 1 Mill I liiiik ^1
1
' l'rii|ilr -a\ I iiiakr ^11 ill iniMi^lrr^, I dim l mid ^r\ nil irilir\ i liNa|i|irarrd iimii| ilrlrK inln a iirw kind
'
lliiiik -II al all. Ill alliixrr" ali-.lrari ii m niadr ii|i nl -alnralrd -irnkr- nl'
Ihr Innsr. a 11 1 hi nil a 1 i\ r liiii~h\\iMk nl dr Kiiiiniiii;s rnlni' a^ liiiiliK drtilii'd a> llir analnmiral -rt;iiiriils nl llir
lirilir |iainllllL;- nl dir lair -ixlir- ha- a -rll -a--niani r dial Inrlir-. I hr-r rnin|in-il inii^ air dillll-rd w illi a di-rn|irril
anminnrr- a lair -l\ Ir a- linldK i li-.l inn i\ r a- llir lair -l\ Irs inr|\ iinamhnird run ;;\ . likr an rlniiic Inicrlirld. I lirii
nl nnnliiamll m \lali--r. Tirii I I'jiiir.s lark- llir |iinliali\r ainiiml I'Tid llir rnlnr ihiiinrd mil iiild [lairr \\aslies shut
aii\iri\ nl ihr inmiiinirnial \\imirii nl llir fill ir- m die iliiiiiir|i w idi |in\\ nlnl w idr -I iiikr- nl hiack. Even at the age
drii-il\ 111 iiia|m ali-lian n iin|insjiiiins likr Hicainl mil . nl rigliu . painl ing n mliinird h i |iri i\ idr dr Kooning with a
I Irlr ihr alli-l -rrlll- In rll|ii\ llir i rl lailllV nT In- hand a- llr I II rail- III r\|ilmilli; hi- irlaliim In llir |
irl'| irlliallv cllangillg
-a\iii- die -nil rir-h, die lirli lirlil, and dir IVr-li -iiirll- nl ihr rimdiliim- nl r\i-lrmr. llr rimld mil avoid il. •^'ol(^
-ra air. I lir-r lair -i\lir- w niiini r\|iir-- a jii\ nf lilr in ihrir iiidix ii liiahlN . Iir -aid. "is likr lia\ illg a la I ill llir ninin
lariilr |ilra-iirr and ill llirir a| i| i| rrial i\ r |inilra\al nl llir al\\a\- walkili" arniind. \iiii ran 1 r-ra|ir il. and \ii. "al
liinnan ininriK . llir riid \ mi lakr a \\ alk in \ mil' (<//// laiid-ra| ir. Il - -iiii|ilr.
'"'
On a lll|i III Rmnr in |'»(,<),|,. Knmiini: Irird hi- lir-l IrrI- gnnd."
3.50 Willem de Kooning, Seated Woman on a Bench, 1 972, cast

1976. Bronze, 373 4 >• 36 >• 343-8in (95.9 x 91.4 x 87dcm).
Collection, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonion Institution, Washington,
D.C, Gift of the Joseph H. Hirshhorn Bequest, 1981 .
(C, 1994 Willem de Kooning/Artists Right;
Jackson Pollock
III
l'l.")(i W illiiii lie k ilii: |iiiiilli-(l mil lluil f\r\\ ^n
iillcll. il |i.lllllcl llll- 111 i|i-l|ii\ |KIII1IIIIl:, ( r/,lllllr illil II,
l>ir^l--ii illil II XMlh inlilMII. Ih.'ll I'ullurk illil II, llr lMI-.|id
iHir iilr;i III ;i |ili'lillr ;ill In lull, I lli-li llii-lr i iiiilil I ir iii'U
I
laiiil inii^ iit:aiii, '
\^ raiK a^ i''4ll .lark^mi I'lillnc L \\a^
wiiikiiiL; al llii- ilrliiiiii^: i-ili^r nl rii'W iiaiiiliiiL:. I In' |iaiiiliT
1,1 r kiaMici Willi \\l I hr liMil In nil 1 ' '-+_' i ii il il 1 1 ir riii I i il
III-- I ill-. I r| 11 II 1 11 1 ilia I III Inn 1 1

111 a \ri\ iliMiil |iailllillL: ,, , lir
a^ki'ii 1 1 If. U 1 1 11-- a |iaiiiliii;:'' ^nl i^ llii^ a liuml |iaiiil iiii:. iir
a liail iiiir. lull '/ i>iiiiiliiiis! I III- ili-un-i- ul ilmilil \\a^
4
iinlirlii'N alilr al liiiir^, \ii(l llii-ii, aiiaiii. al cillirr liiiii-^ In-
"
kiii-w fill- |iainlri 111- w a^,
Pnlliiik^ l/i//r- an, I ivninlr iti,E.2.12; n-ln-.l on llir
^mri-ali^l ilrxiir nl aiilninaliîii to \ii-lij ilu- iiialinnallv

iii,\Ia|i(i>i-il anil a^^miali-d aiialiiinical Iraiiinrnl^. immlifi's,
anil i^fiiini'lrir slia|ir^ a^ well as tlie loose autograjiliir
EXISTENTIALISM lini-liwork. I III- lidiiialiix and the sliallowiie.ss of tiie space

in llii- work n-M-al ilu- iiilliii-mr ol riiiii-.ni anil of Picasso s
inlrrwar i'\|in-ssio]iisni. |
lailiciilaiK (•ut'iiiitti lii;.l!.l()i.
COMES TO THE FORE lor till- lod-inic

\liican anil \ali\i- Aiiu-rican art
limner. Pollock
ami Irom
ilri-w iiis|iiralioii
ilic work ol
Innii
ilii-
Me.xican iiiuralists.
Yet whatever Pollock s inilcliicilncss to iireceiiiiii: styles,
the directness with w liicli In- re\ealfil his iincoiiscioiis in this
paintinfi had no an liisiorical |irfci-ilt-iii. The piciiin-s

"realitv lies rml in aii\ n-lrrencc to the jiheniiineiial world
hut in die iriitli 111 die iincoriscioiis iniiid. Besiniiini: in P'-f"
Pollock Inidii-i- n-lini-d die lani;iiai:e of this radical coiileiit
îth the leclinical innoNalion of |iouiiiif; or dri|(|iinu his
paint Ifigs.-t.l and 4..') —f.KI . in adilition he dissoKed the
custoniarv i oinposiiional Im iis on a central image and liroke
down the iihisi I oliiccis m space, arriving at an 'alloNer"
compcsition in wiiicli iln- sieininglv limitless intricacy of
surface texture cn-ali-s a \asl, pidsating en\ iionment of
intense energv . coniplcii-K engulfing the viewer.
Although niosi 111 die writings on Pollock iia\c ii\ei'-
played the mvtii of tragic heroism, the artist did afleci a
tougli exterioi-: in- was isolated and independent, and lie
gradualh sell'-dcsin id cd in a dowiiward spiral of emoiional
turmoil during his ear 1\ lorties. altera dozen prolific yeaisol
majestic painting. Pollock li\cd ami woiked with relentless
drive. As Lee Krasner explained: \\ iiatever,lacl;son felt, he
felt more intenselv than an\oni- M- known. When lie was 1
angiT. he was angrier: when In- was happy, he was happier;

w lien he was (|uiei. lie was quieter . . .
Pollock's Early Life and Influences

.lacksun Pollock, lioiii in Côdy, \\ yoining, on .laniiary
Paul
'1\\.was die Mil ingest of five sons in a working-class
I'Mli.
4.1 (opposite) Jackson Pollock, Cathedral, 1 947. Enamel and
familx His mother had arlisiic asjiii-ations and conveyed this
.
aluminum point on canvas, 71 '2 x 35' Uin (181 .6 x 89.1cm).

sufficientK to her children lliat all five sons wanted lo
Collection, Dollos Museum of Art, Gift of Mr, and Mrs, Bernard J, Reis, 'C) 1 994
Pollock-Krasner Foundation/Artists Rigtils Society (ARS), New York, beconn- painters. Pollock's fallier failed ii c Inick lariii
87
Jackson Pollock
Existentialism Comes to the Fore
after atiiitlifr. rau>iiiizan eronomic instability tliai torci'd tin- i\|ieiimented with unorthodox material- and iioxel tech-
family to relocate --ex eii times in .lai-ksoii's fir>I twelve year-. rMi|ue- of application, including the -piaxiiii:. -platteriiii;.
In tile summer of l^'i" Jaekson and liis eiuhteen-yeav-oM and dripping of paint.
iiniilier. Sanford. worked on a siMAey team, roii'iliins; it on A- Pollock moved axxax from Benton - inlluence and
the Nonli Rim Grand Cianyon. Pollock discoxercil
of tiie liom represemation a- a whole, he tocused increasingly on
alcoiiol at tlii- time and also dropped the name "Paul, inner cotitenl. He found encouragement for tlii- a|)|)ioa<h in
w liicli he thought les> manly than ".lacksoii. an aiiiric bx .lulin (^lidiain in l');^^' calleil 'Piiiniiixe \rt and
Pollock went to high school in Los Angele> \\idi a--o .raliam loie that |iriniilixi-.
"
Pliili|p Pii In it ( xx
(iusion. who also became a major painter ot the New ^ ork anil r.rtcrinrizcd their
sdtis/Jcd (heir piirlinihtr liitcnii.sni
School. Thev were both rebellious and intellectual. Alter
jiroliibilion.s taboos in order to iinderstani/ them heller (Uid
beitig expelled twice in rwo years for wiitiug l)i(>a(l>ide>
eonseijiienlly lo deid irilh iheni snrressfidlv. Therefore the
airaitist the school's emphasis on alliletio. Pollock ga\e u|) in
iirl olthef)ri/iiilire rarcs has a hiahlrerocalire (juahly
l'*.'U) and headed to New York, where he joitied In- elde-t
iihieh (dh)ifs it to hrints to our conscionsness ihe rhirilies of
brother Charles in the classes of Thomas 1 lart Beiiiun ai ilie
I tie iiiiroiiseions mind, stored irilh all the indiridnal and
Vrt Students League. .Tackson stayed on there Benton tintil
eolleelire irisdnm of past generations and forms. In other
left in .laiiuar\' 1933 but Benton's influence continued to
words. (Ill ernratire art is the means and the result of getting
dominate both the voimger artist's subject marter and snle '
in toiielt irilh the jioirers of our iinronseioiis.

until around 1938. Viliile at the League Pollock also met
Stuart Davis, who taught there, and .\rsliile ( iorky. w ho w as Graham- belief that the unconscious mind jirovided essen-
often to be found in the school cafeteria. tial knowledge powers for the artist and that
atid creative
Itispired hv mannerist and baroque art. the dramatic primitive art offered more direct acce— to ihi- material
-jiatial composition of Betiton's Tlie Arl.iofl/ie If est ^fig.2.7^ impressed Pollock so |)rofoundlv that he wrote to (irahain
headlong toward the xiewer frotn deep in space. Benton
-| lill- asking to meet. The enstiing friendship greatly emboldrncd
taught and hitnêlf u:-ed a rlmhinic system of interlocking Pollock in his search for universal mythic images in lii- ow n
curves and coimtercurves— often disposed aroimd imagiii- vnii-nn-cioii-. while at the same time enlarging hi- nndrr-
ar\- veitical axes— as the underlying principle tor lii> -tanding of n-ccni Kurojiean art especially culii-iii and
com|)ositions.'' .\s an abstract metaphor, thi^ dviiamic -unealisin .
luifolding of the pictorial space stood for the idea of an The Eurojiean- x\ ho arrixed in New \ oik anivnid l''-fll
inevitable unfolding in the evolution of histoiy an idea funher shaipened Pollock's focus on luiconsciotis imagerx
ins])ired bv Marxist historical theories . Benton s choice of "I accept the fact that the iinpoitant painting of the last
Mibject matter also echoed this in the sense that he attempted Inmdred years was done in France. he acknowledged in "
to show a continuitx between presem-day .\merica and its PH-t. .The fact that good Eiu-opean modems are now
. .
ancient j>ast. Long after his flination with Marxism an<l here is xerv imjiortant. for they bring with them an
modeniism in the earlv txventies. Benton retained ihi-- understanding of the [jroblems of modem ijainting. 1 am
compositional characteristic. panicularly ini]ire>sed with their concept of the -onrceof art
Benton attempted to fomnilate a utiiijuely ".Vnierican being the uncon-ciou-.
-tvie through the exploration of the countiy's historical But Pollock was ([uick to add that the mo-t im|)ortant
-ubject matter and it.- contemporaiy life. Benton's adulation EiH'opeans were Picasso and Miro. who did tiot come to the
of American "
frontier masculinity must have a|)|>i-aled lo I iiited States. It was to Picasso above all that Pollock
['ollock. Benton's work, reinforcefl bv the example nl the letimied agaiti and agaiti in his ait. Guerniea fig. J. ID .
Mexican min-alists fig. 2.8 sowed the see<ls for the emerg-
. which anived in New York in 1939. was especially signifi-
ence of a grand scale and an epic qualin in Pollock - cant. This periofl of Picasso- work inspired the fragmenta-
painting of the forties. Large size suited Pollocks grand tion of expressionist images in the shallow space of Pollock s
-ubject matter, which concerned universals in the human drawings of the late thirties, and it also provided Pollock and
|i-\ihe. the eternal tragedy of the human coiiflition. and the hi? contemporaries with a profoundly moxing exam|)le of
powerful instinctual forces that acted on his consciousne--. painting with a scjtial con-cience that was at the same time at
Like so many others at the litne. the Mexicans held a the forefront of formal innovation. The social imperative —
\larxi?i view of historical evolution, atid they hoped to incite already inherent in .\nierican art and gieatly heightened by
their |>eop|e to social change bv educating ihetn about their the world w ars and by the Depression — weighed heax ily
txs (1
heritage and about the relentless progress of historx. Tin- on Pollock and his contemporaries.
vi-it of lîvid Siqueiros to Los Angeles in l'*2f! and In Pl.'iT Pollock went on to the easel-] yainting divi-ioii of
reproductio. !- of Mexican murals had already capiiried rhe P^'deral Art Project, which proxided him with innde-t
Pollock's inte est before he left Câlifoniia. .\s a high->cliool finaiKial stability. Burgoyne Diller fig.2.1() xxa- lii-
-tiident he had encountered Rivera'- work through some supeniôr and covered for him when he couhl not -ii|)l)ly his
communist meetings he attended. In l*'3(i Pollock locik quota of painlin;:-. In addition to it- economic benefit- the
a job in Siqueiros- Lnion Srfuare work-Imp wIhh- he W ork- Progre— \dniini-iiaiion \\.1'\. |jni P(pllo(L into a
89
Jackson Pollock
comrniiiiilN of |ininirr- amon<£ iheiii tlic na--(iMit Ni-w Vnk (li'\i-.c -niiic nrw iiii-an'- of itiilaiiciiiii ihe iimipdsirion. In
Srlioul. wild wen- all ir\inp lo riin:t'>I llii- --ainc' (li-.|iaialc \lii/i' niul / criinlc ilic i;r(iiiii-ii'\ -.cim-^ ilial |)iir|M)se: later.
iMt'liiencc^ of ilic Mc.xifaii iniiTali-i-. ali-iiaci ciiIhîik ali- I'dlluik cl(\rl(i|M(l ilir alliiM'i- iiirii|Mi-.iiiiiii id -.dUc lliis
-li'act -iiirrcalisin. and Picasso'> r\|iir^-.iiiiij-,i |iaiin inLi dj ihc siiiicimal |iidlilciii.
lliiilii'-. a- in (,'iicniirii. \lil ^;li llic Mirrt'ali>l-' hi>l|)f(l to Iciritimi/r llir unicin-
.(idu. a^ a Milijcct for Follo<-k. aN ivirly as \'H2 lir alnaJx
Pollock's Breakthrough of the Early Forties "

" ' '' ^ '"f-"" "î"?i p ^ in, anton.aii.n, „ ,
NNiaiK
ilillcrrnl \\a\. I lie snrreali>l niainlaincil an i'\|irriniciiial
Pdlldik -II iil:i;|i(| Willi aiiih- i li| ii (---idi i ami alrlidli-ni in di-laiici-. anaU/illL; III-, oplii-|- ailloinali-'l r\|iii-N-,i(iM>. i\\>-
llic laic lliiilir- anil in I''.!'' Iir i'iilcii-i| iiiln .liiiiv;iaii Cdxriin;: llicir ronlriil llironiili lici- ass,i(ial ion. and llicll
|>-\ cIldaiiaK ~i-. In ailililion Id \\lialr\ri llir I real inriil diil 1:11111:: haik illhi die |ii(liiir hi cMlliaiirr llir-r di-cd\ riii'>.
Idi lii> cnidlidnal rii-r-. il |irordiindl\ allnird liis ail li\ I'olliirk woiknl iin|p|ils|\ cK and iliicrlK on llir raiixa-. In
mriiniaiiini: In- -rairli lor loirniir iniaiir-. willi iiniMT-al. ra|ilnir llir iinrnn-iioiis imafies as llicx UimMt'd out. In .l/f^/f
iiiiroM-.riiiii- inraniiiL;. Hrlw itii I ''-t2 and I ''-tJl I'dllurk L;a\ r a ml I iiiKilr llir iircasional areas of dripped and s]ilattered
niaii\ III lii- riiinpd-iiidii- inrliidinii -mi T I lir raiK drip paini w ric iioi -.iPiiiiiihoard- I'lii- I'rre association, a-, in
piiinrr- iindiii- liilr- wiili iivriinnr-, nl priiiiili\r Imrr-: -.iii'i'rali-.iii. Iiiil an ritori rnord die spontaneit\ ul his
lo
(•iKinlidll.s (il llic >i'(ni . Male (iikI IciikiIc. Mann lldiiiiin. iinron-rinn- llioupht processes. As such this tecliiiic|iir
Totem Lesson. \i<jli/ (\iriii(iii\. Thr >^lic-\\ oil. and /.//- pn i\ rd ilir idroloijical |)recursor for Pollock's great >i\ li--iir
(lion In I I oii-sl . \laii\ 1 if llir ear K ail ion paiiil iiii;-. -nrli a- lurakllin hiliIi in llir "allox rr drip |iirtiirr-, of l')4~. -mil
(iolo.i\- and (ii/licdrol fir. 4. I . wrrr ri\rii lillr- dial [\^ ( ollii-ilrol.
rxiiknl a -rii-r of -| li III na I i I \ 01 llir -iililiiiir I riiiii 1'*4i'i 111 addition, the paramount concern \\ilh inimediacv
ihioiirh l''.')l2 I'olliick iiio-il\ niinilirird. lailiri than lillrd amonii Pollock and his friends led them to conchide that if
In- painliiiL:^. Inn inirinir a--iiiiaiion- -till linrrird mi. \ 011 tised sketche- von were not inoilern. This ditferenti-
liidrrd li\ mil nainiiiL: lii^ pirliiir-. I'lilliick ^mirhi lo inakr ated them from their inenlors Picasso and Miro and from
llirir -piiiiiial rmiiriii imiir iiiiix 1 T-al. Nr\rrilirlr-- III I'l.'il their friend Gorkv. Since tliev heliexed that important
Pill lock rrininidmrd li-iiililr intrinic fii:iirr^ and in I
'!."). 1 hr painting, bv definition, addressed the issues of its time, you
ir-iinird thr iii\ iliii til Ir-. had to he modern" and therefore to work spontaneously on
In \ii\rinliri I'M i .lull 1 1 ( .la haul put ingrther works li\ thr can\as. In a radio intrr\iew of 19.50 Pollock explained:
lioth and Pnlloik Im a
Kia-nri jiiint -Imw. 1 rmii tlii-. .M\ (ipinion is that newiieeds need new techniijues ... the
Krasiirr di-co\ricil that Pollmk li\i-il aniiind thr ciirnrr modem ])ainter cannot express his age, the air])lane, the
from hrr. -o -hr Inokrd him up. Thr following iail thr\ atom liomli. thr radio in the old fonns of the Renaissance ..
imixrd in logrthrr. and ihiniigh Krasiirr Pollock grralK thr modrni artist is living in a mechanical age ... working
widrnrd hi- riiclr of aiii-iic Irirnd-. in particular -hr and r.\[)iessing an inner world — in other words, expressing
inliiidmril him to (\i- Komiiiir. I lolmann. lianild Ro-rii- thr rnergv. the motion, aiifl other inner forces.
ling, and ( Irineiu Crrmlirii;. Kia-nri al-o apprai- to ha\e In l')42 Motherwell and Baziotes introduced Polk)ck lo
liri-ii iiioir -iiccessful than thr p-\ rliiitliriapi-t> in -tahilizing Peggy Guggenheim, who asked him to participate in a group
Polliirk. who eniererl the mo-t imiii\ati\r and |irodmii\r -.how of collages at her new Art of This Gentury gallery.
driadr of hi- life. Pollock. and Baziotes all made their first
Motherwell,
In lA//c mill Icnidle Iig._'.l2 . mir of Pollmk- lir-i collages ill preparation for that show and WTOte automatist
great pirtinr-. thr toirniir i|iialit\ and thr -taliili/ing poetry together. Then in Noveml)er 1943 Pollock had a one-
sviiiiiiiir\ rrniainrd from thr wmk- of thr prr\ imi-, two man show at the Art of This Gentury. for which .lames
veai'-. lint the iiiiarr- poiirrd lortli in a lirrr. niiirr ili-.coii- .lohiison Sw'eeiiev (an iiii]iortaiil ciiralor at the Museum ol
iirii rd wa\ . I hr r\r- at lop Ir ft. the iiiimlirr-. thr iiiipnl-i\r Modern .\rt ) WTOte the catalog. .Vlfred Barr houglil The Slw-
gr-tinr^ and -pill- roinr together, as if landomh. out //(>//' for the -Vhiseum of Modern Art out of the exhibition.
of a drn-r I hail- of .icti\r rlrments. The iiitiinir ligiiir- and the San Francisco Museum bought Guardians of the
su[)eriiii|iii.-rd mi thr two Mack vertical strijis rrinlorcr the Seeret. In a review of the show, Cilement Greenberg chain-
geonirti\ and -taliili/r thr otherwise free pla\ of gr-iinr- pioiied Pollock as the greatest painter of his time, and shortly
and Miiall images. after that Peggy Guggenheim ])ut Pollock on a retainer.
In the work-, of the raiK foriir-. Pollork iian-foniird thr lliis |)rovided Pollock with a regular income, just as the
inflnrncr of Briitmi;- dramatir coiii|io-it ion- and of thr Federal Art Project was shutting dov^^l. Guggenheim not
Mexicans Marxi-.! faith in tin- rrlnitlr-- r\ oliition oi lii-iorv only gave him a $300 monthly stipend but a link to the
into the idea of a dynamic and ine\italilr iinlolding of the reci'iiih arrixed surrealists who showed in hergalleiy.
idutent of the unconscious mind. 0\rr thr iir\i four years In the rarlv forties Pollock balanced the scattered
iliis idea increasingly dominatrd not mih thr rmitrnt of aiitmiiatist doodlr^ in his work against a persistent totemic
Pollock's work but the evolution of hi- -i\ Ir: ii- the i:r-.iiiir- iinarrr\. llir totrmic figures cairied over from Pollock's
"rev. more i;fniiiiirl\ anlmnatic. it linainr iirri'-.-.ar\ r\|irrssimn-,tic woik. which had been liea\ily influenced b\'
90
( )|w/rM ;iii(| I'lcM^îi. I he l(Mi-iT .iiiidiiKiii^l |irii--li\\ iirk and

4.2 Jackson Pollock, Mura/, 1943. Oil on canvas,
llic- lri-ri' i>-iiiiiL' liirlli III viiiall ^|iiiiilaiii-iiii^ Iiiiiiin ;{||i|
8ft I'4inxl9ftl0in (2.47 A 6.05m).
^\inliii|- li-|iri--rillril ihr lu-wcl lllllliriirr iil NiilliMliNiii. In Collection, University of Iowa Museum of Art Gift of Peggy Guggenheim. & 1 994 Pollock-
llii'-r Wink- I'lillmk lii'i;an in n-rnnrili' llir Iwu. ii-iiii;
Krasner Foundolion/Artists Rights Society (ARS|. New York.
:iMliiiiiali~in In Imak duwii llir I'niiiial i-uhiliuii nl llii-
liilrinir iiiiai;!'-. I ln' ili--iihuiiiii ol llir-i- nnat:r- a- di-irrir
cinilii-- I'lialilrd ilinn in iiiliaarl inmr llnidK willi llir licr |iirlnL;ia|ili-.'" I)i-iiinii-l ralinii- III Indian -and |iaiiiliiii.'.
a--niialinii- in a -l\li' nl |iaiiiliiii; llial \\a- lirri niiiii;: w hii h ihr aili-t -aw in I'HI al llu- \aliiial Hij-torx .\lii-fiiiii
inrira-inLiK nrirnlrd Inward |iin(r--. In llii- can-rnlK 111 \iw \nik. al-n -i-riii In lia\i- lairr fiicouraged tin- Ircf
lllnll;:lll-nlll nrrllr-lrallnn lirtwrcn llir IWd rlrnirlll-. Uf-Iiiral |iniiriiii; li-cliiiii|iif lliat Fnllnck dcM-lnpt-d al llit-
I'nilnik - lll'W |iailllllli: nl llii- rall\ liillif- -.rrnii'd In l>t'i;iiiniiii: nl 1''4"'. In FeliriiaiT l''4-+ an iiilrr\ irw rr Inr \ii
i-inulalr .jnliii (.raliain- di--iri]ilii ni nl Pira-.-.n - |iainliiii:. (iiiil \nliitccttire a^ked Pollock il In- iiiadr n-h-rcncc in
<-ninliinini: an '
. . . i-a-.r nf am--.-, In llir iinrnn-rinll- w illi acinal iniaiics from Nati\t' -\mericaii ai I in hi- ]iainlint;- and
(nn-iinil- iliicllilii-nrr. he ii--|iniidcd: Thai wa-n I iiilt-iilinnal. " He cxplailicd
>ninr riilir- liaM- aiuni-il ilial a |
n niiraniinal ir .Inniiian dial in wnrkini; iiiiiiiii\i-l\ iiiiai;i-- iiii-\ ilalilv cmert;ed from
~\ nil inli-in nndi-ilir-. llir iinaiir-. Inn nil niir I la- -nrrcrdrd III ilii- mil nn-cinii-. tliroiii.'li free a^-ôi-iatioii latlier than a.s a
|iin\idinL: a rnii-i-lcni rradini; nl aii\ -iirli irniini;ra| ili\ in di-lilii-iaiiil niiniirapliy. Similarly, the .sliamanistic inten-
ail\ liainlini:- li\ I'nilnrk." I'nllnrk did lirlii-\r ill llir linii- nl the -and |iaiiiler^. whn regarded ,-iich work a^ a
rnllf(li\i' iiiirnii-.rinn- and in llir cniii-r nl live' a--iMialinii hcalini; aci. may lia\r linini-d n|ilii|ni-|\ in Pnllnik - ihiiik-
111- nia\ lia\f rallrd ii|i and ii-rd indi\idiial iiiiaiir-' IVniii llli:. i-\ril llinm;ll 111- dnr- mil -ccin li i lia\ c i-\| ilicitiv -cl niil In
inalriial In- n-ad m nan I I a milI I din in:; hi- .liiiiiiian aiialx -i-. cimilalc ilii-in.
'"
In llir -alllf wa\ I'nllnrk mra-inllalK irlrni-d In -|irc ilir l'i-i:i;\ (.Uiijienheini had iniiimi--iniii-d Pnllock to jiaint
inxili- in hi- lilli--. a- in I'iisi/i/kk' ni I'H-l. Inil iIkn wrir the ;;di\-2()-foot Mum/ Inr hi-i 1 11- 111 .Inly IQ+'J. The
ni-MT more lliail a liu-ailnl rlilirhiiiL; nr drr|iriiiiiL; llir inland -call- nf tlu- |iicliiri-. like wnrk- nf Benton and
the lariic
a--()ciations. Pnllnck riraU'd mil nl hi- nw n nninn-iinii-. die \le\icaii-. iran-lnrm- the caii\a- iiiln an eniiiilfiiiii-
ii-iliji aillotliatislll in iiaii-rniin hi- |i-\rliir i\|iriiiii(i' inin i-ii\ iinnmenl. a w linli- w all nf [lainl ralher than a -mall oliject
<.'fstiiri> and form-. In -niiir in-iainr- In- iliiii Iniinil dial I nil- can 1 mill \ i-iiall\ and ]:)ln>i(-allv dominate. In thi.s
aftirmiiiix -iiiiilarilit-- in kiniwii IrLirinl-. Inn lir axnidnl wa\ 11 -cl a ]iieciilini Inr the scale of Pollock'.s celebrated
>\-li-inaiir it-rfrciit- I'iniii i-\li-riial -niiiir-. ilii|i |iaiiiiiiiii-. Il al-n Iniced the artist to work on the tloor
like die \a\ ajn -and |iaiiilei-- he saw in \ew^ ^ ni-k so thai he
Pollock's Transition to a Pure Gestural Style iniild niiiM- arniind all -idc- nl die |iicliiii- and ii-acli i-\er\
|>ai I nl II.
\liinil ifig.-f.J ihr L'l'-liniil-i-il rarrird ihi' r\|irr--i\r ir ihi- ah-lrai I. iii\ lliinic 2e--tlire- w liii h -n|i|ilaiilcil die
In
rniui'iit. Bill e\i M ill llii- Wink ri-ilain -|ii-iirir a--nrial n ni- Inicnnc iinaiii-- in Miiinl and in -exeral nllii-r [laintiim- nl
raii lie traced. In p, riicular. il lia- Imth rnn\ iin iiiiiK aiiinrd l''-f.')and I'H-I- i;ri-w mil nf litiinal -ii;ii-. I hi- final effect was
thai nil niif lf\fl III- dark riir\iiii! \i-iliral- ill \liinil m-\ erlhi-le— mil- nl' a t;e-inral -l\le. In llii- re-|iect Pnllnt-k
had a lii;iiral ri-l'i-rt-i iiilliicnri-d li\ Nali\t- \iiii-riran iinl niiK aiiiici|ialed hi- wnrk nl I'HT" In I'l.ll). lull in -nine
91
Jacks'.
caii\a-i'- i"i- |iaii- (ircaiixaî'^ (liiiini; I'Hll ami I'H'i In- aKo •> arit-.. V^ iiiK rn'iii(iiiicm-.lv a-- |iiissil)li' Pcilldik and Krasner
teiilan\il\ i\|iliiifi| (lri|i|iiriii anil |Miiiiiiii;. a> w I- lia\ (• Î'fii nianifil in laic Ociiiliii anil nuiM-il nul In llir S|)rings
ill Male (111(1 liiiKilf. |)i'^|iiir ilii~. ilir-i- wmk^ iriiiain |n'iiiiaiiiMii l\ alln-ii wiili riri|iiriii irip!- inid \i'w ^mk . "It
riiiiri-|iliiall\ linki-il 111 ihr nnai;i>lir w ink- III llial llir\ w rir wa-iii-lliin I.ihil: Ulaml in llir l)('i;iimin_<;. Kia-niT lalt-r
M.||-ii,n>iii.ii-.|\ T |M,,rir : III ihr la.r nl \lunil I'ulli.ik ivia lln I ^ P.illnik^ >ln.lin had iin lii'al I ,r ei.M'l 111' li,i;hl. tliey
(ii'lilii'ialrlN iiiiiani/i-ij ilir ri>in{ n >-il inn aniiinil Brnlnii ~ hail im In i| w airr al In -I. ami llir\ ri iiililii'l at'l'iirdlieuting
sv>Ii'ni 111 111 i\ r- ami run nlrniiiAr-. '
Im-llm llir In m-r. iiimli li--> an aiiliMilnliilf. ^ I'l I'lillmk did

I In- r\ rii di~tiilinliiin nl ri i||i|ii i-il ii nial iiilrir-.| arrn--- I iriiiii lia\ iiii; annual rvlnliil inn-- al ihi- I iiiir — al \ll nf llii-
till' rnini- -iirlacr nl \liinil \\n-~ ilimi-i rr\ i ilni innai\ ( riilnrx . ilirii al tin- Betty PafsiPii-. ( .alli-iA —and tinalU hv
Ifallllr. rin~ ailliii|iali-il llir lilra nl llir "allnM-r rnni|in-i- I'H'l hr lii-Lian srlljng enough to al'loni mpiiic modest
linll a~ a -nllllinll In llir |irii|ilrlll nl IliiW to orgailizi' a ininlnrls.
|iiriinr Lii'iiriaird |i\ aiili Hiial i~l Lii'-lnriiig. As earli nl in !'»+(). i'nllnrk- lir-t lull vrar nil i.oiig i-land. hi-
I'nllnrk - |iainliTl\ I ini-h-l inkrs grew iiicreasillgK iinii[iir wnrk iindiTwi-iii anoliier diamatic ehange. Dufing tlie t'i|-st
and imliviilnalK Iniinrd. iln-v became more and iiinri- hall III ilii- year a niixtiire of gestural and totemic images
ailri|iiali- a- i i]ilarriiiiiil - Ini' (he toteinic images. Ill I''-Ki dull I i iia I I'd iii- pa lilting, as in The key [fig. 4.3]. In tiie latter
and I'M" I'nllnrk linalK aliamlniii'd imageiT and -Irnr- part 111 llir year lie aiiandoned tiie overt images entirely and
liiral -v -ii'iii- Inr an alluN n inni|>osition and a C()mi|>Ii-Ii'I\ riiiliaikrd nil the SouikIs in the Grass" series, wiiicii
i:r-.|iii'al -l\lr. In lln- ir-|irri he went even furtller than rnlmiiiated in -inli extraordinary canvases as Shimmering
Mnndiian ni Mim. wlm al\\a\- niaiiitaincd an nnilrrh iiii: Siihstdiicc fiii. -f.4 . ill the-r \\(irl:s the artist liandird llir
rniii|pn-.iiiiinal -irnrlnii-. ll i;h linih had |iaiiilril i-\i-nK

ili-|irr-ril 11 iiii|iii-ii ii Ills,
4.3 Jackson Pollock, The Key, 1 946. Oil on canvas,

I'nllnrk and KiasiHT s|ii-ni llir snimnrr nl l'>-l-4 in
4ft934in 7ftlin(1.47 2.16m).
l'ni\ iiHiinw II and in l'*-t.) llir\ wnil In I lir S|iiiiirs in |-,a->t
and Mrs. Edward Morris,
Collection, Art Institute of Chicago, through prior gift of Mr.
ila II. i.nlli: i-laml. W llrir lllrx limighl a larnillnll-r and 1987216. 'c:1994Pollock-KrasnerFoundation/ArtistsRightsSociety(ARS),New York
92
Ji
~'^'" Tr'-2:'
1 4.4 Jackson Pollock,
Shimmering Substance from the
"Sounds in the Gross series, "
1946. Oil on canvos,

30' e X 24' 4in (76.5x61 .6cm).
TheMuseumof Modern An, New York.
Mr, and Mrs. Albert Lewrn ar^d Mrs. Som
A. Lewisohn Funds. S: 1994 Pollock-
Krosner Foundotion/Artists Rights Society
(ARS), New York.
•*
I
^1
V^^-%^' -f J6rW*^l/i.' •:«
ciilin' surface as an f\cii I'icid of L'e-imal -imke^ —

The Dripped and Poured Canvases
.seiisiKnisiy applied, ricii in cciloi'. and dexuid nf an\ (i\i-ii
iiiiagen
In The key. even in rlie 1^43 . one niav read snnie
1 /««//. Pollock's drip paintings, which followed iimiiediateh after
elements as fiû-es or objects in space. S/iirnniennu Snh- the "Soiuids in the Grass" series at the end of I'Ht) or
stance has only the aciual (le[itii of the heavih scnlplnred early 194?. have still more gestural freedotn than Shininwr-
paint surface and a subtle iiin>i()n of shallow space behind iniiSithstance. In creating works like Cathedral fig. 4.1
the wo\en plane of snI^'ace texttire. The freedom of the and \iauber I fig. 4.6 Pollock laid his canvas on the floor
.
ge-stiirinj: in S/iininierinir Sub.ftance is made possible In the and Used hi.s brashes like sticks, hoveling just abo\e the
evenness of the distribution of visual activirv PollockV surface but never touching it. This permitted an easier, more
"allover" structure which avoids compositional anarchv.
. spontaneous movement of tlie ami and bodv than he could
The stress on the physical fptality of the action on the surface achieve while still ha%ing to |iress the paint on to the canvas
shows Pollock using automatist gesturing in an even more with a brush or knife, as Substance. Pollock
in Shininierittg
direct w a\ thai in îich w (irk> a> Mural. also generally made his drip paimings bigger. Tim- b\
93
Jackson roilock
woi'killff (lirrclK dii ilic Wiuiy lir \\;i-- iii)| iiiiK alilf In 11 --i- i Ic'iix i-d I I'l nil I liis din-el. iiiiros|it'(li\ » i'\|iliiialiciii in^lcad ol
irraxilv to taciliiair lii~ niiiliinl ol ii|i|iliraiinii Inn In- \\ m^ al-o Inmi llir i-\iciiial w diid.
alilc 111 \\ Miii|iii-<ili(iii-. icailiiiiv; ex CIA pan li\
alk aKiiiiiil die I liil nil i\ cK die \ir\\i-r can led die |ii(icc^-. Ii\ wliicli
liiciallx ^lc|p|inii; min du-iii rii;.-f.-") . I'lillnck made die diiji ci iin|i(iîl n iii~ and iniauinc llie si-nâ-
lii die dri|i|ied and |i(iiiicil caii\ a~e^ Piilliick cliniinaled lion lA iiKixiiii; IreeK aeiii^^ die eail\a> aluim w illi die
all -\ inlidU and îi;ii~: (iiiK die iie-l in c ilêll ii'iiiaiiied a> a ê^liires i>| |iailil. Indeed, die \ie\\er iiiii-l re-eieale die
lii\ due iiieia|ilini II li- înuined il|
, w lial w a- radiealK new
i leelini; ul dii-, |iiiiee>-. in nrder hi e\|ierieiiee die dee|ier
alioin I'dlliiek ^ a|i|ilicaliMii nl anh iiiial i^ni lie iiêd die : ineaniiiL; (il die wink. I>e<'ail-.e die |iailililii: i-^ alxiiil die
leelini(|ne lo e\|,ie^~ lalliei lliaii In e\( a\ale: lie lian^laled iiilni^|ie(li\ e cciiileril reeoideil in tliosf ilt'.stllics, Foilnek s
ilie aei nr|iaiiiliiii; iiêll inin an ad\ ell line ul -.ell'-reali/alidiL di i|i |)aiiiliiii;> (leinaiid thai tile \iower surrender intellectual
W lii-ii I'cilloik mill iiiilniann in l'*-n! I (///( naliire. 'lie ii ml nil while Ircclxi'iii] lathi/ini; witli tlie eiiei'trefic colnr aixl
llleani llial m llilll die ceiilial >ll|i|ei I niallia <i| |iailililit; innxemelil. ()lie '^liiiilld linl liidk for. I'lillnck e\|ilailled.
4.5 Jackson Pollock at

work, 1950.
Phologtoph by Hans Namulh c. Estate of
Hans Nomulh/VAGA, New York, 1994.
94
Existentialism Comes to the Fore V
"1)111 liiok [ia----i\i'i) — and try in receive wliai the jiaiiitiii;.' Iia-
4.6 Jackson Pollock, Number !, 1948, 1948. Oil and enamel on
'"
to offer. This state of w ilMnp sii>peiisioii of control i^ ilie unpnmed canvas, 5ft 8in >- 8ft 8in (1 .73 ' 2.64m).
only [io---il)le point of emharkaiion to the awe-inspirinu The Museum o( ModernArt, New York. Purchase c 1994 PoHock-Krosner Foundolion/Artisis
eniiiiiipii- w hicli the painter was recordintr.
A> iiini]iosiiions. each of Pollock'> dri]) pictnre.^ sininha-
neoiisly dissolves into a chaotic junilile of individual line-.
while also coining together as a strnctnrallv uniform, whole The collapse of rime into the present is a central issue in
field. They have no "coiTect" viewing position as do moflernism: the past e.xists oidy in its real bearing on the
Renaissance paintings: indeed the viewer must move aero-.-. |)resent. Thus for many of Pollock's contemporaries the
them. They draw their audience in to inspect the detail- writings of .faines Joyce provided a paradigm in the wav
passage hy |)assage. and at the same time o\ erw helm
closely, .|ii\ce subverted sec[uential or historical time. Looking back.
the viewer with their huge size [figs. 4."^ and -t.o Their . ilic\iw \ork School painter .lames Brooks remarked that
coloristic and te.\tin-al richness emphasize? the e.\pan-i\e loyie '...influenced me more than any painter ... Jovce
siu-f'ace. yet the elaborate and totally visible overla\ of had a non-naiTative snle. \^liat vou were reading was right
multiple layers of paint and sand, cigarette butts, glas-. and there. \ou re not waiting for something to come. "' Ibram
other materials creates a veiT real depth and space. Lassaw. asculptor of the New York School, added: "It occurs
I he transparency of the [)roces> — the wav in which ihe to me about .lames .lovce. there is this overall feeling in
\ iewer can so leadiK reconstriicl llie act of creation — i;i\es .|o\(i- wcnk. '"
as there is in Pollocks painting. Pollock
the drip ]painlings an e.\lraordinar\ innnediac\ . Ihi- high- him-flf confirmed the deliberateness of thi- characteristic in
lighl? the present as the f'i.xed reference point in the painting, l').^n w hen he commented on "a rexnewer a while back who
and that em. iliasis is one of the hallmarks of moderni-m. The wrote thai mv pictures didn't have anv beginning or an vend.
'"
brilliance of I - Inliillment in ihese picture- acidinil- in pari 1 lr diiln I mean it as a compliment, but it wa-.
for why so ma ly of Pollock- contemporarie- -aw ilir drip Kandinsky pioneered the disintegration of
In painting.
paintings a.s an an historical watershed. narrative time, and his work must have encouraged Pollock
The painters 'the New York School were
( e.xcepiionalK 111 paint in a manner that seems to swallow up the viewer.
conscious of wantii;,' to carr\ on the leiiacv of moderni-m. iili\ -icalK and temiiorallv. To Pollocks generation.
95
Jackscii oiipck
^•5-^^^
,.«./ /--^
c-if
••»'''-<^
'
^h
jC,
«
.'"'s,
^^
^ '^:^
"-
.>?^:P
^^mmM--- r . ,dj&,-?Hi f:^ ^y;^%;^-^'^?^:H'-^-
4.7 (above) Jackson

Pollock, Number 27, 1950.
Oil on canvas,
4ft Im 8ft 10m
(1.24^ 2.69m).
Collection, Whitney Museum of
American Art, New York. Purchose.
Pfiotograph by GeoHrey Clements,
New York. 'Ci 1 994 Pollock-Krosner
Foundction/Artists Rights Society
(ARS), New York.
4.8 Jackson Pollock,

detallof Number 27, 1950.
Ki 1994 Pollock-Krosner
Foundotion/Artists Rights Society
(ARS), New York.
96
Kamliiiskv's work stood for spontaneity and s|iiriinal idii- how III lie {lie ami imrepeiilix c each of ihe-e coiMposilioii- i-.
i<nt in ahstiact an. In May \'^-i'-^ Pollock worked a>a jaiiiioi Ill Ills cs-aN 1 he \iiierican Action Paiiilei-. wniiiiiiii
in liie Museum of Non-01>jecii\f Faintin;:. wliicli lia<l ilu- P'l^. 1 larold RoseiibeiL' |iin\ided ihr d<'liiiili\ c dc-cnpliuii
worlds greatest eolleetion of Kandinsky jiaiinings. and lie of Pollocks posiiioii:

nndoiilnediv >aw the mnseinn's l*>-t") Kandinsky nieniorial
1/ (/ certain moment the canvas began to appear to one
exiiiliition. In addition to disiilayint; some 200 Kandin>ky>
painter after another as an arena in which to
\ineric<ai
in tile show, the mnseum puhlished translalion- ol iii-
act — rather than a space in which to reproduce, redesign.
im|)onant wriiintrs. iiiclii<liim the 7'e.il Artisla wiiiili I'ol-
(UKihze. or "e.tfiress" an ob/ect. actual or imagined. Jlfial
loek owned and his theoretieal ireati-e. ('oiiccniiiiu ihf
iras to Lio on I he aainis ivas not a picture but an ercnl . . .
S/>intii(il ill All.

II fiat matters always is the revelation contained in the ail . .
In one pa.--sa<:e of the Te.vl \iiislii Kaiidiii-'kx wmte

1 /xanlingllial is an act is inseparalilcfniin I he hiognijiliy of
aliout learninji. "not to look at a picture only Imm ilir
llicia-lisl.--
oiil--ide. hul to 'emer" it. to move aionnd in il. and iiiiiii;le
w illi il-.\er\ life.""'" Pollock may lia\e had ilii- pa-'-aL;e in ilu- .Iii-l a- llii- aiioiiiii is Iica\il\ iiil'liieiiciMl b\ exisii'iilialisiii.
hack of hi- mind — along with the \ali\c Vinerican -and P.illiick's riiipha-is nil the uniiremeditated acl of |paiiiliiii;
painier — when he talked about hi- m-w |iaiiiiiiii; prm f--.. deii\cs ai lea-i in pan from the existenliali-i idi-a ol
in 1"-+"; affirming being iliiougli action to "realize "

one s condilion.
as ii in Being and '\othingnes.s-'
Sarire phrased 1 he .
On tlic floor I am more at case. Ijcel ncdifr. nunc a pari oj

examines him or herself in the language ol
•action |)aimer'
the /lainting. since this urn- can walk around it. irork jnnii
1
paint. When an inteniewer asked Pollock in l^KM. "Then,
all four sides and literally be in the paiutiug. This is akin hi
von don aciuallv have a preconceived image of a canxas in
1
sand painters ofthe II est. I continue to ^ret further

the Indian
vourmindi' he answered. "\^ ell. not exactly — no — because
ainivfrom the usual painter's tools such as easel, palette,
it I do ha\ e a m-neral notion
hasn't been created, yon see ...
hriishes. etc. I prefer sticks, trowels, knives, and drijipinii -''
of what I'm about and what the results will be.
fluid paint or a heavy impasto with sand, broken 'Jass and
Pollni'k'- work ex]ioses directh'. in tlic prnci-s- ol
other foreign matter added. U hen I am in my /iiiinlini:. I'm
paiiiliiii;. the cliaiiiîng facts of hi- crealixe rxpriinicr. lie
not aware of what I'm doing. "ad
It is onlyajtcr a sort oJ
acquainted'' period that I .see what I have been about the . . .
painting has a life of its oiin. I try to let it come through.'^
The geiiiii- of Pollock s dri]) -ivle is not of coiir-e a technical 4.9 Jackson Pollock, Echo (Number 25, 195?), 1951. Enamel on
discover\. nor is it reducil)le to its sources; Siqueiros. unprimed canvas, 7ft 7^8 x 7ft 2in (2.33 x 2.18m).
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Acquired Ihrough the Lillie P. Bliss Bequest and Ihe Mr.
Hohiiaim. and even Pollock himself had exj)erimented with and Mrs, David Rockefeller Fund. © 1 994 Pollock-Krosner Foundotion/Arfisls Rights Society
the techni([ue in the earlv forties or before. The loose, (ARS), New York
coniiimous flrawing techniques of the surrealists often
\ielded networks of lines that resembled the com])lexirs- of
Pollock's poured and dripped paint surfaces too. As early as
the middle twenties the surrealists experimented with pom-
iiii.' and spatteriim paint, and Pollock certainly knew ilie-c
works. But Pollock onlv started iisins the technique rei:u-
larlv when it became relevant for ex])loriiig the imjilicatioiis

of Mural and certain other works of ihe middle forties.
One of the remarkable aspects of the ririp picnires i- ilic
iinerrinir control that Pollock maintained o\er the gestural
marks, the color, and the overall visual e\enness of tiie field
using this freer techniijue of application. It seems that having
l)livsicallv to a|)plv the paint to the canvas in Pollock s earlier
work aciiiallv obstructed the continniiy of the gestures: b\

contrast, dripping and j)ouring gave the artist more comrol.
not less, hi this sense the new technique offered a greater
accin-acv of rendering.
Despite the iniiialK anarchic appearance ol ilu- (hip
jiiciures. Pollock built up the lush, colored siiita(c- ixra-
duallv. gi\'ing eveiy line and spot a unitjue characn-r. lull ol
ex])ression. As earlv as lQ4.'i each of Pollock's jiaintings is
remarkablv complete in itself and disiinci from the others, in
\iew of the teclini(jtie. particularly after l'l4(). it i- -irikiiii;

97
Jackson Pollock
Ilall-lcillllril till- i>liliLfalinll \n\- -oi iai ri-|i-\ ;illii-. ;i |iiT\a-i\f

4.10 Jackson Pollock, 8/ue Poles, Number ? ?, 1952. Oil, enamel
rmrcnl l)i'nvffii llif wai>>. into an unicliMilinii nuiial runi- and aluminum paint, gloss on canvas, 6ft 10^ sin ^ 15ft 11^ sin
"self. The multiple impresîon-
niitment to a search fertile (2.11 X 4.87m).
Colleclion, Notionol Gallery o( AustroNa, Conberro. «: 1994 Pollock-Krosner
of the aitist hand in the upper right comer oi .\uniher
s ovnn
Foundolion/Artists Rights Society (ARS], New York.
I stress the ^^sceral immediacv of the artist s personal
presence and. bv contrast, emphasize the vastness of the

canvas as measured against them. .\ number of painters of
the New York School used handprints in this way [fig. 3.'18j ,lackôll l\)llock the Grfate>t Li\ iiig Painter in the L nited
Perhaps Pollock took some cues from jazz. According to States?' "° and in 19.5() the ])hotographer Hans Xaimith
I .ee Krasner he thought jazz "was the only other really made a short film of Pollock working.
"'
creatiye thing happening in thi> iiiunti-\ . Like the be-linji Pollock's drip pictures of 19-50. like \iii/ilicr 27 [figs.
iin])royisations of Dizzy Gillespie or ( iiarlie Parker. \\\f 4.~ and 4.8 . are less probative, larger, ami more elegiac,
st\le of each of Pollocks drip was inyented in ihr
picttires riiev tend to have a more open weave of lines and seem more
process of painting. \^liat he was tiying to convey pic- contained within themselves as they reach the outer edges of
ceded the ability to do so. By visibly recording the historv By contrast, the denser works of 1949 coiuinue
the canvas.
of their oîi making, the drif) ])aintings render fonn and at same level of intensir\- edge to edge. The most
the
content inseparable. monumental works of 19.50 also have a soft, diffuse light,
194? Pegg\- Guggenheini closed her gallen and
hi like the late paintings of Monet. These large compositions
reiiuTied to Europe. Betty Parsons agreed to take
on Pollock re]iresent at once a summation of this phase of Piillock's
in her galleiy. although she could not afford the monthly development and a creative dead end.
stipend that Guggenheim had been [laving. The latter hi late 19.50 Pollock suddenly started drinking again,
continued that herself for a short time until Pollock's sales and his creative momentum took a shaip tuni ttward jjurely
liecame sufficiently buoyant to make him a meager living. l)lack-and-white pictures, many with figures or totemic
He premiered iiis drip pictures in his first BettA" Parsons images, as in Echo (Number 25. 1951; [fig. 4.9] . He did a few
e.xliibition of January 1'548. They were widely ridiculed and diip pictmes. too. but his producti\it\' trailed off and he
continued to be imtil his death, even though the recogniiion seemed abniptlv to have lost confidence in the direction of
ol his genin- \\ illiin ihi- ail \\ nrld i:rew ra|iidK . his development. Several of the paintings from 1951 to 1953
are of a majestically high c[ualit\-. such as Echo and Bhte
still
Pollock in the Fifties Poles,Aiimber 11 [fig. 4. 10]. but they also have a more
anxious and gi'oping feel: some works of these years seem
Willi the heljj of a local physician. Pollock stayed |ilainly faltering.
c 1 iinpletely away from 1948 and 19-50.
alcohol between hi Blue Poles Pollock introduced the cadence of strong
and the work of these years is calmer and freer. He got blue diagonals (painted against the edge of a two-by-four as )
national attention in the press after 1948. even if it was often if he were seeking some stabilir\\ h niav also imply a
nn-vniiiatlieric: in lf'4'> L;/e even ran an article eiuitled. "Is vearnino; to return to the security of his roots, since the idea
98
Existentialism Conies to the Fore
hail -top|ieil painling eiitirelv ami. on die nighl ol \ni.'ii-t

4.11 Jackson Pollock, Portrait and Dream, 1953.
Collection, Dollos Museum of Art, c 1 994 Pollock-Krosner Foundation/Artisls Righls Society lOlli. Ill- ilroM' In- car oil the inad near hi- home in llie
;ARS), New York. Springs, killing him-ell and one ol the two \iiimg w inneii he
had with him.
of the pole.s re.seinl)les the rompositioiial ili'\ iif rliat Bt'iitmi Pollock s legacx In --111 i-ei |iieiil arli-l- i- prolomitl hill
laiitrlit Pollock ill the early 1930s aiitl llial Ptilltitk use,! in ollen not readih \isilile. Mi- drip -i\le diil mil inspire
l"-f.5 I'lir \liinil ihougli Benton meant for îk li |Mile^ lo he imitators pieciseK liecaii-e was >o -trikingK iinii|iie;
il
h\ |iiilheliiai. not \ i--ihle , whereas the gestural painieis nf the fifties could ii\ oiii die
>iioM alter Blue Poles Polloek made the exlremeK autographic bnishwcirk of de Kooning. Kline, and (.ii-ion
ililTereni I'orlniil diul a Dream [fig. 4.1 1 . which reinnieil in without necessarily producing a baldly deiivaii\i' work no
>|)irii to hi~ |ioiiit of (lepafmre in tiie eaiK Imtie-. — hini-.eit one could paint a driji composition thai did not look like a
the |iorli'ait. |iainteil in ciiltu- aiitl inuiMe-- ti'oill the weak Pollock. Net Pollock - radical reorientation of time in
INK iin^cioii- the ilieain. in black ami white . But rather painting — hi- concentration on the instant at which the
than liaxiiii; the --[lace brillllllillg o\i-r with a nnriaci ot |iaiiii hit ilif canvas, purging references to pa-i lime or
iMiciin-cioii- imaiie-.. the image here i-. xiiiiarx — one i.solated previous |iainting— was the central inspiration for iln- im-
liiirri. \e\l Politick iliil a lew ileiiê. intricately tangled mediacy in the gestural painting of the fifties as well a- in die
|iainling^ like Sccnl. (innid l!<iinli<iir. and ll/ii/r Ltiiht. ha]ipenings" that began at the end of the decadi-. Ihc
w liicli more cIom'K lo lii^ Î\ le oI 'I-Ki. allliongh lhe\
iflale I directiiiv-- wilh which die malerial- are ex]ire--ed in die
liaxe a hrtiiiiling darkiie-.^ that i- new . minimal ami |iiiiie-- ail ol ihi' -ixlie- i- al-o indelilcil in
hi ]''.")4 and I'l.').') Pt illnck'- lamling neaiK gnu mil lo a |
Pollock, a- i- ihc deiachiiieiil Ir hi-lorical liiiir and
hall a- In- ilrinkinu gol hea\ ier and his t|e|ires>ion dee|ier. ex|)eiieiice ill the work of .la-pcr .loliii- ami of the pup arli-l-.
Ihf |inlilic -till jtikeil ahtiiit hi- wtirk: In l').")() Time e\eii though they rejectetl Pollock s vehenieiit assertion ol
maga/ine called him "Jack the Dripper. " By this time he romantic indi\ idiialitx
Barnett Newman
If. in modem art. is the resiill nl an aili-l - fllnil lo find in an oli|fii. N ei. a- Richard ^hill ha- pninleil mii. hi- ail i-
Sl\
a -iiccessfiil. visual etnbodiinent nflii- or hri ihiiiking. Bin bv no iiiean- nnii-obifiii\ e in the ii-iial -eii-e: rathi'r it i- an
whereas de Kooning and Pollock workid onl llnii idia- on attempt to distill and iinixcrsalize individual ex])erieiice of
die surface of the canvas. Bamett Newman ihniiuhl cmix - the most [irofomid and pei-onal kind."" In particular New-
ihing through in ad\ance. His jiaimiiii; I nrilioni- ilif \ iewer man- |iaiiitiiig ha- lo dn wiili the notion of the sublime,
with such an uncompromisingh iiieiapli\ -ical idea dial hi- which he conira-led wiili wliai he called "the Greek |ilastic
work -(ill leaves many seasoned art view II- biw ildered. achievement,'"' iianieK iIh' cniicepi nf the bcaiililnl. 1 he
Newman was a highly articulate inlflli-cliial. w ho louglil -ubiinie comes ihiongh die direct intihtioii ol iim\i-i'-al
again-l aii\ kind of ai li-tic -iibjecl mat Ier dial wa- lied dow n ex|)erieiice: il cnii-i-l- of pi in- -piriliiality. Newman \ icw id
99
Barnett Newman
tlif (.ift-k at'silietic as expressing llie personal ami cl(|iinil- Newman wanted to distingni-ii liini-iH and hi- friends from
inji on till' i)li\ sical l)eaiify of the object. ihi- other t:\"]jes of abstract inn dun |Mi\alrm: im the one
CasparDavid Friedri'ch's painting (.f 18()<>-1(). \l,,nkhy hand from thai which was predominantly formal rather than
the Seashnrt' fig.4.12 . is an eaiK fonnnlainiri n\ whal i- cinanating from conleiil this seemed to him a form of trivial
incaiit i)\ a -iililimi- -.mIiJccI in painlini;. hi I i irdricli - drcoralion : and on the ntlii-r hand from ab-lraclion like
pii'lufc a man. ^ci-ri liimi llir liack. Iimk- unl al die Mondrian >. wiiicli. aldiiiuîi -ii'i'|pcd in mela|)hvsics.
incoinprflifn>ilili- \a-ini-.> dl ilir ^ra and >k\ al nigln. lie I seemed to Newiiian too impersonal and L topian.
-mall si'ale of tin- man >iv uric ma\ imagine oneself: against NewTnan saw^ the aitist as a revolutionaiv in -i-arcii ol
liie endless -.pace ul iln- liiaMii- and the sea ('M)ki'- a imiver-al truths, discovered by way of the personal anci
lii'eathtaking apprelirn-mn d ilu- inlinite. a sense ol lo-mic inmifiliatf. In addition he regarded the search as heroic in
lioundlessness. and i)\ conlia^l a profomid reali/ation of ilie manner of ( ireek tragedy, even though he did not want to
ones own and mortality.
insignificance I
Ml icluce w orks that had an^lhing to do with classical form or
Newman sought a more direct emhodiment of die beauty. He wrote:
experience of the snhlinie. appropriate to the mifldle of tlie
twentieth centuiy. and this cp.iest preoccn])ied him throngli- The (/iicstion that now arises is how. if we are living in a time
oui I lie foities. He expressed this concent first in writings without a legend or a mvthos that can be called sublime, if
such as his essay for the catalog of "The Ideographic Picnire" ire refuse to admit anye.valtation pure relations, ifu-e
in
exliibition !l947i which he organized at the Betty PaiMm^ nfiise to live in the abstract, how can we be creating a
Galleiy: in the show he included works bv Hans Hofinann. sublime arty H e are reasserting man 's natural desire for the
Clyfford Still. Theodoros Stanios. Ad Reinhardt. Mark e.valted. fora concern witli our relationships to the absolute
Rotliko. and himself. An ideograph is a written s\^nbol that emotions. We do not need the obsolete props of an outmoded
communicates an idea directly, rather than through lan- (uid antiquated legend Ji e are freeing ourselves of the
. . .
guage or through the mediation of any symbolic form. impediments ofmemon: association, nostalgia, legend.
hi his essay Newman wTote of seeking a modern myth, or irfiat have you. that have been the devices of
equivalent to piimitive" which the abstract shape Uislerii Ijinipean jiaiiiting. Instead of making cathedvals
art. in
"
itself is
(lilt iij ( lirist. tiKtii. nr "life. ire are making thetn out of
iiiirsclvrs. out of our oirnjeelings. The image we produce is
a living thing, a vehicle for an abstract tlionght-coinple.v. a the self-evident one of revelation, real and concrete, that can
carrier of the awesomefeelings that he [the Kwakiuti hidiaiij be understood by anyone who will look at it without the
felt before the terror of the unknowable. The abstract shape nostalgic glasses of fiistorw'^'
iras. therefore, real rather than a fonnal "abstraction" of a
visualfact with its overtone of an already known nature. Xor Newman was bom in 190.5 in New York Cirs. wliere lie
was it a purist illusion with its overload ofp.seiido-scientific attended public school and Hebrew school: at home he
Intths.^" received a substantial education in religion,- philo-o|)li\ from
4.12 Caspar David Friedrich,

tv\onk by the Seashore, 1 09-10.
Oil on canvas, 3ft 7' jin 5ft7'2in
(1.1 X 1.72m).
Collection, Stoolhche Museum zu
Preussischer Kullurbesilz, Notionc
Photograph by Jorg P. Anders, Be
100
a steady siieani ot Jewisli inimiiiraiit> tli.ii lii- l:iiliri hdii-ril ilid iidl jdciis nil ps\ clioio^rical inlrdspeclion: lallier he
oil arrival IVi>in i".iin>pp. Xewniaii al\\a\^ waiiiid in he an Iddkeil Id cdsuiic lliemes. as his iiili-s indirale. In l''-Hi. Idi
arlisl. 1 It' (lisctnered the Melroi)olitaii Mummiiii a-- a liiiiai:ii example, lie iiseij such l il li-s as /'r/ni/;/ liiid. I llf liciiUllllll'Ji-
and look cla.-sesat the Art Students Leaiiiie in \u~ la^l \iai ul riir ( niiiiiKiiKl. Tin' Ijnhi/iiin I/m.v.v. 'lln'Sliiyin'/ofOslris.
hiilh sehool and while attending' ( it\ ( ii||,-i;i'. Iinrii w liii li In- and /'//(' lilissiiii:- e\ dk ini: I hemes nl i I'liiri II lidin I lie chaos.
L'radiialed in 1*^)27. He iliiii ai;iri(l id wnik Im \\\n mmi^ ( .eiiesis, anil eMilnlidii. In an essa\ iif llii- pel idil I'M.!-.")
in his t'alher's nienV wi'ar niaimlaclnnnL: lui-iric^^ in llir called 111,- I'lasmiclma-e New mall e\plaine, I
hone of âviim some nione\ to hi'l|i hini lliicmLih a carcci

\/l iiiiis/s. iilicllicr iininiliif or .«>ii/iislii ii/cd. Iinir liccii
a> a |>ainter.
initilrcd III I III' Iiiiik/Iui'j: of rliaiis. I7ir /iiiiiilcr nf I lie iirir
The li)2i> Mork-nunl.M la-h , dcrailr,! ihi. |.lan. and ihr
niiirriiiflil \
i.e. (ailllieb. Bdllikd. I'lilldck and llinisell' , , , is
tliirtie> were hieak toi- \.-\\ man. I \r laiiiihi an ni Invih ^cIumiI.
//icii/(ii<- nil/ rniirriiiril irilli i^cniiii/nc liirnis \
ler se liiil in
wliile roiuiiuiiiii; lo work loi hi^ lailii-r nnlil l''-!~. I nlikc
( ii-iiliii'j Inriiis I r I mil In tluir ulislrncl iiiilnrr (iiir\- smiu'
nio^l (li'ln-- irllow aili-l- Nrw man w a- m il nn ihr Irdrial All
iilislniil iii/fllciliiiil I I III I I'll/. I lull' IS nil nllciiijil hriiiix
i'riijcii: \\<- c(Uil(l no! Iia\r |irodn(i-d ihc rr(|iii-.ili' amniinl ol
iiiiiilf III nssiij:ii n Siiimilis/ r.t/iliiiiiilinii hi llir iisr llicse
work at that time, and in addition he earned enoui;h inconn'
/Kiin/crs iiiiikf nf nhsliiiil liiniis . . . lint >iirrriilisiii is
a> a teacher to make him ineligihie. As a result NevMiian lill
iii/ircslfil III II ilnniii imrlil llinl irill /i<-nc/ni/r llir liiiiiiiiii
Il It inn. |iarlienlarlv year> later w lien --o many |ieo|)le looked
/is\(lic. Ill iIkiI f.vlfiil II IS II iiiiiiiihiiir r.iiiri'ssiiiii . . . I'lie
hack ai lia\ing worked on ilir |)rnicci a^ a mark of serious
/irrscnl /iniiiliT IS rniiirrnt'il. mil iiilli Ins nirn Iccliinjs iir
|iaitici|iation in the arii>tic ilevelopments of that era. In
irilli llic iinslrr\ III Ins iiirn /irisiinnlilw hiil irilli llic
l''.'5() Newman married a yomii.' teacher named Annalee
/ii'miniliiiii mill llir irnrlil iiivslcrv. His inimjîmilinn is
(Greenhouse, who stuck l)v him (le\otedl\ . dcfcndini; hi- ait
To
llirn liiif iilli-iii/ilniLi In i/iii nito nictd/ilnsiiiil srcnis.
and encouragiiii: him to persevere
llinl r.iirnl Ins ml is iiimvnteil iritll tlif siihlinic. Il is ii
.MthotiKh deepiv reflective. Niwinan was also coloilnl

rclmiiins mi irliirli lliniiiLili syiiilinls irill iiilrli llic liiisir
and affahle. The liattles in wlii( li In- Inxently engaged, in
Iriilli III lifi' irliirli is ils srnsr <;/ Iriiî'ily. . . llir iirlisl Irirs lo
"li-iici> to die editor" or verbalK w itii Irllow artists, like his
irrrsi Irnlli Ironi llir roiil."
decision lo run for mayor of New ôlk in 10.'i3. sometimes
wcni lo comic e.xtremes in their \eliemence and sincerilv . In
his niavoral platfonn. for examjile. he insisicd: r iiiiisi

\\
The Revelation of Newman's Onement I
sjiread ctilfnre through society-. Only a sociei\ cniircK
composed of artists would be really wortli living in. Ihai is
our aim. w liicli is not dictated bv e.xpediency. " I finally lonnd a \isnal expressidn for these ideas thai
\cw man made little progress as a paiiilcr in llic lliirfics lookefl right' in him. and this painting estalilished die
and Ironi the end of the decade until die mid luriii-s he direction for the lesi ol' New nan's i lareer. He repoiled dial
stopped painting altogether. He could iioi finil a saiislacioix he had lieiinn die can\as as a liackgroimd for aiiiiihei
|)lace to begin in existing stvles of |)aiiitiiig \iw man and his |iaintiiig. but thai il sal unfinished in his studio for about
friends generallv admired the sjiirit of snircalism. Inn ilic\ three cpiarters of a \eai— through the fall of 1048. He kejit
felt that one could not deal with an unconscious content and finding himself looking at it. wondering why it moved him so
universal siilijects in an antifjiiated illusionist style. Dada deepiv and felt so resonant with his state of mind. But lie
objects, although more radical in style, seemed to Newman jiuzzled ON'er this picime for months, tiyiiig to assess its
to be too quickly consumed as prrciniis iii>iccis ol fu'lil significance. Newman leferred to the line slraiglit down llie
bottrticois taste. He did not want in make somelliing llial a middle of (hirninil I as die •ziji
"
Ihe sniiclnral symmiiry
collector could ac(|iiiie as an iilijeci wiilioni engaging its of the zip III ( hiriiirni I w ipes nut die problem ol composi-
content. So he wrote about ail and enroinaged his hiends in tion. B\ dills reducing the ciiiii]iosiliiin to zero Newman
their endeavors until he could figure out Imw in proceed with killed the pieciousiiess of die |iaiiitiiig as an art object and
iiis own painting. forced the \icwer to ap|irelieiid die work more siriciK in
Between W-W ami l''4l Newman piiisni-d a linii:- teniis of ideas. Thus OnriiirnI I ]iio\iileil a lirillianl \ isual
standing interest bolanx and oinitliol-

in science. siiid\ing analog for certain of Newman s key ideas, and he eiiiplnxed
ogy. in |)articiilar. he wanted to know about the beginnings die zip (though mnsl often inn in the middle in a Inn isi all his
of life — itow it emerged and liow its oifleis <le\elo]ied. lie siibsei|ueiit painlings.
was always looking for an analog to the genesis dl ilioiiglii Ilie lille word Onemenr has a number ol impiniain
and the e\olution of the human mind. In some wa\s ihis meanings. I( is a com|iiinenl of "atonement.' an impinlani
provided ihe philosophical basis for his successful iesimi|)- coiice|it for lews, which thev mark during Yom Kippin I lie
tioii of pail ling. In the mid forties Newman recoiiimemed (âbbalists regard this holy <lay as a time to reflect on the
[lainiing witl: works that derived from stirrealisi aiiidiiiaiism my steiT of creation. Spiim/a. die jihilosopher whose writings
and hee asso> 'ation. like the coiitemporar\ works dt liis Newinan studied along w illi the texts of the Cabbala, ranked
friend Rdthko [l. .4.241. But unlike die suiiealisls. .Newman knnwIedLie inln lliree lexels: (Il data and rules learned
101
Bametl Newman
penasive tidiness. Newnum's interest in Jewish mysticism

iiiiglii •(•(111 al odds with his scientific and intellectual side.
Iiiii Newnum used the science— as he used philosophy — to
1
1|
nil another jioini of access into the mysteries of creation.
Once New man began thinking in ihest- terms. llic
existing sl\lc^ nl |iaiiiling seemed anacliridii^lic. Siincal-
i-iii - ilhiîdiiiîic iciiilcrini.' was preimpic----iiiiii^l. and its
I'oiilciil \\a~ mure ol an iiiiagiiiarx' ficlinri than die (ixci-
powering i'ealil\ tor which Newnian searciu-d. iibiîii (
seemetl to him a stylization of people and thing- in ihc mud-

cin world: this did not offer the |iossiliilii\ ot such ( (niteiil
cillicr. He was left with oiilv one ojitioii: to nndcrlake an

act of origination, starting from scratch, like (.enesis itself.
Onement I s\inbolizes Genesis. It is an act of creation
and of division, .\ewman s zip down the middle evokes Gods
separation of light and flarkness. a line drawni in the void.
Like the Old TestameiU God. the artist starts with chaos.
w idi ilic \ dill: Xewinan begins with blank color— no texture.
11(1 liiini. no ileiails. The zip is a primal act.
liic coldi- in Onement I also symbolize (Genesis. The
ifd-lirowii field of the backgrotind is the color of earth.
Adam is man
created by God. and the Hebrew word for
the
earth is So .\dam is made from the earth, from clay.
aclania/i.
In addition humans are the only animals that walk upright:
Ilie \ertical gesture down the middle of the canvas stands for
liiiinankind. whose first incarnation is Adam. The sensuous

cilgcs (if the painter's gesture give it an individual and
liuniaii iliaracTer in contrast to the impersonal and limitless
field of color. The zip resembles Giacometti's figures, which
(lc>pite their heavilv modelled surfaces are so thin as to be
fragile, fleeting moments in existence [figs..5.1.5— -5. 17j. and
Giacometti was exhibiting his postwar figural work in New
York for the first time in Februaiy 1948. just when Newman
was jiainting Onement /.
"Onement also carries a reference to E\ e. The Talnuid
savs: "h is onlv when he is complete that man is called "one.'
. . . When male together with female, as is highly

he is
4.1 3 Barnett Newman, Onemenf, /, 1 948. Oil on canvas,
2/1
sanctifiefl. and zealous for sanctification. So "onement "''"'
-. 16'4in(69.2-. 41.3cm).
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of Annolee Newman. Reproduced courtesy of has its roots in the Cabbala and in Talmudic literature,
Annolee Newnnon in so for as fier rights ore concerned. which belong to Newnnan's background. "Onement is the '
Genetii' moment: it is Adam and Eve conjoined: it celebrates

human creativity-, especially that of the artist.
wntliout am reference to the intellect; 2 things learned hy hi October 1948 Newman painted a second version of
deduction or logic: and 3 the highest order of knowledge the painting. In Onement I he painted the zip over a strip of
immediate knowledge, using reason, but obtained through a tape: this time he painted over tape then peeled it off to leave
direct intuition to the essence of things, an insight that went a clean-edged, umnodelled zip down the middle. This switch
bevond reason. This last level resembled what \e^MJân from the soft zip to the hard, unmodulated one recurs for the
called "the sublime. next two or three vears in maîy pairs of paintings and has a
Newinan was after an epiphany, a simuhaiieouslv female— male coinplementarity. Newman painted seven
teiTifving and exalting moment of total reality. For him. as "Onement ' pictures over half a decade. The fact that the zip
for Spinoza, this came from a oneness with God. .Spinoza is centered is their cnicial trademark. This s\mmetiy stands
looked at man as an extension of the "all of Gofl. who is for perfection in man's oneness with the all of God. \et eveiy
omnipresent. But he saw God as always growing and the dejiiction of unique. Even where the zip does not bisect
it is
layers of meaning as infinite. Newman tried to paint the the [ticture plane, it is placed in some modular relation to the
fullness of this experience, not the void. The solid color perfection of the center, thereby enhancing the \isual tension
fields, in Onciiiciit I and -iiip-iiiniiit pictines. are this lit the zip as well as its meaning.
102
The Paintings of the Late Forties

AlliT (hwrnc/it II Newman slartcd |iaiiiiinL: imililic all\
aiiain. making works like dalaxv tiu-tl-t . wliirli lia~
iwo asvninietrii- zips, playing from ilu- on the clevialioii
middle as an expressive gestnre in relaiion lo icnreiedne"--.

Allluuii;ii Newman used a mathematical raliu in placing the
/i|). the wdik has an important afiniilx \\ iili aciioii painiiim

in that it aspires to an experienre of immediacy and
presence, despite its carefullv premeditated structure. I lie
increasing scale of .NevMiian's paintings from 1949 also

echoes the ambition of the content in his work. Be I. toi-
example, is 8 feet tall.
.VII of the paimer> of ihe New \ oik >i liool w ere moving
toward a larger -cale at this time. As Holx-rl Motiierwell -aid.
the larye fornuit. at one blow, destroyeil the eentuiy hjiisi:
tendency of the Freneh to domestirize modern painting, to

make it intimate. If e replaced the nude girl and the French
door irith a modern Stonelienge. irith a sen.se of the sublime
and the tragic . . . One of the great images [of New \ oik
School painting should be the house-painter's brush, in the
employ ofa grand rision dominated by an ethical sensdjdity
""'
that nuikes the usual paititer's brush indeed picayniw.
4.14 Barnett Newman, Galaxy, 1949. Oil on canvas, 24 x 20in

(61 51cml.
Collection, Eslee Louder, Inc., New York, Reproduced courtesy of Annolee Newman m so fc
OS her rights ore concerned.
4.15 (above) Barnett Newman, Abrohom, 1949. Oil on can

82^Jx34V2in (210.2 87.6cm).
The Museum of Moderi\Ar1, New York. Philip Johnson Fund. Reproduced cou rtesy of Annole
Newmon in so (or OS her rights ore concerned.
103
Barnc an
Looking bark to tlie late forties across the rlistanre of rweiity -.viiinieii\ . placiui: ilic' right edge of the >iripi' on the center-
vears. NewTiian spoke of the elliical motives iinrlerlyiiiL' tlie line (if die carixa^. lie (li\i<l(il llir wliulc composition
railiial iiiiiii\ aliiiti-- of llie |i:iiiilcT- in lii- rinle: niallii'nialicalK ô ilia I I In- w idlli (il llie -.liipe was half the
widlli (il die li-ti-haiiil -((liiiii. ill a J:!:-'^ proportion.
I ircnl\' \i-(irs (t>jii iir fcl! llif iininil crisis aj n inir/d in
Newman^ ^kricli \'ni ^n<li a paiiiliiiL; wmild have been a
s/i(inihh's. (I inirlil ilrnisldliil hy <i lirciil (Icpnssiiiii mnl (i
--Clap of paper wiili calciilal ion^ Im die iiiiiiierical propor-
fierce II orld II iir. iitiil il ir<is iiii/iussihle iit llnil tunc l<i /mini
lioM^ ill' ilii' ilisiîoii^. Newman made a lew drawings that
the kind nfpiiintinii lli'il ire irere doing—Jhiircrs. rccliiiitiii
êeiii 111 re la e In Onciiiciil
I /and draw iiig of 1
9-ft) related
nudes, and people phi} iiiiS the cello [the siihjecl-- of surli
111 \i liillis. w liich he painted three \t'ars later. ()therwi--e lie
inodeni painters a> ( ('/amn'. Picasso, anil Malisê . At the
did nil draw iiiL'-' for paintings between 1947and 1959.
siinie time we could not iimrc into the sitiuition of a pure
irorld of unorganized shapes andJor/iis. or cuhir relations, a
iiorld of sensation. And I ironld say that, for smiic nj iis. this Heroicus Sublimis and Other Works of
y\r
was our moral crisis in relatnin tn irliat to pi nut. So that ire
actitalh- began, so tn s/icak. froiii scratch, as ij painting irere the Fifties
not only dead hill had ncrer e.visted.^"
1950 Newman moved to a larger studio on Wall Street
In
.Newman had his first one-man show at tlie Betty Parson-. and lieg:iii to jiaiiil even bigger |iiciiire--. But the move as
Callers in earl\- 1950. Be I. the largest pictme in the show, well as his I
<».",() ,| II, \\ briefly interrn lied his I
wnrk and seems
had barely fit into Newniian's studio on I'hh Street: he had to ha\e precipitaied a sliift in liir- painting. Newman's
had to cariT it out on to the sidewalk and back in order to mommiental fir Heroicus Sublimis [fig. 4. lb] projects a
tinn the picture around.' This is important in understand- metaphvsical absoluteness: it is the antithesis of the precious
"'
ing the ]HOximir\" at which he worked on the painting: object. The Latin title means "man. heroic and sublime.
.Newman meant the viewer to see it very close up. just as lie The hidden >([uare in the middle — described by the rwo
saw it in the studio. He even tacked a statement to the gallerx zi| IS — emphasizes the perfection of the center, around which
wall, instructing \isitors to stand close in order to feel the he iiidered the canvas. The color field evokes the universe,
"'
expansiveness of the color field. the infinile. and completelv lacks ^m\ ie\iiire ur sense ul
Newman painted .4/>/v//a/7// [fig. 4. 15] on a large scali-. liiiinan inlerveiition. The zi]>s. on the olliei' hand. coii\ey the
too. but instead of the fine metaphysical white zip and the painiei s presence and spatially establish the relation ul the
earthbottnd cadmiimi red backgroimd in Be I. he conceixi-d iiiili\ idiial to the wider order of things.
this picture in a somber mood, using a dark palette and a
llea^"^ stripe. The e.xistential desjiair evident in this black-
im-black painting has ])arth to do with the death in 194? of
the artist's father, wiio was named -\brahain. though it also

4.16 Barnett Newman, Vir Heroicus Sub/imis, 1950-1. Oil on
canvas, 7ft 1 1 ''sin ^ 17ft 9V'4in (2,42 x 5.41 m).
refers to the biblical .\braham. The relation of the stripe to
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gifl of Mr, and Mrs. Ben Heller. Reproduced courtesy
the center still pei'sists in Ahrahuin — he encoded a secret of Annolee Newmon in so for as fier rights ore concerned.
104
4.17 (left) Barnett Newman, Untitled

(Number 4), 1950. Oil on canvas, 74 6in «
(188 X 15.2cm).
Collection, Mr.
of Annolee
and Mrs.
Newmon in
I. M, Pei, New York. Reproduced c
so for os her rights ore concerned. I
J*-:
4.18 (right) Barnett Newman, Here /, 1950

(cost: sculpture 1962, base 1971). Bronze,
107V4 X 281-4 X 27l4in (272.4 x 71.8 x 69.2cm).
Collection, Moderno Museet, Stockholm, Sweden, Photograph by
Malcolm Vcron, New York. Reproduced courtesy of Annolee
Newmon i Dfarc rights
105
Barnett Nryvnian
Till' c'\lr:i(iri]iiiai\ -.cmIi- iif till- i-iL'lili-i-n-fiiiil-li>iii! Vir and Till' Din- One each siand eleven feet tall. \\1u»n Bettv'
I IcniKlis anil ullirr |ii(lillr^ i I lln~ lliiii' iiiaili' il |>i'ai'llrall\ I'ai-nus ga\e Newman his sciund exhibition in 19.51. she
iiii|iii^îlili- lii|- all Inn a \v\\ iillniiir^ 111- iiallrrii'- In liani; ninld mil inilinle ilieiii because ihey would iiiil fit intn the
llirin, iiinrli ir-- Iniv llirni. \- ~nrli I lir\ |iriirlaiiii Ni'W man •>
i;allei\ . ( )ne can niiK assume I hat Newman knew peileciK
li'rriliini In alli'iiipl llir ini|ii ^~il.lr-ll Lih I'lilli.ik^ lii-l well ihal llie\ ennlil mil be shnwii and cllnse ihjs cniiise nf
-i\Irc-|l-|iiiil ran\a^. \liliilir, / MJ 1'I4'1. nm-l aUi, |ia\r ail inn a^ a ::esinie nl iniiliiinlalinn with die resirainls nl the
I'liiiiinaiiril \r\\ man lo r\|iiTimrnl w illi iln- liiii ilr. klinw II and llie pnssjble.
Ni'Winan wanlnl in liil llir |iainlinL; nl il^ |ili\ îralil\ a- Ill ihe eaiK I ill it's Newman pa in lei I a mimlier nl |iiri iires
an nlijrri in iinlrr In rni|ilia-i/r il^ iiiraniiiL:. Bin main lia\r ill led llir ( .reek mvthological heroes. He was not intending to
ini-riMil lii^ wmk a^ a Ininiali^l -lalriiimi. In-ran^r nl hi-- iiiMike I rend in an exploration of individual psychology, as
riinriTii willi nira--ni rmrni and placement. I oiiv Sniilli in surrealism, but rather to contimie his heroic cpiest for art.
reriiiinii-il an inriilmi in \\ liicli a curator caine to see the / ir îich works as .{chille.s. I'hsse.'i. and L'Errance (meaning
llcniiciis Snh/inns ami liilil Xewiiiaii that he "finalK The Odyssey" use the metaphor of the epic hero to portray
l
nnilri-idiiil il: ii \\a> in-1 a relationship of shapes — Newman's owii odyssey in the thirties and forties, his search
Baiiliaii^! Niwinan growled that the only thiiia> in ilir fill a means of artistic expression. But on the whole
"''"
|iiiinrr dial rnniii are the stripes. and to prove it he wcni Newman's joumev was not understood, even bv his friends.
nil In make a whole series of paintings consisting only of the Pollock encouraged him. Kline and some of the others
/ip>. as Untitled (Number -4) [fig. 4. 17]. hi these
-.iich expressed svmpathy for him. but some, even among his
.Newman concerned himself with the placement of tlie zips in fellow artists, thought Newman was a phony; the Museum of
a total space, rather than merely within the space defined hv Modern Art left him out of their "15 Americans" show nf
a color field. In addition, these jiaintings have -.n nincli 1^'.52 'that included sn manv of his colleagues . Arnueiinint,
sculptural phvsicalitv in real space that tin- lra|i Iniin ilirm
to sciil[)nne was not great.
In lli'if I fig. 4. 18] Newman turned a [lair nf zips —

te.xturedone and a precise metaphysical one intn three- —
dimensional forms, in which one can sense a human
4.19 Barnett Newman, Stations of the Cross; Lemo Sabachthani,
the First Station, 1958. Magna on canvas, 6ft 6in x 5ft (1.98 x 1.52m).
presence. In August Il4'' tin- Newmans visited .\nnalee's
Robert ond Jone MeyerhoH Collection, © 995 Boord of Trustees, Notionol Gollery of Art,
1
family in Akron. Oliin. and went to see the nearbv Miamis- Wosfiington, D.C. Reproduced courtesy of Annolee Newman in so for as her rights ore concerned.
liiirg Indian mounds. Newman later described that experi-
rnie toThomas Hess as "a sense of place, a holv place.
Looking at the site, von feel 'here I am, here' .and nut . .
beyond there [that is. beyond the limits of the site] there is
chaos, nattire. rivers, landscape but here vou get a sense . . .
of your own became involved with the idea of

presence ... I
making the viewer present: the idea that 'man is present. ""
Newman built the sculpture Here I on a innniid. It dnr^
not convey a sense of space, but of place. It has to do wiili
a place in which one can "be." in a primal sense. Newnnan
meant to epitomize a revelatoiy experience, like that nl
Joseph Smith selecting the Mormon Zion in a vision i h

nf the .lewish Zionists' spiritual longing for Palestine as ilir
.lew ish homelaiifl.
The biblical subjects aiul the concern with the absniuir

jiersist in the works of 19.51 and 19.52. In The Day One ilir
zi|(Shover at the edges and in The Day Before One the\ dn

not exist at all. Neither of these works show anv paint
texture: the canvas has absorbed the paint, in a wav thai
heightens its immateriality. As here. Newman often made
canvases in pairs of identically measured stretchers, though
he sometimes painted them as much as a vear apart. The
I Heroicus Subliniis has a dark mate called Cathedral.
ir
which could not be more different in character. But thev

undoubtedly have an iconographic connection, as in the <ase
ofThe Dcty Before One anrl The Day One, which deal w ith
the moment of the beginning in Genesis.
Befitting the graiuleiir of the theme. The Dav Before ( hie
106
Ad Reinliardt ilrew a cIkiii in ilic \rl Juiininl ri'iur-ciiiiiiL: In die liihlieal le\I. die lii-l -lalimi enneein- die emidenina-
Newiiiaii as a Ifaf I'alliiii: oil ilnin-i- dl ali-liiici ^^|l^l--l(ln- limi III ( hii-i, I he haul Mark -III
I
le a I die lell in >/iilnins of
ism. [irovokiim Newman to sue tlie join iial ami in Mil \ i nii ii^ /hr ( iiiss: I. mill ^dlHiclilhiini. Tin' Ins/ Slnlinn 11^.4. !'»
|>ni)lislier ilie ( olle'ê Art Associntidii mil nl liiiîiic^>. Iia- an ah-nlnle liiii: nl -|iii iliiaiil\ eniiiiiiL; ihrmii^h die
hlaekne- and a, in- die wlillr I leli l' Inxv ai ( I die I e^lil ed:;e.
uhnv dir iiime ilmidnl liiinian dmihi- al I dradi and

The "Stations of the Cross" lllr rnlldelljllallnlj -rem In Ir-lilr. Ill llln-l nl I hr Mallnll-
iiT ihr ( 111--. I llir llla\ -|iri lllair dial lllr Irll ,i\'j,r -mil- In
Icwiiiaii ~iilliTccl li-i-liii^:~ III lailiirr in llir iniii In lale ': W
addlr-- hr rlrllla I I
I |llr-I mil: W ll\ llrira- I hr I ILlhl ri llir
N; lillii---. and ill I'M" lie iliil 111! |iaiiiliiii: al all. Iliiii lie liail
III ihr raiixa- -lliiiir-l- railhlinmid a--ni iai Inl i-. Iiliman
a heart allack. wliirli -eeiiicil In wmk likr in^laiil
ennrrin- — and lliere i-> a emi-lanl dialni; heiween liiilil
|>~\clii>aiial\ î--.''" lie iiniiirdiali-l\ wnil liark In |iainliiii: in
and lell.
l'')i"i and riini|p|i-Ii-(l a -eiir- nl îniiiiiiiL; riiiii| mîl inn-.
1 hi- mn\ illi: -eiie- nl |iailililir- — w liiell ended w illl 11 c
1
Iia-i-d nn die Maiinii- nf die (in--. \- ill llir railirr wnik- /(iin/ri'll/ll S/illlDII die enlmiilimeni in l''(lh êelll- al-n
llial deal w nil ( .ml nr hililical -nlijerl-. New man did iini -eek
In lia\ r hern all a 1 1 1 nl iinj:ia|iliieal e-Xplofatinli.^^ ennrrmilini;
In le|ire-elll die -lllijecl. lie w a- linl a irliLlimi- /ealnl. 1 le
die w death
ai ii-l - In ii-h illi in his heai't attack, hi- relalinn
inleiidi'il In deal wiili die ali-Iiaii and iiiii\er-al e\|ierieiiee
In hi- enlleaiitie'-. and his fejection by the art world. But
whirl eaell n|' ihe-e -nhjeet- exnked:
I
.Newman always seneralizes such specific e.\])eriences. giv-
Lcimi SdhachlltdHi — U In r II liy ilnl mui /nrsukc ///c.' Illn- ini: a traiiscenrlental value to hi- [ihilo-n|iliieal and -[liriiiial
lorsakc nic}' To ii-fiat piir/iasiy II liy'r I'll is is /lie /nissiini. searchiiiL's. As he WTOte in P'-tT". '
The ha-i- nl an ai'-lhelir
litis is the oiitciy of Jesus. \iit I In- Irrnhlc inilk ii/i I In- I in aii i- the line ideaI
. . . that makes contact with the m\ -ler\ —
Dolorosa, but the question llinl Inis nn luisircr . . .
nl lile. Ill men. nl nature, of the hard black chan- thai i-
Lenuil" to what f)ur/)()se — is thr nnnnsinrnlilc (/nrslii}n of dralli. Ill ihr l;i axer softer chaos tliat i-
""''
trageiK . 1 m ii i- miK
human sujêriiiii.^^ die |iiiie idea dial has meaning.
Mark Rothko
I'l-t'i Mark Kmjikn de\ eloped a pictorialformat nf-n|'d\
In
drlined. leciam/iilar clouds of color, which he -lacked
sMnmeiriialK mi inp nl one another [fig. 4.20 he-e . 1
rectangle- nl iimtniin width fill the canvas almost edge to
edge: at the inji ami Imiinm the foims also press close to the
])erimeter. This i- a indiinentaiy visual language conceived
to evoke elemenial emniinii- with niaxiiiniiii ]ioignaiicy.
Rntliko regariled llii- rnrinal a- an inexliaiisiible -iincliire
Inr. in hi- wind-, dealing with linnian eninlimi. with die

hill Kill
I drama a- llincll a- can pn--ilil\ expeiirnce il. ""'and
I
e\ce|il Inr hi- lliree lale mural cxcle-. he winked e\clii-iM-|\
in llii- Imiiial milil hi- dralli in l"~((.
1 hr mminnii'iiialilN and -lalic -implicilv nl llie-e cmii-

|iii-iiiiiii- r\pre-- die wnrkiiir- of a cmnplex. -iiliilr. and
lurlililenl mind, plagued li\ depres.-ion liiit also h\ an
overwiielniing -eii-e nl urgent responsibility for the e.xplora-
timi nf |irnfiiuiid linnian < niiieiit in painting. The critic Dore
\-liinii. wlin mei Hndikn in the fifties, portrayed him as a
man di-pn-rd In caii-r- — alwav- readv to -torui the barrica-
de- whether 111 die iiaiiir nf hi- Itd'ti-I |in|iiic-. hi- radical
\ie\\- nil ail rdiicalimi Ini' children, or his cmicepi nl die

ini--inii nfali-liaci arl."* He was a nei-vous iliaii. w Im w mild
gel ii|i and walk arniind w ith a cigarette berweeii courses at a
4.20 Mark Rothko, Green and Tangerine on Red, 956. Oil on 1
canvas, 7ft 9' :in 5ft 9' sin (2.37 x 1 .75m).

Phillips Colleclion, Washington, D.C. (cj 1 994 Kole Rolhko-Prizel & Christopher Rolhko/Artisis
107
4.21 MarkRothko,
Subway Scene, 1938. Oil on
canvas, 35 ^ 47' 2in
(89^ 120.7cm).
Collection, the Rothko Estole.
Photogroph courtesy Notional
Gallery of Art, Woshington, D.C.
c 1994KoleRothko-Prizel
& Christopher Rolhko/Artists Rights
4.22 (below) Milton

Avery, Interior wifh Figure
1 938. Oil on canvasboard,
14^ 18in (35.6 X 45.7cm).
Collection, Hirshhorn Museum and
Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, DC. Gift of
Joseph H. Hirshhorn, 1 966. ici 1 994
Estate of Milton Avery.'Arlists Rights
Society ARS Nev^ Yor^
(liniKM- party.''" Robert .M()tlier\\ell flt'scribecl him as a
caiildnm of 'seething anger [tliat] would sometimes blow

'*"
11)1. completely iiTarionally.
L ndenieath the meditative resene of his paintings and
I heir deliberate reduction of vocabulary lies a passionate
iiiiical and j^svchological fundamentalism. The veiT siin-
]ilicity of the structure sets a moral tone that places matters
of \aliie in high relief. Rothkos work has a frightening
.t'n--f of the absolute that resembles the primiti\e force
(if Old Testament justice. .\s William iiiibiii a (uraim
at the Museum of Modern Vrt iciii.ii kid. RotJikd >
"pictures sometime> iiimlilid ûnl iliriMtciniJ like a live
volcano."'" SoTnetime around P'oO. die artist told Dote

A>hton that he \\a^ making the most violent paintings in
America. '' For Diiminique de Menil. the patron of his la>t
iiimaK. Rothko s paintings evoked "the tragic iiivsieiA
111 iinr perislialile condition. The silence of God. the
iililicaralilrMleilif iif(.iid."'-
The young Rothko had learned M'll-discipline memoriz-

Rothko's Formative Years ing the Talmud in the .Jewish school of Dvinsk and he
excelled academicallv in Portland. In 1921 he won a full
Mînii- Hmlikow 11/ lir -miiililiril ilic naiiu- in "Mark -•cliolarship to Yale. Although he studied drawing in high
Riitlikii' ari.uuil I'MO \\a- born in VH).', in the school, he gave the larger share of his energy to radical
Lithuanian touii of Dvinsk. His childhood was marked li\ politics. At Yale Rothko explored music, drama, literature,
the worst period of mob violence against jews in Russia in a philosophy, and mathematics iat which he was jjarticularly
generation, and for the rest of his life he harbored memories brilliant 1.but his radicalism still remained the focus of his
of that threatening enxnronment. In .\ugust 1913. the ten- life. In his second year at Yale the scholarship
intellectual
year-old Marcus, his older sister, and his mother left to join e\aporated and after struggling along for the year he
his father and two brothers in Portland, Oregon. Seven (hopped out and headed for New York.
nionlli- later hi-, father died. Rothko started taking courses at the Art Students
108
I I'aiziii- some actiii!:. Stiidving iindii \Li\

anil l)riellv did la-ci-m in l.tirope. ami then the war gaxe Rothko- -ocial
WclnT al llif Rodiko learned ahoiii riilpi~ni
l,t'ai.Mi«'. and pnliiical agenda particular iiieencx. or Rothko. I (iolt-
( fzaiine. the eoli)r liarnioiiies oi Matisse, ami ilir |iiiiniii\- lieli. New man. and iiiaiix nl llieiiconleiiip( Jiarie- llii- made
i>in of ilie Ciennan expressionists. The receiiiK (i|i( m-d \i\\ ciiiix eiitional paimmi; -ei'iii irielexant ami coii-e(|iieiil U
An ('iirle <;allen ot'.l. B. Niinnaiin iniiiMluctd Hndiku lo a imnioial: tlie\ -oui^lit -iilijeci- that addre--ed the timeless
i;oo(l variety of German e\|ire^îiiMi--i \\ oik- and hi' lietian hi- el h nal and i >nli ilotîcal i|iii'-lion- o| the hniiian condition.
career |)aintini; unin-|pin-d rii:un' c(ini|Mi-iiion- oi an r\-
|ire?sioni?tie eharaclir.
Turning to Classical Myth
The l^KM't Scene rii:.-+.l2l i- [he la-l and nio-i
Siihiiyn-
ae<oMi|ili-hed work in a -erie- dial iiiiw oni oi Hniliko - 111
I'l.'Si; Hiithkn and Cotllieh iiiini'd to da — ical mxlli to
expressionist -t\le. The painleiK liandliiiLr. the iifnrialilx nl liiid dieiiie- nil an elexaled nnlei n| maiiintlide and
llie forms, die -\imneli\ and planar Irontalilv oi die miix er-ahlx . \ lew \ ear- later Holliko explained:
coniposition. and die -uhjeet ii-ell — ilie -oinher atnio-phi-n-
///r kiKiirii in //is I)/ iiii/ii/iii/\-. (ire //le e/enni/ sxiiilm/s
of the New York -iili\\a\ — aniicipaled a-peel- of Holliko -
I . .
ii/iiiii ir/iie/i ire inns/ fa// liiie/< ti\'ss hdsie /)S\</iii/iejieii/
inalilie work." hi- paiinini; al-o -how- die inriiicnie nl
I
i(/e(is . . . \ni/ iiiix/erii iisy</in/os^v finds t/ieiii persisting s/i//

Millnn V\ri-\ - i|niei l\ ii( i-ni Iii;.4.li2 in ihe -laid roinpo-i-
III (iiir lireiiiiis. mir rerniieii/ar. and our art. fora// l/ie
lioii. the hint- ot ri<h hiil -iilpclnrd color iiarnionie-. and dir
e/i(iii'jes III //le (iiitiriin/ eiiiulitions of iifc . . Tlip invt/i
mood
.
larire flat color an-a-. ahhoiitih die of frozen anxiciv

/iii/i/sns. //lerefare. iiii/ //irii [sic t/ie pnssi/jiiities of fdii/iisy.
dial hailil- oxer die Holhko ccunra-l- niaiki'div w ilh dn- calm
Iiii/ lieeiinse i/ expresses to ns soiiie/iiinii reid oik/ e.vis/ing
-en.-iialitv of Ax rr\ - |iairilini:.
III onrse/res."'
Rotliko niel A\ i-r\ in I'*l2M ami dic\ e-lalili-hed a w arm,
lih-loili: friend-hip. In l'':.l'» or rail) in l'».!() he al-o mi'l Rntlikn and (.nitlieli explored mil niilx (ireek tragedx liiii
\ilolph (Jottliel) and dexcjoped an intimate relation-hip w iih al-o the xxri tings of .Nietz-che and .liiiig. and the mechani-m-
him that recalls the sereiiflijiitoiis meetin'r of mind- liiiw( in ol the imcoHscious mind.
d<- Kooning' and Mirkv in die late thirl ie-. Tlii- camaraderie
( \ general interest in myth prevailed from the mill
pcakeil in die eaiK loriic-. when (.niiliel) and Holliko ihiitie- tliroiigh the war among the surrealists. Pica--n. Inlin
collahorated on some important joim -latement- on an. (.raliam. and mo-l of the na-cent Nexx' York Sclmnl. .sir
Rotliko's history in the thirtie- resemhled thai of mhei .lame- cla — ic book of mxihologx" T/ie (in/den
I razer',-
jKiiiiters of his generation. He was struggling simnlianeon-K Hondi. the work- of Plato. Aeschylii-. and Shake-peare. all
w itii his basic ability to sunive. his social conscience, and die became central text- for an examination nl iinixer-al liimian
-l\li-lic iiitltiences of the Enrojiean modern-. He wa- aide<l i[iie-linii-. Ihe tragic hero provided a model ol kex intere-l
li\ die -ii|)port of an arti-ts group called Ihe fen." which and Inr Rnthkn -n Inn did work-of cla--iial niii-ic. e-peciallx
he and (iortlieb hel|)e(l to organize in IM.ii. and li\ clo-e Mozart - opera-.
ielationslii|)s with (ioltlieb. Edidi Sachar a gold-milh Rothko- fir-t mx thic painting. Antiiio/ie ! fig. 4.2.S '. has
whom he married in 1<).''>2 anil Milton and Salh A\ei\. It . an nxerall gray tone, like an archaic -tone frieze. The
was around the .\yeiys' vacation hoii-e near .ionci-ter. ( lax Cling of the forms in registers of shalloxx relief reinforces
Massachusetts, that the (iolllieh- and Holliko- -pent dieir tlii- a--ociation to antifiuitx'. while die frontalitv of the
smnniers mid thirtie-. Hotliko al-o met David Smith
in the compo-ifion gixes it an emblematic character, stressing its
and Barnetl .Newman at that time, and in I'l.'^l) to I'Li" di-tanie from representation. The classical profiles and
he worked in the ea-e| |>aimiiii; di\ i-ion of die fCderal ciiiK hair of the head-, a- xxell a- the pail-animal. pait-
Art Project. liiiman teel in the lower -iraluni. reler in a ei-neial xxav In
I'olilical aili\i-ni and a concern lor -ocial jii-tice -oiirces in Greek sculpture and painiini;
characterized die inl i-l led nal climate of .New \ork in the late Rotliko infnserl ihi- and other mxthical jiiclme- with
thirtie-. When .loliii D. Rockefeller had Diego Rixt-ra lorciliK i|iintatinii- Irom archilectiiral nrnanieiii nii the buildiiiL;- nl
remoxed from the scaffold at Rockefeller Center in l').)-t Nexx N nrk linkine hi- xxnik in the material realitx nl the
and then destroyed the mural for including a |i()rlrail of |ire-eiil . lie al-n included i iiicifixion imageiy such a- the
Lenin in his painting, the oulcrx from arli-l- created a fo( n- oiit-pread arm- dial -eparate the top ixxo layer- of Inrm- in
for political organizing. The event calalxzed the Imimlinv; ol \iitiiioiie ie.xtending the mythic content beyond the (.nek
the .Artists' Union in 1*)-'^-+ with a ionrnal called l/Y /'run/. pandieoni. In some of his drawings Rotliko even -hnwed the
'^
edited by StuaiT Davis. hand- of these outstretched amis pierced xxitli nail-. Ihe
Rothko pariicijiated in the .\rii-i- L nion. in the \iiier- Pa--inn of fihrisi re|)re-ented for Rothko. as it did Ini
ican .Artists' Congress, and in the Federation of American Nexx man. an enibndimem of the eternal trageily n| the
Painters and Sculptors. He was always drawn to lelti-t human conditinii and iinl a uniquely f christian subjecl — any
polirics. cliaracterizing himself a- '-lill an anarchi-t. " a- iiinre than.4/?//go/ie was a imicjuely (ireek one. This mixture
late as 1970. But in the intei-war period the climate of ethical of iconograpliic elements broadened the base of Rothko s
coniern arisin:; from the Deiire— ion. die loiiiihiii; -peeler of -iibjecl mailer into a loimdation for imixersal tragedy.
109
M*'"'^^-*^'
'.
4^> fêi^
Stvli-ii( ali\ iIh- work- of 1''42 and 19+3 owe a certain

4.23 Mark Rothko, Antigone, c. 1 941 Oil on canvas, 34 x 45^'4in
formal \c)cabtdarly of surrealism, partictdarly
.
amoimt to the
(86.4 116.2cm).
Mork Rothko Foundation. the frottage teclmi([ues. birdlike fomts. and dreamscape? of
Collection, Notional Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Gift of the
© 1 994 Kote Rothko-Prizel & Christopher Rothko/ Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. Max metamoiphic vocabulary of man
Ernst: to Masson's
and animal: to the poetic structm-e of Miro's work: and to the
rransfonnative vocabidary ttf biomoiphic absti-action. as in
1 hi,-- -iralilualioii. w liicli rliaructt*rize> Rulliko -- ni\ tliic Rotlikos The Entombment But Rothko and
[fig. 4.25".
\\iiik> fVoiii roughly 1938 through 1042. echoes the implirit Gottlieb concerned themselves above all else with content a^
i-oMapse of time by which the artist Ijrouglit the ancient past they took ])ains lo assert in a now famous letter to the \eir
into the relevant present. The archaeological metaphor, York Times: li i- a widely accepted notion among painters.'
centeied on the idea of a cumulative meinoiy of the jjast they wrote, that it iloes not matter what one paints as long
acting upon the present, penneates the theories of Freud a- a- it i- wellpaimed. This is the essence of academicism.
*
well as the wTitings of such literan modernists as T. S. Eliot Thii f i~ no -uch thing a> good painting about nothing."
and James Jovce. with whose works Rttthko was conversant.
For Rothko. histoiT verified the luiiversality of ancient
diemes. In a commentary to his 19-i2 painting Onwn oj the
Surrealism, Psychoanalysis, and "the Spirit
Iji'Me he e.\|:ilained: "The th'eme here is derived from the of Myth"
\i:ainiiiiiiiin Trilog\' of .-Veschylus. The picttu'e deals nm
wiih ihc particular anecdote, but rather with the Spirit ot 111
ifii-o-iiect the letter lo the \ew York Tunes al>o aiitici-
\l\ih. whi. h i> generic to all myths at all iiinf~. h iiiMilves a I)ated the develo|)tneni of Rothkos manne style: 'We
paiiiliii-in ill whichman. bird, beast and iri-f — ihc known as favor the simple e.xpression of the complex thought, they
wfll a> llif kiKiwable — merire into a --iniile naiiic idea. itroclaimed. 'Vi e are for the larL'e shajte because it ha- the
no
began to increase the scale. The paintings of this three-vear

period are uneven in quality", despite notable successes like
Bdptismal Scene fig. 4.24 . but they provided a crucial
transition to Rothko's "multifonus'" of 194? to 1949
fig. 4. 25 . where the doodles melted into soft color forms
and then gradually coalesced, in 1949. into the liazilv
rlefiiied color blocks of Rothko's manire stvle fig. 4.27 .
Freiids theories provided the surrealists with a link
4.25 Mark Rothko, Untitled, 1 949. Oil on canvas, 54' 2 x 27''2in

138-4 69.9cm).
Photograph courtesy Pace Gollery, New York. g. 1 994 Kale Rothko-Pnzel & Christopher
Rothko/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
^0h^
4.24 Mark Rothko, Baotismal Scene, 1 945. Watercolor on paper,

19's 14in i50.4 35.6cm .
Collection, Whitney Museum of Ajnericon Art, New York. Purchase. Photograph by Geoffrey
Oements, New York, g 1 994 Kate Rothko-Pnzel & Christopher Rolhko/Artists Rights Society
(ARS;, New York.
impact of the unequivocal. We wish to reassert tlie picture

plane. \^ e are for flat forms because ihev destroy illusion and
reveal tnuh.""'" If this proclamation sounds like Banien
Ne\^'man's art theor\' of the forties, that is not accidental.
Newman worked closely \^nth Gottlieb and Rotltko on it.
and in thanks for his publicly imacknowledged. but
ob\"iouslv substantial, help each artist gave Nevvinan a
[tainting in 19-J.'3.
In die theor\ of surrealism Rothko r-aw a passage

through the specific anecdote toward the mechanisms of the
unconscious mind. He had e.xpeiTmented with automatic
ilravKing as earl\ as 19.38°" and taken an interest in the
Oedipus myth. The careful preparatory drawings for his
nmhic pictures clearlv indicate that he did not conceive
them ill an automati^t manner, but from 1944 through 194b
Rothko did e.xperimeni with automatism to produce loose,
linear doodles that doniinate the foregrounds of his composi-
tion?. He painted the backgrounds of these works in
luminous, "allover" washes of color, often di%iding them into
wide horizontal bands. In several canvases of 194-5 he also
m
Iicl\\i'.-M till' wciild ordii-iiiii- llic iiiiiiiii-.iiipii^ iniiiil anil llic increasingb simplincd nrdri of die <omposiiions. creates a
,-V,l\.la\ \\nll,l. Knihk,, - ,raivl, lo, ill.' >|Mnl ol \ImIi.' ineditali\i' in I -iir~-iiii: iiniiialiiialiu and imixersality
riiciiui-.iLLnl |p\ .Iiiiil; - ilili'ii--l III iiiiivrrâl iiivlli-.. lullnwril while playing (low n ilir artist s presence, as e\presM'd in the
llii- |Mlli I'lir -lr|i Inilliir. Ill l''4"> Hmliko ilr~i lilir.l il antogra])liic gesinir
llii- w a\ :
Rothko's (iwii walercolors of the mid lollies iiilormed
the thin handling nl his oils after 1945. as did the work of
I (iillicrf III llir iiKilcniil iv(ili/\()j'/lii' ii-Dilil iind lln'
Min'i. who ihiiineil his paint into washes to heighten their
siilisliini-fiiflliiiiixs- Inicrchrnliinjillicciicilloflllisiviilily
ethereal, poetic (|uality. Matisse's The Red Stiicho. which
I insist iifidii the c(/ii(i/ <:iis/ciiic (if the irar/d engcinlrrcd
. . .
went on prima I lent display in FebruaiT 1949 at the Miiseiim

in tin- iin'nil iniil /lif iniild cnisi'iidcrrd hy (ind outside iij
ol \lodrrii \it in New York, also influenced Rothko's
T/ic surn-dllst lias iniiorcrcd ll/r lilossdiy of tin- iiiyl/i
approach. Tlie h'ed Studio consists of a delicately traced map
it . . .
(itiil liiis csliih/is/icd II iiinLiiinl\ /iclircrii the

of insubstantial olije<ts and architecture drawn over a large,
pliiintasniiiunnii (ifllic luifdnsmiiis iiikI the iih/rcts of
flat. e\enl\ washed e\|Kiiisc of red canvas. Rothko spent
irvn-dav life. The eoiiiiriiit}- eonslitiiles tlie e.i/iilnnited
mam hours in Irniil ol this painting.'"
tniwie e.iperierue irlueli for me is the (inly sonree hook
for art."'
''Heroifying'' the Ineffable
riic if\ir\M-is iif Riitliko >.laiiuai\ l'^") ^li,,\\ al the Art of
I In^ ( riiiiiix immediately saw tin- 1 inmrciiiin in îiifeali^m. During l'*4'* Rothko linalK arrived at a style that seemed
Inn alM> noted that Rolliko'- wmk \\a^ al llii' -ame time to |iioinise 'the elimination of all obstacles lietween the
lallier dilieient. While the meaiiiiii;. ai curding in 1/7 _\eii-s. ]iainter and between the idea and the obser-
and the idea,
lor example, "flerived tium the imcoiiMJoiis . . .lie does not \ er.
"
an article for the journal The Tiger's
as he explained in
"""
ii-.e oi'thodox suiTealist symbols. Dufino; the early forties Eye of that year, ".^s examples of such obstacles, I give
Koihko and a mmiber of other New ôrk painter^ had famong others) memoiy. histoiy- or geometiy, which are
-.liiliid dieir focus past that coniiiniinn îic^^rd li\ I n-iid swamps of generalization.'""" Rothko rejected memoiy in so
and the suiTealists toward the imi\frsal oideis ol msth far as it concerned fonns that evoke an already known
dixussed by Jung. The deliberate |)lanniiig of structure in content, thus naiTOwing the e.xperience and trivializing the
Hiithko's "automatist" works of '>-++ to I'Hd. as testified to 1 universality of his painting. Histoiy, including identifiable
li\ the numerous studies mi papiT lor iliem. underscores this myths like that of Antigone, also deflects the viewer's
difference in eiTiphasis. attention from a confrontation with the unknowii, which was
Clyfford Still, whom Roihko greatly admired."^ referred central to Rothko's vision "Geometiy"
by the late forties.
dis|)araginglv to the aiitomatists as scribblers

:""*
he re- refers to the ubiifuitous geoinetric abstraction and other
jected siuTealisiii s link to the particularities of the indi- styles that derived from formal notions rather than from a
vidual psvche ami the historical moment, histead Still compelling content.
sought to embody the sublime and the absolute independ- In order to achieve "the simple expression of the
impact of the unecfuivocal. " as
riice of the iTiflividual by rejecting all the conventions ol coni|)lex thought ... the
painting: his cnistv a])plication. tenebrous palette, and his Rothko had expressed it in his 1943 letter to the New York
rial, anti-illusionistic forms [fig. 2.1?! deliberately oppose Times, he relied on the large scale of the color blocks in the
traditions of sophisticated paiiu handling, coloiistic liai- works of 1949 and after to create an oveipowering material
iiiony. and compositional structure. presence; yet it was the presence of something undefinable.
Rothko met Still on a trip to California in 1948. Two Children's art may have been insti-umental in Rothko's
\ears later Still began to show up occasionally in New \ork formulation. He taught art to children at the Center Acad-
and East Hampton, and in the summer of 1047 he taught emy of the Brooklyn .Jewish Clenter from 1929 until 1952
with Rothko at the Califoniia School of the Arts in Sail aiifl took a keen interest in their fonnal ideas. In a notebook
I raiicisco. During 1946 — the high poiiil of their from the laif thirties Rothko obsei-ved that "the scale
irlationshi|( — Rothko's work started tn ixhibit die impact of conception iinolves the relationships of objects to their
Still's comjjositional ideas. Rotlikn s automatist drawing siirroimdings —
the emphasis of things or space. It definitely
disMilved into indistinctly defined color fomis, moving iiivoK ts a space emotion. \ child may limit space arbitrarily
among one another at a glacial pace over a flat plane. This and then heroify his objects. Or he may infinitize space,
""
shift in st\ If to a more purified color abstraction [fig. 4.25] dwarfing the importance of objects.
gave way betwêen 19-t7 and 1949 to larger shapes, fre- Beginning in his paintings of 1949, Rothko "heroified"
i|nently more geometric in character, and then an increas- the central color forms in the same manner as he described
ingly regular, horizontal layering of forms in 1949. children doing it. Yet the lack of particularizing features in
Between 19-1:7 and 19.50 Rothko made few sketclu-s. le 1 Rothko's forms creates an immediacy that is free from the
worked out his ideas directly on the canvas, in thin washes of secoiidarx in Inn ice of narrative and overt cultural inter] ire-
I
color that seem to dematerializi- into the wea\e of the fabric. tatioii. lie iliiis achieved a vivid sense of an ineffable
This idriitilN of th<- paint with the snilace. as well as the presence. In the writings of Sartre existence precedes
112
4.26 Mark Rothko, The Entombment,

c. 1 946. Oil on canvas, 23 40in
(58.4 X 101.6cm).
> \
Collection, Edith Ferber. c, 1994 Kote Rothko-Pnzel &
Christopher Rolhko/Artists Rights Society (ARS),
New York,
4.27 Mark Rothko, Number 22, 1 949

Oil on canvas, 9ft 9in ' SftlTsin
(2.97 X 2.72m).
The Museurti of Modern Art, New York. Gift of the ortist,
© 1994 Kale Rothko-Prlzel & Christopher Rothko/Artists

113
Mark Rothko
('.-.MMU'c: ill lîllikci'^ wiiiL llir -.lllijrcliM- cxiMTifricr iil llii- that 111' lieliexed dial 'all art deals with intimations of
vifWiT-- i-iK iiiiiiliT willi llii- iiiilc-(iil);ililr |jaililr(l iiliji-cl mortalitx .
'
Rodiko - ali-i tact paiiuing continues to carry a

|irii\ idc- ii Ion I II hi 1 1(111 li n l In- drliiiiiii: nl olijrri jiiil ^rll'. ;iiiil -piiiinal link to eiitomlimerii and pieta themes as well as to
lliiw llir\ irl.ilr I I ii' i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r \ a I'KII li il I" 1 1| I'l >li >l . 1 1 1 ^1 11 1 ii 1 1 li H I. (.iiik iiai;cd\. Such su|)je('ts persist as metaphysical con-
jii ii|iui Hull .111(1 I Ki mill — (HI cjiix j^ in (MIIN
111; 1 1 I :l^ ;iiiil r\ rn tent, a-soi iatcd to figliral works from earlier pei'iods I in I not
w illiiii ;i îiii^lc w .11 k — iiKiiiiloi llic arli^l riiiiL;c ^ ol ^| in ii hi- literalU dei'i\edfrom iheiii.
ll on on I In- nniixiKalilc i|nc-li(iii. formally Rothko s Innniioii- color stnictiiies are soiiie-
|)i- K iiiii; V larjie wdincii ol ilic ciii l\ lil'iic- aUo Till ilic iliiiig genuinely new in die hi-ior\ ol aii: lhe\ have no
(iini|io-.itinn ami crcatf a iiowitIiiI |irc^cmc like Hoiliko - aiitecedeiit. e\ en tin High die\ draw ini many som'ces. Rodiko
iiia---i\r ri-iianiinhir culor ilomk. I low ex it. iIic lad iliai t\r adiniied Mondriaii hir the wax his forms hold the picture
kouinni; - work i- lii:inali\c ami hi- lini--liw mk |iiiiiiiiiirnl plane. Mediexal religious picliires share the iconic symmetiT
;:i\c- In- |iaiiiiiiii;- a iiioii- can hi loiim I locii-.. Il i> iiili-ii->liiii; that conveys an elemental religious feeling in Rothko s work,
I ha I III I''") I Pollock a Uo I I'm lidi 1 1 iced I'iiiin al i\ c clcincnl-. riie iii\ sterioiisK hidden sntirce of liis glowing light height-
(Icri\i-(j Ikuii iIic niNiInc iniaiic- ol hi^ work ol ihc carlv en- tlii- leeling: the sameworks of ellect e.xists in llie
Ionic- li^:- -l.ll^ ami 4,'* : ami l)a\iil >inilli liiiili ^c\ci;il Remiirandl and Fra whose handling of light he
Aiigelieci.
work- llic lillic- ami -i\licii-iiii; iiconiclnc |iarls,

ol greatly admired. Like Pollock. Rothko also saw how the
airaii::cilaidnml a li^nialix c -unci lire lii;-. 4.-'i('i and -t.-f.'^> . richness of color and surface in impressionism. es[ieciall\ in
Idr Newman no rcmnanl ol die lii:iiie i- C( iii(ci\ aide. the lale wiirk- of Monet, was more im]ionaiit than the
Iiecaii-e hi- work oriîinaled in a iiii'la|ili\ -.ical dioiiL;hl. a siilijeii inatti'r lieing represented.
|iiiie ali-liacl idea allaineil iliiiiiii;li the cidelic iinaiic Rodiko looked siirewdlv at work in museums and hooks
die i(leoi:ia|ili and c(ince|il- ol |ilacciiieiil in -|iaee. Bnl to glean \ isiial ideas, he read ])hilosophy and literature, and
Rodiko reached lor ilic iiiii\er-al conieni nl hniTian e.x- he max ex en liaxe taken formal inspiration from music. For
liciiem ( diroiiiih an iiidix hhial c\|il( nalion ol i;raml llieme>. example, the composer Edgard \ arese (whose work Rothko
and (111- allow - lor die ill core Ik a I |io--iliilii\ oT a liiiceiiiio; knex\ would -ejiarate a single timbre or tone in his most
liiîii al i\ c conlelil .
celeliiaied com|iositions. playing it off against xarions
The -iiaidicaiion in Kodiko - |iainniij:>. ol llie lale orchcstraiioiis and rhxthnis in liriiig out die nuances ol its
dlinie- and eaiK Ionic- iiilo liaiid> ol -Mllliol- I'iii.-t.li.i iiidix idnahtx . This has a parallel in Rothko's isolated clouds
|ileri;^nre- die C( iiii| lo-il loiial order nl die reclantliilar color ol iiidix idiial lines. Rothko s painting is an art ol |ierpetual
lilock-. Tlii- -ni:i;e-i- iioi oiil\ a lornial |iredi-|io-il ion lor and iiietii iilous refinement, h is directly sensual and relies on
-mil -Im|ic- lull dial. diiciiii;li a>Micianon. die iindiic luteal -nliilety and variety in the color, application, and even
conlein iiia\ -lill |iei-e\ere iiidireclK ill the ali-liaci wiirk. the si II Id me of the forms.
Within his limited formal. Rothko
Holliko > iiileie-.| in theeill Iinient and olliei a^|iecl- ol tin- dexel(i|ied a remarkably wide emotional range, from exuber-
Pa-sion olfJirist also linger^ in iheê later work.i. riie art ance to contemjilatioti and foreboding.
hi-torian \iiiia (^havehas suggested that the horizontal hand
incised lines across the renter oi \iiniber22
111 ted w itii |fig.
The Murals and Other Late Work
-t.li"* i- literally derived from earlier depictions ot horizoiiial
dead rii:iiie-. lying across the laps of maternal figures — a^ in the late fifties
Bxoriginality die public had begun to apjireciate the
the inaii\ incdieval and Renaissance i)aintings of scenes froiii and subtleiv of Rothko s work, and his
the Pa --I on of (ihrist. first reinler|)reted by Rothko in work- re|imation grew considerablx In 1Q58 Piiili|) .k)hnson .
siieli a- hi-- Ijiloriibment [fig.-l-.2(i] of arouiui l''-K).''" commissioned him to paint a monumental mural for the
^ el it was with the titinost reluctance. Rothko ex- Four Seasons Restaurant in the new Seagram Building. This
plained in l'*.")o. that "I round the figure coidd not -er\ e iii\ was Rothko's first mural commission and his first series. The
piirpo-e-. Rothko may well haye struggled with the tigure
" idea of |)ainting a peniianent cycle of murals for a s])ecific
as late as I'MM. although there is neither yisual evidence nor space a|)])ealed enormously to Rothko because it meant that
any room in Rothko's art theory to demonstrate the (lersey- he could finally have control over the way a grou|) of
erence of conscious imagerx in more than a lew work-, in canxases were viewed.
l'H8 and l'>4'). On the coiKrary. the presence of disguised In the spring of 10.^8 Rothko set up a studio on the
lignres wiiiild ilirectK contradict the artist's stateineiu thai B( iw ery to paint the commission, and over the next two years
I If shapes .. . ha\e no direct association with any particular be made three sets of murals. The first group— which he
\isilile experience, lint in them one recognizes the iirincijile iminediatelx either dispersed or destroyed — were in his
and |ias-ioii ol organisms. '
Such specific underlyiTig Usual formal of stacked rectangles. Then he broke away and
-iilijeei matter would also run in opposition to his intention used open rectangles. He also abandoned this second set of
to dcstroN die finite associations withwhich our socien,' murals; one can only speculate as to the reasons. Rothko
""
im ica-iiii;l\ enshrouds eyer\ aspect of our environment. iiiniplcicd the third and final secjiience in a horizontal
( )ii the other hand, to the e\ lent I hat a "clear |5reoccupa- lormai of rectangles with o|)eii ceiUers. But instead of
tion with death. '
a^ he phrased it. pen ilea ted his w mk and delix Cling die paintings he reliirned the money ami a decade
114
clii^f nil. Ill nil llif fii\ in iiitiiinl jiiil i'Iil:iiII ilif --iii-ci.iliii-.
4.28 MarkRottlko, Mura/s for Ho/yolte Center, Harvard d •
ii
, , .
iQ/1 Kmllkii i i
- rnlirrni Willi r i
nillili:: llif
i
\lr\\ii - imiîiiihi III

.p II
University, west. wall, 1962, ^1
Glue J
and oil
J
media
I
on unprimedJ cotton
..
duck canvas, panell :8ft 8' 2in 9ft 9' .m (2.65 - 2.98m); panel 2: rvhiii.iii m ,!„ nm n k IkhI \unii l.r,-ii an i-iif: iii,l,-,il
i i i i
lif li;i,l
i
8ft9'jinxl5fti2in(2.67x4.59m);panel3:8ft9'8inA8ft(2.67>:2.44m). \»-'-]i -nifialK iiiiw illiiit; m |Miiiri|Mii- m ;iTnii|, -.|ii,\\~ loi-
Colleclion.PresidenlandFellowsofHorvordCollege, Cambridge, Moss. Gift of Mark xllllc lilllc Iiit;iII^|- llr riilllil mil ciilllnil lllf ^|l<liral'illlllll
Rolhko. ? 1 994 Kate Rolhko-Prizel & Chnslopher Rolhko/Arlisis Rights Society (ARS)
New York. lli^ W I Ilk.
\ rrlii:inll- llliiii|illiil rr^lllllin- |

irl^lÎrl ll l\ III riillllri-
linll Willi Hnllikii^ |i;illil iiil:-, |i;ii I iriihii I\ wlini îril III
lattT gave liu-iii in llif I ;ili- ( .alli-iN in I .niiiliiii. w lure llif\ L:nin|i~, I Ir liiiii~rll ni nark til ili.il I In- |irii|ilr w Iim wri-|j
were in>iaili'il |iiiTi>i-|\ ai rniijini; in lii~ w i-llf~. I lint- llia\ hrlmi- iii\ |Jirliiir> an- lia\ llli; I llr âinr irlli;|i HI- i\| iiTiiliic
be .some tnilli in llir ln-liri. w liicli lir ex iiJi-nlU fiiriiiiiaiiril. I liail w lii-ii I |iaiiiiii I l lifin. '
llic I lar\ an I iiiin aU riralr llir
that lie rejecled llie Seaiiiain (iiinnii^îiiM lifiaii^f III- liiiinil il aiiiiii-'|ilirir nl a lailinlial: ami Hiiilikn inncrixi'il In- la-i
distasteful that the re-laiiiani raHTi-il m ilif in li. Ian ilir
larire .>rale ol llif nxiin in ii-lalinn in llir iiiinaU ami llir lack
....
ofaineilitaliM-
a..tliepre.-4.itatm,i.'.-aii..-..
il m tin- Im-x ri-iani.ini -fi-ni iiimv hkiK
4.29
7ft 4ln x 6ft 7in
Mark Rothko,
, _ ^, ,
(2.34 x 2.01m).
,, ,
,
,„,„
Untitled, 1969. Acrylic
. ,
on canvas,
Two yeai> later tin- Nniirl l*ri/.--W innin- l-cn ni-,|

Photograph by AIMozelUourtesy Pace Golleo., New York e 1994KoteRothko-Pr,zel&
Yia.-.silv LeOlltiel' a-kfll Hnlllkn m CM-nilr a ininal lor llif ChnstophefRolhko/ArtisIs Rights Soc,ety(ARS), New Yorl
private (liiiiiiir-ronin o| llarxanl- |in--ni:inii- >iiiii-i\ nl
Fellows, wllicll I.t lifl rliain-il. Hmlikn lit-Lian llif I laiAanl

imiials ill Deceiiilifi \'U)] ami i iini|ilf nil llnin williin a
year. Tlie-f miiiaU liii.-t.Jc". lumiifil hm-i ilif rflali\fl\
small louiii.ami ilif ifiMi-li liackiîniiml- willi ilaik
fonn.s over them iifaifil an air nl -niiilifr -ilfiicf, I hf

orange rectaiisrles in llif Ifll [laiifl lia\f a iii\ -If imi- iriil- i
esceiice. The iniiral- inniinamlfil llif -iiaff i|infll\. f\fii
passivelv at hi-i. ami -i-i a iniilf iii|iliui\ f imif. Bin liflnw

the surface -lillm-- llif\ -ffiii in xilirale willi ,iii\ifl\ ami
elemental foiif .
I he sea If nl iIh- I la i\ an innraU

I in if la i inn in iIh- niniii
follows from a di- \f ln|pinf nl. inilialfd |i\ Hnilikn ainiiml

1950. toward laiL.'er. more momiiiifiilal pn liiif-.
I realize tlmt liisUinnilh' llie fiiiic/ioii of //iiintinw laiye

pictures in /)(iiiiliiiii soiiictliiiiix rrr\' grdndio.se (uk/ po/ii/ions.
The reason 1 paint them. hoirerer—I think this apphcs to
other painters I knoir — is precisely hec(uise I n(uit to he rerv

intimate and human. To paint a small picture is In place
yourself outside your experience, to look upon (in c.ipcnencc
as a stereopticon rieir or irith a rednciiiij: islass . . . I Iniceicr
vou pcuitt the huiicr picture. \i>ii arc in it. It isn I soiiicthiiiLi'
*
yon comm ind.
Like Newnil.Hi. Hnihkn w anifil In- painlini:- In I if -i-c n I mm

115
David Smith and the Sculpture of the New York School
.iinnii>-ioii Inr allinlir cluiin-l in liiiii-inn. In prestisiioii^' MarilicinniL'li (.all.ix Kxik liiin mi. Siill he fell
iiinial I :i (
;,,lilitii>ii ilii- i.M- an<l ail ol caiK ( liri-.naiiii\ am.iind tiaj)]i(Mi and re>ll<--~. In ilif -iniiii: i<\ \'>U~ he -nnk into a
Hiillikd lic.aiix- iIk-v cmlHidicd a -uniilu ii\ iil taitli. Typi- deep melaiiclioly and a year laier he had an aneiiiiMn ol'lhe
.allv. eaiiv reli'.Mon> painiin<:- ê.in {•> w-r die same sym- anrra. 1 lis mood was hiaek. Dniini.' iii-s last years he did many
nietry. lack ol'molion. -hallow d.pih and rirlHie- ol-ui lace iMilliaiiiU coloivd wdik-. ihotigh the somber tone of the
lo evoke medilali i a -|Miniial nalin dial iiaii-ceiid-. ildn-Kin iiniraU prc\ailcd fiir.4.29 . and after his heart
.ailliK ihoiiiiiii-. Dim- Mia\ liiid ..m-M-ll iran-poricd liy ailack in l''ii;', lie Marled paindllji predoniiiianiK willi
-lariii!.' into the rich iinaiit r- ol-hadow and Inii- in die (li-c|i acrvhc on papn, K,iiliko's mairiajie and emolional lilr
iiiiraniarini- nihr- of a iiicdii-\al \ ir-iii. jii-l a- niic can -Icadiix dcinidralrd diirillfi this |M-ii(Mi and llnalK nii
111 H.idiko^ -111. lie M-nllaiini: field- ol colui. Bin Koiliku Icluiiarx 2'). I Td lie look his own lilc.
cleared a\\a\ all ivvciiinalion- (ilChjccl- 111 ireale a i:raiid. In 77/c llirlli nf Tniiifdy a key work loi Kulliko
lia<:ic silence. I'riedricli \icl/-clic iinlcd llial I he Greeks "dex .loped llieir
In die laic -piiiii; nl I'ili4 H.nlik.i received die coinnii-- iii\ -lical docinnc- olarl lliroiiuh |)lausible P//;/>o(/////cn/.v. iioi
,i.iii Iniiii .lohii and I )..iiiniM |iie ile Meiiil lo paiiil a -el ol ilinninli |iiiiel\ means."" Nietzsche cho-c die
c.iiice|.liial
mural- loraiioclauonal chapel in l|nii-i,.ii. I lei e lie had e\ en ( .reek deilie- \pol|.and Dionysos to "emhod) ili- po-iiilale
>
"
L'realer ci.iilrol .i\er llii' -elliiii; Inr die painline- iliaii al niaii inherenl diiali-ni in die human psyclie — on die one -ide
llaixaid. hi-( lipiioii- ol die Maiion- oj die (lo- were cliao-. dis>ohilion. and excess the "Dionysian" in perpe- i
phinnc.l lor die oiii-ide wall- ol die . hapel and ilii- -el die tiial tension with the perfecrion of haniiony. individuation, and
lone lor Uoiliko- concepi ol die nnnal- In \\ir winieiof re-traini the ".Vpolloiiian" on die other. Greek trajzedy.
'
I ii-
l'i|)-( he laid a paiacliiii.' o\ ei iln' -k\ 1il:Iii ol In- -indio in argued, merged die iwo in an eternally conflicted whole.
crealc a -a<-ral light. Ilieii he heeaii work on the painting-. In Rodiko'-woik from U)-t9 to 1970 the veiy sim|plicii\
ii-iiiL' a single, nearh Mack recianele on a hackground of of die radicalK pared down smictiire provides an awe-
daik maroon. The piii|ili-li nil of die mural-, wliidi in-piiiiiL; maieiial eiiihodimeiit of "a single tragic idea." A
deepened h\ die iiiiie he fini-lied ilieiii loan aliiio-i lilack oil Hoiliko paiiiiiiii: 1- iioi a picture of 311 experience, it is an
"
Mack paleiie. w a-, a- r)oiiiiiiii|iie de Mend w role, die color e\peiieiici' '
Hoihko's compositional foniiat niaiiilaiii- a
elecied lo hiiii- lii- paiiiiiiii;- lo ilieii iiiaviiiiiiiii poii:iiaiic\' leii-e ei |iiilil iriiiin lieiweeii the fofces of disintegration and
a- he -aid... a- if he wvre hrin-ini: n- on die dnv-liold .if preci-e ileliiiii ion. lie unified these drives into a single
iran-ciaidence.''' W orkiiii; iiic— aiiiK . lie i . mipliieil die -i\ li-iic -\ -leiii. Inn deliberately avoided reconciling them.
niiiral c\ cle in !''()". dioiiiili die in-lallaii lidni lake Tlie oh-iinaie. iiiiiiio\aMe presence of Rothko's paintings
plai e iiiiiil Febrnarv ITI. a \ ear alier hi- deaili. pii-lie- die \iewii oiii on his or her owii. face to face with
H\ die 19(i0s Rothko had aclncM-d financial -,ciiiii\ fiindanienial. nnre-oUed. ouiological cpîesdons. Free of "the
and a prodigious reputation. Presideiii- keniiedx an. I lolin- familiar." he wroie. . .. traiiMeiidental experiences become
-on iii\ iied him to their inauguration le-ii\ me- and lo dinner posîble . . . Picliirc- niii-l be miraculous. . .a revelation, an
al die While House: in 19bl the \lii-emii of Modern .\rt gave unexpected and iiii|Mecedeiiic(l resolution of an eieinallv
him a major relio-peiiive: and in die fall of I'Xi.'i die familiar need."""

pa II lei -of die New '^
oik ^clioiil. die -ciilploi- al-o i?iii |)a\iil >iiiilli 111 emergewa-lli II -landing sculpmr
Like 1 1 II- I
-111 fled I heir locii- ill die lale loiiie- lo die iniplicai ion- of from I
and aulomal-
hi- -hill low aril e\i-ienlial introspection
-nrreali-i anioniaii-ni and lo e\i-ieiil iali-ni. lieodore Ho-- 1 i-m anions die arii-i- of die New York School at the end of
/ak. lor example, abandoned hi- maclnne-aee con-iiiiciix - World War II. Indeed in die next two decades he successfully
i-m for ex|ire— ionisiicallv handled ab-iraclion- in bronze. realized die ge-mral spontaneity of the acnon painters in an
-ire-iiii; Ibram Lassaw began binldini; up

-iibjeclivily. ixieii-iM' body of welded sculpture [figs. 4.33-4.43].
iiiibb\ accrei ion- of -iirface texture on iimiili\el\ a--embleil riiion-li die free a--oiiaiion of fonns. his work from 1952
linear -in id me- of welding rods. Seymour Liplon- ii-e of a iiiiiil hi- imiinieK dealli in 19b5 defined it-self in the process
-|ialial aiinaiinea-astagesetforbiomorphicabsiracl form- of con-lrin lion. W elding made this technically po.s.sible. by
in -iicli work- a- Ini/irisoncd Fiiiiirc bi;.4.3() i- indebted to permiliing die arli-i lo fabricate his pieces cjuickly and to
\lberiii (.lac eiii - -iirreali-l cage- bg-LU and the work in an im]Mo\ i-aiional manner: he could e.xperiment
p-\chologicalb charged bioiiior|ilii-iii of Maiia dig. 5.3 . with form- and remove or alter them at wnll. "I do not work
Hie dreamlike mutanons of figure- in die -inieali-t bronzes wiili a i on-cion- and specific convicrion about a piece of
of Max Kriist rfig.4.31 informed die -ciilpline of die young -cnlplme.' he cxiilained in 1952. "It is always oiien to
\iiierican David Hare and ina\ linger beliind die fieiiral change and new association. Ii -lionid be a celebralion. one
pre-ence of Herbert Ferber's welded, gestural abstractions of siirpri-e. mil one rehearsed.
a-well ni;.4.321. In addiiion die directness of fabricated -cul]iliirc —
116
|iiiinili\r lc\rl 111 Ills JH'in;;. I Ic saw ii a- a pionrTriiiL:. cxisicn-

lialisi (id\ssc\ dial evoked lui I die \iiieiiiaii Ininliei
ni\ ill. \il. lie said, is die law sinjl w Inch eoine- In. in , . .
aeo|essi\ eiiess 1 1\ men wild i;iil dial wax IiliIiiiiii: lor
sill \ i\ al. I le e\ en saw die maleiials dieniseU e- a- enil ije-
nialie ol niasenliniu ami ol die inaeliine aê— die meial

ilsell |Miss,'ssi-s . . . assiM-ialiiins . . . Ill iliis ci-iiiiir\: pnwer.
sii iiriini-. iiiiix enieiii. |inii;ress. siis|ieiis|, m. luinaliu
'''
—
and lie fell dial all had In eiiL'a;;e lliis laiiL;naee ol die
niaeliine ni order lo express an andieinie expi-rienee o|
die preseiii.
I lei man ( llel l \ , ,l close 1 1 lend of -sinilll s, ( liaiaelen/eil
liiiii as "a sensual man w nil \ asi appeliles \\ h,, In- hi m ilie
lieoi's ol a nionasiii lile in In- work. l\picall\ "-1111111
wonlil work III isolalioii on In- lariii m iip-iaie \ew \oik

lor iiiondi- al a lime and dieii. aceordin^ lo In- Irieiiil
Holierl Modleiwell, li,- would collie down lo \ew \ oik ( li\
lor a lew ila\ s 10 |ia\ e a roiisni;: i;ood lime '
.smidi > I arm

ea\e Inm holli die pli\s|ial and p-\clii( s|,ace lo work,
lull die loneliness could a so liecome o\ erpow I erillL; \ I one-
ness, lie once complameil. |s die I oiidiii I die aillsi s
"
( |i-all\e life,
4.31 Max Ernst, The King Playing with the Queen, 1 944. Bronze
(cast 1 954, from original plaster), 38"2in (97.8cm) high, at base
18'4 20'2in(47.6 ^54cm).
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of D. and J, de Meml, c 1994 Artists Righis Society
(ARS), New York/SPAOEM/ADAGP, Pons.
4.30 Seymour Lipton, Imprisoned Figure, 1 948. Wood and sheet-

lead construction, 84 <
4 > 30' e - 23^ sin (21 5.3 - 78.4 > 60cm), including
wood base, 6' e x 23 Ve x 20V8in (1 5.5 x 58.7 x 51 .1 cm).
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gih of the ortist.
imlike hioiize casting — iflaini"<i liu' (Imniiianii- n\ ilir
artisl'^ liaiid in ail aspect.- of llic wcik. I .ikc am aii-i
s|M)nian»'it\ . the personal trestiiic nl iIh- aiii-i iiaij lucdrnc an

ini|iin-tant issue to artists of ilii- Li.-Ti.iaiinri. tm wlioni ii
siunailefl aiillienlicit\ .
"11 ir -ciiliinin- wml i~ a -laiciiicni nl
\n\ i(ientil\'." Smilli -aiil. ii i^ |iari ipI iii\ \\ni\-. -inain.

relatetl to lil\ past work-, llic lliicr ny luiii in pidi ess and ilic
work Vfl lo conic, in a scii-c it i- ncxrr llnislird. ()nl\ dn-

essence is stated, the key pi-esenicd \n die lirlmldrr Im
"""
Inrtlier lra\el.
Like I'oilnck and others in their ciiclr >rniili s,inL:hi
the paiticiilar (nith of encounteiinL' hiiiiscll at dn- nm-i

117
Dovid Smith and the Sculpture of the New York School
Smith's Initiation into the Art World

îiiiili \\,i- I". Ill III I'MK. Ill Dicalin. IikIkiiui. His
DîMil
lalll.T lIKIIIilL'rcl llli- luial llli li-| irm Iclll l,-|c|iliullr ciini-
[lain. Tlir a|-li~l ii-inciiil icrrd liiiii a- a wcfkriiil imriilor.
and inilrrcl ''illilli had dir liii| iiv>-ii m Iniiii rliililli I dial
i'\cr\oiii- ill iiiwii -ci-iiifil III lir iiiM-nliiii: car- and ndu-r
iiiacliiiii-- and di-\ ire-, "^midr- nniilirr \\a- an an-lrrr
\li-ilindi~i -.dHMilicacliiT. (iliM'-M'il widi rr-iMTialiilily and

in-nllini^ di-(i|ilini\ In ci m-i'illuMire Smith rclirlli-d \ idlrndy
ai:ain-i andmriu all hi- hh-. Hi~ s^randinudirr pnixidi-d a
rrhii^r tidin hoinr and ihc ilhi-iiaiinii- in iht- Bible lliai -hi-
L'avf him -rem u< ha\r to-n-rrd hi- wi-h Inmi an early ai;e m
he an aili-i.
\iiri\ iwciiiN -line '^milli wem hi \i-\\ \(irk. wiiere he

-riidied ai die \rl Mndem- l.eaiine Irnm P'-J"" m 1'':'i'-2 and
un ( 1 III -I ma- l.\i- ul dial lir-l veai' manieil Dnindn Delinei-.
a h-lliiw -liideni. Mindi di-eovered the wnfk- nf Fica>-ii.
Kandiii-kv. Moiidrian. and tlie R^l^îaIl con-.ti-iictivi-t-. in
<la->es with Jan Matulka. wlm had -iiidied with llidmann.

Alt 111 HI di Smith wa- a |iaintinj:- -ttidenl. not a -rnl|it(if.
Matnlka enn miaiieil him to experiment with n-Mnie- and

leliel. IhriiiiLih Iriend- at the League, ^midi met Jnhn
Craliam. wlm in imii intrndui-ed him tu a widrf riicle iit
arti,-t^. ineiudini: Stiiaft Da\i-. Ai-hile (.mkv. W illem de
Kooning, and Milton Aven . (.laliam - lre(|nent navels to
Ft-anre. his libfaiT of vansitaiil ait jmniial-. and hi- contarts
with Knrii|iean afti-t- iifnvided a conduit of information

aliout advanced art for Smith, a- it did for Oorky. de
Kooning, and later I'ollock.
It was around l'».'-)() that Smith -aw reiirodiiction- of
welded -ciil|iiiirr liv Picasso and Gonzalez in i— tie- o1
Oi/iiiTs (I' \il. which lielonged to .lohn Graham, "l learned
that art wa- liiini: made with -teel — the material and
machine- tliai had iireviou-ly meant only lalior and earning
|)ower.""' he recalled. was the sculpture of .lulio Gonzalez
It
that inspiredSmith to buy welding equipment in 1^32. But

working Brooklyn apartment, he kept setting fire to the
in a
curtain- and to drawings on the walls. Then one day on a

walk bv the dock- he ran across a run-do-«ii structure called
theTei'minal Iron W orks. inhabited by r«o Irish blacksmiths
named Blackburn and Buckhom. Siuith aiTanged to rent
>paee from them and made his first series of welded heads
there in 1033. He felt so much at home in this environment
that he continued to call his studio the Terminal Iron \^ orks
exfii after he abandoned dte dock and moved permanently

up to hi- farm at Bolton Landing.
Like so manv of his contemporaries in New \ork during
the thirties. Smith struggled to assimilate the lormal lan-
iitiase-, of cubism and. begiiming in 193~. Itiomoiphic
surreali-m. In Construction on a Fidcmm [fig.4.33j the Hat
4.32 Herbert Ferber, The Flame, 949. 1 Brass, lead, and soft
solder, 16 10 > lOin (40.6 2.54 2.54cm).

Collection. Whitney Museum of Americon Art, New York. Purchase.
118
al>strai-| >lKii>f> and tlie huuiikt in wliicli llic ci)m[iii-iii(iii

The Aesthetic of Machines and the
niainiaiii> ivt'ereiu-e loa [licliiif [ilaiif — willi a li\iil \ iiw iiii;
|iiisitioii ami a tleliherate ainltiiiiiity i)etxM'i'n iwn- aii<l ilm-i-- Unconscious

ilinit-iisioiial ^pace — come (liifClly tVoin ciihi^l lun^liiHliiin^
ilir riiil III ihr ihirlie- Smith began to inli-grate real
lit U'lJ til UM-+. Conslructinn on (i Fiilrnim wax-- ilir Aiiciul- wa>hers — into
vii'wt-r l)\ rnakiiii: tlie ?]»liere at tlie apex a|i|icai- Hat in tin-
— phcr~. wrenrlii-, his ab-.tract
linear elenieiiis — and Sniiili^

-cnlplure-, I lie l(inl> had an e\(icali\e -ignilicance a-
coniext of the [ilaiiar aiifl
emblem- ol the indn-lrial world. \ et their pre-ence onK
sculptine iie\er lost this roiiiiertioii to the pictint- plane.
exaceiiialed ilie i liiii- liii-iiMl\ inwani welding a> a new
The Miiseinn ot'Nh>ileni Art s stiinnin<: |ania--iie Art.
fine-arl leclini(|ni'. lie riilir Im ( iic -nidelv relerred to
Dada. and Siineaiisni exhibition of Decenihei- 1''.'^() and
1
"'
>iiiidi - l''-K) -liiiw a- 'êwer Pipe ^ruljilure. while a
iannarv l'*-'?~ tinned the lieads of nearly exerymif in die
w ri 111' 1(11 /;///( ile-ciilieil ii a- |ihinil)ing dial lia- -ur\ i\eii a
\e\\ \ork art world. Smith embarked on a decadi'-iuni:
In addiiiim inaiiv ol
r(iiillai;ialinii" in an ailirle entitled ".Screw ball \il.
exploration of >iirreali?in after >eeinL' it.
whom Smith asMiciated in the late thiriie- — in (he earix toriie- Smith ex|ieriiiienleil w iinlaiiini
illi -
llie arti^t> with
not lea;.t Polloek. whom he met in 10;^~ — were incriM-iiiL'K
pliic all-traction, indebted to Pica— o- and Mim - linun- nl
l"2~ III l');{;5 ;fig-..'x2() and ..,2" likr ihiin -iniih

and
.
in\(il\ed in p.-vchological iiitrospertioii i-.-.ne-- ot pre-

pre-er\ ed a clear connection to -ource- in liu- cm. riial world.
sence and ?elf-di?covei-\ . The death of SniilhV iaih<'r in
^ el he ll-ed die llIK ( ill-cioll- a- a tool to I lail-tollll tile
Vnutist \'-K¥) mav also have heiirhteiied the emeiirence nl
-iilijeci. anil iIk' impact of -urreali-t dream iinagei\ i-
more inwardly reflective content in Smith ^ wmk. I.arU in
exidiiit, >iiiilli relerred to Fi'end a- 'tlie greale-t single
I'l.i}] Marian W iliard nave Smith his first oiie-uKiii -how ai
inllueine (111 the theoretical side ot art. providing an
her Ka>i Ri\cr (iallerx. This provide,- a roii<:h lienchmark
analxlii al -\-lein for estal)lishing the reality of the iincoii-
afterw hich Smith entered nearly six years of preoccupation
-cidii- . . Iiiiiii which the artist derives his in-piratioii.
'
with idea> iirsj)ired by the sinreaiisls and the -.inreali-t-

.
\\ liai -eeiiied iiiipiirlanl was the subject mallei ol the

inllnenced woik of Picasso fig. -t. JO (ionzalez. iiarcinietti.
j
. (
imcdii-cidii-. w liicli >mitli recognized as part of the ideiiiil)

and Miro. who were all represented in that -imw at the
(if the arli-1.
Mtr-eum of Modern Art.
llie iiii|)erati\ ( Im -ncially relevant. iii-tiiicli\c. or
edifving subject niattcr in the thirties led to a wide-pread
mistrust of both -iiireali-m and abstract art a- e-capi-i.
Smith -poke oni \ehementlv on behalf of abstraction: "The
and socially
great majoritv of abstract artists are anti-fascist
'"
c(iii-ci(iii-. he in-i-ied. Fnilhennore he mafle fifteen
antiwar "Medal- foiDi-honor" at the end of the thirties, with
-nbtitle- like Tlw ( Oopcration of the C/winand II iirLicni/)!
Sons i)f the Hull, in a -tvie that blended e.\pressioni-in with
ii-i(iiii-iic -iiiicali-m.
4.33 David Smith, Construction on a Fulcrum, 936. 1
Steel, 14^ 17in (35.6 X 43.2cm).

Col leclion, Willard Gallery. © Estate of David Smith/VAGA, New York, 994. 1
119
4.34 David Smith, Helmholtzian

Landscape, 1946. Steel, painted
blue, red, yellow, and green,
IS'e X 17^-8 > 7' sin
(40.3 X 44.8 X 18cm).
Kreeger Museum, Wosliington, D.C. © Estate of
David Smitti/VAGA, New York, 1994.
Ill I III- ^prinL: nl I ''-HI llir ^lililli^ iimx i-d |icriii;iiii'iil l\ In -I'l a -iriiii: nl I'lfi'U dflincil ali-lrarl Inriii- in a Iraiiir.
llir hniii ill Hiiliiiii I .aiidiii;:. (Ic>|iilr il^ nii liiiii-|iUil\ ;iliiriii- -r|iaial ini; dirin inln an illii-inni-lir |ii(lnrial -|iaii- a|parl
iir-. \ii\iiiii- ill I liciiiL: iIliIii'iI. îiiilli liiiik a ilrlrrralilc Irnlll till- rral -|iarr ai iinild ihi'lll. \l ihr -aim- liiiir lir ili-lini'd
|i'li ill l''-t_' (III ihr all-llilllll ^lllll at llir Alllcl icall l.iiciillKi- dii- linidci ill Hal |ilaiir- and niTanir rnnlniir- dial i;i\r llir
li\i- ( llll||M||\ ill ,TllCIIITlil(l\ . wIlCIC III- llllill llM(llll(lli\l'- iiii|irr--iiiii 111 a draw iiii; mi a Iwn-iliiiU'ii.-iniial -iirlarr and
aiiil \l-~ lank-. Tlii- iHil MiiK i-iilalrd .'îiiilli tnnil llic \r\\ dial ninniTi ii \ i-iiall\ In die imaginary world ii -iirriiiiiid>.
^ iirk -ii-iic. I ml iliiiiiii: lii- l\\ (i \i-ar- a I Viiii'i iiaii I .(icdiiid- I Ir riirlhrr hiiglilt'iiril llif ricliiiess of the realil) w illiiii ihc
liNr III- liail aliiiiiNi nil liiiir lur -riil|ii nir. Mrial \\a- lianl In rraiiir li\ |iainlinii tln' >l<'el frce-fonn-. in liridit colors.
I i III I aii\ w a\ . anil lie iliil riinlinnr In draw . Hiil in \'H-i lir In llclnihollzidi) ljiii(/scii/if Siiiilh civater! a fii'li lie rale
liiiindlir w a- inrdiralK iiiilil lor -ri\ in- and lir iinnii-i lialrK -((|llfiiir nl \i-iial |inii-: I hree-diineii-iniial fnrin- in real
i|nil die larldix. I Ir had -niiii- -a\illL:- l)\ llii- liiiir and -|iare creale an illii-i I Hal Inriii- in a |ii(iniial -|iaie: die
liiLiiilirr wiili linilii-r -ale- Irmn llir laiiil lir had riiiuiiili ilhi-inii iiT a [lirlni iai -|iaee in Mini refer- In a |iiel nrr. w liieli
iiiiiiii'\ 111 -Ian wiirk nil a m-w linii-r and -liidin. allriii|il- In rrrale llir nli|in-ili- illii-i f leal -|iaee nn a
Marian W illard L;a\ r Siiiilh rr;:iihir -Imw - in llir rnrlic- lwii-diiileii>iniial eaiiva.s. Even die iiierliaiii>lll w liiell si-par-
and liiii|Milaliiin Liirw. allliniiiih he- -.did \v\\ lilllr. In a alf- world- of real anil di|iirled -|iaee — the frame — is
llie
1 't-t-i ii'\ irw 1 1 II' (111 \ ((//(///.( Ici Ill-Ill (ireeiiberg wrnii- iliai ambivalently deHnnl a- hnih a real object (the frame)
it-elf
^lllilh Wiillld lirinlllr iillr ill Vlllfliia s iiTPatl'.Sl ui'ti-l- il he and ]iart of the ima<;iiiar\ laiid-ca|)e fas a drawing). The
kr|il ii|i dir |iarriil lii-di-\rl(i|iiili-|ll.' In l''-t.) ^niilli lilii\i-il 1 iiiii|p|e.\itvof the perce|)tual amliigniiic- are what make ihis
aw a\ In 111 I -iirirali-in li iw aid an alinii-l jiirinrial naliirah-ni a |i|-n|ier homage tn llelmholtz. On an eiilire-ly differeni
w nil Hal llllill- in a -liallnw in hi -I -| lan-. iii-| lirrd li\ -i mir nl le\rl. die wnrk ha- In dn with a di-eniir-e hctween rea-nii
l'l(a--ii'-. -in 1
1 111 I IT 111 1 1 ir lair Iwi-lllir-. and inliiilinii a- -\ lilbnlized in llii' -llidy nf liglii li\ the
."Miiilh {\l\i-<\ llr/m/ii,/lzniii Liiiii/siii/>c lii;.-t.:')4 hirllir seienti-l- I lelinhnll/ and ( he\ reiil a-iniii|iared In the exaiii-
imiiii'i-nih-rrnliirx ( .ri man -rirnli-l w Im w rnlr a |ii(inffriiit; inalinii nl lii;lii li\ die im|iressioiiisl jiainlers. wilh wliniii
"*
Ircati-r nil die |

ill\ -inlnv;\ nl |irrir|ilinll. In ihi- w ink Slllilh llir\ wen- iiiiileiii|inrar\ .
120
III l'*-f(i anil !''-+" >iiiilli -iilil ,1 trw >riil|iiiiii'>, ;iiiil in
Sc|Mrinli.T l"4.'; he lir-aii In- lii-l irarliiiiL; |"|i al âiali

l.auirnrr ( (i|lci;c. llirii all i'\i lii-i\i' unnirii - -i IhkiI m ihc
IkiIiiIILiIi- 111 \r\\ îilk ( Il\. Mr lalllilll lllrli- jnl I w i i \i-;i|-,
wlilli- al-ii -liiiiiiiliiii: \<> lini-li IhiiIiIiii^ In- lioii-c al Hnllini

lanilint; Iil;. -t..!') . I In- li li liii Ic i inir |, n ~( nl| ii ni c, am I lir
|i|(Mlnri'il iMiK lliii-r Will L- III I ami

"-(!'. -I'M '11 111 I
''4''. Ilicii
iwii -i'i|iirniial ( aiL:i:rnlii-iin award- in l''")ll ami l'l"il
mall In I Inni In w m k in I lir -I m Im lull liim- aîaiii am I In lua

llli-inalrnal-llr Mi-r,lr,l
The Pictograms and Hudson River Landscape
Snnlli Iiiniril alinn-I i'\rlii-i\rl\ in wrldiiiL; allri I'*")!! ami

lir im I ra-( -I I I hi' -call- nf hi- w ink ilrainaliralK . I li- w mk
III I'l.'.d ami I'l'il 1- ilniinnainl |i\ -cNcral lariir |iir,r- ilial
4.35 David Smith in his Bolton Landing studio with Detroit Queen,
c. 1962.
4.36 (below) David Smith, Hudson River Landscape, 951 1
Welded steel, 49' 2 x 75 ' Id^în (125.7 x 190.5 x 42.5cm).

Coileclion, Whilney Museum of Araencon Art, New York. Purchase. © Estate of Dovid
Smilh/VAGA, New York, 1994,
121
David Smith and the Sculpture of the New
look lilv-e "flraw-iiigs" in steel liin- llndsnn Hirer LuiuUmpe

'fi2:.4..'i0 . measiiriiii; o\er -ix tcci aiross. capiiires the
leeliii'; of a rolliim iiorllieasteiii laiiiiMa|M-. Ii i- Hat. iiaria-
li\e. and lias a weiglnless lack (it'snil|(liiial \iilniiir; iii-leail
il evokes a |iictoiial illusion in a shallow ctiliist space.

Seen I'roni the side. IIikIsoii Hirer Lciiuiscd/ie di--
a]i|M*ai"s. Sniilh (oncei\cd die [ilerr widi a -ini;ii- vifwiiiL'
|Mi-.ition in niin<l an<l linle aciiial dr|Mli lie |Mr -i-linil\
|ila\ed w idi I lie idea iil ihi fr-diini'li-inii;d Innii- dial deiilaii-
ilfd 1(1 lie read ill I w i i-diiiieiiî(i| lal m |iiiliirKil lerill-.
dm- e|ll|ill;i-l/llli; -cc-llli; iiMT el IliaiiniL; lllr -il ll |

il II re
|ih\-irall\. eiiliri |i\ loiichiiiL; or walkini; around or iiihi il.
Mii- trait ehafaetefize,- a inajoiiix oT >iiiiili - w mk- riiilil lo
die end of his eai"eer.

lo die extent thai IIikIscju Hirer l.tni(lsr(i/>e look- like
die (oiiioiir- ot a >tiunl l)a\i- |iaiiilinii t'ig.3.1.'5 . il al-o
i-edeii-. >niitir-- [ler-eM-iiiii; coniMM lion lo ciilii-.m. Bin
in-lead of i-|iani.'ing die |ii( inn- |ilaiii- iiiIm -rnliiliired relief
111- inserted the equation and rliaiiiird dn- nal Miliiiiie iil
-iiil|ilnre into a j)ielure space. B\ ilii- nine 'înidi knew dial

|ireci-.el\ ilii-- fii-ioii of \iiiericaii iiuK lime iechni([ne-. his
|iii-o(inpalioii with lonU mid w eld mi: and l,uro|)ean cubist

Had i lion' weie not oiil\ accoimialili- fill die new fieedoiii in
.iiil|iiiiie iiiakini;. a- he |iiii ii. Inn dial ii ron-mnied the
-IN li-iic core of hi? identity a- an aiii-l. I leie I am lalkiiie
alioiil diiecl metal constftlction-, he weill on; "... die new

inediod i- a--eiiihle the whole li\ addini; il- imil part- an . . .
indii-liial concept, the ha-i- of aim nm il iile and machine

asseniliK .
'
Looking out of the train w indow . >iiiidi made hmidreil-

of drawings of the Hudson \ alle\ w liile ciimmminL' heiw eeii
Hohon Landintr and Sarah Lawiem e ( ulleee m ]'Hi'> and

I'H'*: UikIhoh Hirer Landsctipe -\ndie-i/e- die leelini; ol
iliai iiicinrescpie jouniev. The vastne>- and roinance ol die
\iiierii an landsca])e. and in particular l/iis land-cape with
11- oli\ nineteenih-cemmy ]iaiiiie-i- ol
nui- association to the 4.37 David Smitti, Tonkiotem I, 1952. Steel, 90-39-16' 2in
die llnd-on Ri\er School, are theme- ihal -Imw >initli lo (228.6-99 ^ 41.9cm).
lia\e lieeii pai'I of a classic American iradilion. he 1 Colleclion, Art Institule of Chicogo. Gift ot Mr ond Mrs. Jay Z Steinberg c: Eslole of Dovid
Smith A/AGA, New York, 1 994.
-iilijime" — a- exoked in the hreathtakiiii! \i-ion- ol the
llnd-iin Hi\ei School and earnestly debated li\ \ewinaii.
Ivillikii. and .iiitlieli a Imiidred year- later — w a- indeed an
(
imdei l\ mi; llieme in tlii- -ciilpinre li\ .'--iiiidi. A- an expres- An Existential Encounter with the Materials
-II III- w illillL'Iie-- to lake on die bill diellie-. it is also a
I
at Hand
mea-ine ol hi- arii-iic -ell-conlideiice.
\roiiiii| l'i.")(l Mnith had beeiiii to look for liinele— .

111
die work- of l''.")!.! >mitli became preoccupied with
L'landei dieiiie-. (.ottlieb got him inlere-ied in jiictograni-. mtemic figures — an interest to which Pollock liafl then also
with which >iiiith e.\|)eriniented in Narioii- works of f^'-Sd returned. In realizing these works. Smith eniployeii more
and 1
'*")!. Smith s interest in the origins of language and by found objects and made few preparatoiy drawings. They
P'oli ill totems came out of the search for a universal involved a huge increase in improvisation with the materials
ciinieiii. The notion of pure \ isibilitv and of communication at hand, beiau-e tliev evolved through free association.
ihiiiiieh \i-ual forms that precede language mav have been Here Smith ;uieinpted a kind of sculpuiral collage in found
ciinnecied 111 ilie iran-iiiiin in Smith's scul|iime Inini tin- and coinri\ed machine parts and industrial materials that
pi cine ra pi lic leller- in -en I] lime- of lO.lO and 1''.')l . ilininiili i- indelited to the formal traditions of cubist collage
die picioriali-m of Hudson Hirer l.iinilsin/ii-. lo die iniin- and construction.
• lireci tiite-mic figin-e? of lO.'i-J like the -ciiljiture- of die In tliesecoiii()o?ilioii> Smith achiexed a mtal harinony oi'
\L'ricola and "Tanklotem -erie- lii;. -+.-')" ,. personal ideiiiil\ and -l\ le.W'herea- the wmk-^ of l'»."il and
122
i-arliiT inailc- iiianilV-sr lii- i\|pl(iraliiiii dl iiiniifiiccs IVom

iiiliiî ri'lii-f. >iiii<'alisiii. il \|Mr->iiiiii>l Pica----(>. ami
tiitlllifl)'^ |ii(IOiria|)li--. in llii- \\ork> lliat I'dlldwi'd. llir Inn r
(if Siiiilir> |it'rstiiialii\ i'iiin|pli'icly Iraiix-criilcd \i')- --(luiii--.
Iâcli pit'Ct' (•(MHiT'' nil an i-\|ili naliMii oT ilir aili-l - idi'iililx
a- in till' i-i)iil('in|iiirar\ wmk- nl ilr kn.iinni;. Pdllnck. nc

|{olllku. Ah i,|o|,l,'ill i~ Id hr al.ir Id |,M,k r\,T\ ( kn and id
|pri'-- m\ liniilalidii-- ln-\dnd ilirii i-ndinaiur. Iir idid
Kallifiiiii' Kiili ill l'>()(). 'W hal an- ilif-c liinilaiidii-r -In-
a^ki'd. "Tlii'v re inc.

riif ranklolciir' and ".\i:ri<dki
'
|iicir~ arc ilir lir-i dl
llif iiiori' tliaii fil'lciMi dit'l'crcin niiniliricd -fiic^ in wliicli
SiMJdi ht'gaii Id wink in l'*")^: iiraiK all dl In- -.cnl|ilini--.
IVum this |idint niiwanl lia\i- -fiif- liilr-. Icir >iniili a -.i-iii->
\\a- iidt a ]ii'oiirt'»i\<' or s\>teinatic cNiildralinn d( a sinsiic

dii'iiif. I)in ralluT a siimif niiiod. He ncaiK al\\a\- worked
on |(ie((v-- in several series al one time and iiio-i dlien rlie
coileili\e titles felate ro tile materials: in die '

rankldieni
piece- he ii-ed steel tank heads, which he didcied Irom a
siaiidaid catalog: Airiicola.
"
whiell is Latin lor '(aiiiier.
desisiiates a i.n-dii|i nl wdik- Imilt with tVasnient- of tanii
iinpleineiit>: die \lliaii\- incorporate hea\y steel |)late
purchased from the and Iron Supply. In a few-

Mliaiiv Steel
case- Smith named a -erie- in relation to some general

feelini;. a- in the liirdlike Ra\eii-" or tile '•Sentinels." which
i.'i\ e the imprc--idn nl an iinnidliilc fii:iirc at alleniidii.
Career Success and Personal Sacrifices
SMinli cdinpl.-li-d J.'.O -cnlplnie- l.etwe,-n 1 "oH and I'Xill.
iw(i-and-a-half times tiie niimiier he made d\ci die
I
)ri'cedinu decade. He dro\t' himself as if In- had m li\e up in
( .reeiihersi'- predicti f 1'^'4.>. that he Wdiild he die

uieate-t -ciilplor in the I iiited >tates. But the pei-diial
-acrifice- were great. Hi- aniliitidn had made him iik lea--
ingdv difficult to live with. In- nncdiitrollaiile temper had
gotten worse, and he had heeii havitig an affair widi a

student from Sarah Lawieiice when DoroiliN leli. tlii- time
for-dod. onThatik-givingDaydf \'>r^n.
\\ diries ahdiil finance-, al-d re-infaced when In- two

i:rant- ran out: despite hi- lhhw ini; inlenialidiial repinatidii
he still sold very little. In a iidieiindk of die eail\ filtie- he
widte "...nothing ha- heen a- great or as wondeiliil a- 1
en\ i-idiied . . . It wmilil he nice to not l)e so Idne-dine

sometimes — monili- pa-s withotit even the actpiainlance dl a
niiiifl so much work to he done — it comes too la-l id ;.'ei

. . . it
flown in solids- too little lime, too little mdne\ ...Id -.lay
ali\e longer— \e -lipped I iij) on time— ii all didii l get in.
.lean f teas, the woman Smith had liei.nin to -ee ai ."ârah

l.awri'iice in I'H''. \\a- tweiitv when die\ mei. hmitli was
4.38 David Smith, Construction with Forged Neck, 1 955. Steel,

76'. 13 8= am (193.7x33^21 .9cm).
•
Collection, Eslole of David Smith. Photogroph courtesy M. Knoedler & Co., New York, c: Estote
of DovidSmllh/VAGA, New York, 1994.

123
liirix -ilmi-. 'l'lii-\ nuiniid (in V|)ril (). l''")^! ami liail iwo soiinc inr llior ('ii;iirali\r sciilpliires of the titties and
ilani:lili'i~ ami I'M') in I'I'i;! lln- inaiiiaL;r Ino
in \'>'H : >i\(if^. Tlie JaMi-r rdiiclnîoti is also sugfiestefl hy Stllilli's
came a|iail, li\ lii- am- ilii' unl nm uf ^mil li^ w oik ami
I I Hminina: Danishtcr. a limiial |iic(r IVdiii llic laliM' lillir-.. lor
laircr liail aircln and, (li-|iilc lii> ic|iiilali jicilli; I \\iiicli llie soiir<-t' is w c-ll kmiw n ni lia\ c 1 icrii a |illi il(iLiia|ill iil
ililTlinll 111 (Iral Willi. In

\'>'~ llir Mn-rinn nl In n \il Mm lii> llnvc- in riinr-\ rai-nld (langlller.
i;a\ r liini a iinr-nian Îmw nl lliiiM -Iniir -riil|ilinr^. ami li\ ' Hiisl niclKiii inlli Ftiriicd \rrk i~ I mill a mil ml llir laiuc
llir mil 111 I In- \rar In- inriinir hail ipiai lin|ilril. in iliri- a I llir iiiiiIsitI inn. W illi \\^ Imii; -kiiin\ Irii. lall iii'ik.
ami liii'i lirail, -ri-inlii-lailil il llirnin -rll-rnii-rii in-m-'~s
, ,_ 11 ,,, ,
.
I
ami rmhana^-inriK. hi- -iilijiTl I nl llii- w ink a|i| ii-ar-- n i I ir
The Figural Presence and the Work of the „ ,,„ ,,i ,. n naiiis Mnti^ i nnk i i in ni -ii
"" ami inim iiKrinrnl w ihr lirnniniilmi i;ilU
Lost DpCnde 'riillinnr- ilh
in llir liliir^ ami -i\lir- -rrill |irilinrllt In llic rhaiaiirr iif
111
I ''"i-t. w lull- Sinilh was li-arhini; a- a \ isilini; |
nnrr-sin' a( siirh w inks.
I In- I iii\rrsil\ 111 Imliana in lilniinnnLilini. Ill I I an iinii The i rial ii I Sinilh's si iil|ilinr In his lilr i-\|iriiriiri- is
winks rallril >rwaril ami ( niii|iaii\ w lirir llii-\ Irl hiiii wmk |ian nl' w ha I L;i\rs his wmk alii-|- I
•••")! surh liilal rniiv id inn.
nil a |iiiwrr Iniur. Tin- '
T m iiini^s, " inailr al lliis InnmliN in " \v[ lii-lnii- iii\ linn-. Iir innarkril. '
... is liisiin\ r\|ilain-
raiK I''.')"), air all anlliin|jinnin|p|iir w ilh a w is|i\ \i-rliralil\ iiit; |ias| lirlia\iin. hnl iinl iirrrssariK nlTriini: snlniiniis in
irininisirnl nl ihi- allennalril liiiiiii's nl' ( .iarmm-l I i lii;s. ni\ |

nnhlnns. \rl is mil ili\ m vn ll'i' lilr. Il is i lialrrl ir.
.").
I
•"')-•").
I " .' Siniir 111' llir I inL:inL:s' ha\r a Inlrnnr This si-iisr nf n nilinililN hrlwrrn all ami lilr is irflrriril
]iirsrnir — llir\ air "llir sa\arr iiliih n| liasir |iallriiis '
In IminalK ill Sinilh's inilrasini; rl'linl In rliininalr llir hasr

iisr Siiiiih s nwii Willi Is — anil lhr\ Inllnw I'lmii winks likr llir l'i- his sriil|iuiiv or In iiiiiii|iinalr il inln llir r |insiiinii.
••'iankiniriiis, (liliiTs -rrni imnr r\|iliiill\ lilrlikr. (On- as wril as fusing "real "
Innis inln ihr winks. Ill sr\rial nl ihr
slfiiil/iin mill Iniiifd \cik l'i;:
.
-+ . 'h'I . Inr r\ain|ilr. has ihr '
ranklolrnis" Smith sri ihr rigiirrs ilireriK mi llir iînnml.
a|i|iraliiii: aw kwanlnrss nl' a \iniii:; \i\v\. |iri lia|is a ilanirr. \\\ plai int; llir ywiv in llir viewer s real s|iarr iiisirail nl
M'iri >iiiilli s ilralli in I''!)") llir r\riiilnrs nf I lis rsial r I'l niiii I \ isiialK iiral iilg a s| larr a| larl l)\ llsiiltr a I >asr w hull sri\ rs
ami allri;rill\ ilrsiinxril a siark lit liililr |ihi ilnrra|)|is lir hail likr a liainr ill |iaiiililir . llir ailisi allaikril llir sr|iaialinn
lakrn nf Linls. |inihalil\ liniii iiraiii\ BrlinillLiInn (Millriir. Iirlw rrii all anil ihr \ir\\rr.
Sninr nl -s|ini||\ rnrmis lra|il 111 ihr rnmlnsinii ihal lir hail Sinilli siailnl ihr ( iiln
"
srnrs in l<»i)l li^s.-f.-tO. -t.-f 1.
lakrn llir |iii I inrs Im |n in irni iiral iliral inn. I ml mir w miilris am I 4.-t.'> . ami ilrs|iiir ilirir i;rniiirl i\ inan\ nl llirin aUn nain i
1 1
111- niiLlhl I II si rail lia\ r lirrii iisii|M ihr |
il ii nn;:ia| ills as a a lii:iliali\ r iharailrr. I Ir iiiailr lliis sriirs in siainlrss si rr I
-'?1S'-
4.39 David Smith,

VolfnX/;/, 1962. Steel,
64' 8 X 1033-4 >:26in
(162.9 X 236.5 X 66cm).

Collection, University Art Museum,
University ol Colilornio ol Berkeley Gift
ol Mr oncJ Mrs. Eugene E, Trelelhen, Jr.
ic-Estate of Daviij Smilh/VAGA, New York
124
|iarll\ to ;i\(>iil the nei'il [n |i;iiiii ^hhI lalxn inii^K iiKiiiilain
on I ill MM' work tiiat was mlinw i-^r |iioni' in i ii-i \r\ri iluli--^
Smilli iliil also paiiil --omi- -iiiliitiin^ in kriii ilimi linni

riistiiii;. ami lo soint' cxtiMil lin' liimii-lniiL; ol iIh- -lainli'--
siffl in I lie "('ul)i' iraNe iliein a I nn -I in mi I l.i.ik w Im li. like
liainlini: the pieees. |iii-loiiaii/ril ihriii \hl l:Ii Sinilli
cmild Weill ^taillle~- ~lril in' ilid iml lia\i- llnii|lll| illiriil li>
("lit it: eoiisequentix he hail lo milrr ihc \oliiiiii> |ii(laliii-

eaied anil since irrei;iilai -lia|M-. win- imi iiMihK a\ailal>le
ffoni tiie I'oinineiiial -ii|i|ilirr- •îiiiili ~ -laiiili-- -irrl -(iiiii-
inie- iciiii lo he L'eoiiielrie.
\- earK a> t'*-+() înilli had Ihtii |

mm rha-iiiii lrho\c|-
»ria|i- Irom -.leel-lahriraliiiL: |ilanl-. -o dial In- lonld ha\e

>Ioi-k|pile^ ot random Ion n- on hand lo w oi k w illi, \hhoiii;h
Sinilh' work l:oi kiii:i-i al'lri I' 'oil. hr -till ilid noi coii-iiurl
it IVoin -ki-lrhr-. hl-lrad he de\r|o|ird 1 lir |

ii ;ii I irr ol la\ illi.'
[liei-e- oni on llir floor 111 oil a w hill- lalilr and eollaiiiiii; ihi'in
(lireetK . I le would Wi-ld llir roiii| ioiiriil~ in |

ila rr and I hen
work on olhei' elenienl- of ilir n iiii|po-iiion allri he 1:01 die
stfiietwi'e U|iri<fln. llnin liiii(|ni- linlhrr ii-inloi erd llir
pieliirialisni ol In- -eiil|iiiirr h\ iniiialK i|f\i-lo|iiiii; ii ii c
view airaiiisi a i\\ o-dinii-n-ional liaekdio|i.

Ill lO.")") and I'l")'' >iiiidi al-o made a mimlirr ol
paiiitin<is l)\ laxiiii: oni lomi- on die llom. I -Ihl; a while

siiriaee and -|iia\ -|iaiillilli; ii\ er llii- -lia|»-- hr laid (low II. he
prodneni a eom|io-iiion of neiialixe o\rila\ - and \ old- dial
-lir--nl III- |iri-i-lent intei'e--l in lie- liiir roiiiom ol loiiii'-
and in |
ml una -pace I father than ma-- and \ ol . In -oiiif
ilislaiiees he used lor ihi- inhiiii|iir pirn-- o| rardhoard. eiil
to the iTiriilar sliapr- ol In- -taiiilr-- -n-i-l \ olnmr-. a- a w a\

of workiilg out the 1 ompo-iiion |oi -onu- ol iIh- ( 11 hi- But
he rarelv made eonvriiiional draw iiii:-
In l'»l)2 die eiiiiipo-,-1- (,iaii-( alio Mrnolli a-knl a
ri-lnilanl >inilli lo parlieipair in llir iipioiiiiMi; -imiinei-
l'e-ti\al ol ihi- ail- in >po|i-io. llaK. ol w IimIi Mnioiii w a- da-

direelor Oner dii-n- In- wa- "i\eii an aliandonnl -in-l 4.40 David Smith, Cubi XV// (side view), 963. Polished 1 stainless
,
', '
o 11,' ',', .„ steel, 107^4 6438 38' em (273.7 163.5 96.8cm).

\ = ==
•
1,
laitoiA in \ olin. iK-ar ( .eiioa. w nil all II- I iiiilriil- anil a eiew
1
", \
1
11
. Collection, Dallas Museum of Art The Eugene ond Margaret McDefmoH Fund cEstoleof
ol a--i-laiil- lor a iilonlh. I In- plan- iine\pninll\ -Iriiek a Dovid5m,ih/VAGA. New York, 1994
deep eliord ol no-ialL'ia. >iiiilh lain eoinmnilnl dial llir-e
faetorie-.. w.-n- like îiiida\- in HiookKn in r':i4 al llir

4^4, (opposite) David Smith, Cubi XV//, 1963. Polished stainless
'rrrminal Iron Work-, i-xerpi dial line I roiild n-r aii\ lliini: I
steel, 107^4 v 64^8 38' am (273.7 163.5 96.8cm).
jdlind. " ' '
I If had an iin rnlihU pi 01 Im I 1\ r -la\ . romplrlmi; Collection, Dollas Museum of Art Tfie Eugene and MorgarelMcDermott Fund c-Estate of
an f.\traoriliiiar\
,.
iwenu --i-\ -i m I
iilpliin'^
,
— ainom; ,1
llie
DovidSmilh/VAGA, New York, 1994.
irreatest ol hi- eareer— in oiif inonih.

Smilli hiiih /(-//// Mil riL'.-t.'i'' aroiind what lif rallfd
•ehoppnl iloiid- "'^
— dir Irfelorm- dial an- cm oil ili,- mil 1 |iiam il \ of llir malerial- Irom ihr lacloiN -hipped lion if and
of a -hei-l of -iffl 10 -ipiarf il off allfi rolliiif il Ihf In- n ni-lrmifd lie- \ 1 illi idôln m' m \ ollon 1
mnpo-i-
-paee. the iimitle— material, and ill'' miinlif I- ol workfi- al lional Bollmi landing; ii-iiii; malfiial- Irom ilii- lai lor\
his disposal in Italv got Smith intere-.ifd in gieaiei -i/f In- I in liaK
flatcars that trundled along the railroad tracks inio die old •siniili 1 icaifd all Imi f die iwciiix -ciLdii work- in
factoiT conipie.x spawned the idea for the laifc picn ihc ( nhi" -eric- — die mo-i n-lrhiatnl -eric- ol hi- lairci —
wheels: tlievnuist lia\ee\oked incmoric- oldie iiaiii cneiiie- diiiini: die la-l llnce \cai- of hi- life. \]\ ami laii;e die
that fascinated Smith in hi- \oiiih In addiiion "smiih had ( iihi-.

'
like imicli ol >iiiilli - work. impK one xiewini:

probahly seen the figure- on wheel- |i\ (.lacoincni in die po-nion. ( »//; \ / // lit^.-t.-tl . lor example. lo-e- 1 h ol ii-
Muscinii if .Modern .\rl or die I'icrre \iaii--c miIIcix .'smiili

t ( . il\ iiami-m w hen -ecu from die -ide Ml;. -(.-Kl he iihi- I (
was so in.ved li\ the \ ollri e\|icriciicc dial he had a laree al- \ w illi die \ icwcr'- percepiion h\ ciealme amhiLrinlie-
125

126
that t'lKoura^f a ivailiiii: of liu- aciiial voliniu^ a:- n\«-

(limt'ii-ioiial depiiiion^. The iiiiiiiK leflective surfact" exaj;-
êratf> liu- ruiiirar-t betwcfii llie lidiletl areas and iIiom' in

>liail<>\v. crfafin;: the effeet of a iwo-tlimeiisional renderinsr
.>f \ohiine- with hlaik -liadiii^ father tiian one involxini;
real ol)je(t- in >|ia<e. In addition tiie •.jiiinnieriiii: liiiht
|>attem rail- attention to tiie -mfaie. flattenini; out tile
form- -till more.

Smitii \er\ minii iii<ed the way in w iiich stainle» >teel
was able and atmosphere of the >in-rotmd-
to reflect the li<»hl
iims. Bin the hand-worked ijiiality of the sin-fai-e aNo

attraeted him and relale> to the lini:-hw«>rk that can he -een
in tiie [lainied -cnlptiire of the peiHod.such ar- Ziss I III ttii.
4.42 Meanwhile, the ronsih finish of the weid^ in the
.
"("iihis" con\evs a sense of fonn:' coming togetiier (pickly.
as if with the spontaiieir\- of action painring. Howexer. the

nece>>it\ for ]irefabncatinii the :.taiiiless steel component?
made impro\isation more difficult: he was forced to plan
4.42 David Smith, Zig VIII, ^ 964. Steel, painted red, white, and
black, 8fT 4^ ^.r. - 7fi 7' 2in x 6ft in (2.55 x 2.32 x 2.1 m).
1 1
Collection, Mijseum otRne Arts. Boston. Centennio! Purchose Fund. >5 Estote o^ Dcvid
SrT.i*'\'AGA. Nev% York. 190J
4.43 ibelow David Stnith, Co. XX///, 1964. Stainless steel

6ft 4' jinx 14ft4' sin (1.94 x 4.39m).
Collection. Los Angeles County Museum ot Art. Modem end Co^te^^polor^ A
S Esioie OT Dovid Smith VAGA. New York. 1994.
V\
127
ilii-m at lea>i enmifih to lie able to order the parts. So. in

iiililitiiiii to the sprav |niiiitin^j. Smith fle\ ised liie |)roce(hire
III ii-iiiL' i'rn|ii\ lii]uor bo-\es to make ihree-flimeiisioiial
-niilic- liii ilir ( iiliis" and he also kept a stock ol loily to
lillx prelaiiiiiated culies oti liaiid in allnw fur -| laiu-du--
iiiodilicatioii:-.
Smith wrote an inirigiiinj; note in a ~keirlil)nok ol l''.")2
al>oni innnan form to cnhes — exploited liy

redui-inji; tlie
('.amhiaso.'"'- refening to Lnca Camliiaô. a îxleenlh-
eeiituiT halian tnaiinerist. wlio made drawinj;^ ol f'iuure>
sejimented into ireometrir vohmies. hiileed man\ nl dii
\\(>ik> in die "(aihi

'
series e\oke f'iiiura! as>o(ialiiin-. I mii
die horizontal Ciibi XXIH t'ii;.-+.-+.'5 tor example, êein- lo
.
work ill iiiiirh tiie same wav as Henry Moore's fierliniiiu:

Fiisiire ifii;.4.44 . Yet. in others, if the fiiriire |)ro\ided llie
initial gesture from whidi Smiili s process of formal asôcia-

linn lieiiaii. lie left il liiiried lie\niid iicogiiilion under tlu- 4.44 Henry Moore, Reclining Figure, 1 935-6. Elmwood,
19 X 36^4 X 17'2in (48.3 x 93.4 x 44.5cm).
liiial liiriii.
Collection, Aibnghl-Knox ArlGollery. Buffalo, New York. Room of Contemporary Art Fund, 1939.
in tile laÎ fifteen years of his life David >iiiiili -ik n--- c: The Henry Moore Foundation, 1 994.
fiilK transformed the automatist principle ol iIm' Nrw ^ nik
."school painters into a major bodv of r.culptiiri- iliai lia- die
immediacy of a series of charcoal skeu lie~ lln' idea was Nevertheless "art is poetic." Smith insisted. "It is
aiitiihetical to the traditional teclmi(nie> nl >ciilptiire. poetically irrational. The irrational is die major force in
Moreover. Smith's materials and technique were iio\ei in man s iiatnre. .Vnd as such the artist still deair- with
."'""
iliat tliey came fi-om the world of labor and indii-ii'\ : in tlii~ nainic W itliin the tenns of the anisric niefa]ihnr. eaili
way lie inieirrated his real e.xperience of the wnild wiih ilir iifw -.(111111111:1! .--ynthesis— if only in \ inm- ul iinwii
fundamental nature of his ]jsyche. He belie\ed liiai tiom i-iiiiaiHc iniii ilu- rotaiitv nf experience — change.- the world
the artist's point of x-iew he deals with niiths. stateiiuni- cil and 1- in inni mildaii'd li\ events as sooil as it comes into
reality."'"" and also felt that "since im|ire-.-.iiiiii-iii die Iteiiig. 1 liii- III inakiiig -i iiljiture an embodiment of identity-.
realities from which arthasconie lia\e all iniii die pr(i|Mities Smith ke])t hi- work and his sense of self poised on the edge
of ordinan men. '" of the iiiikiiow 11.
Jean Dubuffet and Postwar Paris
AIiIiciiimIi ilii- ~iii\i\nii; ina-irr- nl |iir\\ai' nim Iriiii-iii
|i,miinhiil\ I'ica-'ii. \lati-.--r. I .i'-;_'iM'. Krri>I. ami Mim

lii;. I.L.1 — niiiiiiini'ii hi ui'iifialr iiii|i(inaril ni-w wnik allii
l''-!-.). an riiliii-K ililliTfiii ^li ul i--iirii ili ill iiii 1 ami

imiii\ali'il ilii- L;i-m-iaii(iii ilial i'Mirii;i-(l in l.nrip|ii- ahn iIh-
wai, lliiwi'xrj- iinirli ai liniial mil mir Icll Im \lali~~r nr

I'na-îi. (lii-\ wi-ii- III an nlilci t;i-nri ai n m ami linn -iili|r(i
iiiaini mi liin::r|- ^t-i'im-il ii-li-\ain tn xnniii; ani~l^. \|i-an-
w lull'. I III- i)r|iri--.>iiiii ami 1 1 if w ac liail al-n iimii'innmcl ilii-
iiifdliigical ( reilil)iiii\ nt absnactioii. Painters smli a- Mmi-
5
liriaii and Kaii(liii>k\ liafl seen ahstract art as a \rliii li- Im
lii'inirinir about a iie\\ ^|)iiitual a\\ akeninji in societ\ at laiiif.
Bill li\ the end ol' \\ oild \\ ar II this soeial meta]ili\î(> mi
jiinizi-t -seemed i)elie\ahle. and in addition the £n"eat tiieoieti-
riaii- o|' alistraction — Kandin>kv. Monrhian. Lissitzskv.
— w ni' all
THE NEW EUROPEAN Mali-\ iich. Delainiav.
r^tiil
."ûifealist aiitoniarisni.
provided a 1445 oidv Matta

and Klt-c
vital creative tool, vet after

Îmli \\a>
L'nni'.
i--.M-riiiall\ animal,
of the yoiniger generation managed to j)rodiife a major new
MASTERS OF THE lioiK of sinTealist work fig. 5.3 Postwar arti.->t^ fi-li ihi\
hail to constrtict an authentic new foundation for an -in
.
ic>|iiin~f III die pressing social and ethical issue? which had
nine Suneali^m.
LATE FORTIES I
Willi ii-
III till- lore in the thirties aiul earlv forties.
i-\|iliiratioii of ilic unron-.cimi> mind, indicated a
|Mi~-.]lil.- rmiii-. Iiui it \\a~ e\i->iciniali?m that jirovided the
ideological cmili'M fur a more emotionalK immecliaie
a]iiiroach.
pessimism of European intellectual life after W orld
Ilie
W aihad deepened into despair dining the thirties, arifl

1
po.>twar existentialism grew out of that de.-^jiair If ilif

existence of God still seemed credible, it had to be a liar^li.
incomprehensible God in a reasonless imiverse. Bv rea^Mcri-
ing sulijecti\ e individualism, existentialism responded to the
moral lailinr of llic lIcL't'lian rinpliaî- mi die ideal. llic ab-
-iraci. llic "r^î-nci' of iliint:^. and m die drpi-i-miali/aiion
III imidi-rn life. I Inwrx rr inrniird li\ ilmibi. ihr imlixidiial
cm I rNprrirmr lii~ ir liri 1\\ i-\i^lcnci- with iiiii-i;-
Id al lca~l i 1
ii
rit\ Read onlv vour own lite. .Nieizsche had ad\ i-ed. "aiiil
.
hum lhi> imdersiand ihe hieroglv])hs of imi\fr--al lite. '
.lean-Paul Sartre, an athei-l ami the oracle of posrwar

existentialism. belie\ed that the world was irreducibly
inalimial. lie ne\ eiiln-le-.-. impo-,i-d a mural imperati\'e. a
-nliei -eii-e of uiiiid laitli" ill facing the "iriith" iif one's
coniliiimi Tin- iinilerlie>. Imili the ait of the New \iiik
Sclhiiil ami the inmi\ati\e new figtirali\e art that am-e in
Eiiiiipe at the end III W III Id \\ ar 11. In Europe jean Dubiiffei.
.\lliiTto ( .iacmiiiiii. and Francis Bacon like de Knoning.

Pollock. Rothko. anil .Newman in -New\ork returned to first
princijiles and reinxented art for themselves from scratch.
a- Newniati They were driven by a
piii it. neerl to ex|)lore
5.1 (opposite) Jean Dubuffet, The Squinter, October 1 953.
i|tie-.timi- about the meaning of their own lives, and lhe\
Butterfly wing collage, 9^/4 x /in (24.8 x 1 7.8cm).
Private collection. Courtesy Pace Gallery, New York
diiecied their attention to immediati- e.\perii-tice a~ the miK
e 1 994 Artists Riglit Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Pans know able ttiilli 111 nil w liich ti i
|
nnieed.
129

130
The New European Masters of the Late Forties
5.2 Joan Mir6, Pointing,1 953. OH on
canvas, 6ft 43 4in x 12ft4a4in (1.95 x 3.77m).

Collecl.on, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
Photogroph by David Heold. © 1994 Artists Rights Society
lARSi, ADAGP, Pan
5.3 Matta, Je m'honte (I Shame Myseli/I

Ascend), 1 948-9. Oil on canvas,
6ft43 Jin x4ft7'ein(1.95x 1.42m),

Menil Collection, Houston. Photograph by Hickey-
Robertson. ©1994 Artists Rights Society (ARS|, New
York/ADAGP, Pans.
131
enter into confidence and connivance, and he is the om- 1
Dubuffet's Painting of the Forties want to please and enchant by means of my work.
"
Childbirth also lacks perspective: the artist stacked ii])
I, III DulmllVi (Irciilcd 111 |iM\r hi- w ini- Im-iiir-- ami -tart the lied and the stiff figures parallel to the ])icture plane and
J liaiiitiiij.' ill l'M2. during |)t'ilia|>> tlit- grimmest peiiod of criidelv rendered them in the manner of a child. Dubuffet
Hitler's (HTupalioii of Paris. At first glance liis art [figs. 5.4 deliberatelv constracted a style that was primitive by
and 5.0 seems I'liiirrlx detached from sucli worldly events, conventional standards of beauty. Like Barnett Newman, he
ill- depicted the iiin-i nrdinary \ie\\s of daily life in an rejected what he regarded as a Greek canon of beauty in
luiLiainK sivlethat \\a>influrii(ed dini il\ liy graffiti and the order to elude the prejudices of culture: he wanted to make a
an 111 iliiltlren. Bin deeplx afli rlrd ii\ ilir moral crises of fresh, unconventional exploration of such grand philosophi-
\\ai-lime Knro[if. DiilmlTri i.iinnrd in llir rudimentary cal themes as the origins of thought and the evanescence of
uri<:ins of art at tliai jMiiiii in lii-lms wlini llie logic iii the in(li\ idual.
ii\ ilized values had lieen tw isted to a horrific toncliision. "The values celebraled by ciur culture dn mil -.trike
The outlines of the figures in Childbirth [fig. 5.4] appear me as coiresponding to the true dyiiamics of niii niiml.
111 have been scratched into the surface, like graffiti. Slogans he explained.
and caricatures on walls are a time-honored vehicle nf
11 hat to me seeriix interesting is to recover in the
anonvinous dissent and Dubuffet intended this allusion. His
representation of an object the whole complex set of
cnide and impulsive snle invokes the aesthetic of the
impressions we receive as we see it normcdlv in eveiydny life,
Miicnltivated common man and prefigures the much later
the manner in which it has touched our sensibility, and the
-hift in art from a romantic emphasis on the exceptional to
forms it assumes in our memon-. my persistent curiosity . .
ludinan life and popular culture after 1960. hi 1940

about children 's drawings, and those of anyone who has
Duluiffet remarked: it is the man in the street that I'm after,
never learned to draw, is due to my hope of finding. the . .
w liiiin 1 feel closest to. with w hum \\ant to make friends and
I
affective reactions that link each individual to the things that
surround him and happen to catch his eye.''
Dubuffet had a complex metaphysics, hi his scheme the

5.4 Jean Dubuffet, Childbirth [UAccouchemeniJ, from the
emotional connection between the individual and the objects
"Marionettes of the Town and the Country" series, 1944. Oil on
canvas, 39^8 x 31 J-iin (1 00 x 80.7cm).
around him provided a central clue to the underlying
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of Pierre Molisse in memory of Polricic Kan continuity of all things. Although rooted in the ideas of
Molisse. (£1994 Arlisls Rigfils Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Pons.
romanticism. Nietzsche, and Freud. Dubuffet went beyond
them in speaking of man's primal unity with nature and
opened a different perspective on his conflict with the
strictures of civilization. For Dubuffet eventhing around the
object became part of its definition, and as a result the
definition remained in a state of constant flux. The implicit
threat of disintegration into the en\-ironment and ultimately
into a universe of undifferentiated matter is a penasive
theme in his art and thought.
Dubuffet studied the mental state in which one perceives
an object before consciously focusing on it. In assimilating
the oljject, the mind brings foith clusters of feeling and
association, transfonning the perception in tenns of the
mind's own unconscious puiposes. In attempting to "trans-
cribe all the processes and mechanisms resulting from the
sight (or evocation in the mind) of a certain object."''
Dubuffet looked to the art of children and others, whose
rendering of experience is less dominated by cultural nonns;
there the raw evidence of these processes is more ^^sible.
The primitive life of the mind is one of Dubuffet's central
subjects. His sophisticated analysis made manifest the
erudition of a well-read intellectual, but he systematically
shed all traces of this in his artistic st)le. Instead he sought
the revelation of the raw, psychic content of the most
I II I linan- experience, which can "transfonn our daily life into
a manelous feast ... I am speaking of celebrations of the
mind .\rt addresses itself to the mind, not the eves.""
. . .
132
In ilif liackiiroiiiid ol' Diilml't'ct s assertion echoi'-. Manil automatism. In the process dI |iaiiiiiiiL; In- recdiiniril iliai "a
DnciunnpV aspiration ro [iiii "painting onre again ai iln- larger part is gi\en to facts ili.n iiiiiull ilnniscK ,- in.jilr iln'
scnict' of tlie mind and Breton s adnionilion liiai '

|paiiil- I III ill I 111 I ill- |iaiiiliT a~ In- w ui k^. "
\laii;il Ri i\\ ell. w Im \\ a-
ini:. .. should nor lia\c tor its en<l I lie pleasure ot die ixe-. . . . a (|||all ir nl an iiiipiirlaiil Dnlnillcl show in I'l"".!. |i<iiiiiril mil
picture or seulpiin-e is jnstiliahle only insofar as it is capahlc dial allliMiiiili DiilHilTii iii'MT aliened liiiii-ell willi llie
of advanciiiii our ahstraci know ledne."" However. Dulndfri s||||'ealis|,. ||ic\ îmilalK ccni-idrii'i I ralei.'iiiiial iIkhiliIiI
eoneernefl Itiniself wiili the pliysicalityof ])ainlini.' Tuore diaii an impoverished a-prc i nl ihr inic umkiiiLl^ "I die iiiiiid.'
either Dncliainp or Bri'toii did. He regarded art as "a and she cited the "".si-cuiid ^mirali-i Manilr-iu nl I'lJ'i in
laiiiruajze. an instrument of cognition anil communication.' which Breloii declared: riicre is cn rr\ reason h ii'lir\ r lial i
I I
Imt lie lielieved that the material itself held an ex[)ressi\e there exists a |Miiiii in ilic iiiiiid w heir lilr and dralli. llir real
power and constituted, hy virtue of its materiality, a closet-. and llii' iiiiai;iiiai'\ die paî and iln- liiliiii'. llii- iniiniinic-
. i i
more direct and precise language than words. "An makes no alile and die ni iii-riiiiiiiiiiiiiiahle. ihr aliuM- and iln- hrlnw.
sense if it is not a means of seeing an<l knowing through cea.se to be perceived as contradictions. ''
which man forces himself to percei\e reality. "'" But "I see no .lean Dubuffet was Itom in Le Ha\Te on tin- iim ili i nasi
great difference metaphysically, that is between the paste I
i of France ill I'^Dl. After graduating from the Acer in I'Mfi
s|iread and a cat. a trout or a hull. My ])aste is a being as these he studied |iaiiiliiii; lo some extent, but lie telt ill al ease in his
are. Less circumscribed, to be sure, and more emulsified . . . -indies. 1 If as-mialrd inustK with w rin-i s and |p\ die luilies
foreign to lis humans, who are so verv circumscribed, so far l)nliiiHri - cilili- iiiilnrli'd iiiaiix rclrliialnl liii-iai\ lalfllts.
.""
from tile formless or. at least, think oursi'Kes to lie I low e\ er. he alsii liegaii m as-miale w iili a i;riin|i ol jia inters
Dubnffel's workinii inetlidd rcsriiiiiled suriealist who railed tiieir work "urt iiiloniic!. meaiiiiii; sniiiethiiig
akin 111 imfonileil art. .lean lanlriei- \ii(/c fiL:..'i..5
l\pifir~ the hea\\. almost scnlpi iii n I >iirlaie~ ol their

canxases. riie deiiscK modeled jiaini ii-ed lo depirt a
5.5 Jean Fautrier, Nude, 1943. Oil on paper, 21^2 15in
(54.6 ^ 38.1cm). representational -iilijen had to do wnh ihr r\i~iriiiialists'
Colleclion, Museum of Conlemporory Art, Los Angeles, c: 1 994 Artists Rights Society (ARS|. shift of emphasis on to the indi\ idiial - snhjei ii\r r\|iei'ience
New York/SPADEM, Pons,
of external reality. Fautrier s |iaiiiiing ronxexs ihr sensual.
iiiiciilti\ ated. emotional content of die exjieiience rather
iliaii an "objective rejiort on the subject.
—^^^m Dubuffet's Philosophical Premises
Diiliuffet had his first one-man show in October 1944.

immediately after the Liberation of France. Those early
(dm|)ositions of 1942 to 1944 have the dark outlines, crude
linishwork. and flat, unmodeled color areas of child ail.
.Soon the aitist also began mixing the pigment witli a variety
of unconventional materials to create a dense, mortar-like
|iaste. The technique, the stvle. and tiie raw sexuality of the
imageiT shocked the French public, and in Dubuffet's
if^ second show, in 19-K). outraged viewers even slashed some of
% the paintings.
Although the work had an iconoclastic intent, it also had
piofoiindlv |)hilosopliical origins. As in primitive and child
art. Dubuffet treated the subjects as a matter of descriptive
fact: he did not attempt "psychological" portrayals, which
w mild imply the distance of a detached obsener. but instead
sought direct extensions of the obsennng mind itself. The
remarks about his Large Sooty \uilc of 1^*44 [fig.
artist's
T.b exemplify this state of mind:
/'/(' about
ivcctitlv liecii scni/iniziiiL: (inlliiiicitc. Tliinking
oiillinirile — crstaticdlly. changed into I alniosl felt us if I'd
iinlhracite. But as I was painting the rarishing body of a
naked woman, nn- obsession made me paint her in the color
and nature of anthracite Has this validfor no reasony . . .
There is a continuity from any object to any other object . .
\nil iroiild von liare found it more logical of me. uith my

133
5.6 Jean Dubuffet, Large

Sooty Nude, August 1 944. Oil
on canvas, 63^4 38' 4in •
(162 ^ 97.2cm).
Privote colleclion,New York. Courtesy
Pace Gollery, New York. (B 994 Artisis
1
Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP,

134
5.7 Jean Dubuffet,

Landscape with Drunkards,
1949. Oil, sand, and
granular filler on canvas,
35 ..453 4in (88.9x1 16.2cm).
MenilColleclion, Houston.
Photograph by F, W, Seiders c 1 994
Artisls Rights Society (ARS), New
Yoft/ADAGP, Pons.
ohsessire passiuii for uiithnicitv. to pdint cm ob/ert. (in\' liinr---eye \ it-w of the ground wiiile allowing figuiiv-' and
same mood and with e.vactlv the .same

object, in exactly the buildings in jnofile. as in his Landscape with Drunkards
hand as someone who had nerer seen anthracite or who at fig.o.T . Dubuffet dug the forms into the thick paste with
the moment was obsessed with. say. an eo-o- wlk. or bread. the back of a brush or some other pointed object. The stony,
or sandy''* monochrome surface recalls Brassai's photographs of graf-
fiti, which Dubuffet had kno\Mi since the thirties. The r«-o
I nstead of seeing tlie material as sonietliing neutral am 1 im it
main figures seem to perch on the road, completely out of
Dubuffet regarded it as a reality with which he collaborated,
scale to other elements or figures in the picture, hi aildition
hi hi> mintl the preoccupation with the coal dust became
the artist has drawn eyeiything with the stiff, schematic
merged with the psychic identity of the nude.
iiie.\trical)ly
([ualir\" of a six-year-old. Eyen the way in whicii he has
Ill F>45 Dubuffet began collecting what he called "art
conceiyed each element in isolation characterizes the art of
brut." or "raw art. This consisted of art made by untrained
"
young children. Dubuffet may haye deriyed this trait from

indiyiduals. including psychorics. amateurs, and children,
his o^\n ob>enation. btit in Artistry of the Mentally III
who were thus largely uninfluenced by culniral conyentions
Prinziioni sjiecifically disctissed the manner in which a child
in making ait. The sayage purir\- of art brut confirmed
or untrained adult separates an object in a pictiu-e from its
Dubuffet s repudiation of culniral yalues after the war. He
orientation in space.'"
was drawn lo the authenticity with which art brat communi-
cated the creatiye mental proces.ses invoKed in fonning a
cohesiye picture of an indiyidual s realir\'. "Those who are A Focus on Matter in the Fifties
predi>posed toward physiological explanations." Hans
Prin/hoiii had WTitten famous book on the Artistr\- of
in his
III
ilif |iaiiiliiig> of l''.")0 Diiliiiffi-l iii-gaii fxpaiidiiig the
the Mentally III. "always stan with the fallacy one which is figure — and later tables, stone.'-, and beards — to fill the
hard to oyercome that all well meaning people could agree whole composition. Le Metafisyr Jig. -5.8 belongs to a series
on one conception of realirs'. as we might agree on the results of magnificent, monumental nudes that Dubuffet painted in
"'
of researcii. ' But each being has its own yersion of realirs" 1950 and 19.51: its \iilgar sexuality and the ma--klike
according t' i
Piinzhorn and lo Dubuffet. who had discoyered gi-imace on the face are characteristic. In such works the
the former's nook in 1923. definition of the figure became marginal as its internal
Dubuffet y)ainted seyeral coinpositionalh ])a(ke(i. texture was pushed out toward the edges of the camas. .\s he
graffitilike laii l^capes in I'H'I. They tend to iiaye a explained, these compositions are:
135
no longer— or almost no longer— descriptire of external

but rather.
sites, the innnaterial world irhirh du-ells in the
. .
mind oj man: disorder of images, of beginnings of images, of

fading images, where theyeross and nungle. in a turmoil,
tatters borrowed from memories of the outside irorld. inid
farts pureh eerebral atui internal— risrerid perha/)s. The
transfer of these mental sites on tlie same plane as that of
the real eonerete landscapes, and in such a way that an
uncomfortable incongruity is the result the discorer} that . . .
they are /ierliaps not so foreign fto one aiKiiluT as anc had
heliered. attracts mc rcry strongly. '
In Iê Metafisy.v ilit- miii-iial iixiiiTf laki--- mi a lilf i>l ii- (i\\ ii.
tri'fly setting off in tlirettions independent of the explicit

-iihject matter. The artist later used iniexpected materials.
like biittei-fiy wings fig. 5.1same liberai-
or leaves, for the
ini; effect, Le Metafisy.v Dubuffet encoiuuered the chao> n|
hi
ilic unconscious mind in the disorder and rlnail of a
concentrated mental focus on texture.
hi F'ol Dubuffet began up canvases ami
literally to cut
reassemble them on a newdrew figures on
surface. He also
|iaper or newspaper and then cut them out for collage. Over
IIn- course of the decade he assembled images out of a whole
5.8 Jean Dubuffet, i.e Metaf/syx, August 1950. Oil on canvas,

4558 -35' 4m (116 89.5cm).
Collection, Musee Notional d'Arl Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Pons, c 1994 Arlis
Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Pons. 5.9 Jean Dubuffet, landscape with Two Personages, January
1 954. Assemblage of scraps of newspaper stained with India ink,
39% xSlîn (100 X 80.8cm).
Privote collection. Pons, e 1 994 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Pons.
range of ••inarii--iic." iir ai least unconventional, materials.

IriPin driftw ood to -.]>oiigf. Dubuffet deliberatelv made use of
novel technic[ues and materials to create perceptual obsta-
cles to the recognition of subject matter: thus when the figure
a|ipears it has the suiprising fresluiess of re%elation. as in
Tlie Sc/uinter [fig. 5.1]. Yet despite the ne\\iiess of the
material, the conception of the form and subject remain
consistent \sitli his other work: landscapes with high hori-
zons: busy surfaces that merge into a chaotic monotone:
stiff. gi-otesc{ue figures derived from graffiti and child ait.
In Landscape with Two Personages [fig. 5.9] one can
-carcelv find the "personages ' among the surface patterns.
1 111- |ii-r\ aî\i- ilieme of figures emerging oiii uf and dissol-
\iiiL; bark iiitu amorphous fields of texture eiiibudies an
ixiîiiitial >en.-.e of the altsurditvof the individual s efforts to
rîalili^li and assert his or her identity: it also expresses the
liii|ii'iess resistance against an inevitable reabsoiption into
ilir nun-being of universal time and matter. The recognition
iliai. willi only slight alteration^ in handling oi- cuntexl. a
Imni in jiainting can represent a \arietv of nbjectivelv
dissimilar things imjilied to Dultuffei thai at -(inn- fuiida-
meiital lexel — revealed to him onlv in painting — r/// things
are I'eiliirililr to a comnion denoininator.
136
The most rtiried things are tdkcii into in

\
net . . . But rm 5.10 Jean DubuHet, Place lor Awakenings [Sife oux evei/s] from
often — (tnd it is then that t lie iodine tokes on itsjidl
the "Materiologies" series, 1 960. Pebbles, sand, and plastic paste on
siirnijiennee — the facts are more aiiihiiiiious. susceptible to composition board, 34'''8 x 45%in (88.6 x 1 1 5.2cm).
hehinpiiii to any one of these (hfferent rciiisters. exj)hcill\ The Museum of Modern Art, New Yorlc. Gift of the ortisl in honor of Mr, and Mrs. Ralph F.
Cohn £ 1 994 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Pans.

(h'nionslratinu. in u reiy troiibUnii iiHinnet: what these
re<risters hare in common, hoir accidenttil tlieir specificity,
hoir Iniiide and ready to chiiliiie. Such an mia'jie seems
paintings done ai'onnd l''(i() in which the exjilicil siiliject
e(piallye(i!xer to transcribe a rariiie or a coinph'.i.
hecanie the ainoi|)hons field itself. It is not an abstract
tormentiii<isky. or a storm, or the rererie of someone
picture in the usual sense l)Ut a peipendicular view of a small
contemphitinii it . . . a thiniiirith a stron'jcly marked pliysical
'" x'iiineiit of irrontid. As such, it celebrates the most prosaic of
cliaracter. . . and . . . the course of ii dream, of an emotion.
all thiti!:> in an attein|)t to liiing what we most take for
In ilii^ cxisifiitialist a<'>ili('lic wliai riiatlt'i> m(i>i i> ilu- granted into conscious focus. But on another level this series
artisi s coiisrioiis and ex])licii sirngirlc to realizr lii-- cDinli- evokes,more poignantly than an^^hing else in Dubuffet s
lion. Sartre believed thai llie individual attained IVecduni s morbid preoccitpation with the idea that
oeiirre. the artist
trom conNeinion. bceanie a law niMo iiiniêll'. in ronfrunrinjii man and his perceptual world Itoth emanate from and wnll
dealli. In Diil)iifTet s aft the iin|)lied evanescence of the momeiitarilv be reabsorbed into the infinite chaos of undif-
indi\ idual in the jieipeliial inelarnoipliosis and aiiiliii!iiil\ ot ferentiated matter. As was the case with Pollock, the
all ihiiiiis e\(ikes precisely this conlidinalion. phvsicalir\- of the material made the existential exjierience of
I'lace for \irakenin<xs I'iir.o.lO heloniis to a >erie>^ ol the pairning more real.
137
Aiiewinlensitvofcoloreiiteit'd Duhnn'et's work in 1961 "liourloiipe"'" series, and he ex])eriineiited with it for
iilinii; with a sliif't in snbjert to complex in-lwn landsrapcs. roughly a decade.

People sit tiapped in hoxlike cars and buses or line up on At this poim the artist's concentration on the elenieiUal
crowded walks in Business Prosprrs [fig. 5.1 1 : in iiuiny of matter of natme receded as he timied to the mechanisms of
iIk- canvases of this time thev stand sideways and upside thought. The obsessive celhilarin' and reperitixc paiieining
down in a new centrally orieiUed gravitational scheme. The of works like &/•? P/i4i<»rrp ifig.5.12] resenililr iraii^ in ihe
-mtace patchwork of satirical shop signs, vehicles and art of ])svchotics and may have something to do widi liie
|ii(iple convevs the vitality of Paris life. Yet at the same lime retimi of his collection of art hnit from years of storage in the
ilie ideniiix of each individual eleinem dissolves into the I iiited States. Snlisticallv these works also recast the theme
general linni nf \ isual activity, as in the earlier Landscape of dissolution. .\s he explained: "This consisteinly uniform
iiil/i Tii-i) Personages. In tiie wdrk-- of l')(,l Duliuffet --eein'- -cri|il indifferently applied to all tilings v\ ill reduce them . . .
1(1 transform the overabiindani e <il ^lininli irnn anmhcr kiml all III llir lowest coniuiiin iji-nnniinalur ami ri'stiiute a
""
lit nnilifferenliatpfl enerirv . (•(iMiinniin^ nndifti-ivmialrii iiniMM-ê. Dubullc-l made
np \\\i- Irini "liiiiirliiiipr Im llii- new st^le and e\|)laiued
thai 111- iii\i-nlrd ii jn-l Im llic ~nund of it. In lenrji it
A Grand Style of Entropy
I
call- 111 niiiiil -iiiiir iiliji-ii 111 piT-unagf nl taii\ lalr-likc and
iiK I "1)2. while doodling by the lele]ilione with a
I Ipoiiil pen. Dubuffet made a palleni nl iiileilocking
forms. The ([ualitv of the ballpninl > line eliminaled all
5.1 1 Jean Dubuffet, Business Prospers from the "Paris Circus"
expressive individualirv". and ihc piinciple of interlocking
series, 1 961 . Oil on canvas, 5ft Sin x 7ft T>/a\n (1 .65 x 2.2m).
forms suggested to Dubuffet an infinitely expandable sv>iein
The Museum ofModern Art, New York. Mrs. Simon Guggenheim Fund, c 1 994 Artisis Rights
of jiatterning. This became the guiding motif of ilie Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris.
138
5.12 Jean Dubuffet,

ErreetAberre, 1963. Oil on
0'' ^ 6ft
canvas, 4ft 1 sin 4''''5in
(1.49 X 1.95m).
Pnvole collection Photograph
courtesy Poce Gollery, New York,
c 1994 Artists Rights Society (ARSI,
New York/ADAGP, Pans.
j;i(i(i--iliif -lalf uriil al llif -aim- nine aUn -i miiM liiiii: -.ucli a-- dif ('(ihiiicl Lo'Mi-Logkjite and the lilbi Fn/lxi/d.
"'
tragically grow ling and nienacinij;. "The efffi I I \\a~aliir. he said, "was to achieve a feeling nf
In the mid sixties DiiltiitTiT larM'd mit iree-torni. penetration into the draw ingbv causing the latter to develop
volumetric objects and coveifd ilnir -.iiiraces with the from a flat piece of household funiititre to be looked at on
"hoiirloupe ' script in a manner dial inaile recognizable the wall into a rrenlion of the mind fit to be phvsirdllv
allusions to real objects. He designaterl these works "simii- inlnibited."--
lacres." because they constituted a |ih\--i(al realitA' which In the "Non-Lieiix itainling? of \^)~!o to l''o3. lii> ia>t
signified an allusion, thus reversing tlie ii-iial t a-.e in art of an series. Dultid'fet eliminated the concept of a ground al-
illusion signifving a realirw Like duodlc--. thev are pure togetiier. .\s their name suggests, they offer no setise of place.
figments of the imagination transfornietl into a phvsical Thev extend the idea of penetration into the drawing and
presence. In the late si.xties Diibiiffet enlarged this idea on to further 'challenge the objective nattire of Being. "
which
an architectural scale witii the large "rrees" and then had been the persevering core of lii> Miiijfct matter >iuce ilie
expanded the hoitrloiipc scrijn into whole emirnnnients besinning of his career.
The Existentialist Figuration of Alberto Giacometti

Allierio (iiacometti [fig.-T. l-'i wasbortiin I'M)! toalamilv C'imabue willi pa-.-ionale dediiation; llie Kgv|iiian ami
of turn-of-the-centiuy avant-garde artists. Hi,-' god- primitive art and the vvtirk^ of (iezaiine in the Bieniiale al-o
father. Cluno .\miet. and his uncle. .Atigusto Giacometti. were ])rofoundlv im|)ressed him: then he stayed on for nine
important syinbolist painters: his father. Giovanni (riaco- months amongst the art treasures of Rome, hi .laniiary l*>22
metti. was a well-known .Swiss postiinpressioriiî and a Giacometti enrolled for three vearsin the atelier of tiie liigiiK
strong influence in the adolescent .Xlberto'-- aiti>iie de\flo|i- acclaimed Parisian scul])tor Antoine Bourdelle.
ment. .\t the age of seventeen, following; in lii- lathers Giacometti later recalled that while studying antiifue
footsteps, he attended the School of .\ri-. ami (rafts in sculpture in the galleries of Rome and again before tiie model
Gene\a. and at nineteen he accompanied ilie elder (iiat o- in Bourdelle's class. "I was lost, evemhing escaped nie. the
metti to the Bieniiale in ^ enice where Giovanni vvurk vva^ -. iiead of the model before me became like a cloud, vague and
on show In Ifalv .\lberto studieil riniorello. (iioilo. and undefined."-'' Tliu> in the earlv twenties he alreadv seenis to
139
The Existentialist Figuration of Alberto Giacometti
1ki\i- r\|i( ricricid ilic i\i>iciiiial aiixiiMx iIimi ildiiiiiiated his

wiiiL nliri l'»-f(l. ( .iaiitmetti iiiailt- hi- lii-l imi)()rtant
-riil|ilinv- in a -ini| ililicd. ciilii-l -l\li- icIaliMl |<. ilic iilcas of
((iii-larilin Hiamii-i and Mrxandcr- \ivln| M-nk. i whose
Wdik he had -cm al dir I5ii-nnalr in l'*_'ll . I Ir |iiiiihiced a
Irw (i| dic-c iilijfi I- in I '>:!(). hu he (Tea rd
I I nil i-i (il ihfiii in
die hiilc -inihd hclnw \l(iiii[iariia--.i- diat \\v kmiL in l'*2'7
wilh hi- \(iniiL:ii hidihtT Dieso. and in wiii<'h dif\ Imth

icinainrd ninil Mhcrlos deatli in 1')()(). By I'lJ.". ( .iai nmiili
\\a- hit;inniiiL: In receive critical attention hni he -nld m ry
hi dr. In I ii'dn- til earn a living lie and Dicgn inadr -cnliMinal
liii iiilnii' and la]ii{i-.
( .iacnrnetti eiuoinilcrrd tin- -niicali-t- arnund 1M28

and iiecaine especially clii-i- liiMirn. \la--(in. ( alder, and the
|iaiiiter/deaier Michel Leiris. Sikhi hial-n incl Breton.
Araiidn. and Dali. lie liegan makinti -nrreah-i -iiil|iinre in
l''2'l. riic caês Llig-5-l-i] mostly date i'rum the early
alihongh he came back to the idea twenty years later
ihiriii-.
a^ a :êtting for some of his postwar figures. Giacometti

nearlv alwavs maintained a connection to the figure in his
work. Neveitheless he saw a conflict between his ex])erience
and the inherently abstract character of sculpture,
of reality
which he sought to re-oK e in the dreamlike transformations
of nature e|iiiiinii/i-d li\ hi- -urreali-iic experiments of the
earlv thirtie-.
T/ic Palace (It -f II. III. fig."). H crystallizes (iiacmnetti's
irlaiiiin-hip with -iineali-m. Fhis fragile palace of
5.13 (above) Henri

Cartier-Bresson, Alberto
Giacometti, 1961. Black-and-
white photograph.
c Mognum Pholos/Henri Carlier-Bressc
1994.
5.14 Alberto Giacometti,

The Palace at 4 am .]932-3.
Construction in wood, glass,
wire, and string,
25x28V4xl5%in
(63.5 X 71 .8 X 40cm).
Ttie Museum of Modern Art, New York
Purchase. C' 1 994 Artists Rigtits Society
(ARSl, New York/ADAGP, Pons,

140
inatclisticks""" — to use the wonK wiili whirli he ilirn limir''-, linl llii'ii In iii\ -iii|iii-r. llii'N ai liir\rd a likeiies-.
cliaraeteiized his existence — (iiiiri- on .m mi i nl -ill- niiK w lirii lall anil -Iciidci .
''
(let'iiiilioii ill the overhi|ij)ing spare oi icalily and llie ilieain. (.iacnincin ixliiliili'd llic lalL llllll liiiiirr- !!;;..">, Id in
The armature creates a stage set for a raina--\ in whicii all I'l4;;al llir l'i,iir\|an-.-(.alliT\ in \i'\\ \u,l. In- In, -
living things seem lo ha\e iindergorif a niilaniiir|ili(i~i^ iiiin man -Imw iii Inmlrcn \i'ar-. .Icaii-1'anl >ailri-- willi wlinni
objects. He descriited the xiilpinri' in I'ii-m- Maii^~i- ;i~: (.larniiirin liail liiMiiiiic liicndK ni I'l4ll. wrnic ilii' iiiini-
diiclmn hi ihr ralalnL: Inilrrd ilir iiilc nl âiliv - linnk, lli'inu:

ti fxildce irit/i a skeleton bird und a .i/inKil coliiiim iii n riiisc
and \(illinrjniss. iniilil -i-i\r a- a rliai arlri i/al i I llir
and II iionuiti <il f/ie other end . . . 1/ relnled inl/iniil iin\'
ll ailllr |ili--i-|irr 111 I llr-r I l^n r-. W hull
I 111 -I -III link llllll nrar
doubt to a period of ni\ life that hud <iiiiie In an end a year
Ilniir\i-lriirr ami 1 1 in r|niit;alril In a |iinril
I lillr ill -|iai r.
before, irheii for sixwhole months hour <iftcr limir iras
1 .\i-lrnl lali-in -n'r--r- a railiral rrilin i Inn in I In- r-sriii e
passed in the company oj a iroman irlio. tiinceiiltdlitiisidl
nr liriîiiiiiiiL: III llllll;^-. III lie I nil mid I inn' \ la run I Iridrgger
life in herself magically transformed my en ry iikhihiiI. lie
waillril In ^lail iiMT 111 milrr In pcnrirair lirillg il-rlf.
used to construct a lantastic palaci' al nrjlil ... In ///(
(.iarnllinn - -. Ill|illlir alln I'l-HI. like dir wmk nl' I'nilnrk
statue oj a iroman . . . i recognize my iii(illi<r. jiisl as sin-
anil dr Knniiini;. w a- iini driven bv the ae-iliriir nliji-nn c- nf
appears in my earliest memories. 7'lie mys/cryoj her long
an rii\ i-iniird. liiii-lied composition. Inn In a m-i'd in
black dress troubled me: it seemed In me like a pari oj her
di-in\ rr I ral II \ in llir pi'oce-- ot w orkilli:.
body, and aroused in me a feeling ojjear and ennjiision . . I
m dri
.
( .iarniiirlli alleiiipled tnciii a\\a\ all Iiainint; in In

can V say anything about the red object injroni oj the board:
-e-r w lial -1 llllll in I mill nl Ilim and to jx.irti'ax il. \l die -aim-
I identify it with myself'"
lilllr llr rrpi-alrilK a--i-iIiMl wa- ini|in--ili|r. ^n
ihat this
.\s early as lf'.'52 Giacometti began some nearly classical e\tT\ da\ he Willi Id dr-nii\ w hat he had done the dav before
figure studies, which suggest that he probably started and -laii n\er again iiiiiil -nnieone took the work away for a
working from life again. He bii;an ic> lin<l nrdinaiv reality show. According to the accounts of those who sat fnr liiin. Iii-
more fertile to his imaginaiimi iliaii dnani-. and this efforts to render realitv seemed to go inexorably frmn bad in
precipitated a rift with the snrr(ali--i^ \\ 1 Ilicially expelled wor-e. and lie lilained hiin-elf tor this perceiêd tailiire.
him from the movement in 1''-S.5 wlirii In- licgan working "Tlii- i- w lial 1 di-i-i\ r to|- ihinv-five years of di-liniie-ty."
from the model everv da\ \e\i iliilcv^ li\f Mar-> of . i he llllll III- liiriid .lame- Lord. "All these vears Fve exhibited
consistent work from life tailed lo \irld ;in\ lini--hed iliiiii;- dial wririi I lim-lird and never even should have been
scnlj)tiii"e. because he was never saii-lied wiili hi-, abilitx to started. Bin nn die nilirr hand, if 1 hadn't exhibited at all.
portrav what he saw in front of him. ."^n JKini l''-t(l in l''-t.~i it would liaxi' -rnnid rnwanlK. a- though I didn't dare
""
he retreated to working fn>m menmiA again. to show wlial Id dime. If miK nine he loiild rejire-enl
hi 1')42 Giacometti wa-- refused ittnii\ into France what he -aw. he remarki'd. lie w nnld ne\rr liaxe m paint nr
after what he had intemled a-- a liriif nip m Switzerland,
"
sculpt again.
which forced him to remain in (.iiii\a mini die end of the The arti-t nnderlined the e\i-lentiali-t characteT- of thi-
war. He finished almost nothing there eiilier. Iloman with introspective ex|iloi'aiion when he stated that "il - im|iii--
Chariot I. one of the few sctiljitures imni die period, sible everreallv to finish anything. '
This i- lieran-e die w ay
adumbrates his later work in its narrow frozen |io-.ture and in which this artist define- his identitv' and jire-ence in the
heavily worked surface. The art historian Reinhold Hohl has world continued to e\ol\e and thus cotild never achieve a
suggested that the wheels on the blocklike base have to do fully satisfactory iilijritixe affirmation. The Giacometti
with the idea of moving the object further from or closer to figures expre-- ilii- in iheir fragility — a- if.in a moment,
"-
the viewer to change "it- plienomenological size. In this these naiTOw w laiih- c oiild sli]i through a crack in existence.
.sense it expresse> a ciuiccrii wiili die idle |ilaved liv the The disembodied anatomical parts, like those
sculjittues oi
viewer s perception in ileliiiini: iln- -(ale nl die work, aiul In of the hanrl or the head bv them-eK e-. ex])re— the fiagilit\ of
implication asserts subjeciixe i\]pei'ieiice a- a lia-i- for this delicateK lield-ingi-ilier -elt-image.
defining realitv. Giacometti - biogiajjliers have demoiistraled hi- art
From this work (Tiacdiiu-ni iiuim-iI in a -i-iir- nf iiii\ historical self-consciousness. The Man Pointing [fig. 5. lb].
sculptures ranging from a iiure luill-iiich in height on for example, make- refiMence to the ancient Greek Poseidon
massive bases Ji^.oAri The iliin in-iilistantialitv of the
.
of Cape Artemisiuii and in \iiguste Rodin's St. .hiliii flic
form huge |)ede>ial create- a sense of \-ast
in relation to the Baptist:''' He al-n drew nn the simplified abstraction- of
distance, as if was disappear!
the figure 'XX aiiiiiii.' to iii.'. .Vrchipenko as well as on Egyjitian and ancient Near Eastern
create from memory what I have seen." he wroie. "to my figures. Yet this does not contradict Giaconierti s approach
ten'or the sculptures became smaller and smaller, thev had a through sudden, transcendental
to the reality of his subject
likeness only when thev were small. \fi dieir dimension- glimpses of the uiiex|)ected. Indeed these classical models
revolted me. and tirelesslv I began again. cmK in ind -i-\i ral gave him a place' in lime and tradition, which was all the
months later at the same point. .\ll ihi- cliaiiiied a lillli- in more imporlani Inr an artist plagued by such a strong sense
l')4.'i thronirh draw iim. Tlii- led me to want in make laiL'er of estraiiiiemriil I'mni I mill iialnir and -ociety.
5.16 Alberto Giacometti, Man Pointing, 1 947. Bronze,
70' 2 4^4 . 163 6in(179 12.06 - 41 .58cm), at base 12 x IS'Ain
(30.5 > 33.7cm).
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gih of Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd. £ 994
1 Arlisls
Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Pons.
5.15 (below) Alberto Giacometti, Figure /, c. 1945. Plaster and

metal, 3' iin (8.9cm) high, with plaster base 3' 2 ^ 2 ^ 2' sin
(8.9 X 5.08 X 5.4cm).

The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of Mr. and Mrs, Thomas B. Hess c 1994 Artists
Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Pons

142
5.17 Alberto Giacometti,

The Gfy Square, 1948-9
Bronze, 9V2 ^ 25V2 ^ 1 7' 8 in
(24.1 X 64.8 X 43.5cm).

Collection, Notional Gollery of An,
Woshinglon, D.C Gih of Enid A Houpt.
c 1 994 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New
York/ADAGP, Pons,
A.- ill action paiiitiii2. the thickly iiiddellcd surface of never e.vperiem id aii\ hald^hiJl of the sort that Picasso or.
(liaconietti's figures asserts the intimate [iresence of the later. Pollock ami 1 lanz Jvline did. He painted the most
artist. The cages and platfornilikf lia-i- nf the early thirties familiar peo|ile and things around him and lived an unevent-
[fig.5.1-1- reappeared in tlie laic Iniiic- a-- a device for ful life. Vet this ven" stabilitv provided him with a silent
defining tiie scale of the figures and creating a spatial context theater in w iiich the artist struggled to affinn his feeling of
in which to e.xplore the issue of the figural jiresence. hi 1958 existence. James Lord, in his account of Giacometti at work
Giacometti enlarged the concept created in The ('itySc/iuire on his portrait, described any number of exchanges that
of a decade earlier fig. 5.1 7j intoaproject Ima innnuniental revealed the artist's relentless anxiets": "Presently he
figure composition for the [ilaza in frnni ol the Cihase started gasping aloud, with his mouth open, and stamping
Manhattan Bank in New York. In ilii- never-realized his foot. 'Your head's going away!' he exclaimed. 'It s going
artwork the towering figures would have niini.'lcil among the awav completelv. come back again.' I said. He
It will
|)edesrrians. creating a discjuieting coinmcni mi ilu- aliena- shook his head. 'Not necessaiily. Maybe the canvas
tion of city life. will become completely empty. And then what will
"
Althout-'h Giacometti's circnmîancc-. weiv niiicle--t. he become cif me':' "
Francis Bacon
Franci-Baiciii tig. 5. 18 emerged al the end of World Vi ar of surrealist automatism — a^ de Kooning and Pollock did —
II were frighteningly transfomied by
paifiling figures that to work his way. in the process of painting, closer and closer
the imagery of the tinconscious. He would Itegin with a to the immediate subjective tiiith. i don't think one can
familiar subject and. like Giacomeiii. In- would endeavor to explain it if you could explain your painting, you would
. . .
paint it as it actually appeared to him. Bui the appearance he be explaining your instincts.
sought to portray was a vision transformed by the uses and Bacon's shockingly direct revelation of this primal
threats perceived in the object by the [irimitivf drives of his aspect, hidden below the surface of everyday life, evokes the
uncensored. unconscious mind. A ou n- imi onK n-making chaotic forces that ci\ilization has repressed in everyone and
the look of the image. "
he told the art i rilic |)a\ id .•>) 1\ e^ter. captures a loss of control, a sense of helplessness and teiTor.
"vou're remaking all the area- ol ittlini: w Inch \ou your>elt In his Study After I'eldzquez's Portrait of Pope Innocent A
have apprehensions of.

''
ifig. 5.22 . the claustrophobic space and the pressure of the
In the fifties Bacon turned increasingly to ordinan vertical strokes close in uncomfortably, while the figure
model- and. after 1959. to images of his friends as the point blurs into anonymin. Bacons 19b9 Self Portrait [fig. 5.23]
of departure for his work. Yet as the overt subject became shows the aitist imprisoned behind a twisted, monsti-ous
more un'emarkable the \Hsible evidence of the repressed, mask. The eves look out piteously but make no contact: there
instinctua' [>erceptiongrew. The nakedness of the expression is no escape. The portrait at once expresses a teiTor in what it
and the iii inanent realir\- of the sitter distinguish these has revealefl. an<l yet fused with diis fear and vulnerability
paintings fro i sunealism. But the artist used an adaptation there i- an o|iulfiii. paiiui-ily beauty.
143
Fratrds Bacon
had iiiai I ieil ili,' Count V Kildare.

fioniniissionei' i if Pulici- for
W idi ihr ii\il war against Bacon Hrili-h nilr then raging.
riiiicMibered ln> granilmother > sandbagged house, snipers"
ira|i-. in the roads. British military maneuvers on thegroimds
nl \]\> fathers home, and a generalized >en>e of danger
]irrineating his childhood.

Bacon was designing furniture and interiors in
In l')29
i ,1 indon. and
in August 1930 Stinlio Magdzirte published an
article on his work; years later he incoiporated the tubular
furniture he had made into his paintings [fig. 5.22]. Bacon
began painting at the end of the twenties, constructing a stvle
from a synthesis of illusionistic suiTealism and contempor-
ary iil)ism. He destroyed most of his pre-World \^ ar II work.
I
bill ilir |iii tures which suiTive foreshadow certain lifelong
|inii(( iipaiions. hi The Cntrifi.rlon of 193.S. a fleshv human
lirad— dcri\e-il friim an \-ra\ nf tlie head of a collector — sits
5.18 Francis Bacon in his studio, 1959.

Photograph by Cecil Beaton,
FTanci> Ba<ciii wa-^ Imrii iiiln an aiT-^locratic I'.iiiîi^li
family in Ireland in \'->W. His fallierwent to work in the \\ ai
Office in London in l')l4, sliuttling the family f)ack and

forth between London and heland abont every other year.
Bacon also lived intemiittently with his o-raiidmother, who
5.19 Francis Bacon, Three Studies for Figures at the Base of o 5.20 (above) Pablo Picasso, Figures By The Sea, January 1 2, 1 931
Crucifixion, 1944. Oil and pastel on canvas, triptych, each panel Oil on canvas, 4ft 338in - 6ft 5ln (1 .31 1 .96m).
37 x29in (94 X 73.7cm). Colleclion, Musee Picasso, Pans, ici 1 994 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/SPADEM,
Collection, Tate Gallery, London
144
on a table beside a eniiifiefl fiirure. Tlie body is |iroportioned The image of the black figiu'e with hidden eves and
like a flaved i;arcas> of beefliuncriii a limclier's sliop and tlie inena<'ing leeili. in^pired by the wartime news dipping*, the
scene seems to take jtlace in a sini|)l\ divided, sparse interior. raw meat and the sense of entrapment in these close iiuerior>
In Uoiind for a ( rucifi.vion of tlie ?aine year a mass of ne>li. have to do with the cruelty of existence, experienced bv the
"*"
which Bacon described as "a very beaiiiifni wound. sits on artist in the most intimate tenns. "N^lien vou go into a
a sculpture annaiure: this study was derived from color butcher';- shop." he noted, "and see how beautiful meal can
plates of woinids and rare skin diseases that he had seen in be and then vou think about ii. vou can think of the wiiole
medical books. In T^-'i-t Bacon organized an exhibition for horror of life — of one thing living off another."'"
himself, but then did not jiaint much or >how again until ilie -\lthoiigh Bacon did not use a preordained symbolism,
end of the war. he began Painting with a conscious subject and freely
Bacon e.xhibited his rriprxch Three Studies for fiimrrs explored his feelings about it by way of free association. Each
at the Base of a Crucifixion fig. r>.\9 at the Lefevre Galleiy new pictorial element that was suggested by what was
in London in April 19-t-5. He had conceived these panels as alreadx there revealed another a.spect of the subject's
"sketches for the Humcnides which imended to use as the 1 emotional meaning— hidden fi-om consciousness until
base of a large crucifi.xion.""' hi Greek "eitinenides" liierally brought fonh. Bv pemiitting one image to suggest another.
means "kindiv ones." but it euphemistically refers to the
furies, because according to nivih the tnith of their nantre
was too terrible to uner. "Tlie reek of human blood >inile~
out at nie."^' thev sav in a ghouli?h line from The Oresteta of

.\eschvlus. a linewhich Bacon pariicularlv admired. For this
|)ainter the furies embodied repressed forces in the human
psvche. and cracifixion was an emblem of sadistic iiiliunian-
irv. Bacon's inspiration for the shocking visual vocabulaiy of
Three Studies CnicifLrion. came fi'oni Picasso's metainor-

phic figures of the late twenties and early thirties ^fig. -5.20 .
In Painting fig. -5.21 . the figure with slabs of nieai

angled in toward him on the glass-topped table recalled to
Bacon the news photogi'aphs of Hitler or Mussolini speaking
from a rostrum and heimiied in by multiple microphones.
The image of the dictator fascinated Bacon, yet its presence
here does not indicate an iconography in the usual sense, a?
is clear in Bacon's description of the picture s evolution: "I
was attempting to make a bird alighting on a field. -\jid . .
siiddenlv the lines dial I'd dra\Mi suggested something

totallv different, and out of this suggestion arose this picmre
... It w a-one continuous accident."
like
Nevertheless a number of the images in Painting recui'
freqiiemly in Bacon ? work: the tubular frame table: the
flaved beef hanging as though cnicified: closed blinds with
dangling cords in a stark and clausn-oj)hobic room; an
umbrella darkly obliterating the eyes of the suited figure and
setting off die row of teeih in his open mouth: slabs of ra\\
meat on the table: and a deep red oriental carpet on the floor.
The reemergence of these objects in other paintings by Bact)M

suggests that dieir presence is more than "accidental."
Pre always been rery moved by pictures about

slaughterhouses and meat, and to me they belong rerînucli
to the whole thing of the (rucifi.vion. There've been
e.vtraordinar\- photographs which have been done of 5.21 Francis Bacon, Painting, 1 946. Oil and pastel on linen,
animals Just being taken i ' before they ivere slaughtered: 6ft 5^ ein .4ft 4in (1.97 X 1.32m).
The Museon of Modern Art, New Yort:. Gift of Philip Johnson,
and tlie smell of death. fJ'e . in 't know, of course, but it
appears by these photograpi • that they're so aware ofuhat

is going to happen to them, th vdo everyihing to attempt to 5.22 (opposite) Francis Bacon, Study After Velazquez's Portrait of
Pope Innocent X, 1 953. Oil on canvas, 5ft 'Ain x 3ft 1 0'-iin
escape. I think these pictures were rer\-miwh based on that
(1.53>cl.l8m).
kind of thing, which to me is ver}: rer\ near this whole thing Des Moines Art Center. Purchased wrth funds from the Coffin Fine Arts Tn;st,
Collection,
of the Crucifi.rion.^ Nothon Emory Coffin Collection of the Des Moines Art Center, 1 980.1
145
Francis Bacon
146
llir arli-.! i:ia(lll;ill\ cli-r(p\ iiimI ilii- ciliotioiial realilv iil'lii-
-iilijiTl niallri-. riii- if(linii|iii- iliTi\es from surri'ali>iii.

wliiili ill liini I II nil i\\ I'd llu' iiiflliod from fri'iiilian
|i~\ rliiiaiial\>i>. Uiil Uaciiii - a|i|iiiia(li jsoo hevoiul >iirri'al-
i>iii ill il^ adlicreiicf lo die hmtI --iiliii'rl iiuUtei-. and in llii-
n --iiii I comes closer to rend. I"
Ill \9-i9 Bacon inaiiiiniatcd a sciir- of -mnr two du/cii

ciiin|iositions haserl direclK on a n'|iiiidiulion ul \ cla/-
i|iir/'^ Piipe Innoccnl \ in comliinalinii w iili a film still ot the
~( iraniiniz muse on llie Odessa >lc|i-. in .Si-r<:ei Eiseiistein >
]'->'2~) film I'/ie Battleship Potemkiii.^' Ilie film -lidw-- a

ilii-c-n|i (if die anise's face willi lier month wide ii|piii and
lilood îieaminji from her e\e. Study After f eldzqiiez's
In
I'opc Innocent X [i'v^.'^.'l'l . he alô used a contemporary

|iliiiloi;ra]ih Pope Piii^ .Ml for snch details as the glasses.
of
The shower of \'ei-iical hriishsrrokes and die gold rails
derived from his inl)nlar fnrnitnre tra|) the figures: in some
\i-r>i()iis Bacon put the pope in a linear cage. The sense of
cimfinement narrow-, the foiu-- nf the composition lo a
detailed examination, a-- if it were a clinical stiiiK ol a

spciinicn in a jar. The effect i? anxinii^. -searching. di'i|iiicl-
iiii;. and al the same time sensnou-.. "I d Imuglit that \ er\
licainihil haiid-ciilnied limik mi diseases of the mniiili." he

irpiiiled. and. when made I Pope screaming. didii
the 1 I
wain 111 do it in the way that 1 it — wanted to make die

did I
innnlli. with thel)eaiil\ of its colour and everything. Imik like

111 11- 111 the sun-.rts . . . (if Miiiiel."""
5.23 FrancisBaeon,Se/f Portrait, 1969. Oil on canvas, 14 ^ 12in
On the -.nrfacc die rejirddncliun of a --ex enleenth-
(35.6 X 30.5cm).
ceiiiurv |)a]>al pnriraii >eein-. like a relatively low-key
snhject. unlike a crncifixiun or a theme inspired liy Cêek
iragfdv. \et the frightening sense of loss of contnil cMiknl in
ilir-e works far surpasses that of his earlier painiing-. Iiidn-d

the -ale hi-t(irical iieniralin,- of the subject works a> counter-
5.24 Francis Bacon, Three Studies of Figures on Beds, 1 972, OH
piiiiil 1(1 the aiii-l- liighlv charged transformation, hi
and pastel on canvas, triptych, each panel 6ft 6in x 4ft Oin
1
(1.98 X 1.47m).
\ (I -ion -of this theme and in other works painted after 1Q()().
Privote collection. -ncli .K^SclfPortniit [fig. 5.23 and Tliree Studies of Figures
|
147
Francis Bacon
leaxing detail to the imagination. "Shapes are remade or

put slightly out of focus.' iln- ariisi icmarked. "to bring in
their memor\ traces.

The arrows encircling poiiious nl llu- figun-s in Three
Studies (Beds; were ins])ired b\ a technical book b\ K. ('.
Clark entitled Positioning in Hndiogniphy.^' .\s with the

.Muybridge vohnnes. Bacon made freiitient recourse lo this
book for images, lie also used a short, broader, more
ivpographical si\le of arrow in a mimber of ])aintings. that
(ante, as he told ilir cuiaior Hugh Da\ies. from a golfing
instruction book: in i)oih cases he waiued the arrows to re-
create the neutrality of a textbook.""'

Devices that promote this kitid of clinical detachment
-eein almost maiiilalory to counterbalance the highly
charged nature of Bacon's subject matter. Indeerl the whole
i-nieiprise of his style is delicately poised — tiying to press on.
lo search for feelings of the most intimate kind and at the
-aine time maintaining enough distance to paint them. "The
paiiU mo^^ng from one coiuour into another made a likeness
of this person 1 was trying to paint. I stopped: I thought for a
moment I'd got something much nearer to what I want. The
next day 1 tried to take it further and tined to make it more
*
poitrnant. more near, and 1 lost the image completely.
After 19(i0 Bacon also used chance in a more systematic
5.25 Eadweard Muybridge, photograph from The Human Figure way to loosen up his associative process as he continued to
m Motion, 1887. focus with unyielding disci]>line on his unconscious vision of
his subjects. "I want a \ er\ ordered image." he said, "but I
on Beds Ifiti. "j.'J-f . rlie anisi iiiUdiliicc^ iilii-.! ii\filav~ of want it to cimii' abnin b\ chance."""^ hicreasingly. one
[>erji)fili\(' — sliowiiiK more tliaii uiii' a f at a tittif oit a starting-point was liieialK lo throw paint at the canvas. "In
face or figure. The richly detailed and juiiiiterly haiidliiit;. set the better things.according to Bacon, "that paint has an
"
off against tlie starkiiess of tlie liackgroiinds. makes the immediacy, although don't think it looks like thro-mi-about
1
"^"
ili-liirhiiig deforinaiioiis seem tmcomfortably close. paint. He left the white splash at the bottoiu of the central
Ifom the late forties until his death in 1992 Bacon l)anel of Three Studies Beds, entirely intact: there is also a
worked largely from his memoiy of real motifs and from modified trace of splattered paint in the face on the left jianel
[ihotographs or reproductions. In addition to snapshots of and in the midst of the figures in the center.
friends and news photographs he made exteiisiye use of such Wliat distinguishes Bacon from the suiTealists in his use
hooks as The Human Figure in Motion, a late nineteenth- of chance is that the sunealist portrays the elaboration of the
(rntuiT collection of photograpiiic îiidie^ hy Eadweard dream itself or provokes a glimpse of the irrational reality
\hi\ hriflge fig. 5.2-5\ Muybridge dt\ iM'(l a inultij)le camera underlying free association. Bacon, by contrast, uses the
a|i|Miatii> to capture sequential movement in a succession of allusions stimulated by chance to bring out and analyze a
-I III -liiiN. Init instead of reading the |)rocedu re as cineiuatic. feeling underlying the subject matter. Bacon painted his
IJaciin iiiiiMpeted it as a method of ru|)tiiring the continuir\- model over and over again, contimtally refining its appear-
of action. The figures in the central jjaiiel of Three Studies ance to attain a more and more precise psychic likeness.
(Bedsj derive from Muyhridges study of men wrestling. "One want- a thing to be as factual as possible,'" he
Bacon changeil the wrestlers into lo\ ers in an active embrace e.xplaiiiid. and ai the same time as deeply suggestive or
"*'
and lihinrd lluin a- il llu- |ii(inic wni- an acliori still. dfe|)l\ unlocking nl' areas of sensation.
Purified Abstraction
Liti-
^t'cincd îrn|ilrr in ihc liliics. ( ,iiiiiiiiiirii--iii IkhI rr-
placed Hitler as the ai(li-(laiif.'<'i' in llii- nninl nl ilir
Aincriraii piililir. anri altliougli Euiopfan-. wimt Iiss caici;!!! -
ical in their views more or less went along. In- l''-f""

tliev 1
Truman Doctrine riisbursed American economic and mili-

tary aid to anyone who was against communism tio matter
what they were for): the Western democracies founded
NATO in 1949 to counter the growing Soviet threat in
Europe; and in June 1950 the I nited States embarked on the
Korean War to hold the line against communism in Asia. At
liome Senator .Joseph McCarthys wild accusations of "red"
6 iulillration stirred Congress to open a ihinl fmnt" against

i-ominunism within the nation
The Eisenhower era (
itself.
1953—60) was a ]>eriod of unpre-

cedented American prosperity and world dominance. Busi-
ness was booming and the mainstream middle class were
SOME INTERNATIONAL beaming with economic confidence, even though there was
widespread paranoia about signing anything or "getting
involved" lest one be hauled into McCarthy's House Un-
TENDENCIES OF american Activities Committee. In addition there persisted

an undercurrent of fear that the Soviets might attack
(particularly after the nuclear tests held in Russia in 1949).
W ar II. and then the onset of
THE FIFTIES Bin after the Depression. World
ilie ciild war "the people" had had enough of the nation's
\\(iriie>. "I like Ike!" was the winning slogan in the election
of 1952. Americans didn t want to hear what Adlai Steven-

son (the other candidate) thought: for that matter, they
didn't even care what "Ike'' thought: they just "liked "
Ike's
reliable paternalism. He promised to be the "father, wim
could lift the world evenbody's backs so that
s affairs off
people could get on with the American dream of the
suburban home, complete with two children, a station
wasioii. and a family dos.
An Encounter with the Physicality of the
Materials in Europe
ilie fifties Europeans continued in undergo rationing
In
amid a context of major postwar reconstruction. Many
envied the jirosperity of the United States and somewhat
resented the nation's accompanying international influence.
At the same time they appreciated .\merican help in
financing the European recoven'. In fact the Old U orld's

preoccupations were the same as those of the New: achieving
middle-class prosperity. Much of the new art of the fifties —
in both Europe and America — reflected this,awayveering
from the introspective focus of the New York School and
concentrating on the tangible; figurative subject matter
began a revival, and the gestural richness of abstract-
expressionist painting was taken up in both representational
and abstract art for its sensuality and painterliness, rather
than for its underlying metaphysics.
149
)
*
'
!
w,i^
LucioFontana, Spatial Concept, 60 48, ? 960, 1960. Oil on

6.1
x 4ft in (1 .5 >^ 1 .5m).
perforated canvas, 4ft 1 1 in 1 1
Collection, Kunstsommlung Nordrhem-Westfoien, Dusseldorf.

150
Some International Tendencies of the Fifties
Ill 1 rami- I laii- ll.iiiiiiii; and Pierre Soulages [ng.()._'
paiiiled ill iii'--liiral -nlf- lifcl lo ilnoe very tradition^ nl
slvlislic elejiance thai arl injinnicl liad n-aiifd aiiaiif-l in llii-
lirevimis decade. Seruf iîliakolT aii.l \iiliiila> d.- Mai-I aKo

ir\ i\ III 1 1 II- |)ri-\\ ar- Scluiol ol' lâris in tiieir juiiiiterK s|\ Ir^ nl
ali^lrarlinii. I iir voiniii It'irhislos — (ieorges .Malliieii liii.
(...! . WoUganiiScluil/r w lio , ailed liiinself Wols i [fig. ().-+ i.
and alli-r 1^*50 tlie .Vinrriran Sam } rancis — evolveii in liirecl

rrs|iiiTi-.f tnai'liiin |iainlini:. " I iiclic means a splasli nr-lain.
and a^ dii-^ iin|ilii-^. dir iiinxriiii-m nnpliasized e\|iii-^--i\i-
|iainl handling. Bnl llirx icm ^rrnu'd morr ronirrnrd wiili
die iteautv of the smiai r — m. in llir ia-.i- of Mailiit-n. dn- an

of paiiitiiig as a perfoniiaiii-e — iliaii widi dri-|irr isMir-. dI
|tsv<liologv or ])hiloso|)hy.
Tlir mo-t iiileiesliiig European painting in the eaiK
lillit-. I ami- oiil 111 iirl infuniiel. Anloiii Ta])ies [fig. (i.o . a
( atalaii painter, worked in an abstract (irt infnrmel siyli-
after 1'^'52. inflnenced was by liis friend>iii|i as Dulmffet

with the i who had coined die
reniii critic .Michel Ta|)ie
term lapies al-ô experimented with chance and inok a
.
-piriinal attitude toward the nature of rnatefials. informed

bv Zen Buddhism, "l was obsessed with inaterialiiy. lie
later exjilained: "the jiastiness of phenomena which I
inier|ireted using thick matefial. a mixture of oil paim and

whiting, like a kind of intier raw material that rexeals the
noiunenal realitx which I did not >ee as an ideal or
supernann'al world apart but rather as the single total and
genuine reality of w hich eyenthing is composed.
6.2 (above) Pierre The mo>t interesting Italian painting of the decade aKo
Soulages, 9 December 59,
6ft 73e X SftSîin (2.02 x 1 ,62m).
Collection, Kunslsommlung Nordrhein-
Westfolen, Dusseidorf. © 994 Artists
1
Rights Society (ARSI, New York/ADAGP,

Poris.
6.3 Georges AAathieu,

Fointness, 1951. Oil on canvas,
4ft33einx5ft234in
(1.3 X 1.59m).
Collection, Art Institute of Chic : .-o Gift of
Mr. and Mrs. Maurice E. Culberc
1952.998. c Estate of Georges Mc-îeu,
1994.
151
;^
152
caiiU' {'roinart informel. in \\ hicli I he iiiatt'iiiil ii~rll riiiliiidii-. s/iii:iiili . Ill addilioii he cxpcriinciili-d widi "^palial I'li-
ail encounter witli realin*. Italian infonncl ci'iiiirrd on \ iioiiiiiciu^ (iniliiinli simzKili in I'M'' — iiroii iii-lalla-
MitertoBuni fig.D.O in Rome and Liicii) Fontana [t'if;.().l lioii- in w I lie! I lie allriiipird lo iMiîid hi- idiM~ iiilo a -|M-cili<-
in Milan. Btnri had liegiiii painting tlufins: l')43asa prisom r -paci-. Ill llii- fiflii-- I oiiiaiia ap|ilicd idlorriUioiic- orgia--- lo
of wai'. interned in Texa?. He worked with xaiiou- iiticmh- dir -iiilari- ol -oiiic \\ork~ lo iicalc a I rai i~criidr| il -i-il-c of
\entional materials — even mixing tar. rags, and li\ ini: llllll(l•. -palial liaii-pairiii\ . Bin fonlaiia- cpipiiaiix ol ~paci'—
with his pigments. But his best-known wurk-- aif tin- liiirla|i I iiiir had lo do w nil a I la-li o| iii>it;lil iiilo co-iiiir oi i Icr i alliri
"Sacks" of the fifties. Burri's expie>:.i\i- nianipulali<in <>[ ilia 1 1 Willi I III- rM-iciii lal I oiicciii- < il till iiildiiiiil.
liiese eartliv materials shifted the emphasis in painting from 1 lir oiii-laiidiiii; llalian gestural |)aiiilci ol iln- liliii--.
r('|>re>eiilation to the physical reality of the object itself. \\a- l.iiiilio \cilo\a iiiiiil 10.57. when die \iiirri(aii ( .\
i.ucio I'ontana MHigiit "an an in wliirli oiii idea ol an TwoiiibK -,111, -d III H,,iiir. Ill I'l-'i:" to 1958 Twombly began
camiot inlerMMie.
""
a^ he a^^lllld m lii> I'l-fo While |iaiiiiiiiLi hi- -o-,alli'il w riling- [fig.b.?^ —a calligra]ihic
Manifesto. Like Burri he wanted lo -.irr^^ ihc total reality of -i\ Ir ol iiiaikiiig ill,' iaii\ a- often confignriiiL' li-ltn-. w, iril-.
canvas as a material object to be i\pi iiiiced directly and

ilie i or ,-\,-ii lli-i-liiiL: image- in a dispersed "anii-i-oiiipo-iiioiial
without formal preconceptions. But Fontana sought tc order that ha^ a cuimingly random appearance, like a w all of
transcend the object, entering a tnetaphvsical s[)ace; in effect graffiti. The sense of his stylistic origins in writitig i
especially
he llêd the vi\i,l realiiv ,,1 ijit- iiiati'iial object as a the anonvmitv of graffiti . rather than in the flirectU
loundation lor an e\en nioii- ininianiiiiK leal. but at the autographic gesture of the action jiainters. underscore?
same time abstract, spatial conce]ii. IwiiinbK - ilifli-ri'iici- Iroiii abstract exjiressionisin.
At the end of the forties. Fontana began |)uncturing
holes iti the canvas and in the fifti,- li,' -la-lied through it a?
a wav of heightening the inten>ii\ of hi- interaction with its

6.7 CyTwombly, Untitled, 1960. Oil, crayon, and pencil on canvas,
physicalitA". Nearly all of Fontana ? paintings of the fifties 3814 xSSVsin (97.2x1 40cm).
and sixties are refeiTed to as "spatial concepts " concetti Collechon, Ralph ond Helyn Goldenberg, Chicago, Photogroph courtesy the collectors.
sss^^r^ -.- -ah^-

-'7f \ I' ."5i*. /l'£'^-
II
153
I udUiliK • line -ifcm^ cxju'riiiii'iilal r:illici' lliaii nsspr- dcri\ alix'c" atioilicr catclnxord of die decade L and the
li\i\ liiikiiii; liiiii Willi .Idlin ( ,1'^r and (In- imiIici work n\ ic|ccn I ina-icrlnr luii-liw nrk li\ New man and Holhko
.la>|if|- .Idllll-. >(! (.liapItT ~ rallid lliaii Willi llic î-ll- wa- -nil ileeined iiMi radical In iii-|iire iiii II aloi-. But iii-tead
aclnalizilig L'<'>Iiin' of Pdlln, k I w Ms ~ w.nk lia- a nrliK III die e\i-ienlial cii-i- eiiibiidicd in die anl(iL:ra| iliic mark,
IiimtimI amliiL;nit\ thai rcî-i- ( Id-iiir. ^ I'l ilr.-.|)iic ii> .-.friii- die new licslnral |)aiiilcr- ol the lifiic- lalkci 1 1 if ""|iol\ rcrcrcn-
ini; ci|iciiiii--.-. Id 1 1 II' ( liaiiii- iiciiiniiirr nl liitiire accretion- ii lial marks, sought 'Krical beaiil\. and -lrc--ed the
liiiiiK a.-.-LTI- 11- [ilari- wiiliiii llii- Liraml nai'?'ali\i' ol ilir -eii-iiiiii- |ilea-iire ol Ia\ ingiiii painl li ii ii- i iw n -ake. In I'l.").")
rhissical tradiiioii: IwimiliK (liiniiii-lic- railici iliaii cii- a laruc. laic li nlii liliis c(im| lo-ii imi |p\ \lnnei wcnl on
lianccs (lie ini|iiii(aiiri- ol iiiili\ idiial idciiliu. -iili-iiiiiiiiL: il di-pla\ al the \hi-eiiiii nl Mndern An. rnrllici licighlcinng
liilii llic nillcclix 1- and iniirli lari:ri ln-hii\ (i( W c-lcrn llic-i' \iimii: painler- inicrc-i in -iirlace richne--.
iilllilir. IwiimliK ii-ril rnllnii — r-.| ii-cialK lilci al iii'i- and Philip (.usion s lush. painlciK absliai tioii of die fifties
iii\ ill — lalliiT iliaii a -i-aiiji Inr cNi-li-nl iai idrnlii\ a- llif [fig. became a leading influence in what Klaine de
6.8] also
hillrll-hnir m| In, -l\ \r_ Kooning dubbed "abstract impressionism. Despite Gus- "*
loii - own commitment to an existentiallv probative subject
A Material Reading of Action Painting in inaitci. he unwittingly encouraged a number of younger
aiii-i- in the mid fifties toward a more superficial, "lyrical"

New York
or decorative style. But most preferred what they regarded as
DniiML: llic l)r|iir--idn and war \car- (In- lar;:i-K -i-JI- die raw lionestA- of de Kooning, evidenced by his tendency to
i-dii( aird ((iminiinilN nl \aiiunard arli-I- in Ni-w ôrk lea\e a painting unfinished, without disguising the marks
li\rd ini'Miii-iix . widi lillli- lio|)i" ot inakini; a li\lii;: li\ of his creative slrugi.de in the |)erfeclion of a 'finished"
|iainiint;. IlifV |)fiM'\ t'l'fd ^)U| ot inlfllt'cliial iiininiilinrnl. ciini])ositi()n.
and lircaii-i- llii-\ were cauglil ii|i in llir insistent social Dilficiili painting had credibilitv: elegant painting
iircc---.il il--. ol ilii- |ifrio(:l, most ot dicin [laiticipated in sonic was sei'ii a- mercK 'deciiiatix e." But to select a model at all
lorni ol [poliiical acli\i-ni. Tlie t'ainilial sense of a small ciiiitradicted the premise of an existential approach and
aiii-iic comnmniiN . cciiicied on Tentli Street and Broad\\ a\ lai-ed the question with which h-ving Sandler provoked a
in (.rccnwicli \ illasie. sinvived as late as tlie mid fifties. Tlie two-part series of artists" statements ior Art News in 19.59:
continuint: |iresence of such estaljlisiied figures as Harold 'Is There a New .Academy? One of the respondents summed
"
Rosenlierg. Willem de Kooning, and Phiiij) Giiston domin- ii|i the feeling by asking; "\^ li\ i- that after an evening of
it
ated the neiglihorliood. Franz Kline and occasionally .lack- ojienings on Tenth Street, come away feeling exhausted
1
son Pollock still Bar on Lniversitx

freciiiented the Ciedar
Place 1>\ \^ on East 8th Street
ashingtt)n Sijuare. The (Jlnb
inainiaincd a weekly program of speeches and discussions,
6.8 Philip Guston, Oasis, f957. Oil on canvas, 5ft T2in 5ft 8in
and a mmihcr of cooperatiye galleries opened with the work (1.56-. 1.73m).
ol younger artists who emiilaicd die first generation ol die Collection, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Woshington,
New York School. DC. Gift of Joseph H. Hirshhorn Foundation, 1966. Photograph by Lee Stalsworth.
The audience for these gallery shows and discussions

consisted chiefly of other artists, interspersed with a few
dealers, critics, and friends, ^liile the psychological and
ci infessional tenor of the conversation persisted, there was a
more naiTOw focus on style per .se. The rapidly growing

iip|tojtunities for teaching jobs and sales increasingly
ciiici'cd iiuii arti-l-. di-cussions. "Honesty endured a- a
( liierion in |iaiming. hiii "releyance faded awa\ "
By the end of the fifties the art wmld had \a-il\

ex])anded, tishering in a new influx lA imi\ ersiiy-cdncaied
ariists who did not appear to have the "moral crisis in
relation to what to paint, ""' which Barnett Newman des-

cribed as the challenge facing aitists in his generation. Re-
flecting the mood of the countiT at large, artists in the fifties
wi're remarkably a[)olitical. Universir\' education, it seem-,

had actually mafle them less interested in discussing intellci -
tual, social, and ]Militical i--ue- and had in-lead laughl tliein
about careers.
Ilohnann. Kline, and de Kooning were the leadiiiL;
model- loi- \iinng |iainlei- in the fifties. Thev adminil
Pollock, but llicN <(iiil(l not cniiilatc him without luokini:
154
iVdin the -ipeitiule of lioiedoin." There was a w i(les|(n'ail

'
The Greenberg School
leeliii!: thai nestural paintins: had hecoine a colleclioii ol
ihed coMxeiilidii--. \ l'l()(l (.reenberg had a prndioidns m-iwiuk uf iidln-
B •nce dial ilomiiiated the public deliaie on an. I lie
school \iiiing critics surrounding Greenberg included,

Greenberg's Definition of Modernism
111
iiiosi nolablv: Michael Fried. Rosalind Kraiiss. Kenwiirlh

eiitte tJeinenl l.ieeiil)eii; ste|)|)ed inm the (hsanax nl Mollcii, and Waller Darbx Baiiiiard. Tli.'iv were aKo a
The
-eioiid-treiieiatioii uesttire |)aiiiti!ig and de<ided he ecmld iiiiiiilicr i>l \iiiiiii; iiMisciiiii ciiralois w lici iinik I heir cnr- lidni
re\iiahze ]>aiiitiiig hy |)io\ idiiijz nile> tmiM wliirh iiaiiiier- (reeiibi-ig. and lor a full decadi' aller die l"l)4 evliibili. m in
could proceed: It is "a law of iiioiieiiii-'in. '

he w role in !''.)). 1. OS Aiiiicles called "Posi PaiiilerK \b-lracii(iir \\liirlis,.|
"... that applies to almost all an ihal riinain- iinU ah\rin die eanuii ol ( .leeiilierg s uiste ( Meenberu's liillowers alsd
our time — that the coiiventioii> nol I'^Hiniial hi ihi' \ laliiHlx iddk dvi'r \i//nniiii iiiaga/ine.
of a medium Ix'fliscarded as soon a> ihe\ are rci nnni/i-d. i hi- ( .reeiilieri: and fried sini;|i-d diil David îiiitli and
]irocess of self-purification . . .
"'
exoUed. in Hncar |iriii:ri--- \iillidii\ (aid lii;.".]!) as die leadini: iniid\aldrs in
>ion. from Pollock to Still. Hothko. and \e\\ man — w lio-e siulpiinc. bill liAiiii; .'sandier riiililK Wdiidered "il. as
tlat ex])aiises of color went hevonil die "-liadinu and illu- ( .reenberg main la il led. each df the arts w a- inrning in im its
sioiiistic depth srill ieniaiiiiii<r in cnhist-iidliienced painter- d\\ n iiiediiiiii. \\||\ had lie d|iled fur welded icin-lnielidii.
such as de Kooning, according to (ireenherg. Kroni them the w Inch lie chiiiiieil aspireil idward the jiiildrial. ralliei lliaii
haiou of vanguardism jmssed to the "color Meld or "stain sciilpiine dial ap]irdarlii'(l ihe oliject i.e. minimalism,
painters Helen Frankenthaler and Morris Louis, and in the which was die iiaiiire dt scnlpmre':'" '" Minimalisin. as
Kenneth Nolatid and.lnlc-
-i\tie> to ()lit-ki. llie |prol>leni. a- >andler implied. Idcused on jireciselv these literal i|iialilies
Barbaia Rose pointed out. was that dllhedbject s.-eChapler 10 .
jdhii (Cage's book >V/(7(rc — whii'li siuiid tor iiiiliisi\e-

(li'iiicnl Creciibenr. (jiinliii'^ Multlicic [riKild. s<iir llic task
ness and was conse(|uentlv im[)iire li\ (.reenberg
crilir n.i defiiiiiiii the iiKiiiislretini tniililioii But
of the . . .
til
staiiflards — ai)]ieared in l')bl. at precisely the same lime as
(inygiren time the iiiaiiislre<im is only fxirt of the Inlnl
Greenberg's influent iai collection of essays. Art and ( iiltiire.
(irtivitv. . Greenberg's ctrgiiment is that siiuc nim/crnis/
.
To the followers of Greenberg. Câge and Duchamp. Raiis-

art eniftncipnted itselffmin the demands nf society, the
clienlierg. .lohns. Oldenburg, and all pop artists were the
history of forms has been self-referenti(d and has erolrcd
corru|)ting anliclirists of kitsch. .\s late as 191^ -t Kenwdiih
inileftendeiith of the histor\ of r rents.
'
Moffeti called Oldenburg a "feeble' artist and chirled: I he

"This argiimetit. she concluded, "is demonstrahly fal--e. lack of die slii.'liiesi fdiinal integrity prevents his drocipy
"
Nevertheless a number of influential peo[)le in the art wiuld paimerK nbjei i- Irdiii being more than archly cnie.
eiuhusiasticallv embraced the clariis and logic ol (ireen- Michael fried weiii even further, saying "if someone likes
bergs monolithic "maiiisireain in ''()(• William Rubin, ;

1 ///(// siiilf . . . 1 sinijiK can'i lielieve his claim that he is also
for e.\amj)le. remarked that |)ainterly painting was e\en "a moved drconxinced by the work of .Noland. sa\.
or tlatfened
losing [)i-o|)osition for de Kooning himself. or Olitski or ( aro. "

and that anyone who sincerely makes
(ireeiiberg felt confidem in hi-- ability to spot the "next siicli a claim is in the grip of the wrong e.xperience. "
nio\e. Moreover, he was certain there would be onl\ iine 1 ornialisiii dec reed a naiTowly linear progress in iiumI-
next move at a time and that it necessaiiU had lo lullow in a einisin idward a relentless jiurification. ()nl\ optical f'aris
logical manner from his belief that dial which was verifialiU xisilile! were signiliciiii in die
disciiv-iiiii dl painiing. Subject matter was irrelevani. illn-

tin' e.'i.ienre of Modernism lies . . . in the use of tfie
-.idii and anvthiiig that did not fit Greenberg s
Idibiddeii.
characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize the
was dropped IVoiii his definition of modernism as if ii
loLHc
discipline itself. The task of self criticism heccniie to
nexerexisted. Fried desii ilied die inevitable march to piirin
. .
eliminate from the effects of each art any and ereiy effect
in an ei|iiall\ affectless and narrow manner: "Once a painler
that might conceirahly he borrowedfrom or hyllie niediiiiii
who accepts the basic juemises of modernism becomes
ofanvotiierart. Tliereby each art would be rendered ~/>iirc.
aware of a particular |Hdblem thrown up by the art of the
and in its 'purity' find the giiarcintee of its standards of
recent |)asi. his action is no longer grattiitoiis but imposed.
f/iialityas well as of its independence." The ariisi had to follow a more or less predetermined path.
In (ireenljerg s modernism color, for example, is "optical Rd-aliiiil Kiaii-- w rule that art history "was like a series
and therefore belongs to jiaiiuiiig. so is the picture plane. i4 rcidiiis (// /Hade ()iie after another' Within each room .
(lonseijiieiitlv sculpture that involved coloi oi mad.- die individual artist ex[)lored. to die limits of his e.xperience
reference to the picture plane would not cjiialih a- an and his formal intelliL'ence. the separate constituents of
"important" next step. Similarly narraiixc a liieiarv Iii~ iiiediiini. file elTeci df his pictorial act was tn dpen
device), figural representation, and cerlainU ilhisidnisin -iniiilianediislv die dddr Id die next space and cKise diii
were strirtiv proscribed. aco'ss Id ihe one behind him."''' In Krauss's fornialisi
155
(li'catlilon (»!' ii[iciiiiiL' ami clii-inLT ilimr^ -ipicakx liiiiirc^ colors which the artisi himself had jiainted removed and
wi'i'f (lis(|iialilii'il. w Im li rii-izalr- ilii' ili-liniiiL: |Mriiii-c nl an ri|ilaiiil willi an ciiiinK diffei-ent tv|)e of surface.'" Moiris
a\ aiil-i:ai<li'. I niii-. unlike Smith. e\ identK followed directions in the lirsl
liiiiiiiiati'K . I 111' 111--.! aili-i-, (111 iidl liillow inlr- iiiadr ii|i place. I III- painter made a note on the edge of a 1^^.38 cam a-
li\ (i'ilii>. lull iii\i-iii ilirir own. \liiii-(i\ it. an ilm- imi lliat he planned to fold out of sight: "l inch of white on each
clf\el()|) IdfiiralK mi in a liin-ai |)riii;i'i-->iipii: ami it nnr rnnlij -ide as per Clem. "' By around 1970 the art anrl theory on
|iiiHlicl llic iiexl iiiiiv r in an. llial an w uiilil in' iiiiiiii|iiiiiaiil which Creenheri.' ami Fiie<l had l)iiih their reputations
|irfii-.i-|\ l)i-raiHi- il i- |
irnlirlaMr. \l llir niil^rl ( .1 rriilirri: licLian In Innk a-- dated and unconvincing as ihrir claims of
ua^ n-arlini; auaiii-l llir Innii ol (iilici'in |iiarlirril li\ lii-lniii al inr\ ilahililN . (ireenherg more or le>s faded frnm
I I an ill I iioscilherii'. w iici-.r rliirl iiitrir-.! wa-- ill iili'a> ini|iliril \ iiw a I
nnr w illi llir i I ion is around him. f lied reticaled intn
in ihr work ct llii- \rw \ oi k s,Iiim,I. W lial Ru.-.enli.Tfi liki-.i ninrirrnl III rill iii\ Îndies, and Kraii» went mi to de\clop a
a I II II 1 1 an w a> il> iiii|irrilirialiilil\ — llir riilrv of fresh idra-- sri|iiriirr nl 1 1 irmetical cmistructs which she apjilied to
illlii llir inii\ 1-1 -al inn. Iiil' llilll all ii|iriir(l llie i'\ e-- ill llir w niks III cniiirmporaiN all and which cnntiniies to attract an
|ianiri|iain- In iirw |irrs|irrli\ r- nil iiii|innaill -ncial ni aidriil Inllnw inr.
|pnliliial i-.~iir-. ( .iiTiilirrL;. nn ilir nilirr liaml. ii-ll llial -mil
(-\|>i'cs>iniii>lii- rriliri-in larknl riiinr. liiii a> llii- lni;ical
Formalist Painting
|in-.ili\ i>N lia\i- [inillli-il mil. llli- nllK ali-njiilrlx [irnxaliir
linlli> air laiilnjniiiral: wlial ( .rrriil iiTii. krii'il. ami llir Grrenlieig Iricd In rejii\riialr ilrcnialix riiess as an
nihil - i;aiiirii in lijinr llirx In-t in -.iiiiiilifaiict'. alleiiiatixe to e\|)icssiniiisin. and he singled out the work
( )nr ut the i^real imnirs in ihjs formalist ejiisnilr is iIkii nl Helen Piankenthalei hecaiisr she achieved an ideiiiiix nf
all nl ( .leeiihefi; s jmlunirm, iiltiinaielv relied nn la-ir in die siiiface aiKJ cnlnr— making them insejiarable — hv lite-
ilrli riiiinr i|nalil\ . ami tlii'ir w nr im nliji>iii\r riiinia ui\ rii lalK snakiim die cnlnr iiiin the cauvas. making it textureless
inr ia--ir. handler' jii^lilialiK rniii| ihiiniMl alinni fiieil. wlin and iliiis iiinre optical than tangible. Frankenthaler
"would allow oiiK nm- cnrrcil lonnalisi an al aiiv innineni. wnikril in an abstract style derived from Hans Hofmann
did not iiiakr rlrai win aii\ ime o|iiinn shmild hr aii\
.\iid lie wiili iiii|ieiiis Irnm the work of Kandinskv and dorkv. Like
inofe iTiodefiiist than an\ nilin . . . Fiied clio-.e to >ini:ie oiii a llnlniann -\\i' Innk iiisj lii alinii Iriiiii iialnie. lull unlike
lew aftists. iiotalily Nnlaml. ()lil>ki. Stella, and Cam. and liim. she ami srxnal nilin alisirarl iniprrssinnisis n| ihr
arcrjil \\lialr\rl llli-\ IIKIilr a- liiiK lllni lrnii~l . iilllv lirrail-r lillirs wrir alllaclril In llir drinialivr sinTacc i|llalilics nl'
llir\ made il. '

'
llirlalrMiinel.
hicieasiuniK ])eo|)le liesran taking issue imi nnU widi Ill .Vpril 1*'.'3.'^
Kenneth iNoland iwho came Irmii
(iieenl)erg's o])inions hut also with the niannei in w liirli he \\ ashingtmi, D.(i.) brought his friend Morris Louis in .New
iiii|)Osed them on others, hi one widely diseussed ca-ê ^ ork to meet Greenberg and look at art. Tliev visited
(iieenberg appears to ha\e decided, after David Smith's f rankeiithaler's studio, and her painting.l/o(//;/(7 ///a- and Sea
death, how he thought Smith sliould liave finished rertain \\"]iS. ().'* had a galvanizing effect on Louis, hiimediatelv on
pieces. So. as executor of Smith's estate, it seems he had the their return to Washington, Louis and Nolarid began to
6.9 Helen Frankenthaler, Mountains and Seo,

1952. Oil on canvas, 7ft 25'8in ' 9ft9i4in
(2.2 X 2.98m).
Collection, the artist, on extended loon to Nolionol Gollery of Art,
Washington, D.C, (c: Helen Fronkenlhaler.
156
i\|irriiiiiiii loireilier wirli staiiliiiK I'i2>.(>.lll ami d. 1 1 opelim--- ill

"I
ill If pailililii;. dili\ ed Imin I In- idtiililx (il
I niij^ al)aii(linieil the briisii coiiiplctcly ami l"i;aii |

iiii; cilnramUinlare.
\ iM'oii? liiifs ot paint lliat soakf<l iiiid ilir >iirlarc. H\ ilic I akini; nlf licmi die lariicl- dial .la-per .litliii- -IihwimI a I
l>egiliiiin<: ot lfl3-t. lie liad (li-xi-cd a mw -w],- lia-id nn ilic ihr I.e., ( a-lelli (.alleix III I".'.;',. Kfiinflli Xolaiid b.-aii a
lfclini(|lif ot staiiliilir im>izf(l wliiii- ((Hldri uilli a liipml -cnr- III laiLifi painliiii;- lii^dll lale ill I''");'., Ihr
ai rvlic niediiiin. lianaliu ol llic lorniai \\a- iiileiiln mal. Inr die arii~l waiih-d
Loiii-s surceeilfd in ni-iiini; a dilli'icin rlln i Ikhii 111 -111--- in-lead die inieiaciKin i il Ci ili n - — jn-i a- Nolaml--
staining tliaii Pollock or Rolliko iiad aclm-Mil III- c>i\i>y~ li-achi'i'. .lo-el \lbei-. had dour in hi- c(iinpii-iliiiii- III ne-icd
hloniled into one another ami intn ilie canxa- iixll. railni color -i|iiaic- li-.l). 12 . Acciirdini: in I nrd. \nlaiid -niii;lii
dian Kins above the >urt'aic. I hi- proi r--. Ii li rirh -|ii'itial a "-lIlclK Ingical if a linn I belw eril die painlrd una Lie anil die
laverings that revealed theni>eKf- w ith |iarlicnlai (/'/;/ an In- Iraniini; e(li;e. '
'
fried Iniiml pj-eeisely the -aiiie a-piialinii

edi:e>. (ireenberg and lii> follower-- applauded Lniii- lor In- III ihe cnnlenipniaix w nik- of Frank Stel la 111;-. III. J. |(l.-f.
"lioMi--i\" in making e.\|)liiii ilie real llaiiio-- of ilie ran\a-. and 10..') . \nlaiid inn\ed from a Rothko-like -olim--- in die
Michael f ried [)anieularl\ piai-ed llic di-appeaiauce ol "all del inn I I die nnieri'd-elo-liard-ediied" circle- b\ I'Kil.
suggestion of the ge-inial. iiianile-d\ -jionlaneou? hand- f rnm here I die -I ripe- de\ einped iiiln clie\ roll- and llieil ill In
w riting of absiiact e\pre--iiiiii-in. '
I or dieni MoiTis Loui- cniiliiinnii- hnii/niilal-.
had snipassed Frankenihalii in pun- opiicality by estab- I he stain or color-field painting of --ucli artists as
h^hing a iinifoniilv texlurcil liild and dissipating anv Frankeiithaler and Louis derived from a formalist analvsis
.-en>e oi depth or color -iib-lance. I.mmi if otlier> -.aw of the gesture painting of the New \ork School. A geometri-
paintings like Tct fig.().lU not a- flat bin dia|ilianons. callv liased formalist jiainting had aheadv evolved, in large
coil\e\ing an ilhi>ioii ot depth in and behind (he wa>he-. part out of a literal reading nf Mondrian. .\d Reinhardi. il-
of color. Greenbertr continued in delii;lii in a feelins of leading e.\|)oneni. \\a- a coiilemporaiv nf Pnllni k and
Motherwell bin he loathed subjectivitv. Bv !'>()() hi- wmk
moved toward a reihiction so radical that a tv|)ical |iaiiiiiiig
6.10 Morris Louis, Tet, 1958. Synthetic polymer on canvas, might con-i-i niiK nf a black rectangle inscribed with nearlv
7ftllin ^ 12ft9in(2.41 - 3.89m). iii% isible \i'riic-al and horizontal black trisections [fig. 6. 131.
Collection, Whitney Museum of Amer.con Art, New York, Purctiose, with funds from the
1 If cniicliiiled dial ihi-- w a-- die final solution in paiiuiiiL;: a--
Friends of the Whitney Museum of Americon Art, New York. Photograph by Geoffrey
Clements, New York. Inriher piiigre-- wa- iherelnre impossible, he annniniceil
157
6.11 Kenneth Noland, And Half, 1959. Acrylic on canvas, 6.12 Josef Albers, Homage to f/ie Square: "Ascending," 1953.
5ft9in> 5fl9in(1.75 1.75m). Oil on cotnposition board, 3ft 7' 2in * 3ft 7^ 2in (1.1 1 x 1.1 Im).
Collection unknown, Photogroph by Geoffrey Clements, New York. ©Kenneth NolondA'AGA, Collection, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, Purchose Photograph by Geoffrey
New York. 1994. Clements, New York, .c; 1 994 Artists Rights Society |ARS1, New York/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn.
ml±±:t'
6.13 Ad Reinhardt, Abstract Painting, 1960-6. Oil on canvas, 6.1 4 Victor Vasarely, VEGA PER, 1 969. Oil on canvas,
5' 5ft (1.52 1.52m). 5ft 3in > 5ft3in(1.6 1.6m).
Photogroph courtesy Poce Gallery, New York. Collection, Honolulu Academy of Arts. Gift of the Honoroble Clore Boothe Luce, 1984.
Photograph by Tibor Fronyo. ici 1 994 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Pan
158
iIkm ill:' iiiU'iidt'd 1(1 if|(i'iil tliir< >;itiif |)aiiuin<x troiii linn mi.
.losel' AiliiMS. tilt' t'ornitT Raiiliaii> inasicr w Ikiiii Nulainl
had eiicouiitei-etl at Black Mdiirilaiii C(ille<:e. \inlli âiuliiia. (
had a iiieai elTfcl mi jiD^twar paintiiii: through lii> icaihiiiii.

\lln-i> taimiii at Black Moinitaiii IVom U)3.i thrdiiL'ii iIm
lnrtie> and then mini'd in '>•")() (o the \ale Sclux>l ol An. Ic

1 I
aiiiucil lor an c.\|U'rimfntal attitude coiiceiMiiii: riialerial-
anil a tecliiioloj:ical riiior in tiie study of color and desiL'n. in
hi- own work he t'ociised narrowly on optical interactions

and the e.\|)ie»i\e diniension i> .sn|)|)resserl to a whisper.
Aiiiist i,- dead. "
lie once w lote on a scia|) of paper that lie
i landed to I larold Rosenheri.' at a party."" The li.xed coniposi-

lional foiinat of his series "Moniaiie to the Sijiiai-e" |)reoccii-
jiied him for the last iwenty-five years of his life. .Mheis
paintiiii: and wrilina were e(|nally systenialic. orderK.
expeiinienlal. In I'X).? he i.nhlished a hook of
color theoiT called The Inlcnirtioii o) Color, and dniini:
that decade he enjoyed a con-ideralile following a- inlere-i
ill a more deiaciicd and ihioiiiiial -tx le ot an liciaine
more w'ides|)read.
In I*l0-J the Miiseiiin of \lii(|rrn \rl ii|ii'ned a w idcK
di-cn^-ed exhiliilioii calieil llie Hi-pnn-i\e l.\c.
'
W illiani
Seit/. the curator, wanled to ining togeiiier a -ur\e\ of

current ai'tist.- who nianipiilale<l perce|)tnal ellcci-- in a
formalist — as opposed in an e\pres-ioni-ric — mode. I he
e.xhihiiion brought logcihei "op art" from oiiiicai' a- in .
(he painting? of \ icior \ a-aicK fig.h. l4 and kimiic an

.
having to do with ailnal motion . as in die drliiaii-K

engineered works of (,eoige Hicki'X fig. ().!•") . 1 lie |iopiihn
media loved the show. But the art estalilishmeni deii -led it 6.1 5 George Rickey, Jvjo Open Rectangles Exceninc VI, Square
Section, 976-7. Stainless steel, 44 a 36in (365.8 '^ 91 .4cm).
as a displav of vulgar and empty xistial ginimii k-. and ni the
1 1
Collection, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York, Purchased with the aid of funds from
chagrin of (ireenberg's circle Seitz also included color-field the NotionolEndowment for the Arts in Woshington, D.C., o Federol Agency; motching funds
canvases bv Moiris Louis. Kennetii Nolaiul. and Waller donoted by Evelyn Shorpond anonymous donors, 1978. Photograph by Robert E. Moles rî The
Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, New York. © George Rickey/VAGA, New York, 1 994.
Darbv works by Frank Stella, l.ariy
BantiiU'd: as well as
Poons. Ellsworth Kellx. Lariv Bell, and .\gnes Martin all of
whom were associated with minimalism and by .losef :
VIbers. .Vd Reinhardi. and the iiiterwar geometric abstrac- foniialist aesthetics, whereas the others, they felt, were oiiK
lionist Leon Polk Sinilli. (ireenberganci his circle vigorotislv a form of "visual entertainnient. In retrospect, however '
argued thai the coloi-fiild paiiuer- practiced a high Seilz's premise for ilie -how -eem- lo hold up ]irett\ w ell.
"'New Images of Man'' in Europe and America

shape to tlii- nonhern Liiro-
ollieiwi-e loose affiliaiimi ot
The CoBrA wa- a free, organic
peaii artist-, llieir niiifving stylistic lioiid
drive towards liberated siibjeclix iiy in the ligiirali\i' expressixene-s in paint handling and an em])hasis on
The
and Bacon influenced a
-tvles of Dubuffet. (jiaconietti. imagerv defined in the iiidixidual imagination. The major
w ider tendencv in postwar Ltiropean and .Vmericaii an. lie 1 artists of the CoBr.A group were Asger .lorn from Denmark
"CôBrA gioup — comprising arti-ts from Lo'penhagen. lig.b.lTj. Kaiel Appel i^fig.6.1b\ Cômelis van Bexerloo.
"Br iissels. and .\"nislerdam — i- die outstanding example knoxxii as Comeille. and Constant .\. Nietiwenhuys [fig.
of thin broader phenomenon. At the end ot 1948 the Belgian ().1<'> from .\nisteidain. and Piene .\lechin:,ky 'fig.().19
poet (Christian Dotremoiit aiul the Danish painter .Asger.loin Irom Biaissels.
ga\e initial shape to LoBr.\ as a moxement. Over the next

three year? they and tlieir collaborators produced ten i—ues Karel Appel, Question/ng Children, 1949. Oil on
6.16 (opposite)
entitled CoBrA of a journal and immerous exhibiiioiis. and wood relief, 34% x 23V2 x 6V4ln (87.3 x 59.7 x 15.9cm).
iliev instisatefl artistic excliaimes that aimed to ishr -ome Coileclion, Trustees of the Tote Gollery, London. © Karel Appel/VAGA, New York, 1994.
159
"New Images of Man" in Europe and America

6.17 AsgerJorn,ASoulforSo/e, 1958-9, Oil
on canvas, 6ft 7in a 8ft 234in (2.01 > 2.51 m).
Collection, Solomon R, Guggenheim Museum, New York. Purchosi
with funds contributed by the Evelyn Sharp Foundation. 1983.
Photogroph by David Heold ci The Solomon R, Guggenheim
Foundotion, New York.
6.18 (below) Constant A. Nieuwenhuys,

The Little Ladder, 1949, Oil on canvas,
35' 2 . 29' 2in (90.2 ..74.9cm).
Collection, Hoogs Gemeentemuseum, The Hogue,
ci Constont/VAGA, New York, 1 994,
I. ike Dtiltutt'i't. (iiaioiiiftli. Baciin. and the aIti^l^ iil'tlu-
New \ork School the tioBiA artists liaci rods in sunealist

aiitomatisin. Ffeiirlian psvcliolo£r\\ and existentialism. Witli
niilmtfei. whom the CoBr.V knew and admired. the\ also
~liareil an interest in anonvnions. initmored art and in tlie
even day e.xperieiice of the common man. Join [iraiseil
po[)iilar culture, celebrated inartistic materials, and eimi-

lated graffiti, ('onstant. in a statement that reflected the
\ iews of most of tlie group, remarked that "we consider tlie
stimulation of the creative impulse as aits main task

and
asserted that "truly living art makes no distinction between
"'
the beautiful and the uglv.
The artists associated CoBrA also turned to ciiilil-
with
ren's art. as Dubuffet had, for an expression of the uncon-
scious that circum\ented the inhibitions of culture.
However, as PieiTe .\lechinskv explained. "CoBrA is a fomi
of art which heads toward childhood, tries to recover folk art
anil child art for itself \^^ti] the means available to adults.
iiiiii-iiaive means."-- In tliis respect they (and other
surrealist-inspired artists who emerged after the wai- dif-
fered from the surrealists. The CoBr.\s" call for "-.ponta-
neity acknowledged the full range of experiences that
imiiinged on the processes of the developed mind, whereas
Breton retained idealistic aspirations for a "pure" expression
of the unconscious through automatism, hi addition F iiiiil-
ian (isychology no longer had the same novelty value to the

lost war generation, as it had twenty vears previously: it had psvchoanalvsis and pliiiinmenoiogv via the writings of the
I
already become a familiar perspective on im|)ortant aspects French philoso|jher (raston Bachelard. .Alecliinsky s procla-
of eveiyday life. Y( here Breton hail iiopid to prompt mation that '"it is through action alone that the thought can
revelations of the unconscious, these artists sought a fiillei- inteicede in matter"" not onlv suggests a parallel wiiii
encounter with reality through the marshalling of unci lu- Dubuffet s notion of "collaborating" with materials imi
scious forces. underlines the dialectic between subjective intuition and
CoiisequeiitK ( oBr.A s si\ie stressed the act of creation empirical realitv. From this point of \aew, imagination mild i
and harked back fonnally to early twentieth-centun ex- mitigate man's alienation.
pressioni.- 11. They saw imagination as a mechanism that .\lthough CoBrA disintegrated as a ciiliesi\e inovemeni
"unforms he images supplied bv |ierception — an idea that in the early fifties, its leading artists continued to eMii\e.
goes back 11 Baudelaire and which iiii\ took from developing separately its principles of spontaneit) and its
161
hi Death (uul the Maiden the painter traiisfonned tlie

6.1 9 Pierre Alechinsky, Death and the Maiden, 1 967. Acrylic on
paper mounted on canvas, 4ft 6in 4ft 6in (1.37 v 1.37m). framing edge into a detailed connnentan on the center. This
Collection, Morion Lefebre, Los Angeles, c 1 994 Pierre Alechmsky/Artists Rights Society (ARS) l)lack-and-white sequence of notations developed frame by
New York.
frame in an im])licitly ongoing interaction. Like Dotreinont"s
idea of \Miting in diak>g with the physicality of the word as it
ixistential concerns. For Aleciiinsky in particular Cc)BrA wa.s goes on to the page, this margin unfolds through sponta-
Iinly the beginning of a major career. Even though his later neous responses, repetitions, and transfonnations of sugges-
|i;iMitinL'-. Hke tlie \9(-,7 Death and the Maiden [fig.6.19]. . tions from the center. The process makes the initial images
Mill relate to the ideas of Dotremont and to some CoBrA become more and more familiar, generating a resonant,
I Mn<-eTiis. thi'x alx) liieak new sround. expressive content as it unfolds.
162
The Figurative Revival of the Fifties
Fii;iir;ili\c iiii;ij;iT\ iti L'l'iii-ial iitidiTw cril a ic\i\al In lln

lilrii'^. Iinili ill luinijif and AiTicriia. In -.('nl|iluii' aiti--l
laniîni; lioni Reg BnlliT in Britain. (aTinaini- Biciiii-i- ii
I lam r. ilir Italians Marino Marin lii;. ().l!(I and .ia( nrni
i (
\lan/ii. a^ wi'il as Aincriians likr l.conaid Baskin. trial((

llic human liiiine in an fxpn'ssinni^tii- inanmr thai i^ at iinr(
ciuncniporarv in scnsihilitv and iiinM>naiit with ( la^îia

tradilimi-- dt hron/.c (^r^tini;. In l.nr(i|ii' |iiilia|i^ the unl
slandiiii: traditional l'ii;iirc jiaintrr nl the [ii-rind \\a- tin
Englishman l.iician I'loiid il'igs.().21 and().22j.
riiongh directly engaged in the outward a|)|iearanic n
things. Freud wanted his "iiorirails to he «/ the ])eo]ile. no
"
like them. Not having the look of the sitter, being them.
I his [low erhil sense ol the realit\ lir\ diid the picture create:
an iincomroriahle inlimacx lieiwten the viewer and lh(
-itier. On the one hand the viewer feels a formal distance it
not ln'ing ahle to divine the enigmatic relations between tin

liiriife- w here there are more than one) or to know the trm
identity of the solitary subject. Yet the artist |)resses tin
\ie\\i-i- to iimiidi' (in an excriicialingjx pri\ate scene. A-. tin
6.20 Marino Marini, Horseman, 1947. Bronze, 64"2 ^ 61 » 26''2ir

(163.8 154.9 67.3cm).
Collection, Trustees of the Tote Gallery, London. iciEslote of Mormo Mormi/VAGA, New Yort
1994.
6.21 Lucian Freud, Francis Bacon, 1952. Oil on copper, 7 >- 5in
(17.8 >. 12.7cm).
Collection, Trustees of the Tale Gallery, London.
critic Robert Hughes has pointed out, Freud "has seen

everything with such evenness, while conveying the utter
disjuncttire between the artist's gaze and the sitter's lack
""'
of response.
In New- York the admiration for abstract e.xpressionism
produced in the fifties not onlv a school of second-generation
abstract gestiu'e painters but also figurative aiti.sts working
in a painterly ^X\\e. These included Grace Hartigau [fig.

(1.23]. .\lex Katz [fig.().28]. Philip Pearlstein [fig. 6.29]. and
Fairfield Porter [fig. b.24] ,lan Miiller [fig. 6.25] worked in a
.
gestural manner but his subject matter came from an

imagination fuelcij li\ medieval religious painting, and his
style had more to do with Nolde than with Hans Hofmann
(his teacher), .\hiller did his first serious work in 19.52
and inimediatelv achie\iMl a considerable reputation iti
\c\\ \ork. although his larly death in 1956 cut short a
promising career.
Yet not even the retiu-n oi dc K( inning ami Pollix k hi tiie
ligiire in the earlv fifties con\in<i'il mhiic artists of the

nngoing viabilitv of figurative art. In jiai tit ular those under
6.22 Lucian Freud, Naked Girl, 1 966. Oil on canvas,
^s 't^ 24 > 24in(61 - 61cm).

Colleclion, Steve Martin.
\N
6.23 (below) Grace Hartigan, River Bathers, 1 953.

Oil on canvas, 5ft 9%in x 7ft 4%in (1 .76 x 2.25m).
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Given anonymousiy.
164

165
Hofmann. -\s his painting T/ie Stiu/io [fig. 6.26] shows.

6.24 (opposite) Fairfield Porter, Katie and Anne, 1 955, Oil on
canvas, 6ft 8' ein v 5ft 2' em (2.03 1 .57m).
Rivers typically distributed preciselv rendered details over
Collection, Hirshhorn Museum ond Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Woshingtoi the surtace like the faces in this work He interspersed
.
D.C. Gift of Joseph H. Hirshhorn, 966. Photogroph by Lee Stalsworth.

1
them with roughly sketched or bmshed passages and raw
areas of impainted canvas. Rivers treated the caiivas as a
field of random activity; rather than focusing on a single
ilii- iiiiliit'iuf ol CrefiihtTii oi .\il l{iiiilianll ifit tluil going image, he scattered several centers of interest across the
hack" to realist subjects constituted a hetiaval ol modeiii- painting. In most cases these disparate areas cohere around a
Greenberg claimed that "any |)ainter lodax imi wmking
i-iii. compositional center, but in sonie works thev approach the
ab>tfactedly is wofking in a ininor iiiodf. ami Urmliauli "allover' stnuime of wurk^ like de Koonings Excaration
""
i|ui|)ped "Enter natnie. exit art. [fig.3.44\
Larry Rivers, the outstanchng painterly realist to emerge Rivers handled his >iiiijiii iiiaiter \\ iili a ]»er\erse irony.
in .New \ork durint; the titties, had studied with Baziole^ and His frontal, full-length portrait of frank O'Hara wearing
6.25 Jan Muller, The Temptation of

Saint Anthony, 1957. Oil on canvas, 6ft
7inxl0ft3 4;n(2.01 X 3.08m
Collection, Whitney Museum of Amencon Art, Ni
York. Purchase. Photograph by Geoffrey Ct
New York.
166
touch anil siipi rli draflsinanslii|i a^ 11 ilii'\ ton till raîialK

from his hand.
I III ike Ri\-ers. w Im iiiaiii|iiilalcil lii~ îiliji-c i~ n> -i i r-~ iln'
MMit|ueiiessof his \ isitin and Ic(iuiii|iii-. 1 airlirld I'mli r. \li\
Kal/. and l'liili|i Pearlstein nioiiesiiv painted what \\a- in
fmnt cif thfiii: all the details are leL'ible. and llii-n- i- no
|iriMcnsf ol lliroix. Kal/ had a shaipK -iin|ihliiMl ~ulijrcl
mailer, toiiisiiii; on iiidi\ idnal oliji-cts or ~htrrs that are kept

isolated in his com])osiiioiis ^fig.().28 . This spare treatment
ol the indixidnal form as a single image, rather than as a
|iariii ipant inleracling with other ligures inside the frame,
made Kal/ s subjects seem more abstract. The painterU
softness of .Ale.x Katz s work from lln- mid lilties later gave
\\a\ to a flatter, more hard-edgetl iim lini( jin-.
Piiili]! Pearlstein fig.b.2*) concerned himselt wiih

executing an iniliffeienlly objecti\e representation ol hi-
subject, which became almost exclusivelv nndt- inodiU
posed in the studio. But Pearlstein made none ol liie
Ioncessions that Katz flid to impact and scale. His factual,
imidealized sr\le leaves nothing to the imagination and
gives no (|iiai'ter to introspection. It i- a \ i-nal di-cipline.
6.28 Alex Katz, Ado (in Black Sweater), 1957. Oil on masonite,
f
24 X 18in(61 X 45.7cm).
Collection, the artist, on long-term loon to the Colby College Museum of Art, Woterville,
Moine. e Alex Kotz/VAGA, New York, 1 994,
6.27 Larry Rivers, Portrait of Frank O'Hara, 1 954. Oil on canvas,

8ft Iinx4ft5in (2.46 X 1.35m).
Collection, the ortisl. © Lorry Rivers/VAGA, New York, 1 994.
nothing but black militaiy boot.s [fig. 6.27 . for exaiiipli-.

siiiflely slereotypes the poet as a gay j)iii-up. The main mult'
rlepirtions of tiie artist's mother-in-law. Birdie, likewi.se
accenttiate her se.xualirs' in a wav thai makes her appear
vulgar and awkward. The Greatest Homosexual l'J()4 .
after .laiciiies-Loiii:- David's 1812 [xmrait ai \apoleoii in his

Study, treats an histon" with a similarly sarcastic indiffei-
ence. The detachment with which Rivers presented his
matter also manifested itself in his self-consciously
siiljject
virtuoso" teclmicjue. calculated to displav his fine gestiual

167
B\
1 J
6.29 Philip Pearlsfein, Two Female hAodels with Drawing Table,

1973. Oil on canvas, 6 5ft (1 .83 1 .52m).
Collection, Philadelphio Museum of Art Purchosed through a grant from the National
Endowment for the Arts ond contributions from private donors.
168

169
iiili'iiiiiliiiiKilK lixi'cl (III lilt' iii;ili'ri;il îiliûnicc nl lliiii^:
l'iMil>lciii - >liill ;i\\;i\ lidiii l:i'-.1iii;iI |Miiiliiii; ;il llii- I'liil i
llir lillir^ 1 :iiiic- Imni n ilc-in- m iiiakr hi- i cik Iriiiit; iiiiii
|ili'(l-i\ I llr I il i|r( 1 1\ ll\ (il I li-~(ri|i! inn 111 wliirll lie ;l-|iill'
ir( all- iMiliiT \inii icaii |iainlcr- -mil >i- I liniiia- i.akiii- an
l.a-lliiaii .Inlili-.m. I lie -laiklir-- nj llic liiililiiii; anil ill
liaiialiu I il I III- -iili|rrl iii.illri . Imw r\ it, -rl I 'i Mil -I rill - w ink
a|ian lioni ilii-ii-. ami iln- \ii\\cT i- iiii|irlli'il m Im ii- imur
liailiiw l\ nil llir In liim|iir.
Figurative Painting in the Bay Area

III \r\\ \iiik llir iiii|Miii- III ali>lra(l-i-\|)r'(>ssionist
A- liaiiilliiiL; a -II |iiiii|m I nj an r\rr|iliiiTial iiTOlip of gcstinal

|iaiiilri- III ( alirninia. In |
lai I iriilai- Da\'i(l Park [t'ig.().-'5()
ami In- -imlriil- a I I In- ( alilnniia Sclioul of Fine Arts ill San
I lami-in. I.linrr Bi-i linlT lii:.().;?r and Ricluir.l Di.-hen-
kiii'ii Iii:.().-)l2 linnril Iriiin |)ainterlv ali^lrariiiin in a
i;c-liiral -l\ \c nl li;:iiialioii liciw ct'il l')5() and I'^.J-"). Hiclianl

Diiliinknni. die outstanding artist of this grotip. >ludied
w nil Mill ami Hnllikn a- well a- Park during die mid lorries.
\llrarli'il In ah-lrarl |iaiiilini: li\ rr|iini Iml m- nl" \lnilicr-

ii
well- work and dial 6.32 Richard Diebenkorn, Girl Looking At Landscape, 1 957, Oil
nl Haziotes in a PH.j issue of the
on canvas, 4ft 1 1 in a 5ft ^/sin (1 .5 ^ 1 .53m).
Museum of American Art, New York. Gih of Mr, and Mrs, Alan H Temple.
Colleclion, Whitney
Photograph by Geoffrey Clements, New York.
6.30 (opposite) David Park, Standing Couple, 1 958. Oil on

canvas,6ft3in ^4ft834ln (1.91 1.44
Collection, Kronnert Art Museum and Kinkead Povilion, University of Illinois at Urbi
Champaign. Purchased out of the "
Illinois Bienniol" exhibition of 1 961
6.31 Elmer Bischoff, Two Figures of the Seashore, 1957. Oil on

canvas, 4ft 8in 4ft834in (1,42 x 1.44m
Collection, Newport Horbor Art Museum, Museum Purchase with o matching grant fiom th
National Endowment for the Arts,
6.33 Richard Diebenkorn, Oceon Park No 107, 1978. Oil on

canvas, 7ft 9in -^ 6ft 4in (2.36 - 1 .93m).
Collection, Ookland Museum. Giftof the Women's Board, Oakland Museum Association
170
did mil îibniiliiialr lii^ ûiiji'it nialter' In tilt- liandling.

6.34 Wayne Thiebaud, Five Hot Dogs, 1 961 . Oil on canvas,
Thieltaud is often mistakenlv associated with pop art
18 x24in (45.7 X 61cm).
Privole collection, San Francisco.
i)ecallê of liis lirilliantlv lit and colored images of ordinaiy
objects. The fire Hot Dogs [fig. 6.34] —each isolated in stark
contrast against tlie white background and rhytiimicaliy
vMiisniard joumal Eh'n. lu' ruiiiiimt'd a-- a iioii-dliji'ctiM" rej)eated to create tense inteI•^•als in between — conveys a
|paiiiter until late 1955. dftachinent toward the stibject combined with a strong,
Diebenkoni .spent time painting in New Mexico. Illinois, graphic bravado. Vet the real nn)tives beiiind Thiebaud s
and New Vofk. and 1954 he fiaveled on a ciilttnal

in work are the direct pleasures of looking at things, of
exeliange to Russia, where he was overwhelmed l)y the great anabziiig ihciii into patteins. and nf liandling paint.
rollections of work by Matisse. After his return he moved to
Santa Monica, on the ocean side of Los .Angeles. His "Ocean Existential Imagist Art in Chicago
Park" series [fig. 6..'}.'51. begun in 1967 and followed through
III his death in ]''''2. derived from the beauty of the coastal
Young (Chicago arti^ls of the fifties, like their peers in New
light and anniiniici-d ilic artist's return to abstraction. The Vork, looked to de Kooning, Hofmann, and Kline as
sensualitv of these paintings and the tension between the models. But ( Ihicago also einhusiastically embraced the new
classical elements of drawing aiul geometric compositinn existential figuration from Europe as well as early twentieth-
against the Itish color and light demonsttate lii.s (iel)l tii centuiT German expressionism — a combination of influ-
Matisse. ences which prompted the emergence of a distinctive school
W ayiie Thiebaud s rich painterly style also derives from of existential imagists. Wlien Dubuffet went to New Vork for
I hoe Bav .\rea abstract expressionists. Vet unlike them, he six months (over the winter of 1 95 1 /2 he traveled to Chicago
)
171
fur- a majur exliiliiliuii n( lii-, wdik ;il lln- \il~ ( liili :niil dii
I )rreiiil)('r 20. l''")! he ililixcri-il a ikiu laiiMiii^ Ii ruin- iImm-

'
cnlilli-il \iiii(uliuial l'ii-iiioii> MiIkiujÎi Aiiicrii mm an
liail lilllc iiii|iiul nil l)iiliiilli-i ^ ili-\ i'l(i|iiii('iil." a I\|ic-(ri|il
III In- liilk I II riilali'il in ( Inraiin anil liiailr an I'lUH'iniiii-
illl|irr--liill nil aili-l~ anil rnllrrlur- ijli-ir.
K\fM jiriuri' aili-l~ likr ( n-iiiu ( airi|iiili I ii;. ().•!) ami

l.fon (miIiiI. oI iIm- -ii-ralli-.l Cliicaii.. M<.ii>lrr Kom.t had
ivail iirlii-anl lii-llian.! Dnlmiri l- l'»")l i.-iiniv. lln-x \m-iv
|irrili-|iii-.ril iiiw aiil III' 1 1 Ira ' li\ I lirii r\|ii i~nii- In ( .crinan
i-\|)rcr->iniM--ni. Ill |i-.\ iliiianaK 'I-. ami Id c xisleMliali-ni — all
-iroiig iiiniieiuc-. mi ilic ( liiiaiici scnie. Paul Tillirli. ilir
tiircmii-l \mfri(an t-xistfiiiiali-i. \\a- tlien a liiirlilx xi-iMf

|iiii|f--or of ihfoJoi.'A at tlif I iin n-in of tliicago. ami tlif
lilv ,-. Institute for P>yclioaiial\ ~i- ilii- iimnin > fii-l wa-
alieadv ncarlv twenty veai- uM. In I'l")*) limi (.nliili iimi!
|i--y(lioaiial\ til- trniiiiioioiiy in (leMiil)ing lii> [laintiims a? an

"atrei]i|ii lo iiin-iaie a coiiteiiiporafx catliaisis. tliat iiiea-
-uif 111 iiiaii wliii li i-. lelated to an existential knowledge of
llir linniaii i< imlitii in. ~"
11 ( .olul) and otiier' ai"ti.-<ts of the -Monster Roster inaug-

urated a tiliicago Siiiool of iinagi.sts. H. C. Westermann was
ilie aitist wlio defined it-- disiimnive fofin. Cieitainlv the most
inipoitant Chicago arii-i nl ilic fifties. Westennann [figs.
''.30— 9.33i anticipated ilu' eccentiic involvement with
I
II i|iular culture and psychotic art that ten years later puslui I
(Chicago artists into international prominence. Yet by the

sixties action painting and the existentialist figuration of the
previous tw o decades looked like ideas from the distant past,
die >wansong of romantici.sm. By the end of the fifties it had
already become clear that Robert Rauschenberg's idea of
"-'
"collaborating with materials expressed an entirely new
concept of the mediator between the world and the
artist as a
\ iewer. hi taking the \-iewer into account. Rauschenberg's
idea implied a less oveipowering focus on self-expression

and identity. The new works of Jasjier Johns also dnwn-
6.35 Cosmo Campoli, Birth of Deafh, 1 950. Bronze, rock, wax, and
pla\ed the existential "self." heralding the new definition of steel, 70' 18^4 ^ 24' 2in (1 77.8 -47.6 -62.2cm).
indi\iiliialily that raine to ]iri-\ail in the art of the sixties. Colleclion, Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, Grti of Joseph and Jory Shapiro, 92 55.
"'A Coney Island of the Mind":
The Beats and John Cage
llir lii-^l 111111(1^ III 111\ ;:riici;il n 111 i
I iliic-^. Îjixiiii: li\ -.icriciil ii;ikril. Ml 11 ( .iiiîii'ii.
wripii- ill Ihiiil. \\\- himliiMi k |""-iii t>\ l''.')."), I llc\ "WiTt
Iilllliril ;ili\r ill llirn llllliimil llaiinrl ^llil^ nil NLllllMll
.V\ fiiiR- . . . or run iIdw ii li\ llu- ilniiikfii la.xicali -orvii-oiui.

"'
Realit)". America in tlie titties was a dehuma-
Ginsberg s
nized prison of mainstream values, in wliieli druL' addiets.

Iininosexuals. and tlie poor were defined out nf i\i-,ttii(f in
common
7
ilic consciousness.
I 111- aliriiali'ii "liral cnuntercultiire of the perioil
irMiKril aiiiuiid ihr wriiris Allen Ginsberg. Jack Kerouac.
and Iâwrence Ferlinghetfi. but also embraced John
.\sliliery. \^ illiam Burroughs, \onnan Nfailer. HeniT Miller,
and Kenneth Rexroth. Thev lived in ilii> liiiilm of non-
THE BEAT existence, raging against the complacent dupliciiv of fifties
ina^s cultuic. The "beats," aided bv alcohol. drug>. 'cool"
jazz, and the inspiration of Zen Buddhism. did])iied out of
GENERATION: THE die .\merica celebrated bv the Saturday Erening Post. In the
jirocess they created their o'ftii "hip" vocabulaty to reappro-
]iriate the .\merican experience. ?/?p/r experience, of the stiTig-
FIFTIES IN AMERICA gle against confonnitv. mechanization,

"The dog trots freelv in the street a.id sees realitv.
and materialism.
FerliuKhetti wrote.
l/f iri/l not lir iiiuzzli-<l
7.1 (opposite) Robert Rauschenberg, Odo/isk, 1955-8. Oil,

wQi rcolor, pencil, fabric, paper, photographs, metal, glass, electric
light 'tures, dried grass, steel wool, necktie, on wood structure with
1 ir wheels, plus pillow and stuffed rooster, 83 25' 2 25' 8 in
(210.8*64.8 63.8cm).
Collei on, Museum Ludwig Koln. Photograph courtesy Rheinisches Bildorchiv, Koln,
© Robert Rouschenberg/VAGA, New York, 1 994
/^ ^^ f
/•"'
174
The Beat Generation: The Fifties in America
;il-o >lliii:(--lril llial "llir \i\\ rnii-HlcijIil.' iiiirvnl^ jri<l llin.i i/iii::, .mil llic ciiidl n m- n\ liiiiii;iii liciiii:^ nic
|)ri>Miri'>M'l ii|i;ir(iiniil n~ li'chi\ li\ iIh' mi-cliiiincal îi^rricic^ ( oiiliinialK ai i.ii-.'d |.\ cim i niiilci - w illi iial inc.
oftlit' |)n». railin. inc. \ic-. anil aiKiili-iii- . . aiv Inll.nul ln-|Mr(illi\ |)iirliani|. - vadv mail.'- cvcrxdax ulijccls
r
oiilv lit' ili-.ini(ii\cnc" Iml aUn ,,{ |imnnM-- ol ikIi ni'W win. h |)n(liain|i |iir-rini(l nnahcivd a- wmk- n| an liii.
ilr\.-hi|inicnl-."^ 1 li- poinlrd oin dial (li-r.inlnnnlN i- in ".1^ . ( a-r i i-'h drd I lir r\ ci \ .
Ia\ w mid a~ I lir -i nil ( r (
,1 ai I
dilTi-r.-nl \\a\> a liable <on(i-|ii ol I'udi ({iianiinn ami I ,ik.' |)ii(ii,iiii|i w liniii lie I mIi iciidcd in I ' 4 I .
ln' ai la. krd
n-lali\il\ |ili\'ic~. It i~ llw \\a\ III wlihh a I ..\ iiImt Unk- al dir liri.iir iiulli m| die \r\\ ^ ni k >(li.h,| and (i|i|in-.,Ml
.i\ili/atiun-. or a Mariiaivi Mead ai lininan . iiliinv-, \ni,,- 1

1-\ cIm ik i-v a- a Imiiih kil mn l,ii ail: I liriv i- no i n lor
rioM^K. il i- liii' viMial li-(iini(|iii- ol a i'i(a--o, ilir hh-iai\ cniolion iii a \\oik olarl, '
lie km r iviiiaiknk ( a-r lookcil lo
irciirmilir of jailK-- .lov.i-

Z' '
.jolin ( a-i' and Koln-ll Kan~- die Î'li-c- a- l)lirliaiii|. had looked [n dir iimllrri; liolli
cll.-nhi-ii; aUo |)ivatiird an acMJiclir ol incliiMX riic^-. ron- icicrl.'d ia] iiv-moiii-.||i. In \'>'A) ( ai:r cxcii lie-; iim-
-.•ioii^K i-mlnaciiiL: di-roiiliiinil\ . (iiaiic.'. dii' aiiiiliarN and ( liaiicc w Inch licâw a-- iialinv -i riiiial o|icraliiiL: |m lm||ll^:
llllIl|.lii(•lal1ll^ II I. 'X IVM'Ird III die c('lil|ik\ ivalilx of whal in ollicl w oi i U, lir w allied lo cmnlalr I lie I. rUni- |iro,c>-
I'diinehriii railed die •( .iiie\ Ulandol llie Mind.'" ol naliire widi |iorlra\inil-adnal mainlesial ioii>,
Hadiei lliaii limine ehanee lo li\|ia^^ îiilace ((iii--ei(iii^-
'"^^- ^" ''^"';' ^""' -'"-i-"-'^'^" i-i-'i "• --i

John Cage
**
',"
|iei-onal diiei lalioii alliieelher, I III- allem|il lo anmlii-
aee. hi nil in Lo- Viie.'lein I'M J. -I ml led wiili die lah- die ai i-l ic i-eo a- w ell a- llii' di-i imi ion hei w cell all and
Jnhn ( I
eoill|po-.er \riiold >ehoilhe|e. 'êhollheie re\ ollllioni/ed e\er\da\ e\|ieiieiiee \\a- iiii|ireeedeilled and III direi 1 eon-
iiiodeni inii-ie h\ liieakini: widi lianiioiiN and willi die ira-i m iIm' |ioMnre ol In- roiiieiii|ioraiie- in die New ^ oi k
leleolo-icaliiniiliealion- ol lonaliu. in wlii.h die coiniioMT School ^ el Cavie re-einhled di.-iii in hi- ein|ilia-i- on
laid down and iheiiie and then riiilillc-d die (lirection

a ke\ -|ioniaiieil\ and |iiiice —
Schonberg went -o hn a- lo crcali> chart-- to
|i|-e-.iilM'(l. i3\ l''.")(l Ca^ê- leneiiienl a|iartineiil on the I ,ow ei- I ,a-l
eii-iire that no iiialtt-r liow one iinerted or oxcriaid the Side had heconie a ineeiin;: place lor a eroii|i ol Iriend-
-\-leiii- 111 hi- coin|)o-ition-. tlie\ would mil \ ield a liar- intere-led in new iiin-ic and dance. Cliri-l laii W olll then a
11 ionic inelodx. lie -ought to con-lriHt a neutral \ chicle lor high -chool -indeiil dro|i|ied liy da\ with die /( /(///g or
nin-ical e\iire-->ioii. Hiiiik tif ( li(iiiiits^ which Pantheon had |n-l |
nilili-hei I. I he
.lolin CaLê- invenlion in I'I.h'. ol ilie '

|ire|iared |iiaiio.' hook came to ( :age at jn-l I hi' riglil iniiment. and he ii>ed the
together with hi- eaii\ role in the exohilion ol taped and

electronic iiiii-ic. e-taliii-hed hi- vaiigliaid re|iiitalioii ill
New ôrk. ^ el he realized tioni reading the i-e\iew,s ol lii-
|ii-rioriiiance- thai his composition-, tailed to coininiinicale
die einoiion- he himself experieiiceil in them. The turiiing-

poiiil came alter llie perrormance ol I'rnlotis .\iu:li/. w ritteii
li\ ( aee 111 I'Noaliont "the lonehne-- and terror that eoiiie- 7.2 Marcel Duchamp, /n Advonce of fhe
hecome- he utter failure of Broken Arm, 1945. Replica of 1915
loone w hen |o\ e iinhap|i\ . I tile
"original reodymade, wood and metal, "
crilic- to nnder-laiid the feeling in die piece led (age lo

47% xl8in (121.3 45.7cm).
c pleteK change direction: he ga\e n| the idea ol
Collection, Yole University Art Gallery Gifl ol Kolherine 5
coin mil mealing in art and in -I cad red reeled Inm-iil i to locii- Dreier for the Collection Sociele Anonyme, ic- 1 994 Artists
Rights Society, New York/ADAGP, Pons.

oil llie idea III opening lip the li-teiie|- - ear- lo W lial e\l-leil 111
die eii\ iionmeMI — iinpredeterinined experience, detacheil

from arii-lic inieniion. H\ a\ didini; the iiiipo-iliini ol ae-llie-
lic liieiarchie- or -y-teiii- de-igned to e\pie— order, he

hoped to allow each eli-ment lo pre-ent it -ell on it- iiw n.
(iuge's di-co\er\ ol Zen Hiiddln-m in die mid loitie-
seeilis to lia\e ]iroinpted the lorm ol tin- radical change.

Whereas the arli-t- of the New \ ink î iiool iiirned lo
|i-\choanal\ -i- and exiiaiied Irum pei-onal inlio-pec-

art
lioM. Cage- -tiiiK of /.en fo-lered a detachmenl from

emoiional cri-i- and the idea that art originale- in die
iioninlerpretive eouteniplaliou of iialiiie. '

( )iie iiia\ gi\e up
the desire to control sound, clear his iiiiiid ol mn-ic. and -ei
ahoiit discovering means to let sounds he themselves rather

than vehicles for manmade theories or p.\pressions ol human
sentiment-." lie exjilairied. "...Hearing sounds which
are iust -oiind- iminediateK -ei- the tlieoii/ine mind to
175
"A Coney Island of the Mind": The Beats and John Cage
/ ( liiiiis coin^ aiifl rliarts to rompose lii'- 1''")1 Music of billing, — could constitule dance. ! iirtheiinme no
jninping
( /idiiiifx a> a liomaEe to tlif book. CaKi' lo^-rcl ilirn- coins six ail inn in dance carried any significance, he insisted. be\ mid
iniH--.. ilii- irîili- III wliiili riinclali-il lo a rliail. wliirli in wlial wain itself: like Ciage. Cnimingham chiefh wanted
ii
nini ili'Iri rinrii'il lln- jiilrli nl i-arli iinli'. i liri] lir wriil In iiigai;e die \ iewer's senses. He also wanted to lay l)are the
iliniiJi^li a similar |ii i n I'lliirr Im' liiiilui' ami ilnialimi. Ili- -heel pli\-icalily of dance. His choreographic idea- are
liilliiwril llii- rlalinialr |ii(irr^~ In a\iiiil I.-iiiiil; |irr-iiiial cmiiplix and stress the discipline of teclmiiine. Irei|iieiiil\
rliiiiiT inli-rli-rr w illi lln- rliaiicr |iii uciluir^. >iiirr llic |iiric del Handing thai the dancer work barefoot to acliie\e a iiimc
la>l' liir liiiix -li\ I- iiiiiiiilr^. ( ai;r liail In maki- an r\Ii'a- direct and conlrnlled nlalimi In the floor. Willi all -i\
I HI linaix niniil ht i iI In^^rs. dam II - in ( iiiiiiingham s iidiij)e would
cast as soloists, they
Ill III- llirniN III a "inlal -i HUH l-| larr" ( iai.''' a>M'rli'(l ilia I cn\i r die w linle -I age a I niice: as in a Pollock or de Kooning
iiiii-ir iii\ul\r~ all suiiiid. uiiliiiiini; niiii-iiiii--iial suniid and alln\ CI paiiiliiig. such w nrks lacked a cmii|)ositional focus.
llii- ali-iairr nl -niiinl. >niirid lia> lonr c-^rnlial li-atini-s: ( iiimiiiiiham - dance- are al-n nmiclimaclic and rely on
|iilili. liiiiliir. Inndiir--. and iliiiation: li\ cniilia^l. silence. chance enhance the neutrality of the basic approach. As in
to
( ani' n|i-.ri\cd. Iia~ niiK iliiiation. In lii^ l''.)!^ -ilrni |iiri-p. the art of Rauschenberg and the fifties junk sculptors,
rnlillril T* iiiiiiiilis -i-'i scriii/(/s -f'-^-i" llir |MTlnnnrr makes fainningham s works seemed to disrupt standard artistic
no -iiiiiid liH llii> rxarl |ii-rind nl' nine, liilliieneed l)\ con\t'ntion> b\ creating an assemblage of foinid gestures
Kaii-ehenlieiii'- lilaiik -W liile I'aiiil iiiu-' nf j'),".!
p. l"!)'. Irnm real life.
( ai:e elilllilialed e\ el\ I hint; llnlll llii> |iieee lull lime llie I he high pnini nl ( imiiingham - inn is with (aire in the
-haled lealiile nl snmiil and -ileiice and die elianee -minds forties was their unpaid \ isit to Black Mountain tôllege in
i
nl die ell\ in illlllelil 1948. Cage had been interested in the college since the late
1 he eliaiiee ii| leial inn- nl die Miisir (if ( lldllLrcs |>ro- thirties." But the 19-t8 Cage and Cunninghain |)resentation
dlieed le-llll- wlliill. niiee ( !aue -el lliein dnw II. leiliailied of Erik Satie's Ruse of the Medusa, direited by .\rthur Penn
lixed. lim in die silenl piece tiage s anti|ialli\ to willful with p(>rformances by. among others. W illein and filaine de
|iaiieni- innk liiiii -lill t'nfther, into iiidetenniiiaiic\ . wliicli Knniiiiii:. Richard Lippold, Buckmin-ier Fuller, and
a--imie- eniiiiniial lliix. He emhfacerl tlie true landomness ol Beaumont iNewhall was an electrifying eyent. Through this
ami lie ill -mil III- in ilii' silent jiiece in older to get the listener ])erfoniiance Câge established a friendship with .Josef Albers,
In heal in a nential way. 0' 00" of 1*^52 took this idea one the art master of the school: however,when Cage later began
mine step in specifying that it could he peiformed bv anvone working with chance and indeterminacy, Albers declaimed
in any manner. Although Cage ciedited Morton Feldman (
thai 'age hail 'renminced his responsibility as an artist" and
w ith leading the way into indeteniiinacv, Ciages rlianre ni broke nil lelalimis. '-
"aleatorv i
nuisic and ideas of ambient "concrete '
"
! sonnd
lainly inlluenced lelilman music a> well as that of aile
I el s I
The Cage "Evenr of 1952
limw n. ( hri-li.iii W nitl and I .a \lmiie ^ mini;.
Nevertheless it was .Inhii Cages T/iedtcr /'iccc #/ often

Merce Cunningham performed at Black
simjily referred lo as "the event i.
Mountain College in 19.52, thatbecamelegendary as the first

had exchange ol ideas v\ith
a parliculaiK iin|)ortant hap|)eniiig and the beginning of aleatorv music and dance
C;\'2.v
Merce Ciinningliam. Cage and
the (lanrer/choreographer (even though Ciage had already written the Music of Changes
( iimiingham began working togetlier in 1943. the year in 1951;. M. C. Richards, a member of the Black Mountain
lieloieCamningham's first solo recital in New York (while he faculty,had just finished translating Antonin Artaud s The
w a- -.till dancing w ith the Martha Graham Company Their |. Theater and Its Double— a book which encouraged Cage to
Inllaboration broke sharjiK w iih choreographic tradition in think of theater as a time and space filled with coexisting but
perniitling the indiyidual dancer any moyemeut meaningful unrelated events, instead of as a nanative. .\rtaud s "theater
In him nr her and relieving the performerof any oliligation in III ciiieli\ proposefl a primitive, ritualistic spectacle stirriitg
lell a -lory, symbolize something, or find efpiiyalents for the .1 vinleiit exchange with the audience. Cage's theater was
iiiiisic. The music,
and the indiyidual dancers Iiiik sets, 1 1 Hire emotionalh neniial Inn no less jjeiplexing and enigma-
liniied independently i)iit simultaneously. Cage and iin- ( tic to the audience.
iiiiigham created systems, overlaid them, and then watched In the 1952 '"event M. C. Richards and the poet ( iharles
what hap|(ened when they collided. As Cunningham ex- Olson read poetiy from ladders: Rauschenberg's "White
plained: "We ha\e clioseii In lia\e die music and the dance Paintings'" hung overhead while he played Edith Piaf
ail a^ -e|iaiale ideiiiiiie- mie mil dependent u|>on the . . . records on an old phonograjih; David Tudor performed on
nilirr. bill ilie\ cne\i>i. a^ sight and smimi An in mir daib die piano; Merce Cunningham danced in and around the
li\e- a- an opening mil to the comple\ii\ we li\e in. e\ en
. . . audience (chased by a barking dog): coffee was served bv
III the possible enjoyment of it.""^ four boys dressed in white; and Cage sat on a ste|)-ladder for
\li Tce (' nningham changed the language of dance, fm
II two hours — sometimes reading a lecture on the relation of
iiin\ enieiil. no mailer linw mdinaix — walkinu. iiiii-ic In Zen Biiddlii-m. snmetimes -ilenlK li-teiiiii;;.'
'
liiiii aii\
176
The Beat Generation: The Fihies in America
KxiTMiiif iliil w liiili'M'i ilic'x cliii-.c III ilii ilmiiii: ii'iiaiii ani\ini.' lur ilu- |iiiliiiiiianc i- -mni'iirn- a-ki-d ( aiie wln-rr In-
a,->ii:iu'(l inicnal^ nt liiiif. and llif ciiliif f\(icri('ii(C \\a> m> would lia\t' llii' lir^l xirwinji |Ki.-.iii((n and ( aL;r ii-|iiii-d
"'''
full of ?eii?()r\ iii|iiit tliai lui two acroiiiii> oT ii M)iiii(i iniicli tlial "e\ei'yon<- i- in dn- lu-^l seat. Claire creaiiMJ In- nnilnir
alike. Indeed the indi\ idnalitv nl eacli i>l>«cr\eT' - exjieiieiiie and nrL'ani/aliim lni- tin- "event ii-ini: cliam i- ii|ii-i anon~.
wa- cenlial lo ( aLTe r a^|)ii'aliiin. Winn |mii]iIi- liiL;an and \ri ilir -l\li- p- nrnni-lakaliK lii-.
Robert Rauschenberg
refineineni nl î kmiwn arii-tir idrnili\ iliii hiliIi iinru-piT-
The Self as a Mirror of Life
lion. Raii-ilii-nlirii: allrniplrd lo drn\ dial llinr \\ a- a fixed
|nhi>li>5t>nii\.l \-;AW/,////r//\\illianiBnmM.i;li-.a-.-.ini-d cull- 111 idriiliu at all. and pul jniward a iclalixe definition.
that "there i> onK one tliin;: a \\ riteican w lile ahunl: iiIkiI Ill- irieil In |in-li In- arli-lic per-niia inln iniuiinial flux, -o
is in front of his senses at lite moment nf irrilinijc . . . 1 am a dial 111- riiiild p(-r]n-iiiall\ n-iiiM-iil liim-i-ir lhruiit;li an
recording instriinieni ... I do not piesiune to ini|io>e siorv aciilcK -rn -ili\ 1- rt--jiiiii-i- in die pii-\ ailiim climaie. "1 don i
"'
|)l()t VontiniiitN . ' RoheiM Ran^clienliiTir IIl'.".! want niv personalitv to come nui tlnnimli tin- piece."
pioneered an art srvle thai also ceased lo rely on " viorx. RauM-henheri: explained. "...1 want niv |iaintiiii:- m ln-
|)loi.' ("ontinnitv —elements >iill lingering in the action retlection-- ol liie . . . vmir -elt-\ i--nalizalioii i> a relli-ciinii nl
painters annorv ot to(ii~ed intro'-pection: instead Raii- voiir ^nnnimding--. '"
schenherg |)roinonMl an miroinsed ()|>eiini'-- lo external Raii-clienherg s "combine paintings the artist
>
s altei-
e\ems. Beginning wiih hi-- "White Paintings ot l*'")! naii\e 111 ilie leiui "assemblage" began tentativelv around
Rauschenberg tried to redirect the viewer's attention trom l''")! willi die a|i|iliianiiii nf jirinted luarter and oilii-r I'lai
the psvche of the painter on to tlie outside world. The lack i il mail-rial- in the caina-. B\ l''.">3 he had begun lo iiicor-
-nrface detail in these flat white canvases provided a neiiiial porale all manner oi material- and actual objecl- into
liackdrop for random shaflows and for the reflection of ilie die cnmpnîiinii-. Bed. for example fig. "7.4. includes
colors of the environtnent. (iraduallv found ohject-- and. -triped looth|ia-te and fiiiL'ernail |tolish' as well as a
later, found images rejjlaced the neutral --urtaces a> reilec- pillow and i|nilt.
lion^ of the ex[)erienlial world. The Baiihaii---influenced exercises a>signe(l li\ .lo-ef
HaiiM-henlieig's art reca>l die exi-ieiniali-i discoven of .\lliei-. hi- teacher at Black Mountain Côllege. fo-.teieil
the self as a disco\er\ of ihe en\ iionmeni from v\ Inch die >elf Raiischenberg's opeiuiess to the inherent character i>f found
takes its fonn. Vi here de Kooning and Pollock pursued the materials. His extensive conversations with .[ohn tâae in the
7.3 Robert
Rauschenberg seated in an
empty lot next to his loft on
Water Street, New York,
January 15, 1961.
Photogropti © by Fred W. McDorroh.
177
Robert Rauschenberg
hue loriii'^ :iriil carU ril'lic^ i;iiil;1ii liini in |i.irl lo assimihilc

\i-iKil iiilni iiialioii ill a i('ic-|iii\ r. iiiili irii-cc I w a\ . Willi
ii|i|i(l- like lliri|iiill ami |iilU\\ ill /)('(/(i| 1 1 ii- ^1 illlri 1 liinl. llir
riallriii'd can. anil llic iid^laliiic laniiK |ilinl(ii:i-a|ili^ in
( (iinaii lii;.~.") . Haiisi'ii(Mil)erL>- cxIfiKli'il ihr aclidii |iainl-

r|- - -III-.- (Ill -cH-aiiiiali/alioii llirunL'li llir ~| lancuii-. acl
111 |iaiiiiiiii; li\ cxiiloilini: llie vivirlni---' of ilic a.-.'ûiialiuii-,
allaclii-cl 1(1 real lliiiiL;-'. Ilistearl of (li-.i(i\ iTiiiu "•I'H in llif
acl (if ijainliiiii. (inc |ici|iciiiall\ ici iinîriici-. (incscll in (lie
III (K i-^> ot a<la|tliiiL: Id (inc -. ciKdiinlci - w illi llic w mid.

In llii^ a-^dcialidii hi ical cxi icricncf llie images ill
l\an~(iiciilicii:'^ Wdik nicr In >|icciric nicaiiings. But they do

ii((i ((iiiîiiiiic a -.\>icinaiic ic(iM(>,i:ia|iliy.'" The muhiphrity
(il |i(i^îMc a'^-^dcialioii-' Ui each iiiiajzc in Rauschenherfi s
wdik |iciiiiil diic Id "read llic any

indi\idiial cli-nicnl> in
ninnliciiil'wax ^ al llic âiilc lime. Indeed die ilecddiiigs' by

ail lii-ldiian^. wliiiii lia\c attempled to straitjaeket the
aiii^r^ a-.^di iaiidii^ iiiid a (lecipheral:>le system, have failed
Id \ leld cdii\ iiicini; re^nii^. MdreiiM-r, llie artist's stated aims
cdiiîîcniK cdiiiradici die iKiii if a systematic iconogra-
|ili\ : H \(iii dd \\(ii k w idi kiidw II ([iiaiitities— making puns
di dialinu s\ nilidlii alK wiili \diir material," he explained,
— Mill arc slidiicning die life (if die wurk."'"
Rauschenberg's Early Career

nil III l'*^."). Hdlieil Hauschenlierg grew iiji in a
B K\di kiiiL:-(ia>-. tamik in the Gulf Cioast refincrx lowii oi
Poll \rlhiir. rcxa-.. 1 Ic aiiaiidoned his dexoiil riindaiiienlal-

isi ( liiisiian iraining in die early fifties. Inn. a-, die an
lii-idiian l.iâ W ainwriglil has shown, heeunlimied lo allude
dlili(|ncl\ Id ( liiistian themes diroughout his eareer."" .\fter
die \a\\ anda I iiief sojourn at the Kansas City Art Institute.
Haiisclienlierg Weill lo study with .Mliers at Black Mountain
College in die fall of I'HH.' .\lhers found the young Texan
hi\iilons and told him he •liaii nolliing lo leacli him."''
\c\erlliele-.s die endless demonstrations hy Alheis on ihe
i-claii\ii\ of coldi' in die mitexts of different suiTounding (
cdldis |iid\ided die loiinal foundation for Rauschenberg's

\\ liite Paiiiiings. The white panels are li\-i3ersensitive to
the light ai-diind llieiii and are thus affected by e\ents in the
en\ ifdlimelll lie\ Olid die ailisi s Cdiilnil.
I'rdin the smn dl |ii^ career Rauschenberg displayeil a

icinaikaliK lice. e\perinicnlal ajiproach to techiui|ues and
niaiciials. hi l'»4'> lie made striking figure compositidiis b\
havint: a iiiddel lie lace ddwii on light-sensili\c liliie|iiiiil
|ia|ier and balliiiiL: lier in lloodlight. On another occasion he
direcled.ldlin ( aiic lo(li i\e his Model .\cai w illi an inked tire
down a :22-lddl sirip of pasted-together |ia|ier sheets,
producing the disarmingly delicate Aiitoiriobilc Tire Print.

His /)nl /'iiinliirj.-: Far John Cdtic s|(routed real plants and
had Id be walered — aire's idea that art should einiilate (
7.4 Robert Rauschenberg, Bed, 1955. Combine painting: oil and naliiral pnices 'Ill sldh inspired the i
pencil on pillow, quilt, and sheet on wood supports, 75V4 x 31 V2 '- Sin In die fall dl l'»4'l Rauschenberg luoved to New York
(191.1 X 80 X 20.3cm). Students League. He
and began lakiiii; (lasses al die .\rt
The Museuni of Modern Art, New York. Froclionol g(ft of Leo Caslelli in honor of Alfred H.
Borr, Jr. Roberl Rouschenberg/VAGA, New York, 994.
fc) 1
married Susan W eil sIkhiK aller. Iiax iiig mel her in Paris in
178

179
Robert Rouschenberg
l'H8anfl goiie'witli lier to Black Mountain, ami in JiiK t'')1 the difference after I painted them!"'^ Like Duchamp's
ilii'v liafl a .-.on. Raiijrliciilifr<; assoriated willi îliîiari leaiK inades this pair attempts to undermine the idea of the
i\|nes>ic)nists at the ("Inb on 8tli Stieei. and i;oi lo knuw aiiiheiiticiiv of the autograpiiic gesture.
most of tilt* important artists. I le ])ariiri|iale(l in tlic ivt-m \\ itii Dnchamp and Cage as intellectual mentoi- Raiis-
orcliesiraierl bv Cage and Cunningham at Black Mouiuain rheiiberg step|)ed back from personality and focused instead
College and in the tall of 1*^>.^2 he left lii^ marriage for an 1 III the world of events and images. "I don't mess around with
extended trip to Km-ope and Xorili \\'v\i;i w iili ( \ 1 womhi) . m\ -nbconscious. I try to keep wide-awake. '"" Rauschen-
Particiilarlv after hi> iriuiu in 1" > 1 Ixm-chenherg biii.' always strongest when in spite
explained. "Painting is
renomiced the p^vclioioirica! inliu-|if(iiiin nl die New 111 riini|io-.itiiin. it appears as a fact, or an
color, etc.
Vurk.Niio,,]. inr\ iiabiliix a- oppii>ed to a souvenir or arrangement.

.
Painting relates to both art and life. Neither can be made. I

7'Ih'it wax something about the self-eonfessiini mid sclj- "-
ir\ lo act in that gap l)et«een the two.
rotifusion of abstract expressionism — as thouiih the man failed ultimately to work, the
Even wheiiâ composition
and the work were the same — that personallyaln-d} s jiiil nic and
free-associative process offered the exhilaration of fully
(ijfbecaiise at that time myfocus was in the opposite
spontaneouslv experiencing eveiything while it happened.
(lin-etiiin. I iras busy tr\-inii to find urns where the imagery,
This ofiemiess. which comes froin action ]iainting. was also
the material and the meaning of the painting woiihl be. not
embraced in different ways both by the "beat" writers
an illustration of my irill. but more like <ui unbiased and bv John Cage: they celebrated "the coexistence of
(hiciimentation ofwhat I obserred. letting the area of feeling
dissimilars""'* iCagei. .\s in Diibuffet's aesthetic, this jiu-
and meaning take care of itself."
between the beauiilnl and
plies a rejection of the distinction
Ill iiis Idack jiaintings of 19.52. Rauschenberg explained that the ugly.
lie "was interested in getting complexir\- without revealing Cage's inclinaiion in In the audience hear all ilu' ^llllnll-.
iinich.""* He made them by laying down torn and cnmipled of the and discover their innate (li.-.order
envii\ininem
newspaper and painting over it so that "even the first stroke encouraged Rauschenberg in developing an aesthetic of
in the |)ainting would have its position in a gray map of actuinulation and randomness, although he never fully
wdiil-. he said.''' hi the series of red paintings that followed. embraced chance in the way Cage did. As Rauschenberg
Rauschenberg made the urban debris even more visible. explained "I was never able to use it [chance] I would end up .
C liarlene. for example, includes ])riiited images, a rotating with something quite geometric or the spirit that I was
iimliirlla. a minor, bits of metal, and flashing lights. interested in indulging in. was gone ... I felt as though I was
Ill Rauschenberg met .lasper .lohns and in the
1').j4 carrving out an idea rather than wimessing an unknowni idea
"""
follow iiig summer Rauschenberg moved into the Pearl Street taking place. Yet Rauschenberg reveled in the bewilder-
loft building above Johns. From then through IQbl the n\o ing com])le\itv of life.
interacted akhough exceedingly different in

daily and.
ii-mperamenl and style, they came to understand one The Combine Paintings
another's work intimately. Rauschenberg did not read mnc li
but absorbed an enonnous amount talking with friends like the late fifties the found object? and images asserted
III
Cage and .lohns about what they were reading. Johns, by themselves with increasing clarity and independence.
contrast, wa^ highlv intellectual aiul read a great deal. Liilike the sunealists. who used the random ju.xtaposition of
Johns and Rauschenberg both had an ambivalent rela- such material to unleash free association as a key to their
tion to intro>pective content in art. On the one hand they analvsis of the unconscious mind. Rauschenberg sought an
admired the subtlety- of abstiacf-expiessiDuist handling — experienceof assimilation — //77/70(/^ analysis of any kind. He
Raiischenberg's sentimenialin ulini brought him to the did not set out to find objects by going to a junk yard, for
edge of romanticism— yet on the other hand they resisted the example: this woidd imply a predetennined theme. Instead
New York School's focus on revelations of personality. In he wanted to use object? that crojiped uji in the course of
Rauschenberg even attempted to make two identical,

l**")? his activities.
gesture |>aintings Factum I and Factum II "The point was . Increasinglv. what turned up came \ia the media, and a
to see what the difference could be between the emotional great deal of the advertising in the media had erotic
conteiu of one and the other. he explained. "I coiildn nil "
i magazine, for example, ran an advertisement
o\ ertones. Life
forOld Cold cigarettes in 19.53 [fig. 7.6]. in which naked
female legs, complete with high-heeled shoes, are showii
kneeling on an exotic courtesan's cushion. A sleekly dressed
7.5 (opposite) Robert Rauschenberg, Canyon, 1959. Oil, pencil, man crown a large open hole) ovpi the unmis-
centers the
paper, metal, photograph, fobnc, wood on canvas, plus buttons, takablv phallic tubes which burst out of the l)ox. Marshall
mirror, stuffed eagle, cardboard box, pillow, and paint tube,
McLnhan'- book The Mechanical Bride had alerted Rau-
8P 4 ^ 70 X 24in (207.7 x 1 77.8 x 61 cm).
-.chenbcrg and Cage to read advertising on this level, and in
Colleclion.Mr ondMrsMichaelSonnabend, New York, c Robert Rouschenberg/VAGA. New
York 1994. -iicli works as Odalisk [fig. 7.1]. which Rauschenberg began
180
s|)OlUani-iin^l\ , lllc lallrl- llr\ crlllrlr-- Idiik lllliT \1MI- lo

complelc. W licii iiaii-rlirnliri l: Iii-i c\liilincil wuik- ul llii-
kind at ilir i.r,, ( ;i,ir!li (,all.-i\ in l".")'i. ili.' -Imw ,-|i, iir,l
consideraiilr Im-nhix. >(imc ni liu- ali-lracl i-\|irr~îi miî-
wiio came to tile o|)ening laughed nut ImikI and aclualK

benan kicking one Kauschcnberg
nt - ~cnl|iiuir~ (iifl fur
\f/(illi) . Haiiîhcnlicri; wa- IcrribK iip-ci |i\ ilii- ciiu-l
rc^|iiiii-c. all llic iiKiir liccaii~r lie ailinircd llir~r iilijiT aili~l^.
liiil llic\ r\iilc-nll\ >a\\ hi- wnrk a- a paimK nl ilicn ImliIi

"*
ac-ilinii' |iiii|i(i~c~.
The Drawings for Dante's Inferno and the

End of the Combines
Raii^clienlicii;'-. de-.ii-e to l)e lakcn -.ciion-K aliiiii--I cei'-
tainlvjtlaveda role in motivating him. at the beginning of

1 '>.">'>. to embark on a suite of drawings to accom]iany the
thii'ix -four cantos of Dante s masterpiece, the Inferno fig.
~.~ These drawings come as close as anything in Rauschen-
.
beig'-- oenrrc to following a consistent iconograpliy. and

when he finished tile series in early 19b(). he exhibiinl duiii
w ith the poem to help viewers appreciate the images.
Dote Ashtoi) reported that the aitist took the plioto-
graph representing Dante from a Sports Illustrated adver-
tisement for golf clubs, which showed a man with a towel
around his waist, standing stiffly in front of a chart-like grid,
a.-i if awaiting some tv])e of medical examination. Ratischen-
berg wanted to make Dante a representative of the common
man and therefore sought a neutral image. The artist
p(inra\ed \ irgil variouslv as a diving figure blurred by a

7.6 Old Gold cigarettes advertisement. Life Magazine, April 27,
^(rim-like o\eri)ainting that gives him the vague immater-
1953,p.3.
iality of a sjjirit. then as an intellectual — using a j^hotograph
of -\dlai Stevenson, the great statesman who ran against
Eisenhower in the presidential elections of 19.52 and lQ.5(i.
in l*'.")o. lu- r\|>lipile(l jii~i liii- kind of êxnal •\ rnlmlisni. Other images also appear from contemporaiy life and
reinforced l)v coliajie elements dra\vii from poj)ular culture. politics, such as a satanic Richard Ni.xon and racing cars to
In Odalisk ihe |)liullic |)()st ])resses into the cusliion on one evoke the whinnng and wailing sounds of hell .
end and on tlie udier -uppoii^ a \n\\ wiili a light inside. Although the individual images seem to have taken foi-m
This is "tinned im. covered wiili iimii images like a iiiiuiii\ely a- the artist read each successive line of the
"dog — lust — liarking al a |>in-ii|i mule. "
and tnjpped nanative. the viewer can follow the images in each of the
with a "rock. drawings. coiTelating them with the poem, geneially in
The objects in a work like Oilali.sk create an environ- sequence fiom the upper left, across and down to the lower
ment that aims to e\oke ilii' c(im|p|e.\ity of an asjiert of life right. Neverthelesseven though there are close connections
e.xperienre — ranging from liie sexual s\mbolisni used in between the visual and the poetic images. Rauschenberg s
advertising to the \isual maeUiiom of the street. "1 like the work is overlaid with other simultaneously functioning
histoiT of oi>ject>. I like humanitarian rejiortage. " the artist meanings — not lia-i a cnmparison brtwe(>n Dante peregri- -.
said. "I would like mv [ticttires to he able to be taken apart as nations throuL'li licll Willi the arii-i ~ nwn eflcciii m- iin the i
easily a-> the\ le put together — so you can recognize an

object when you fe looking at it."'"This appioarh maintains
the raw spomaneitv of the gesture painting of de Kooning 7.7 (opposite) Robert Rauschenberg, Canô XXXIII: Circle Nine,
and Kline. ".Afrer vou recogtiize that the canvas you're Cocyfus, Compound Fraud: Round 2, Antenora, Treacherous to
Country: Round 3, Pfolomea, Treacherous Guests ond Hosts from the

to
painting on is sim|)ly another rag then it doi'--ii t matter
series "Thirty-four illustrations for Dante's Inferno," 1959-60. Transfer
whether vou use stuffed chickens or electric light indii^ or x 29.2cm).
drowing, watercolor, and pencil, 141'2 x 1 1 '/2in (36.8
pure fonn." The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Given ononymously. c, Robert Rouschenberg/VAGA,
Despite the fact tiial -iich works as Oilnlisk evolved New York, 1994.
^
,«*^S«1S^^'%^^
p
182
deterittration ot Ills frit'ii(islii|> with Jasper jolin^ — lii^ i>\\ti iw i-l\ I-. iw i-in\ -loui-. or -onic other iiinlliple of iwi'Ki' liom-.
"liell" of 1*)50. Dead center draw inn lor ( iiiitd \ \ Mil
in llie fill- aili~l explained; \ reali/ed llial llle delaiK ^-huiild ni>l
[fig. T.^l. for example, i.s a bent arm and liand tiial icm'miIiIo 111- lak(-ii ill al mil- i^laiiii-. llial vmi -lioiilil bi- able In lunk
die pla.sier easts .lolins liad eoiistrnrled since tiie earl\ litlie-. I II II 1 1 plair III plan- w iilioin In-liiii; I In- bi::i;i-r iiiia;:r. I had in
and incorpiirated into Ins paintings [fig. 7. .51 . iian^clirn- make a îirlai r w liicli iii\ iird a inii^laiil cliaiiur nl lnin> and
heri; worki'd for a vearand a iialf on the series. >|iendiiii: -i\ an i-\aininaliiiii nl ilriail. I .i~li-iiiiii: liappi-ii~ in liiiir. blink-
months alone on a de-eited \\ iiart in I loriihi ing abo had in liapj m-ii in liiiir.
Before 1''-5<S Ran>chenherg drew \rr\ liiilc. ilnii lie Like ( .niii- • (-lilbian- nl i li^rnnl iiiiiiu . Haii^rlirnberw's
discovered, in an irreverent experiment with materiaK. iliai \i--iial -\nta\ rninl.ilril iln- I'apid --lan n| iliiiii\ dweller
if he soaked reproductions from magazines in lighter fluid he lallii-r than iln- li\rd ^laie nl llie Iradiliniial art \ ii-wi-r. 1 li-
conid transfer them on to paper l(\ ruhhing the hack w iih an -onght to capture "reality iu all its confusion as a collage of
em|)tv hallpoint pen. This tecliiii(|iie provided liie ha-i^ Inr details. Thu> he pointedly |ireser\ed the identity of the
the Dante drawings, which he around juxtapositions of
htiill iiiilix idiial Iniinil nbji-cis. leaving the viewer with a sense of
found images transferred Irom magaziiie> and adxertising. iliiiini iîiial riiiiii-\i I ai her than letting them disap])ear into
RanschenbergV drawings for Dante's Injcnio in\(il\i- die ae-^tlietic of die wnrk. Xor are the objects in Rauschen-
the sense of time nnfolding. des])ite the lack of a ( Ii ar berg s combine-, eiiliii inetajihors or s\inbols. though thev
narrative sequence. Hrscrroir fig. "7.8 include^ iwn cldck- do have specific associations for the artist that are not
addre.ssing time explicitlv. Rauschenherg -.it die lii-i i Km k necessarily inherent to the indi\ idual object or its context.
at the time when he began work and the odiiT wlnii In- Rauschenberg came to the end of his combine paintings
finished, but the viewer cannot iill w ludicr ilie liuraiinii wa^ inwai'd the beginning of lQb2. He introduced the photosilk-
screeii into his work and images rather than
objects began to
predominate, as drawings for Dantes
is jirefignred in the
7.8 Robert Rauschenberg, Reservoir, 1 961 Oil, graphite, fabric,

.
Inferno. Bv eliminating visuallv dramatic objects and flat-
wood, metal on convos, plus two electric clocks, rubber tread wheel, tening oiu the literal surface of the canvas. Rauschenberg
and spoked wheel nm, SS^ 2 ^ 62' 2 x 1 424,0 (217.2 x 158.8 x 37.5cm). fimher dissipated the focus in his works, hi contrast to
Collection, NolionolMuseum of Americon Art, Smilhsonion Institution, Washington, DC. Gift
ofS. C. Johnson and Son, Inc. Photograph courtesy Art Resource, New York, ^^ Robert
painters like Pollock or de Kooning, who refined their styles
RouschenbergAÂGA, New York 1994 around the declaration of their identities. Rauschenberg
veered toward disintegration, defining himself anew in
relation to the e.xigent details of each moment. The abstract-
expressionist painters needed neutral materials to embody
their unique encounters with themselves: Rauschenberg's
materials came with external associations that he pointedly
sought to retain.
Rauschenberg s Era.svd ile kaaning Drtiuing 19-5.3 is {
i
emblematic of this distinction. He asked de Kooning to give

him a drawing that was good enough to be missed and
ililfi(-iilt to erase. He erased for rwo months, but in the end he
rniilil not eliminate the lingering presence of de Kooning s
iiestuie and compositional character. This attempt to obli-

terate the artistic presence iniiTors Rauschenberg's stated
effort to erase the assertion of individual idenrin- from his
own work. In contrast to the action painters concept of
stalling from scratch. Rauschenbeig starts frnni something
concrete and moves inward- self-annihilaiinii.
/ (Ion V irant a painting to be Just an expression oj my

personality. I feel it onght to be nutch better than that. . \n<l
I'm opposed to the lehole idea of. getting an idea jor a . .
picture anil then earning it out. I've always felt as though,

iihaterer Ire used and iihaterer Ire done, the method iras
alliens closer to a collaboration with materials than to any
kind of conscious manipulation and control I'd really like . . .
to think that the artist could be Just another kind of material

in the picture, working in collaboration with all the other
materials. But of course I know this isn 't possible, really.
flic flipsidl R; llei

183
Robert Rauschenberg
7.9 Robert Rauschenberg performing in Pelican, New York, The Silkscreen Paintings
1 965, first performed in 1963.
Photograph c by the Estate of Peter Moore. Mt-aiiwliile in the slimmer of 19o2 Tatyana Grosman
jiersuaded Rauschenberg to tiy lithography at I iiiversal
Limited Art Editions L .L..\.E. ). her Long Island print shop.
The technique recpîired close collaboration with a master
tVt-.|il\ ihe changing facts of life and an anri to rcdefini' ]irinter aiifl Rauschenberg liked collective efforts, as in the
liiinst-lf in response to them is a profomul lack of self-v\onli. performance pieces, though he generally ended up dominat-
| ihink my mv ethic an
religious experience has built into ing them. In 1961 Andv Warhol started using photosilk-
irreversible sense of inferiorit)' Wlien I go to work I ha\e
. . . screens to replicate images repeatedly across a canvas, and in
111 feel invisible to get awav from the inferiority.
''" This 1962 he introduced Rauschenberg and Johns to the medium.
lifling reflects, however oblicpielv. the central importance of The [ihotosilkscreen immediately became Rausclienberg's
ideiuity even in Rauschenberg's work. standard techniffue in painting. He also successfully photo-
hi 1961 Rauschenberg moved to a huge fifih-floor loft in sensitized a lithographic stone at L .L.A.E.The photographic
( Greenwich \ illage and Johns started spending more and found images replaced the real objects of the combines and
more time in his new house on an island off the coast of South pennitted an even freer clash of associations in the prints and
Carolina. The friendship ended during the summer of 19(i2 large |)aintings [fig. 7. 10].
in a bitter break-u]). Thereafter Rauschenberg shifted much These silkscreen paintings have a documentary na\or.
111 lii-. energy into perfomiance: in 19b2 he loggefl more like a television screen jumping from one channel to the next
111 air? as a stage manager and lighting director for Ciumiing- to produce a seeminglv arbitraiy jumble of images. The
liaiu than as a painter. In I9b3 he even choreographed photosensitive canvas picks up reflections of the world,
his owii dance piece. Pelican [fig. 7.91. Rauschenberg also recalling the underlying ambition of the earlier white
besan to drink more and more hea\ ilv. canvases. Rut here the subject is the overload of imageiy
184
7.10 Robert Rauschenberg, Skyway, 1964. Oil and silkscreen on

canvas, 18 x 16ft (5.49 x 4.88m) overall.
Collection, Dollos Museum .i' Art. Purchose, Roberta Coke Camp Fund, The 500, Inc., Mr, ond
Mrs. Mark Shepard, Jr., ono !'ic- General Acquisition Fund, cj Robert Rouschenberg/VAGA,
New York, 1994.
185
Robert Rauschenberg
itself. It involves the more stylisiirally nirii|il(\ idea n\ began an aiT and technologT,- perfonnaiice project, enlisting
briiijiiiig old associations to bear rlireetly on new cxiiei icrK r die help of Billv Kliiver a Swedish laser I'escarch engineer
in a sti-eain-of'-conscioiisness snle a])|>ro|)riate to the imdia from Bell l.abs . Rauschenberg's 9 Erenin<is: Theater and
was bombarded with tele\isioii sets and nuiiia/irio. lîiiinicrriniiiA' !')()() involved over thirty engineers from Bell
ajje. "1
bv tiie excess of tlie world. '

he said. "I thouL'ln an Imncî lab- in a riim|ili-\ i-\em of performance, dance, and
work should incorporate all nf tlio-e element^, wlmli win ii-clmnliiLiiralU iii\emi\e -tagiiig. He followed U]i widi llii-
'"
and are a reality." InnndinL: nl 1 Api-iinii-m- in \n and 1 i-clinnlnLrx nr 1-...\.T.;,
In one sense these work- of the earh -i\lii- arc Icrn
histor\' paintings tliai ccunnicrn nn rnnmi cM-ni^. Rau-

7.1 1 Robert Rauschenberg, Booster, 1967. Lithograph and
schenberg used Pre>ideni Ki-nncil\ inmr ilian an\ ndin- serigraph, printed In color, composition: 71 '/i6 x 35'/ein
Mil )lic personality; llie ]ihi>iiii;ia|ih nf .1.1 K w a- a -\ nilml of (181.7 X 89.1cm).
I
change Itecause uf iii-- innii\ali\r aiii-mla and Kan-ciiirilM-rg The Museum of Modern Art, New York John B Turner Fund, c Gemini GEL & Robert
RouschenbergWAGA, New York, 1994
ii-rd ilir image as an e.xpressiipn nl In- nw n -mial inn-iicncc.
Ijr aUd n-cd pictures of asti-onanl- a- wrll a- man-rial Inim
ilir nmnrdialc- cn\ irdnmi-iii: >treet >ign>. neighborhood

liinldint;-- m
box of t(iniat(ie>. The details of
dcmi>liiinn. a
(iidinaiA tliing> and the impersonal tic liiiic|ni- ol mechani-
ral reproduction and repetition balaru id die charged poli-
liral imagen'. "I needed some \ci\ -irnple images, likr

pel liap> a glass of water, or a piece nl-i ring, m the bathroom
lloor with a roll of toilet pajjei' on it ... 1 needed them to dull
the social implications, to neutralize the calamities that wen-

going on in the outside world.
In Skyway [fig. 7. 10 the image- nl \ cmi- limking intn
die mirror and then out of the |iii-iiiii- — laken from lenii.sdt
Ilir 'fuilet by Ridjens— extend the picinies space to include
dir \ iewer. Rauschenberg himself Innk- inin die picture in
uidi-r to see out: the painting thu-- mincn- Imdi die world
liiit-ide and the artist. The repetitimi and re-onances be-
iwieii foniis and the abundant ])aniciilai n-lerences func-

liiiii like the subjective thought i)roce>>es of memoiy.
Rau-chenberg's paintings are about who he i> in relation to
the events he depicts: they are. he -aid. a \iliii le diat will
report what vou did and what hap|ieiii-il m \nn.

Rauschenberg's March 19(5-3 retro.--pective at the Jewish
Mii-euin gave him credibility. The next year the Museum nl
Mndi-in bought a Rauschenlierg. he had a rousing

\rt
-111 1-1— with an exhibition at the \Miitecha|)el Galleiy in
I 1 1111 Inn. and then won the main ])rize in dn- \ iiiiir Biennale.
Immediately after the award Rau-clii-nlii-i allnl lii- assis- t: i
laiii in Xi-w ^'nrk. had him go m the lull and destroy all the
-ilk-riei-n- widi which he had ln-eii printing the images on
In- -ilk>creen paintings of the ]n\M two years. This kejjt him
frniii re])eating himself but it also signaled his feeling that he
had i-ome to a dead end. At this point he nearly -inp|ji-il
painting in order to immerse himself in the theater.
Performance and the Prints of the
Later Sixties
R.iii-chenbeig had long lieeii imnKed in rnllahnralinn--

wiili perfonners from theater and dam r. l'>.)4 to 1 mm
1"(i-t he sened as an artistic advi,-ni m Mrn e
tin- ( luining-
liam Dance Company, and he al-n c ullalmi and with the
|l)().">
r/rlinreographer Paul 1 aylnr. 1 11 die fall nf he
186
iiMo wliicli lie poured a i(Mi--i<lcial>l<' .niiininl (ircmT;;\ in llu- on a -iliule -heel or|ia|ie|- made e-|M-ciall\ li ir die |irojecl . I he
x'cihkI liallofllie sixlie^. wiirk i- a -eir-|iorliaii. Iilnred ihroiiiih die di-ianci- oi'
rile l'e>I (it Haux'lierilitTi: ^ liinr \\;i~ lakiii ii|i willi lechiiii|ni;ical laiiv;iiaL;e — die \-ia\. ihra-lron I'l- chart
iaiicv el()tlie>. curled hairdo-'. liea\ \ di inking: and a ^r(in|iic 111 cele-lial inoNi'iiicnl hn die \ear l'*(i"'. and iiiaL;a/iiie
scene lo rixal Warhol-: hi- work in ihi- -liidio lurainr iiiKiize- 111 di ill- w nil ai row - iliauiamiiiiiiL; llieir miixi'iiielil: it
ilicirasiiiirlv iiiconsei|iicniial. I^ni-i hrnhi i l; wa-a naiinal al-o coniain- die rr| lei ii ii m nl an em|il\ chaii'. a- llioiii:li lo
di--i|ialer." widic llic rrilic i\olicrl llni:lic-. I he -i^lhl (il -iii;;:e-l -onieone - ali-cnce.
him in lii- |ior< m| iini--(|nill Iradn'i' |ai kri. cri'ci Inn rci'lini; I'lie-iren-lliol7)'oo.s/cr. lik,-all..rHaii-clH'iilier- -work,
-liiliuK . marinaU'd w ilh jack Daniel-, cackliiii; like a le sa- i- dial il reacled ai;aiii-l die di-laine ol ma-- cnllnie li\
loon and ir\ ini; in i^ri hi- arm arnnnd i-\ rr\ (Hic a I once, w a- a|i|ir<i|irialiiii: il iiiln an cm{ ilial icalK jiei-onal inleraclioii
"*"
loo laniiliar. willi immeihale i-\| lerience. In llii- re-|iecl he conlimied die
The great Ln'a| il nc Wdik- oT die lair -i\lic- — /ôri.s/c/- liii. e\i-lemiah-l diri'clne-- ol aclion |iaiiiliiii;. hill wilhoiil il-
~. 1 I and \iiliiliiiiL:r(i/i/i\ — îi;iialcd Han-chenliei ;: - reinrii. eiii|ilia-i- on die i-olaled idi-iilil\ ol die arli-l. Haii-chen-
\lra-iiriiiL: -i\ Icei hum lop lo hoiloni. Honslcr \\a- die lier;: - w ork, a- .loin i ( ane -aid nl In- nw n ciiiii|io-iiioii-. are
lariic-i haiid-{inlled lillioiil'a|jh dial had e\ei heen iiiadi' and 'an allirmalion ol lih- — nol an allem|ii n i hriiit; urcler onl ot
Haii-i henlieri: - lir-l i ollahoiaiiun willi die iiiii(i\ali\e I .o- cliao- nor lo -nL;ne-l iiii|iiii\ emeiil- ill cri-alion. hiil -iin|il\ a
Ani;ele-dia-e<l priiil \\ork-lio|i. (.emiiii (..I,. I.. Kail-cheii- wa\ 111 wakiiii; ii|i lo die \er\ lile we re li\iiit;. which i- -o
heri: com|io-ed /h/o.s/c/- around a InlMeniidi -i'i|iieiice ol \- cMellenl once one i:ei- one - iiiiiid and one - de.-ire^ out ot its
r'a\- 111 lii-nw n ho(l\ . and il had h > he iirinleil w idi I wo -I •-
wa\ and lei- il aci ol iinw n accord. ""^
Appropriating the Real: Junk Sculpture and Happenings
Junk
a I'l.").") iiieetini; at the (Inl Jldi Mreei Kichard
In
."^lankiew iiv liii.^.lJ reinaiked that lor an arii-l in New
^ ink In ii-c junk in inakiiii: -ctil|ptiire was as iialiiral a- Inr a
South êa islander to use shells."*^ The term iiiiik -ciil|iiure
refers to a specialized tx]>c of assembiatre dial inMiKed the
welding of discarded metal into --ciiljitme. A- -iich. ii i-
a kind of urban reali-m. \i\idl\ cMiking the eii\ironmeii(

of the where Mich deliri- i- e\cr pre-ent.
cil\ -treet,-.
I)a\id and Stankiewicz pioneered jimk -ciilptiire

^miili
arnnnd I''-") and I'Mli. althoiigli there were notable pre-
I
ccdint- in ilie welded -i iil|itiire of Picasso and Gonzalez

and in the prewar accmimlation- of the (German dadaisi
Kurt Scliw iiicr-.
.lolin (liambeijain dexeloped all entire nciirrc Irom

ciii-hed aiiloinoliile bniK pari- lig.T'.l.) . Mark di .'snvero
e.\|)eiimenlcd willi a \ariet\ ol loiind inalerials. iira\ italint;
inereasingK in indn-lrialK laliiicaled |pai'ts. such as I-beaiiis
figs. "".!-+ and ".1.") . Di Sn\eid'- work of rlie sixties is
|iariii niarb iiii|iortant lor hi- -iicce-- in iran-laliiiL; die

-pontaneiix ol w elded -ciil|itnre on to an architccuiral -cale.
1 he British -iiil|iiiir Antliom ('am fiu."*.]!) al-o made
elegant ii.>e ot indii-lrial material- in the -ante period, fôuise
Nevelson [fig. 7. 1" did not. -diciK -peaking, make sculp-
ture out of metal junk: -he nm-iK re-l rid cd liei a--einblage
ol Inuilfl objects In mniioijiromalicalK painled w nod reliefs.
^ et the character of her aesthetic i- a In-ion of iimk

assemblage and the insistence on the |)icniic plane dial -he
learned from Iter teacher. Hans Ilofinann.
The ;ei-m "assemljlage" was coined in l''o:; |i\ han
7.12 Richard Stankiewicz, Divmg to the Bottom olthe Ocean,
Dubnffet to refer to works that went bcMmd die pa-led 1958. Welded metal, 53^8 A 33' 3734111 (138 -84 96cm). -
collages of dc cubists.'*' Bv the lime of die I'Mil •An of Collection, Musee Nolionol d'Arl Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Pans,
187
7.13 John Chamberlain, H.A.'vV.K., 1959. Welded steel, 7.15 Mark diSuvero,/V1ohicon, 1967. Steel and wood, 15 '9 ^ 30ft
4ftl'2in x4fl5in x 3ft 5ln (1.31 x l.35x 1.04m). (4.57x2.74 - 9.14m).
Photograph by Glenn Steigelman, courtesy Leo Costelli Gallery, New York. Collection, Federol Reserve Bonk, DocJe County, Flondo.
7.14 Mark di Suvero, Che Faro Senza Evrydice (What Will Do I
WithoutEurydiceJ, 1959. Wood, rope, and noils, 7ft 8ft 8 in 7ft 7in
(2.13 X 2.64 X 2.13m).

Collection Mr Donald Fisher,
188
7.16 Anthony Caro,

Midday, 1960. Pointed steel,
9P.4X 373/8 X 1453 4in
(233 X 94.7 X 370.2cm).
The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Wiesenberger Fund.
7.17 (below) Louise

Nevelson, Down's Wedding
Chopel //, 1 959. White pointed
wood, 11 5^ 8x83' 2 X 10'2ln
(294.2 X 212 X 26.7cm).
Collection. Whitney Museum of Amencon
An. New York. Purchosed with funds from
the Howord and Jeon Lipman Foundotion.
Inc. Photograph by Geoffrey Clements,
New York.
V~--ciiililiii:i' cxliihiiitiii at ilii' Mii>i-iiin tif Moilirii Vri the

aficpted use ol'ilif term fiiihracefl not oiilv DiilmtlV l'^ w nrk
with "noii-arl materials such as hurteiilv wings and
iiuiiistiial Auis.. hut alsit jiiiik sculpture, and Raiischenherg's
cninliiiic-. \ll 111 liii^ \Miik challenged the boiindan bemeen
r\ii\ila\ ii|ijr(i~ anil high art. reflecting a widespread
riincrni in die all wm Id of the fiftie- that was soon taken np
ill a ilillfirni w a\ li\ I In- |iiip aili-'t'-.
The Genesis of the Happenings

jimk -inlpiiire. and e\cn moif so in liie coniitines ol"
In
Raii--chenlieig. the einire world hecanie one l)ig work of
an. extending the mban aesthetic of the New York School to
inchifle literally eveiything on the siieet. The "happenings"
111 the late I'ifties evolved from a similar idea, hi a Town Hall
iecinre of 1 ^.^7 .lohn Câge sjiecnlated : "W here do we go t'roiii
here? Towards more than music resembles

tiieater. That art
naline. Vi e ears, and it is our business
have eves as well as
while \\f aie alixc lo use diem.''" At the time, he was
ii-aching a clas> at the New îlinuj for ^dci.il Rc-cari-h IVnm
w 111 I came the germ for ili. In -i li.i|i|ii iiiii_- m \' u \ 'U k
1 1
Vllan Kaprow. who h.nj -unlinl wiili llaii- liiriiMiiii I
,inil \\a~ painiini: in an ali-l iail-e\pi >•--.mni^l ~l\lr. ^liiiied

lip tor (.aL'e - ruiir-e IWii \eai~ in a riiw K.ipniw li.nl ir,{d
about the radical dada e\ent-. uf ilir iwi-iili>-- in IIoImh

Mothprwelis IM.Jl anlliolog>. /A/-/-/ I'aiiih is aiiJ I'n, i.._ IJm
( age s discn>>iiiii nl tin- iili-a~ nl Zen. Dnchamp. Arlaiid. and
189
aboxf :ill liiilr-.(i-i|iiiuii iil' ilir .unNc |i.irliii|ialiiiii n\ ilir
alldifnii- in lllr l''")_' r\rlll ,l\ BLlik MnllllKllll ( (illcLlC
^liiiinlalcil Kii|ii(i\\ 111 aiiaiii;!- Iii~ ow ri li;i| j| n-iiini; in l''-")c5.
k,i|iiii\v - lia|i|ii-nini; hink |ilacc nn llir \c\\ .|ci-.c\ l';H"in ol
llic ;iili~l ( ^('orue Sugal. al a [lirnic l(ii inrnilin-- nl lln- I l;in--a
( .allii \ III New \ oik.
1 .iki' iiianx arli-l~ al llii^ I inic Ka|in)\\ Irli ilir ni-i'd lo ;j:ii
lii-vnnil llir ciinNflilinn-. nt Itolli L;''-lini- |iainliiii: and jinik
~<'nl[inirr. " I lir \i-i nl I'ainiinii. hi- w iipit- in I'l-iil. die

nr\\ -.|iaic dir |ir?îin;d mark dial liiiilcK iinwii iMnii and
nifaniiii;. dir cndlr-,-, laimlr llic ijiral -call-, dn- nrw
iiialfiial^. I'd-, arc li\ now rlirlic-^ nl i(i||ri;c arl drjiail-
iiii'llt-. '
"-I I KajiiMW In-rd ilii- iniiaii irali-iii nl jiiiik ail
uidi die -<|ialial r\| ii r-.îuniîii dial lii' .-M rajinkili'd Irniii
I 'oil lick and >i'l II in a n-al i-nx iron i urn i. I \r iiio\ i-d I k nn dn-
|ii\ia|>o>iii I I I o|i|ri i~ lo I III' |ii\ia|>oîlioii oj "Ion nil
r\ riil>. Ill an arlirlr III i".i,", l\a|iio\\ ira-oni-d a^ lollow ^:
I'dlldik. IIS I scr hull, /c/l us ill //ii- /iimil ir/ii-rr iic inns/
licroiiir j>n-ii<iii/iic(/ iril/i iniil crni ilnzzlnl li\llic spinr dm I
iihji'rls dfdiirfnTyild\ life . . . \dl sii/isjin/ inl/i the

.suggestion llinniiili iiniiil o/ niir d//icr sriiscs. iir slnill ii/i/izc
the spccifir siilishiiiirs iif siislil. siiiniil. iiiiirrnirn/s. jird/i/i'.
iifhiis. Idiiih. ( )h/ri/s iif itit\ sml dir iiiuhTidls /in the iirir
iiii: /iiiiii/. r/idirs. fiiiiil. rh'itnr iiinl tifdii hithls. siiiiikc.
.''"
irn/iT. dhl sinks, a i/ixj. nnirirs. n ihinisiiinl iilhcr ihiiiiis . .
ilaiold Ko-,i-iiIm-i'i: -. idra ol aidoii |iaiiiling also pressed

l\a|iro\\ III |ia^- lii-\ond i;rîiin- iiiio |iiire action [fig. 7. 181.
In aciioii |iaiiiiiii;^ llir arii^l ronrrrned iiiin or herself xvitli a
irralix ! arl ol ~ill-diîo\ ri \ . wlio-ê result was abo\"e all an
aililaci III die i\|ieiii'nrc. Pollock. Rosciilierg argued. \\a>
Ic^^ picoi iii|iici| w idi iinaLic-inakini; llian die process, even
dionuli die lini^licd work wa^ Npeclacniarlv lieautifiil: 7.18 Allan Kaprow, Chicken, 1962. Happening.
indeed, die olijccl^ \i^lial power lelicd on il^ aliililN |o Photograph by Edwin Sabol
coii\e\ (lie enere\ ol die |irocc^^.

Alrhoiigh the spiril ol i ollalioraUon xxitli ( iinniniiliaiii.
I iiiloi'. and odiei^ in ( aê •- i''o2 Cxcnl êciiied lo xxiirk. \nd all die things xxliich 1 suggested were (|uite
coniradict the aclion painlei s em|iliasis on the individual coniraiy to llieir hackground
But . . . my other friends, who
ai I. ( .a:;e did -.1 lc>-^ indix idiial e\perieiice. I he -.1 riK I lire we xxere imacciisiomed to acting, were ([iiite cajiahle liecause
-lioiild think alioin. ( aiic cxplai I. i-^ thai ol each per-on llicx sensed the origins of xxlial lliex were doing in
111 the .inilicnce , . . w lio-e coii~ciiiii-.nes-, i- îriiiiiirini;' the painliiig.
lAperience dillerendx Iroill aii\ liod\ el>e -. . . . .ô die le-.i we Robert Wllitman sindied with Kaprow at Hntgers in
-Irucliire die ihealiical occasion and the inoie ii i~ like .\ex\ .jersey. He xxas die youngest of the first happenings
linÛ 111 1 lired daiK I lie. die iirealer will I le die -.liiiiii Ills lo die and his ideas tended to be more abstract, hi general,
artists,
^1 riici iriiit; lacii
I It \ ol e.ich person in the audience. 11 x\c lia\ e happenings liombarded the xiewer with sensations and he or
done nothing he dien will have e\ er\ ihiiiii lo do."^" she had to make his or her oxxai order out of the events. Often
kaprow had a -how al die I laiisa ( .allerv in 1''.'i(! dial die action included the viewers, and their participation
coiisisied ol a complex, collaeed i-nx iroiimeni xxilli random added an un]iredictability that dramatized its similaritx" with
sonnd.s Irom a radio, I le peiTornied in die -pace, luii hi- liisl real life. Hajipenings werea kindof theater that took place in
lull, piililic happenine as siich — called /S fhififn'iiiiiiss in 6 real, rather than staged, settings and instead of plots they
/^r„7.v-look placi- at die Hellheli ( .allerx III Oiloliei l'».'.'». w ere striictiired in juxtaposed units as in an asseinblage. The
Mere too the sources were not theater. Inil dada proxoca- ixpiial happening xxas nonverbal, discontinuous, non-
lioiis. assenihlage. and action painting. It iherelore reqiiiicd secjiieniial. miiliiriK iiseil. and open-ended. According to
die spoiiianeiix ol mix ices, lather than actors, as Kajiroxx Kaproxx "\ Happening is generated in action by a head-
:
e\plaiiii-(l. Aciois w allied lo haxc stellar roles. Thex' wanted liil ol ideas or a llinisilx-jotted-down score of root direc-
to speak lor die mosi |iarl. and 1 nl ili/ed Iil lie x ei I liaee in nix tions. '
.Mthonuh some happeniiiiis eiiaaucd die audience
190
The Beat Generation: The Fihies in America
extensively, oiliers did not. Ka|>r()\v"s Fluids of 19b7. for ex- ani-l~ li\iil. Oldcidiurg characicii/rd dii- kind ufaii a> a
ample, involved tasks executed at various locations around a 'ciMiiciii|iciiiir\ |iriinili\ ism achii\( d ilnmiLili ilic (Aplniia-
eitv. as determined liv ilie ]ierfonner>: ilie onl\ audience w a> liuii iif pdjiiilar cidlMrc."'" a ilc-ciipiidii ili.il n-callrd dn-
that which ..erendi|)iiou>l\ happened h\ thus creatintr a true
. wrilin-- ot l)ul>ulTcl. \|,>r,M,MT. a- Haili.ir.i I la-kril ha-
inteirration of art with life. |iiinilcd 'Mil. b\ -iiiLiJiiii: uiil f\i-i'\ da\ ""iiriac-diciic nhji-ii-.
""
In the mid fiftie>. member> nl die (iuiai (mouji nl )~aLa. ( ( )ldrnlini l; aiili(i| laln I |h ip ail .
Japan — a theater i^roiip made up of paiiuers — had --een Red ( ,11 PI iiii~ |iii till iiicd lii~ til- 1 iiappi-niiiL;. I'lm ( iiller/
photogra])hs in Life magazine of the theatrical French action lire, ill l'rii\ iiiii-iciw 11. \la--ailiii-rn~. nii die ijji ut ('ape
painter Georges Mathieu in an elaborate costume, paiuiiuiz (!od. in ihe>iimuierof l''.i8. He was les> concerned than the
before television caiiieras. This inspired iheii- li\f ]ierforui- early Kaprow with viewer participation, and like Oldenburg
ances: in one action thev threw balls of paint at stretched more iiivoKrd in \i-iial cjaboraiion and iin])ro\ iâIion.
canvases: in another an actor took a rimning leaj) and burst (irooin- iirclir-iiaicMl lii- The
dirci- iiiajni- liap|)euing>
through the centers of a sequence of canvases. In l''.~i~ ilic Uidkiiiii Mdii. The and The
Biir/uiiii Biahhiiu: fig. ~. 20 .
\ew \ork Times WTote a feature on the GiUai (irc>u|i. '" aird a Magie Tniiii Ride — between the summer of 19-59 and
year later the Martha .lackson (iallen nioniited a >lio\\ dt Januarv 19o(). Jim Dine particijiated in several Oldenliurg
their works, which added to ihc nininiiini; iiininiiitnin ot happeningr. but al>o devised his own. in which he played the
interest in happenings. |iriii(i])al role. Diiic'> ha])[ienings -.eeiiicd like staged night-
Inspired bv Kaprow . ( lac- ( JldcTiburg launchi'il hi> Ra\ mare-: he iairiw rule dial 'am one ciiui liked. and iliai 'die audience-, were lauL'hiui: at
Jim Dines The House were environments created at the e\entliing. "
Jiidson Gallen'. a makeshift space in the basement of the Ha|>])eningn were deiinitelv the 'in thing tor a period.
Judson Memorial Ghurch in \^ ashington S(juare. and they E\ervone sensed the excitemeni and \iiality of a genuine
emulated the scjiialor of the Lower East Side xslieic the |•eôhltion in the definition of an. \et because thev did not
7.19 Claes Oldenburg, The

Street, spring 1960,As installed at
the Judson Memorial Gallery.

Photograph courtesy the artist.
191
7.20 Red Grooms, The Burning Building,

1 959. Performonce in New York.
Phologroph by Mox E. Boker, New York, s 1994 Red

Grooms/Artists Rights Society.
leave museinn objects and tlieir lifespan was short, they mav
Fluxus
seem less important in retrospect than they actually were.
However, bv 1Q62 the whole phenomenon had growii too WInle drawing on some of the same sources as artists in
lotnmercialized. according to Oldenburg: "People were New York,
those in Europe followed a more metaphysi-
aiTi\nng in Cadillacs.'"'" So. e.xcept for Kaprow. the major cal course. Iii 1952 George Macimias âii American^, \\ ol:Ji
artists all retimied to painting and ^cidpture or went into \ ootell a German u aiid Nam June Paik â Korean founded
\ ,
\ iilt'd and film. a group called 'I lu\u^ in \\ ieabaden. \\ est Germany, ihab
largely took off Injin dir ideaa of Cage. Maciuiiaa had
attended performance.-^ li\ Cage and others, some of them i^
The Judson Dance Theater
\oko Ono s loft on Cihambers Street in New \ork. Robert
,hiil><>ii ( .allfiA anis|.. iiiummI mi to regular galleries,
ihf Moiris and his then wife, the Judson dancer Simone Fojii.
A-the Judson Dance Theater— including \vonne Rainer. had arrived in .New \ork from San i rantisco w itli W alter De
Me\e Paxton. Simone Forti. Lucinda Childs. Judith Dtmn. .Maria in 1*^H)0. and in the fall Maciunas opened the A G
and Trisha Browii — took over the basement space, and with (âlleiy on Madison Avenue to show the early minimalist
it the Judson GalleiTS role as a focal point of the downtown work of De Maria and to sponsor perfomiances like the ones
•'(•ene. The Judson Dance Theater choreo-
artists of the he had ~<i'n in the flowntowni lofts. Maritma^ wa-^ liie
graphed such commonplace mo\ements as walking or sitting animatinn foi-ce itehind Fluxus-a^ a mo\-emeiit. didugh not
do^n. \vonne Rainer invented the tenn "task movement, il~ I inl~tani \\n'^ ail i~l.
which characterized the general mood: the perfomiances fluxus was tonued as a Duchampian reaction against
had no theatrical feel, they were anti-expressionistic (unlike the expressionistic and s\Tnbolic aspects of happening!*.
ilie happenings and thev emploved few or no objects
. Often the Fluxus events were quite minimal, as in the two
or set>. perfonnance scores that George Brecht submitted to a 1961
Like pop art and minimali>m — which also emerged show at the Martha Jack-on (;all('r\ one of them consisted :
around 19t)2 — these Judson Dance performances involved a simplv of till- wciiil ili.iii wliM-, ir,ili/aii"ii wa- a white
dead])an deliven of charged subjects. In describing one wicker rocker. Fluxu:- |Makri| liriw.-i-ii !"h2 and 1*^04.
section of Yvonne Rainer's "love duet Terrain. Barbara " and although manv important a]li--ts troni Josejth Beuvs to
Haskell noted that "she delivered hackneyed expressions '1 Chrislo had a vague connecliou with it. the trroup was >o>
love you,' "I don't love you,' i've never loved you' :
in a flat undefined that even manv present at the tiTiie srill w undt^r it
inonotone whicb one critic likened to the recitation of a a 'group actually existed.
groceiT order. "'
Bv taking them oiu of context. Rainer and The n\o major talents rxpliritiv connected to Hiixus-
the others transfonned ever\dav actions into abstract move- were Joseph Beuvs and Nam June Paik. Bein-. although he
ment and encouraged the appreciation of accidental acts, lacked the inlellectual detachment of other artists associated
Cage had in tlie realm of sound. Cunningham was of
just as with the group. wa< nevertheless prnfoundlv influenced
C()in>e the cliief in-|iiialiiin iii-liiml tlii- minimalist dance. liv their theaiiieal (irieiitaiinn. Paik's \'->bO Etude for
192
Pititiofhiii: wliirli Iimk |ila(c In an aili-l'- Inl'i in Culniinr. In- lii-fiaii lon-liiiclirii; i-n\ iniriniciil^ dliral nlijcc is. a- in 7'Ar
wa.- widely n'(uiinl<'il. anil -1-1 liir mnr liir III- Inliirv lln\n- Siihiniy lli:,~._'l wliicli mil MnK lia~ a ival -iili\\a\ car
|)f|-|'i>rmaiicf-. Ainoni; tulii'i' aclidii--. l.tiiilc i(in~i--icil mT Palk InliTinr Imi lluln- lla-lnnL: li\ cMn~iilc ilic dai krniil w indnw
]n'rt'(irmiiii.' a (:lio|iiii lUiidt: iirfaiîiii: nH in ii-ai~. ami Maii-nl. a \ cnc/iiclan aiii-i workini: in \r\\ \nil aUn
lt'a|iill_ir I'roill lllf ^tairc imi> llif aiulicricr. wlu-iv li.' nil mIT iiii\ril ival dlij.-ri- wiili w Im lilnck- — iar\ rd aiKMriaik-.l
Joint CaiJi''.-' lit' and |i()lin'd >hani|»>() i>\rv ( auc and l)a\ hI w iiIi pla-nT ami draw nii: m |iainlnii; in a ivali-l inaiimi
Tiidtir. ili'did not assauli ilir rurniidalilc ( .rn nan < iiin|Mi-(r IIl;. . .-- .
Karllii'inz Slm-klian-fn. wlm -al m\i Kiiauc Tlicn lie Urd ( .nmni- - |
lalnlln;: si\ |i-. a- w rll a- 111- i i-|Milal ion.
piislifd 111- \\a\ onl oT ihr nowd, w Im li\ ilil~ liiiic wrrr cm wa- r~lalill-licd w idi In- lia| i| iniiiii: /'//c lu/niiiiii liiiihliiin.
llu'ir I'lTi. and plionrd Inun die liar ildw iiMaiis in sa\ die |Mr-cnn-d in ili.- Di'lamx ^lin-i Miisrinn" In- loll in
plrcc \\a- (i\ri. Ili.iii-li .rlrl.iahil r..i ilii- |,rii.iiniamr Dcirnilici I''.")". II ir r\| ,rr-.-ii mi-l ica ll\ |
lai nird -el and die
iiiri r. Palk iiiadr 111- nio-.| -iLlilifiranl rnni ill ail mii in die r\ ii(ali\ r jii\la| ii i-il KHi i il r\ ciil- i ivaln I a i v ciiiil lolircl
fnllnwini.' dei-ade w illi \ ideii and lf|r\ i-Imii an. and iinirii'd -Irmlinr Inr lia| i| Ji'iiini:- dian Ka|iin\\ -. and
\\a- iiiiirc inlriT-lini: in walrli. In llir -iniiniri ul l''.>~ llii'
l^^,al,^-^,^lr-,,ld(an,,,n-lladlel,lll,nall^,\a-ll^lll,.l,,rlll,
Walk-in Paintings
I Ian- lliilniann >(l I in I'n i\ incrinw n. and alllii iiii;li
Mraiiw lull- 111 !"•"); 1

— ilir -aiiir \ ear in wlilili .Man Kajirow iliirmann made In lie iiii|iir — inn on liim die eoimniiniu ol
Di-L'ani/ed hi- t'ir-l lia|i|ienliii: on ( .eorê Seiral's \ew yoiiiiiier arii-i- diei,' iiiirodiie.-d him m ihe ne,niial -i\ le- ol
.lei>ev farm — Se;:aliliiii-ell heeaii makim: lire--ized. three- Lester .lolin-on and \le\ Kal/. wliieli -lia|ied hi- idea of
diiiieiisioiia! figure- oiii ol w ire. |ila-iei. and liinla|i. 'Thex ]iaiiiliiii: I'ii;.
"._'•> . (.room- al-o |iaiiiieil whai he calleil
looked to Mie a- if llie\ had -le|i|ied oill of m\ |iaimiiies." he -liek-oiils' dial siaiiil ii|< imle]iendenll\ ill real -|iaei- like
recalled. e\|.laiiiiiie dial hi- deci-ion io enier liieral -jiace -uiee llais. \- wiih seeal- lahleaiix and the earlier i iiioni
\\a- deiermin.-d h\ -iroiie iiree- foi' lolal e\|)erieiice.'' " >ooii ]iaiiiliii:;s of \le.\ Kalz, the stjck-Olits" came from a de-ire
7.21 George Segal,

TheSubwoy, 1968. Plaster,
metal, glass, rattan,
electrical parts with
lightbulbs, and map,
7ft 4in -9fl5'2in a 4ft Sin
(2.25 X 2.88 X 1.3m).
Photograph courtesy Mrs. Robert B.
Mayer, Chicago. ©George

Segal/VAGA, New York, 1994.
7.22 (opposite) Marisol,

TheFam.ly, 1963. Mixed
media assemblage, 6ft 7in
(2.01m) high.
Collection, Robert B. Mayer Fomily,
Chrcogo, on loon to the Milwaukee
Art Museum. ©MorisolA/AGA, New

York. 1994.
193

194
IITfP 7.23 Red Grooms, One

Way, 1964. Oil on canvas,
NACIWE 5ft5in^6ft8in (1.65 x2.03m).
1^ Collection, Ann ond Walter Nothon,
Chicogo. Photogroph by I.Carmen
Quinlonc. c 1994 Red Grooms/Artists
Rights Society
lor a total walk-in enviroiiineiu in urdfi- lo fiiliaiut' tlie
"realitv" of rlie paiiiTt-d experieiue.

jiiii Dine befran making jinik accumulations and at the
same time i)egan to incoiporate real articles of clothing into
his paintings in l')59. Soon he moved on to fixing delihei- s^-m^^^^^^'
ately selected new hardware to his canvases [fig. 7.25 . In
some works the gestural paint smface and the objects
interact like distinct voices as in the contemporaiT works of
.Jasper .lolins : in other canvases Dine made expressive color
or surface integral with the definition of the objects them-
selves: and in still oiiur woik- he depicted the cominmi
objects a> a subject inaiii-r-. "W hen 1 use objects." he
explained. "I see them as a vocabularv of feelings ... ni\
"""
work i> veiy autol)i()graphical. The tools had a particu-
Itirly strong evocative quality for him because both his father
and grandfather who raised him had had them on sale in
their retail shops in iiis hometown of Cincinnati.
Lucas Samaras, another assemblagist of the [teriod. got
to knowKajirow. Segal, and \^ hitman at Rutgers which he
atteufled as an undergraduate from 1'^).t."i to 19.59 and he
Jianicipaled in inanv ol ()ldenburg'> lui]i]ieTiings of the lariv
7.24 Lucas Samaras, Uniitled Box No. 3, 1 963. Wood, pins, rope,
andstuffeJ bird,24"2 x IIV'2 x 10"4in (62.2 x 29.2 x 26cm).
Collection, Wh 'ney Museuin of Amencan Art, New York. Gift of the Howard and Jean Lipmon
Foundation, Inc. Protogroph by Jerry L. Thompson.
195
sixties. He began to construct abstract objects and boxes [fig.

7.25 Jim Dine, Five Feef of Colorful Tools, 1962. Oil on unprimed
canvas surmounted by a board on which thirty-two painted tools hang
7.24] in tlie spring of 1960. having become obsessed by the
from hooks; overall, 55^8 a 60' 4 > 438in (141.2 ^ 153 - 10.9cm). evocative power of paiticular materials: nails, pins, broken
The Museum of Modern Art, New York, The Sidney ond Hornel Jams Colleclion. glass,and razor blades, set off by saturated rainbow colors,
Dav-Glo and silver paint, tin foil, and mirrors. His works,
though sensual and opulent, frequently have a menacing
aspect. His material acciniiulations are fetishistic and highly
personal, like small, ecstatic relics of a bizane religious rite.
The "strong urges for total experience "
that Segal spoke
of when lefening to were a defining
his plaster figures
featin-e of the happenings in New York. Their veiy theatri-
calir\- proîded a point of departure for the careers of George
Segal. Allan Kaprow. Red Grooms, Jim Dine, Lucas

Samaras, and Clae> ( )J(]fMliui ;; for at least another decade.
196
Claes Oldenburg
Wlicii' Dim- >li'ailla>llv rfiaincil (In- iiiaiiiilacnircci idiMi-
lil\ of ohjerts. t'Uie? Oldi'iihiiii; i)cr-'i>lciill\ nndt'i-

luiiu'il tlieiii. He antliroponiui|iliizf(l (lit-iii. ennicized rlieiii.
cliaiij^t'd iliein tVom orsaiiic ti) ueoiiu'iric and. \ ioe versa, or
blew iliem up into arcliitecture (liroiij.'!) toniial associaiioiis

thai layered earli ol)jert with alieniati\e del'inilioiis. Olden-
burg's Wiirk is and as with Dine tlie
also autoliiomapliiral.
liappeniiiiz> led Oldenhiiril to ii>e objects as tlioni;li tiiey weie
staiie pfi>|)s in a kind of inti()>pective perfoi mance. ^ el w iiat
iiiteii'sled ()ldenl)tnix above anytiiiiig else \\a> tlie power of
iii> inia<;inatioti to alter the shape and ineaniuiiof leal things.
lli> work, he said. "oiisinate> in actual experience liowever

"'
far my nietatiioiphic capacirie,-. may cany it.'
Born and raised in (Ihicajio from

in ."^toi-kholm in lf)2'>
the asre of seven. Claes Oldeiibin s was the older of two sons
of the Swedish C^jiisul-Cieneral. As children and young
teenagers, the Oldenburg boys collaboraicd on a liiglily
detailed fantasy about an imaginary island coiiinry in
die South .\ilantic called Nenbern. which >et some import-

ant themi'~ for Oldenbinu; -. matuii' wnik. Thev made
7.26 Claes Oldenburg, "Empire" ("Papa") Ray Gun, 1959.

Casein on newspaper over wire, SS'e x 44' 8 x 1 4Hin
(91.1 X 114 X 37.1cm).
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gitt of the artist.
^
197
Claes Oldenburg
SoTiic of The Street l'i<i:nirs had speecli l)all(Kin>. iimmI- Second .\\enue. die and signs, and all the
lioxes. wra|)pers.
irii! tlie liiif;eriii<: innuciicc ol comic snips; liiil llic ilark energeiic bnvins The Store was a friendly.
and selling.
outlines, the cplii'incral iioii-arl material", ainl llie tniiiial oM'ililled room of hambnrtri'r^ and leniiis shoes, prepack-
cni(ieiie» ma(l<> nrimiÎakahle releieiice in Diilmllii. 1 aged shirl-and-tie combinalioM^. and reliefs of Pepsi signs
ilnii'l CDiiir (Mil ol Mali"->c or llir ~iiiiin conceiil ol' all. and sewing machines — all made ol brightly enamelled
( )lil<-iil)uri; |ioiiiic(l mil. "I coin i ol ( iova. Rouaiih. (larls plaster — with a delicious \iilgarily dial celebraled "die
ol Diihlirtel. Uacoii. llic liiiinaiii^lic anil exisleiilialisl iiiiai;;- poelrv ol e\ ei\ w here. ' as he piil il.
i-l--. the ('liicaiio IjiiikIi. '
\loico\cr ( )|(lenhiir2's assertion llie arli--l - mani])ulatioii ol loriii took precedence over
ilial "ilirl lia- ilcpili and licaiil\ . I lo\e --oot and scorching:. aii\ inhereiil significance in die >iiliieci : "i wanted to see if i
Ill" wi^li lo niakr all oui ol die iiii|>os>il)!e. the discredited. (<iiild make significant torin oni ol a pair ol ladvs pant\'s
die dilTereiil.
'""
and lii^ dfscii|>iion ol liiinêH' a-- 'an sie .
"
Indeed Oldenburg used die baiialil\ ol the subject
onl-.ider" " hreallic die cold e\iHiriiliali>in of Dnlinflei and mailer lo sei off his aesthetic.
llic noiirc/ niniiiii of I .oni^-f cidinand ( elinc and Main

/ hare iiuuh' these tlimu's: a irrisl iraleh. ii piece ii/ pie. Iidt.s.
Hol.lM-Crillci.
caps. jHiiit.s. skirts, jhiiis. 7 up. shae-shme ete. etc.. all riolent
(iikI siiiiph' ill form and color, just us l/ievdri'. In .showing

The Store Days them toixi'ther. I hiire iron tec I lo iiiiiliite iii\ net of pereeirinir
tiieiii. ir/iich is irliy t/iey are shoirii us Jniisiiients oj the jield
Alter The Street ( )ldciil)iiiu lici:aii inakiiiii a more \i\a-
ofseeinii . in ih/fereiil scole lo one iiiiother. in o Joriii
<ion" -l\lc of oNjcci fijj;.-..~.2~ and "".J!! The raw. \cl .
siirroiiiKhiiiS me oinl l/ie speehilor . oiiil in iieciiiiiiildtion

coloiiiil icxnircd "iniaces of hi-- new w oik w ere a dcpai'inic
riillier llnni in some imposed design.
fiom the lonncr -oiiiKcr -.iinalor. \-. if lookiiii: ii|i lioin die
]ia\ cnieni and inio die 'lio|i w iiidow > lie rendered die li\ el\ The ragged edge> on the reliefs, as in Seiring \hicliiiie.
llnrrx of acii\ii\ in cnidelv [laiiiied |)la--ter forms. \et this suggest die \iolence with which lliey liaxe been ri|p|piMl bom
work too was iiidehied to Diihiiffei — not to the sraffili-like their \i--iial conle.xt. The fragmeiiialion evokes die leeling
iiioiioclironiC" lull lo lii^ rich, eleineiilal |)a--tf- tin--. -^.-I- that occur- when a mnlliliide of di-coniiecled |ierceplions
and.").! 1 . are bronghl logelher.
hi .hme l''()l )ldeiil)iii;i renled a storefront at 1U7 East
( PeopI,' loêd Oldeiibiiii; s wiirk and vel he sold very
Second .Street, on the Lower East Side, and in December he
opened The Sliire. he -.en-.iialil\ oplimi>m. and himiorol
I .
die wdi'k on di-pla\ rellecied ;in ap|ireciation lor die

7.27 Claes Oldenburg, Sewmg tAachme, 961 Painted 1 . plaster
lin--tlin<i. tactile and \ i -I lal \ arieu ol the neiehliorhood — die relief, 3ft 1 1 in X 5ft 1 in (1.1 9x1. 55m).
cheap clothillK on ( )nhai'd îreei. die aira\" ol lood on Former collection of Mr. and Mrs. Robert B. Moyer, Chicogo.
198
^rck- 111 plr^rlll III ixrlll- \\ll;i( lllr '^liili' |ilr-rlll^ ill
iilijrrl*. ( )ldrilliliri; i\|iLilliril. 1 1 i- a 1 1 iiM In 1

1| i i;il i\ rill>
*
a ni-\\~iri-| . hi llll- lIliMlrl 111 iIiiiil;-. I >Mriil mi l; r\rn
il-i-il In- arliii-- likr iiii|rrl-. rr|irlin;: ilialiii: ami |iliil. Ilie
,11 1 i-l'- |iii\\ I r 111 ilrlannlKin/r llir ii|i|rrl- lie inaile. a- w rll a-^
llir lalliarlir iliaiarliT 111 llir |ii-i liii inanir-. irlliTlril a lailli
in the force nl niind 1 1\ it nial Ii-i dial ina\ lia\ i- il- 1 1 ml- in lii>
I hi'i-tian Scicriir npluinging.

( )ldriiliiiig had giiiif -i-M-ial linn'- In -ee I he BiirntiiiC
HiiilihiiLi li\ \\i'\ (.riiiim- in Derrnilier l''i''. and he

organized lii> own iiap|ieniiig. Snajishdls jnun /he <'it\. the
next vear. \nSii(i/>.thut.i Oldenbini; rirainl a li\ inii jiinure
111himself covered in rags and drlni-. literallv and ligura-
iImK locating himself within tin- \i--nal ciiaos of the street.
Tile lia|i|iening was a series ol exple5îve but --lane taiilcaux.
in which he used objects, or more properly mallei-. a> the
stuff of an existential expressioni>ni in the iiailiiinn of
Pollock. The painterly handling wiiii h per-i-nd in ( )ldin-
burg's sculpture, at lea-t lliiiuiiih tiir end ul the -i\lie-.. also
7.28 Claes Oldenburg, Pie 6 la Mode, 1962. Muslm dipped in revealed hi- e\pre--iiini-iic appinai li.
plaster over a frame of chicken-wire, painted with enamel,

13x20^ 19in (33x50.8 v 48.3cm).
Collection, Museum of Contemporory Art, Los Angeles, The Ponzo Collection Photograph by Soft Sculpture
Squidds & Nunns, courtesy Museum of Contemporory Art, Los Angeles
Oldriiliing'> Green (»allei\ ^liow wa- -chrdiili-d In njii-n in

September 19b2. The largest oliject in The Store had
liiiif. Tlic Store clitsed after two iiiiiiuli- witli a net ln^> nl liiin three feet square,and now suddenly Oldenburg had a
S285. w liirli Rirliaid Bellanix (lirectur of tlic Green tialleiT much bigger space to fill. Vi alking rhrough midtown on the
on 57th Street picked up ^ hen he offered ( )l<lenbiirg a sliow wav to the galleiT one day. he passed an auto showTooni and
for tlie faU of 1^(52. hi Fehnian 1^)02 Oldeiilniri; ^liHterl lii- admired tlie wav the cars occupied the space. He decided
attention to developing the Ray Gtin Theater, and for alioiii that he wanted to fill the gallery in the same way. so he
fi\e months lie organized perfoniiances for ca]:iaeity audi- enlargrd hi- nlijrri- In the -ize nf car-, and at the -aiiie time
ences in his tinv storefront. Like the objects in The Store
Oldenburg's happenings derived from an overrifling interest
in using his aesthetic thought processes to integiate his
experience of the real en\ irnnineiit. Tlie Rav Gun Theater
7.29 Claes Oldenburg, Ffoor Cafce

(Giant Piece of Cake), 1 962. Synthetic
polymer paint and latex on canvas
foam rubber and cardboard
filled with
boxes, 4ft 1 OVein x 9ft 6y4in > 4ft 1 0^ em

(1.48x2.9 1.48m).
The Museuin of f.' z.dern Art, New York. Gift of Philip
199
Claes Oldenburg
he rjiliiicatrd lii- i'ir^l soft sculptures of raiivas and later
\iii\l >iiilli-il wiili loam nibber. cardboard, or ka|iok. The

dis|)lav included a nine-fool rake [fig. 7.2'' . an ice-cream
cone over len feel long, and a haniburgei' tiiai \\a^ seven ieet
in ilianien-r-. Ilie coin|)ari.son lo surrealism was inevitable,

since ilie radical sliifi in scale and the metamorphosis of
familiar ol)jecis into soft sculptures gave them a dreamlike
aura, llie show enjoved commercial success but the estab-
lished criiic^ lialed jr. Not only was liguraiiNe. and ii
theivfori' — ill ( îi-eiiberg's relentless marcli lowaid abstract

[nuitv— react ionarv. il had a sense of imiiioi' and llial made
it ipso facto insufficiently profound.
Ill Noxember 1'>h2 the Sidney .lanis (iallery iield the
New Realists" e\liil)itioii that scandalized many of the New
York School artists whom .lanis also represented, and some
cpiit the gallery. Like '.\ Problem for Ciritics. "
hekl at the kn
of This Ceiiiiiix ahno-'t twenty years earlier, the "New
Realists" siiow aiicni|iied to encapsulate what nearly every-
one recognized as a new movemeiii. Piic title came from the
French noureaii.v realistes. whom .lanis included, and in-
deed the assemblage aesthetics of Oldenbin-g. Dine. Segal,
Samaras, and probably even Grooms had more in common
with tiie rriicli iioiircaii.i rrolistes and w ith Rauscheiiberg
I-
than llic\ did widi Warhol. Rosciiiniist. and Lichtenstein.

wiiii wlidiii ilic\ were eventually (and inappid|iriately
gidi pcdI
iiiidi r llie heading of "pop."
Al llii^ poiiil Oldenburg entered a period nl reassess-
iiiciii. I c\|icriciirc(l a revulsion agaiii^l iii\ -.iliialinii in
\c\\ \(iik. haliiiL; iii\ Store my ^liidio and lliralcr siin'e
|'»(il (III Srriiiiil Sireei. in\ aparl iiiri il . iii\ IhmU. my wite.
7.30 (above) Claes Oldenburg, Soff

DormeyerA/l/xer, 1965. Vinyl, wood, and
kapok, 32 X 20 X 1 2' 2in (81. 2x50.8x31 .8cm)
Collection, Whilney Museum of Americon Art, New York.
Purchased wilh funds from tfie Howard and Jeon Lipmon
Foundotion, Inc. Pfiotogroph by Geoffrey Clements,
New York.
7.31 Claes Oldenburg, Soft Dormeyer

Mixers— "Ghosf" Version, 1965. Canvas,
kapok, sprayed enamel, and wood,
42 ' 26 X 34in (106.7 x 66 x 86.4cm).
Destroyed. Pfiotogropfi Geoffrey Clements courtesy Sidney
Jams Gollery, New York.
200

201
Claes Oldenburg
CM r\ thiiii:
" '
In î|.icinljer l')().'^ In- and liis wii'c Fat (ifil in |i|a-lcr: aller all. "what could he more
he (|iii])|)ed.
\i\\ ^cllk and iiiiiNcd U) Lus Aiiiiolcs. He rented a studio in a|r|iro|iiiaic than Wlien llie\ rclurned to
|ila-tei- in Paris';" "
\ iniic. ( alilninia. and staved tlieie tliroiifili the lollowini.' New \ ork in late .\o\ ember they cheeked into the (Chelsea
Man li l'*()4 Tlie almiidanie of vinyl and lake I'uis lie Ilolel and he worked in aloft in Sollo until they found a 200-
Inund winir inininaL'inL: ilironi:!! the area's surplus stores footdoni;s]iaceon East l4tli Street in April I'M).').
in -| I ncd liini hi ir\ w im kini; in llir-f materials, and since the Oldenlmif; inan>rurated a se(|nence of -oli mcchanii al
cniliiiii [Jatterils liPi ihc ^nh ~rnl|ilnrc^ came Ironi iiai<l di\i(i- in l**()5. heginniiin; with \u> AiriJotr a special inoflel
models construclcd in |ilani-^ ol wood or caidlioai'd. die ol die I''.).')
(
'hrvsler I
anti including a giant fan. drainpipes.

had "hard. ~oll
oljjects tv])icall\ thai i-. \in\l . ami a lclc]p|ioiie. ami the giant Dormever mi.vers. For the most
"ghost" versions tigs.''. 30 and ~.-'il . die lallcr rajiriiaied |iaii he cliii-f i|iiaintlv old-fashioned devices and e.xlians-
IVoni can\a- Imii laikiii;; die '
rcali^lic coioi- or lini^li ol li\cl\ re-eai'chcd diem on paper. Mthoiigh thev have a rich
llic \ in\ I. miaiicc ol line ipialiix die-e ilraw iiigs are often realized with
In March l'»(.-+ die ( )ld.-iihin--. droxc I.. \c\\ 'S.irk Inr dii' preci-ion ol a nifchanical engineer [fig. 7. .'52
hi- -how al die .lain- (.allci\ ami llicn -ailed lo r.m-o|ic in Being -cifi ami lle-hlike. many of Oldenhiirg's objects
\la\ lor he I \ en ice Biennale. I lie\ -ia\ed iiim-i nl die \ car in can lie -ceil a- aiialuLl- In Iniman analomx . 1 he artists
Kuro|ie. While there Oldeiihini: had a -how al llcana nolcboiik- Hack c\aiiiple- of his obsessive mciaiiioiphosing
Soniialicml- nallerx in Paii-. and. -li laleil |i\ die lood in ol thing- dirongh \ i-nal Irec a--ocialion lig. ~.oo . a- with
I rciicli -liii|i w indiiw -. he made a -eric- ol "I'dihlc delicacie- the idea- lor die mixer-, which jump Iroiii a pair ol
pemlnlon- breasts, to the collar on a priidi-h dress, to

earring-, and then to the beater- on an elecnic mixer. There
7.32 (opposite) Claes Oldenburg, Sketch for Dormeyer Mixer, i-. ilieii. a w ide \ariet\ of meanings nnderlving a torm such
1965. Pencil on white paper, 30' 8 ^ 22' sin (76.5 56.2cm).
a- the S(}fl /)(inii<-\<T 1//.IW ffig.7.30l. In this wav it is an
Pnvale collection Photograph by Bob Kolbrenei
7.33 Claes Oldenburg, unnumbered notebook page: Dormeyer 7.34 Claes Oldenburg, Woman Figure with Medusa Ornaments
Mixer, 1965. Ballpoint pen ond collage on paper, 10^8 8m of Nudes with Vacuum Cleaners, 967. Graphite with block chalk on
1
(27 X 20.3cm). white wove paper, 26 ^ 40in (66 101 .6cm). >:
Collection, the ortist Arl Institute of Chicago, restricted gih of Dr. Eugene A. Solow, 1968,38,
202
7.35 Claes Oldenburg,

Proposed Colossol Monument
forQenUa\ Park North, New
York City: Teddy Bear, ]965.
Llthogrophic crayon and
watercolor on paper,
23 xl73i6in (58.4 X 43.7cm).
Mr. ond Mrs. Richard Oldenburg,
New York.
iT
extraordinan glimpse ol an (>nliiuir\ nhjici. Iuiiiiukhi-K

Proposals for Monuments
eroticized into a double entendre witii tiie liimiaii body. Tlu-
Soft Dormeyer Mixers— 'Ghost' I ersion is another visual n l'i((."i()M,-iiiiiir; to design fanta>tic ]>ro|)osals
and anatomical pini. tiiis time referring to male genitals. I for moiuiment>.
Oldenbin-g's reading of Freud undouliiediy siiaipened
One dm- 1 combined Uindscapes and objects, onlvl didn V
his sen.se of tiie sexual significance with which humans
change the scale. I had a drawing of a vacuum cleaner and
unconsciously imbue inanimate objects. "Basically, collec-
another of Manhattan — and I just superimposed them. The
tors watU nudes. he remarked. "So ha\ e supplied for rhem
" I
result iras automaticalha ~gi(u)t vacuum cleatwr' because
nude cars, nude telephones, nude electric plug>. nude
the cit\ held its scrde — it didn V become a miniature city.
•
switches, nude fans." From the row of pale mi.xers with

Somehoir it irorkcil.
dieir limp handles and hanging "beaters" fig. 7.31 to his
ovenlv sexiud drawings fig. 7.34 eroticism is even"where
. An eighteenth-centuiy folly ^ha])ed like a cow by the French
in Oldenburg s work. "The erotic or the sexual. he com- " visionaiT architect Lequeii iiis])ired the Proposed Colos-ml
mented, "is the root of art. ** Mimunient for Ceiitnd Park \ortli. \cir York City: Teddy
203
Claes Oldenburg
^<Y;r [fig. 7.351 .""but the giant iKilldon lii:mr-. in the Marv's construct tiiomimeiital sculptures for Oldenburg, such as the
Tlianksgiving Day Paiade> in New \nvk r\f\\ xcar alsd twelve-foot-high dconictric Mouse of 10(iQ [fig. 7.861.
[>layetl a part. So too. ptMhajo. did tlic |)i()|)o>ed jnojiTt^ nl Oldenburg's New HaNcn -ludio liail a will-established
( liiisto [fig. 11.21 . who wa- hi> iieigiilior in 1Q()4 :ii the inoii>e population, -n "a lodcni -nbii-ri w a- una\ nidable. "'")
Ciiolsea Hold. Like ( Ini-io. ( )l(l.'nlMni: tliontihi up lii~ Bnl till- iilea bii;an in 190.J as a nii>n-e nia-k for a
folHes for real sites, sm li a^ ihr adiliiinn to the \r i Mn~nrin piilnrniaiH 1- called Marfy/ioiise.'^'
at ( )lit'rhn (iollege in Chin w huh he ihi'w a> a giant thice- ()ldinlMng made several drawings [fig. 7.-37 showing
\\a\ phig. or tile nioinniiiinal hii|)hig ititended to rejilare the nietanior|)hosis of the Geometric Mouse into or froiu a
the Picasso s<-iili)tiire on tlie (!i\ ic ( enter Pla/a in ( hi<av:o. ( .CM id 1 hn nor icecream bar wit ha setnicirciilai bite oiu of the
()ldenhiirgeiio<etheoi>jertshasf<l on hi- -iii>r dl the -pit it ol upper (111 Iter, shade with a cord
a doul)le light switch, a roller
ih.-plarr.' hanging down, a ray gim. a tea bag. an old movie projector,
a ihree-wav plug, a stocking, a lipstick on cateipillar tracks,
Realizing the Monuments and the and in one drawini; lii- own hue. he nimiM reiire-ented
I —
Architectural Scale
I'id'i ( )|(|fiihiirg nio\ed hi- -indio tn an old laclorv

In
hnilding in New 1 laven. Côinieciiciit. close to a large-scale,
7.36 Claes Oldenburg, Geometric Mouse, Scale A, 5/6, 1 969.
steel fabricating ])Iaiii called and C'ompaiiv.
Lippiiicort Steel and aluminum, 12 15 x 7ft (3.66 x 4.57 x 2.13m).
l,ip|iincott -peciali/ed in working with arti-l~ and liegan to Collection, the orlist.
204
7.37 Claes Oldenburg,

System of Iconography,
1969. Pencil on paper,
11 X 14in (27.9 X 35.6cm).
Pr,vole colleclion. New Yo'k.
t»iil\ a.-- a licad— also >iii.w«->i> a --kiill and iliii- |iii~îlil\ a e(|nipmeiil lo iiui-lincl the ]iiece. I he impi'o\ i-alii mal pro-
raiiilax liieme. in m~2 Olflenhmi; nwnrkiil ilir iilra yi cedure of le-.liii;: idea- and reworking e\in in llii- linal
aL'ain in ill'- Imtn of a LTroiiiiil plan loi a iiii\ inii-emn slajie of fahricaiion ;:aM' die con-lriiciion pruce--. a ihealri-
liniMini; lo lion-i- lii> collcciiun o| |]o|>ij|ar ninkri- and cal (|iialil\
found ohjiMi-. Tile loinial idea loi- the nionnmenlal lip-lick e\ol\ei|
in ihr (,'it)iiictnC ]li)ii.sc()\i\f\\\>y\i-v.>\\>'\\fi\ liini-i-Hio in- IromaneaiK concept on an altered po-lcard lo replace- die
a> nuicli a nia-n-idf llie formal lanL;nai;i' ol indn-lrial -( ale 1-^ro- ronmain in London- TMccadilK ( iiiii- w illi a cin-ler ol'
and «fld«»d ]ilane> a> of ilit- rich transnioirrification of L'iaiil li|)siick> clipped tVom a co>meiic- adxerlisement .hi
imairt's. I.vfn in jinri'K formalist liTni> llii' (iroiiictnc Mouse ils fii>l incarnalion the momimeiil had a colla|isinL;. soil
^ ale
sur|)assc> dii- wdiks nio^l cflrhraicd li\ ( iii'ciilicii;. and that ti]i dial would alternateU up like a hall lilowand llien i
i> dunlillc~~ inli-nded a- a âica-lic jah. ( )ldi-nl)Mii; ^t-c- the deflale. \l llie heiiihl of the aiiliw ar mo\ erneiil llie-arca-m
formal oriranization of an ohjei-t wiili >urh remarkalilc ol die co-melic/hnllet/plialhis \\a- noi lo-i i>n ainniie. and
ol)jt'cti\iiv asif lie ran effortlessly turn the snhjfci maiieron al'ler cnii-iderahle \aiidali-m the tip had in lie recnn-tnicted
and off in his mind that it allo\\> him to iayci- rlic content in -leel.
w ill) an exiraordinaiy roinploxiiy and inieiesi. In 1<»~I Oldeiihiirii ree-tal)li-lied hi- -tndin in New
Oldenhnii; had heiiun inakinL' model- for monumental \oik. inovint; down to Broome Street in Sol lo. Inn he
|)nhlic s(id| mesas ear! V as l')(i(). hui ii wa-n
)( mitil a iiroiiji I coutiimed to direct the focus of hi- attention lo laiiie
of irraduate students in the School of Anhileclnre at ^ ale ialiricate<l pieces. The work grew in amliition. and in the
a]>|)r(mched him in Nhiy 1<^)()9 that the i<lea really look hold. seventies he aclnally hciran to realize -onie ol ilie-e idea- on
He hnili a 24-foot-hi^h Lipstick .Xsrctuliiiii on ('(ttcrpillar an archilectmal scale. The Clnllif>s/>in in the cit\ center.
Tracks and delivei-ed it lo the Beinecke Pla/a in front of die Philadelphia fiiz.".-'?" . i- a particularly lirilliant example,
^ ale presideni \ office in liie midsl of a -.indent denionr.tra- ("oo-je Nan HruL'uen. a nittcli imi-emu curatnr. wlinin
tion. h was an unsolicited giil. which die uni\er-ily was at Oldenhnii; married in die eaiK -e\i-ntie-. liecanie an in-
first noi certain it wanted. The \i\\i- moniimeiu had liie creasiiiiiK imporlaiit collalioralor in the realization ol -iicli
(|iialiivof a happenins. not only hecaii-e of the dramatic and liuiie ci\ ic proiect-. and in the late eighlies lliey enteii'd into
iinpredictahle circiimstance> of iiani\al mi die cam|nis collahoralion with the 1 .os .Angeles archilecl Frank (.eliry to
hut because of ihe co|]al)orali\ f acii\il\ al I .ipjiincott. carr\ Oldenhiirg's monumental as|iiralions into fiinciional
where Oldenlim;; directed a leam ol men wieldini; lieaw architecture. Foi' ( (iiilf) (iood iiiiirs. in the Santa Monica
205
Jasper Johns
r Bs;
as ,Bi#
206

207
Jasper Johns
aili-iir inli-mimi in del'iiiing an abject a- a w ork of an. Tin-

Painting as a Discourse on Language ilciailfd wdikiiii; nl die surface and the re-lriciioii ol llie
|ialeiie In die |piiiiiai\ cdloi- of red. yellow, and bine al-o
[laiiiiiiiiz .la-|ii-r .loliii-- loniiiilali-il a |miiiii<m||\ i iiiiio- loiiLiidiiMd- die aiii-i - loiiitrn with analyzini; liie ba-ic
III
>|ici-li\»' >lyle tlial >lrt'->ril ilu- cinniiliA -.iinioiic - ol ilif ail -liiK iiiial ilciiieiii- of the language of painting.
ol)jt'it ill t)tluT \\0!(i>. Iiiiw il iiiiaii-- wlial il imaii- I The \i-ible iiew-prinl that .Johns used as a lunndalioii
exaiiiplf. ilie painted tarf;i-t> by joliii? ,

lij:. ".'>'• air -o Inr die dun laxer- of encanstic in a \\oik like 'fdiLtcl iritli
iiitractalily literal that they almost are tai;i.'ei>; ai ilie -aiiu- I'Idshi ( (isis ha- prompted some wriiri- lo alu-inpl lo
time the arti>i i> anihiiiiiously prescntiiifi iIhmii a- |iaiiiii rl\ dernde die le\l-.' '
1 low e\ er. a- ill the work of Hail-clieil-
works of art. exiilicitlv reiidererl in artistic iiiaii rial-. 1 hi- beri;. die r\ idincedde- iioi -iippori an icoiiographic reading,
suhstantialK cln-cd ihi- i;a|i hnwr.^n ihr ihiiiL; and il- .liiliii- ha- -aid dial "whalexer |iiinling shows ha- no
representalion. Mmrcix .'i'. die |ii(i\iiiiil\ ol ihi- larijiM a- a -iiiiiilicanre In inc. Sonicliine- 1 looked at thi- |iapiT Inr
|iaiiilinL' lo dir liiiiiiidiial laiiid Iiiiiil;- m liilhl dir nili- ol dilTercnl kind-nl Cnlni. dilTerriii -i/e-nflvpe. of coin-c. anil
piTlia|i- -nine ol die wnlil- Weill illln lll\ lllilld: 1 wa- linl
coii-cinii- nl il .
"
Kailier. the new îiriiit fragments attracted
7.39 (opposite) Jasper Johns, Torget with Piaster Casts, 1 955. him biiaii-e ilie\ cnii\r\ the semiotic complexity the sense
Encaustic and collage on canvas witli objects, 51 ^ 44 ^ 3' 2in of informaiinii nxeilnail of media superimposition. asifone
(129.5 111.8 8.9cm).
were watching iwn liliii- running over one another.
-. -^
Collection, Dov.d GeHen. Photograph courtesy Leo Costelli Gallery, New York. ©Jasper
JohnsA/AGA, New York, 1994.
The |iaiiiic(l flan, a- in Three Flags [fig. T.-tO^. is also an
iiiliririiiU llai -iibieci. ba-eil on a formal Scheme rather than
a iiini|ne ph\-ical object thai exists in the world. Perhaps

7.40 Jasper Johns, Three Flags, 1 958. Encaustic on canvas (three
45' 5ln (78.4 x 15.6 x 12.7cm). exeii iiinii- dian a target, a |)ainted flag is the thing in itself,
levels), 30'e 2 ^ 1
Collection, Vv'hilney Museum of American Art, New York. Gilmon

50th Anniversary Gift of despite the material-. \]\ making the boundaries of the
Foundation, Inc., Lauder Foundotion, A, Alfred Taubmon, on anonymous donor, ond
canvas ideniiial wiili die image. Johns eliminated any
purchose, Photogroph by Geoffrey Clements, New York, c: Josper Johns/VAGA, New York,
1994. sense of compo-ition. ihereby leaving nothing hut -iirlace
208
tifaimi-ni ;i> a lia--i> lui' tormal iiil('r|nclalinii. In ilir âiiif (i| dial Iniinil en\ iniimienl. jiisi a« ( aur ilid. "Dii \iiii use
\\a\ llif nmnlici'^ ami alplialii'l-- wliicli .Idliii^ |iaiiiliil in ilu- llieî- ii-llii l\pr^ lii-rail-c Miii like lllrni ni lirran~e dial s
lillii'^ caniiiil lii' ri'inf-i'marioii^. Iircan-c- l>\ ilrlinhiun a liciw die slencils iiime':' I.eii Meinln'r^ askc(l ilii- ailisi in
nnnilicr or li'tlrr i~ a iiiii(f]il with nn nnii|ni- nialriial I'lol. Hill dial- whal I like aliuni iliein, dial ilir\ nmie
iiieiiliiv. \fl al llie same liiiii' llif ]iromiriiMi(<' i;i\iii lo ilir dial w a\ .
'
liaii<iliii<: ol lilt' |>aiiil -i'cm> hi coiiiradiil llii> idea, in ilirî- I lie w oi'k 111 .la~per .liiliiis, dicii, i- a w a\ nl -ciaiiLi dial is
paiiitiims ol larirets. flass. letters, ami iiiiniht'i's. ,|iihii> tirec- dominaled ni-illn-l 1 1\ die laniiilili- wmld oiil-iilr llir Irame
tixcly posed a series ol' pliilosopliical dileiiinias conceriiini; nor li\ 1 lie aril s| - inleniiniis: ii ai n-inpls In a\ nii 1 inipn-ini; a
llle lailiTnaiie ot an and llie |ier(C|itioii nl ri-aiit\. \lorro\i-i'. liirianliN ol nicaniiii; on f\i-ni-. and in-lrad c rlrliiale- die
till' ii~i' i)t sucli |irelaiiii<aled iniaêrx lied ail Mini iiias>- lull coinplexiiN III experience. Inieniioii in\ol\i-- smh a
I
rod m ion and
-I |
io|inlar lonsinni-risni in an iiii~i-ll lint; \\a\ small Iragmeiii ul mir conscioii-nes- and um niiiid and unr
life." .John- lold l)a\iil >\l\es|iT. I lliink |iaiiiliiig -lionld
."
inilude experience siiiipK inlenilcil slaleinei
An Aesthetic of "Found" Expression iiinii- lliaii II
I'ainling. lie -aid. -liunld lie a kiinl ul . . . lacl dial one lall
liisl j;laiici' die In iishw oik in these .las|ier Joliii- work- experience iiidix iilnalK a- one |ilea-e- -i dial experience
At seeiiiis at odds willi the lileialiiess ot tiie iiiiaui'ix Noi nl ii i- \ arialile.
'"
. . . i
oiilv did the artist tise a seiisnouslv laetile. êsimai -i\ jr. Imii
the eiieaiistie Ie(liiii(|iie heatefl wax iiii\ed wiili |ii;;meiii

Emotion and Distance
ttirtiier aeeeiitnaies the imli\idiial ideiiiin ul eac li lnii-li-
siroke: sinee he hot I wax solidities ainiosi insianiK . it allow ^ 1').")') .loluis lold Tiiiif maga/iiie- dial peo|i|r -Imiild be
In
every touch of ilie linisli lo retain lis ideiiiii\ wiilioin able 111 look al a painling in die -a me neiiiral w a\ iliat they
siiiearinj; under ihe |iie--iire ot the sU( leediiiL: one. \e\ii- look al aii\ ordinaiN obji-ii. "die- -anie wa\ mhi look at a
"'"
tiieless the lieamitiillv a]i|ilied sintaie~ ol iliesi- |iainlini;s do ladiaiiir. Bni lie laler elaborated on this sialemeiu.
noi convey die charged iiitios|ii( ii\e niooil ol an alisiract- saxiiiLi. "I mean dial one
approach a work of an slioiildn't
expressionist cainas. Tliex have a surtaci' sciisnaliu . w iih a pieexi-iin;; alliinde But then someone . . . [luiiichinii .
niakiii<r the arlist seem more recepii\e lo the wmld around |iuinied (1111 lo me dial had gone and boxed-in all my
1
" \MiaI voii don

liim: he is eiisrasied in ex|)eriem'inci; and undeislanding ladialois. so \ on didii st-e ihem! I see in t
wliai is ihere I'ather ihaii recording an aci ot introsjiectjon. die woik of .lasjier .lohiis — the arlist s own iiiiderlving
III lliis res|)ecl. the geslural handling als<i I'mu lions as an emoiioiis — is made poignant by its systematic absence.
emiilem of psychic exi)ressivitv rather ilian a sejiicle tor .loliiis once remarked to one of his jjiint jiublishers.
psychic expression. Tiie handling reifies the gesuira! mark Tatyana Grosinan. that "when he was young he had so many
aiifl thus normalizes action painiiiig. tlesires and wishes, that he trained himself to think only of
hi one sense the general climale of paiming in die lil'lies die jireseni. and iioi of his \\ ishes for the future." From his ''
[ii'ovided a foundation for such an apprnach. Hailiei ilian own wiirds. -eem- dial he has repressed a great deal of
ii
iinciitiilg a slyle from scratch in response to ex]iressi\c emoiion. He is a sin person, iienous. remote, and impec-
needs, a.s Kooning thonglit thev
Pollock. .Newman, and de lalilx polite. He sjieaks with controlled [irecision. often
were doing, the second-general ion gesture jiainters of tlie follow iiig on thotightful silences. His intelligence is instanta-
.New ^ ork School were conscious of inheriling autographic neously and he focuses — whether on people in a
(ili\ioiis.
hrnshwork as a stylistic gi\en. .loiiiis |iiished the logic of tliis I onxersation or on an idea in his wurk — with an unnening
sitiialion one step furlher in making si\|i- ii^t-lj an o\eii aiieiitiveness and an extraordinary sensitivitx'.
sulijeci in his painting. .lasper Johns came lo New York in 1Q.52 at the age of
.Modern ariists. from ( (iiiiliei lo dn- New York School. iw eiiiy-two. But it was not until the sjiring of 19.5-1. when he
hail sought lo make llieir leclimi|iie and inediiim an met .lohn ('age and Robert Rauschenberg. that Johns became
increasingly transjiarent yehicle tor ilieir meia|ili\sies. |iaii of the an scene. \Miat remains of his work from 19-5-1
Picasso deconstructed solid ohjecis and look.d ilirough demonstrates his interest in the iniproyisational assemblage
them, into a deeper conce])liial siruciiire. Newman and or junk-art aesthetic of the time. \^lien someone pointed out
Rothko wanted the yiewer lo exjierii'iKe a momeiii ol die resemblance of his work lo thai of Klin Schwitters — with
ejiiphany. a purely sjiiriliial e\em dial iraiiscended the w liicli he w a- iioi ilieii lamiliar— .lohns destrox"ed ever\lhing
materials altogether, making liieiu \iriiially disa|)]iear. and stalled again. I le saw this as the jioint of transition into
.lolins turned in the op|iosite direction, lie stopped at wliat is his professional career. 'I decirled lo do only what 1 meant to
literally an
there, enjoying the jihvsical [iresence of die do. and not what oilier people did. \^lieii I could observe
object in all its wa- dra\\n lo die licii
concicieness. .lohiis what others did. tried to remove that from my wmk. My 1
amhiguity and uncertainty of meaning dial e\isis in die work became a constani negation of inijiulses ... hail a wish 1
object itself and in all the ways in which the obje<i could be to determine what I was what I wanted to do was to find . . .
perceiyed. Each object seemed to otter mulli|)le possibilities out what ilid iliat other jieople didn't, what I was that other
I
tor inlerpretation. and he took pleasure in die siieer \ariel\ peojile weien t. "
209
Jasper Johns
joliii-. (I(liliii;iiil\ ilistaiK'fd liiinst-il' IVnin aliîiaci cx- Ihe Hags have spanned Johns's career, beginning with
|)ii'^î(p|ii>iii \\illi llii' llaus. lariitMs. Iett('r>. and iminlur^. iliemost straightforward Flag 1954—5) and the mono-
Dc>]>iip tlie sensuality (tl tin- >iiif'aie> ilit* targets liave a rigid chromatii' U hite Flag il955i iliidiii^li die representations
order |)redeteriiiiiied l)V det'iniliim and llie olliers are grids. of the flai: ])aintings themsel\e> In ilie autobiographical
1 Ncri I he indi\ idual i(ru>li>li(iki-^ In iIh-c wdik-. iia\ e a cdnl Season-" -cries [fig. 7.52]. Three Flags fig. 7.40] explores
in(le|iendeii<e tVoin iine ancilliei. radirr llian a >]ionlarieiiii-. die iiiin iiiilons of pictorial space by making the smallest
iiiteraetion. "l didn i w am iii\ w nik in hf an exposure nl ni\ llaL: adxancc llliTalK In -jiaie while ll recedes |)ercepfually
feelings, lie Mi^liact e.\|)res>iiiiii-in
Inld \i\iaii l!a\iiiii. li\ lis ~ci|iicni'e In die dimlni-hlng -.i/e>ol ihe three flags. The
was so lively — |ier~ciiial
and |iaiiiiiMi: weir iiiore or
idi'iiiiu eMieine ililckne-,- of the tluee-laycred canvases makes
less the saMie...Hiil loiiiid eoiililii do ainlhiiiL: dial
i I l I'lircc I lags more like an object than earlier flag paintings.
would be idenlical willi iii\ leehiii;--. .So winked In -iicli a I and \ei al die >ame lime enipha-izch die
it flatness of the
way that I ectuld >a\ dial ii - iioi inc. lliiai;e c\ en iiiori-.
\ii on -onie IcmI aliîiaci (\|l|•e^^lonisnl flid allian W lierea- die shimmering siirlac e of llhite Flaghas the
lilin. a> one can -er in lii^ luii^hw ork. I le even told Roiieila liiipie-.-.|oiils| delicacy of Monet's // (iicrlilics :
wliichwent on
Berii>tein thai \u- ii--iil die ilile Figure for his ]iainling> ol \ie\x al ihe Museum of Modern \ri In that yean. 'Three Flags
nuinhers out of adinliailon for the figure |)ainling> of de seems starkly cubist in its concern with the illusion of the
Kooning.'"* \iid a~ In die w oik of Haii^rlienheig. die plciini' |ilaiie. ll follows on the display of Picasso's prewar
persistent ii'ê of co||at;f ami found oli|eii> In .loliii-- ^ work works al die same museum in the "Picasso: Seventv-fifth
had lo do wllli a de-.|ir lor Imiiici llacx . \ li die arli-l ^ \iiiil\rrsai\' exhibition of late 1957. One senses the siiug-
iiielli'iiloii-^ lecliniial coiiiroj. Ill^ diiaclii-d anaKllial mind. i:le of die objects in earlv cubist Picasso to assei't their full
and his aiasterfiil auguientatlon ol die lacilclu ol die an \olumetric identity against the flattening and demaiei iallz-
object itself distance him from dliei i cxpeiieiKc. Indeed The same tense conflict, beiwi-eii w
ing pictorial system. hat
underlying all of Johns's painting is a grand tragedy, in the one knows and what one sees, between the image and the
sense of Greek theater, based on the artist's jierpetual rendering, and on the most fundamental level between the
pursuit of an iildinalely luiattainalile. emotional inimt"dlacy. analytical detachment and the lingering traces of romanti-
cism, can be found in Johns's Three Flags as well.
\s an adjunct to the exploration of volume and solidit\"
Incorporating Objects: What One Sees and In paintings like 77; rpe /7r/g-.v Johns also embarked on a series
of small with a Lialil Ihilh and a

What One Knows sciil|iiiire>. Beiilmilnt.'
the top of Target irit/i Plaster Casts [fig. 7.39

A^|1P^^ 7.41 Jasper Johns, Device Circle, 1 959. Encaustic and collage on
.Johns recessed plaster casts ofbody parts into a row of
canvas with wood, 3ft 4ln x 3ft 4in (1 .01 ' 1 .01 m).
little boxes with lifls. One has to open the lids to niuoM'r ilie
Pnvolecolleclion. Photograph courtesy LeoCastelliGollery, New York. iciJasperJohns/VAGA,
|)nvatp contents. The symbolism is a general e\o( aiioii of
'
New York, 1994
ihi- senses, .lohns has always selectefl his motifs and de\ ice^
with great deliiieration and retained them iiidefiniteK a^

part of an interconnecting repertoire of pictorial element,-'.
He began making casts of body parts, for example, in ]9rVA
and they have recurred intennitiently in his work ever since.
as in the 1964 According to What [fig. 7.49] and Peri/niis
Xig/it of 1982 [fig.7.5l']. These molds have pelsi^l,d m
Johns's ociirre over the years in the same methodical wa\
that he has repeatedly reworked coin|io>^nlonal idea> like die
flags, targets, and numliers.
In Tango Johns included the literal |)resence of the title,

^lencilled on die >urface as a tangible thing in itself, eliding
and the idea it e.xpresses. He
die dl-.n(iloii lieiween the object
ai-o aiiaclicd a functioning music box to the back of the
canvas which remains invisible and intangible except for die
key projecting through the front of the painting and die
sound. The incor[)oration of real objects by Johns drew on
the assemblage styles of the fifties. But rather than attemiJt-
ing to captiu'e ihe chaos of subjective experience, as Raus-
chenberg did. .loliiis employed objects in a meticuloush
controlled manner, laking one thing at a time and ihoi-
oiil;IiK digestinu il-^ ineaiiinu^.
210
The Beat Generotion: The Fihies in America

211
Jasper Johns
Flashlight he selected (•oiniium objecis from a liar(l\\are compli>tel\- eliminating (olor in vi-iial lerni-. w liilc reiainiiiL'
store and covcrefl tliem wiili a liard-dning material called its iiresence in words.
Sciilpmelal. Ill rlu'ê work- Johns timied real things into i 111- wax
which Johns canied through the implica-
ill
an. Bill llii- iiDiiii |iiin (in iihimiiiation. holli in lh<' sense of 11(111- (il -Millfrom one work to the ne.xi suggests a
ideas
I'liiciclaliiii; |iii//liiii: î-|irri- ol I In- w (iild and a-. |iail iif an liigliK (-(iiilriilled approach to painting, and he denied ihe
iiiiLiiiiiii.' di-(n--i(iii 111 ilii- rlli-cl- nl h;ilil in ail. >ecni- p(i--iliilii\ of (hance events in the process; "I lien- are no
ili>liniil\ l)iirliani{iiaii. a(-i-iil(-iiiill iii\ wiirk. It sometimes hap]iens thai something
— die |)aint luay run — but then 1 see that

iiiii-\p(-(-ied (i(-(-iir-
has and have the choice to paint it again or not.

lia|i|ii-iii-(l.
The Paintings of 1959 it I
.\nd if (1(111 1. dien the appearance of the element in the

I
Lrii (;a>i(lli o|iincd hi.- iialler\ in .\Iav 1Q57 with a irroup painting is no accident." '^ Yet the fact that Johns almost
rxhihilion dial included work liv both Ranschenbeii.' and never drew studies for a painting — his drawings of a
.liihn-. and lln-n lm\c ilieni Imlli (ini--iiKiii -Imw-. i-aiK in comjiosition nearly always follow railier than preiefle it —
l''-">li. I 111- .Idliii- -liiiw \\a- an ii\i'riiii;lil -cii-alinn. I in- indicates the degree to which he works li\ inipnnisalion.
\Iii-riiiii (i| Mddriii \il. aliuii; wilh a nnniiiiT nl iiii|ii iilani The w i-li 1(1 111- in i-ontrol and vet open to dis(o\ery is luie of
1 iilltTidi-. iHiiiiiiil wiiik. and 1/7 \cirs ii-]inHliiccd Tur'jct the ii-nlial. aniniating contradictions in his work.
inlli tdiir I iiii-s nil il- niMT. I jii' -how inadi' die arli-l an riirniioiiic/t'r [fig. 7.4.3] has the same palette and star-
in-lanl mrdia cclriiiil\ . Inust pattern of gesmral apphcation as False Start. But
In 1 '•")'» .liilin- veered even more directly into the instead nl du- names of priiiiaty colors being woven into a
mera|ili\ -icnl |iaiiitins;. hiiages and objects ceased to shallow iiilii-i grid die anist has stencilled a scale of
diiiTinini- lii-and instead he cultivated a
coin|)ositions. numbeis flanking a real ihennometer. fastened to the center
111(111- Idd-cU 111 sometimes swallowing
ii-hed. "allover" style, of the composition. The thennometer effectively eliminates
ii]i objects, as in Thermometer [fig. 7.4.3 Device (irr/r .
liL'."'.4l] exem])lifies this direct focus on the means of art.
widi its palette dominated bv the |u-iinar\ (-olnr-^ die

7.43 Jasper Johns, Thermometer, 959. Oil on canvas 1 with object,
liindamental colors from wiiich all other ((ilor- laii Ik- ina(i(- 5Pj 38' 2in (131.5 v 97.8cm).
aiid the incoiporation of a stick, whicii the arti.-t ii>ed a> liie Collection, Mr. and Mrs. Bogley Wright, Seattle. Photogropti courtesy Leo Costelli Gallery,
New York, (c; Josper Johns/VAGA, New York, 1 994.

(lev ice" for inscribing the central motif of the "circle." \i
thesame time he jiaiiited over the device, camouilagiiig it.
and absorbing it iiiio du- composition. He then literalK

labelled the "device" and tiie "circle" in stencilled letters
along the bottom edge. In one sense Device Circle is a
schematic target, stressing the means of manufacture over
the image. The brushwork is abstract e.xpressionist in style,
while the action painters preoccujiation wilh |ii-o(-ess i-
made more e.xjdicit and literal.
In False Sttul ^fig."'.4"2 . .lohns usefl oil rather than

encaustic-over-new -pa] ler. whiiii he had been accustomed
to usmg for the previous four vears. The oil ])ennitted a freer
gestiu-al style. Johns painted the surface as a weave of
inteipenetrating ])atches of primaiy colors and folded in the
names of the colors in stencilled lettering — an allusion to the
use of lettering in the cubisiu of 1912 to 1914. But Johns

pointediv incoiporated the words for colors without render-
ing diem in that color or even necessarily using the color in
the areasunounding its name. Thus the painting highlights
the dissonance berween the name and the visual sensation
between what one knows and what one seesi. In the
iiKinochroiualii- jiaiiiting Jubilee a nearly identi(-al
i-iiiii]i(i-.iii(iii ,|(iliM- carried the idea oiu- -ic]! hirllicr li\
7.42 (opposite) Jasper Johns, False Stort, 1 959. Oil on canvas,

5ft7i4in -4ft8in(1.7 1.37m).
Privote collection. Photograph courtesy Leo Costelli Gallery, New York e Jasper Johns/VAGA ,
New York, 1994.

212
romposilional nioveiueiu. as in BariuMi New mans Oncnient art. jti>t as for Câge eveiy soinul cotild be mnîc and
I liii.-t.l-V. wiili a [lert'ectly >yiiinu'tricai zip down ilie complete in it>elf. File ineasuritig >tick in Derire Circle
renttM-. In ili«> flaj:,--. taiirets. leitors. and ninnlxTs. .ioiin^ liad alln(ie> to Dncham|>"s preoccupation with irrational and
ahvadv done awav witii perspeetive. i'oreslionening. and chance standard.- ol measurement, a- in nucliamp - I lircc
nioilelin-: l\u- (le\i(e> of illusioni-<ni . In addition. John- Stiiililiinl Slo/i/xifsrs n\' I

•' 1 .i- I -f
eoni'eived eaeii ol'tlie?e eoni|)osiiions to he seen as a totality,

like a Newman, latiier than a> an amalizani of inteiaotii\i;
The New Emotional Tone of the Early Sixties
parts. .lohn> atlmired the n'ansi-endenta! dimension ol
Newman s woik and Tliennometer is a kind ot honiaiie. II mil J /)'/./;/-i li-. .-t-t |iiii\<>Lc- iIjc \ icwii 1.1 w oiulei'
P
.
Ahhoiigh the color hin;-t stvie of Tlicrniomeler and other at fir>t w hether the ale cans are reallv vv hat tiiey -eem to
works of l'*.i'* is iie^tiiral. it is al>o forinidaie rather tiiaii be. .\re thev works of art or common object-':' "I like that
anto<:raphif like a de Koonin;; or Pollock. In this sense too it there i> the pos-ibilitv that one might take one for the other.
has an alTinitv with Newman s |)aintinir. Finaliv the concern .lohns explained, "bm 1 al-o like thai with a little examina-
""
with inea>iirenient in Tliernionictcr lia^ a corollary lion. il - veiv clear that one i.- not lite other. Fie deliber-
in .Newman s inea^nrenients for the placement of the zip in atelv gav f the.-e Miilpinre- a hand-crafted look when viewed
his coin|>o>itions. at close range, despite the initially effective trompe Toeil: he
.\t the same time .lohn> al.-ô niake> Inn of the lei:endar\ ca^t each ale can and the ba-e a- -eparate objects and
machismo of abstract e.xpressionism in Thermometer by rendered the label- in a largely illegible, painterly stv le.
constnictiiiii the paiming around a hiilb. siinnoiimed by a The sidiject vva- in part cho-en for its familiarity.
tall vertical phallic shaft with li(|nid rising: in it. 1 he Ballantine wa- not onlv .lolin- • rcLiular beer, but the
.\le
contemporan' Pdinling iritli Tiro Balls involves ihi-- >auie broiizi' color of the can added an extra measure of alluring
ambivalence towards absn'act expres.--ioni>m even more ambiguitv to the bronze casting.
literallv. The seeniinglv improxisaiional act of forciim the —
/ iras (loiiiii ut that time scitlptures of small objects
steel ball^ between tw o stretcher bai> in Paiiitiii'ji with Two
flashliiilits and liuht bulbs. Then I heard a stoiy about
Balls was in fact achieved with a ^pecially constritcted.
llillem de Koouina: lie was annoyed with my dealer. Leo
cui-\ed >tretchpr that kept the canvas from wTinkliiiir. In
(astelli. for some reason, and said sonu'thiuii like. 'That
other w (irds. w as not the impulsive act of the action artist.
it
son-of-a-bitch: you could gire him two beer cans and he
In 1').~>M .lohns discovered the work of Marcel Diichamp.
could sell them. ~ I heard this and thouLcht. '11 hat a
He and Raii^chenbergn-aveled to see the definitive collection
•iculpture — two beer cans. ~ It seemed to me to fit in perfectly
of Diichamps work in the Philadelphia Mnsemn. anil in
iiith irhat I was doing, -fo / did them and Leo sohl them.'
10.>i) tlie Clitic Nicholas Calas broiiirht Diichamp him>elf to
.lohns's studio. For Johns and Raiischenbers Dnclianip > .lolin- pill iiis ilmmb|irint on the base of Painted Bronze.
readvnnades. in paniciilai". meant that everv object could be Like the paimerlv lettering, this emphasized the hand-made
character of the sculpture in conrrast to the machine-made
object the real can . But it also revealed a new emotional
7.44 Jasper Johns, Painted Bronze, 1 960. Painted bronze, two intimacv that entered .Iohns'> work at this time, an intro-
costs, 5' : V 8 V 4'-.in (U x 20.3 x 12.1cm).
-|)ectivenes- which inav have gained its im|ietns from his
personal life.
Ran-chenberg had gone off to f loiida in l^'.'i^'. He and

lolin- -till -hared a place in New York through U'Ol. but
tiiev vv em their separate wavs with increasing trei|iiency. In
the ale cans .lohns portraved himself and Rauschenberg—
one open ami light, the other solid, heavv . impenetrable. He
painted the interlocking ring- of the Ballantine symbol and
lettered "Florida "
on the top of the smaller. o](en can; he left
ihc top of (lie clo-ed can blank.

In U'ol .lohns took a studio on Fili-lo 1-laiid. off the
"-outh ('arolina coast. His fame in the art world had
'liattered his |>rivacv in New \ork and contributed to his
from the cirv: but the deterioration of his relationship
tliilht
w ith Rauschenberg probably lay at the heart of his move.

The word- "Dead Man" appear in .lohn-s l')(il painting In
\Iemoiyof.\hFeeliniis. and although he took both the title
and the phrase from a poem by his friend Frank O'Hara. he
obv ioiislv n-ed them to express his own feeling- ol mouniing
for the death of hi- relation-hi|i with Ran-chenberg. The
213
Jasper Johns
I .ike Raiischenberg. Johns became increasingly involved

with |)erfoniiance in the si.xties. and the objects in his
paintings of the period take on a theatrical character. The
cup hanging off the bottom of FooFs House fig. 7.45 and
the broom suspended from the top look like stage props,
.lohns had explored the idea of engaging the \newer's
jiarticijuition in Tango where one needed to go u]) and wind
the key to the hidden music box and Target irith Plaster
Casts which invited the \iewer to open or close trap doors .
Ill l'i()(1 Johns even made a large-edition print of a blank

target with an attached paint brusli and three disks of
watercolor paint. inxHting the \ iewer to color in the target
and -ign his owTi name on the einpt\ line to the left of the
primed signattne of John^.
Explorations of Linguistic Philosophy
Wliiii' Haii-chenberg selected and jnxlapttsed objects in
lii- |painiings in a spontaneous and im|iroyisational

iiiaiuHi liilms did so with an imnerxing deliberateness and
Ini Ihe cup suspenilicl rrnni Fool's House refers lo the
11-.,
troinpe Foeil paxuuniL- "t iIh- nini'ieenth-century .\merican

arii-t John Frederick Feto. .lohns inscribed "peto
on
another canvas entitled The Cup He
Race -t. after a .All
composition of the same name painted by Peto around 1''00

[fig. 7. 46;. In fooling the eye. the wT)rk> of Peto (|nf-.tion the
7.46 John Frederick Peto, The Cup We AW Race 4, c. 1 900. Oil on

canvas on wood, 25' 2 ^ 21 2in (64.8 x 54.6cm).
'
Collection, Fine Arts Museums of Son Fronc.sco.
7.45 Jasper Johns, Fool's House, 1962. Oil on canvas with

objects, 72 x 36in (1 82.9 x 91 .4cm).
Collection, Jean-Christophe Costelli. Photogroph by Rudolph Burckhordt, courtesy Leo
Coslelli Gollery, New York, c Josper JohnsWAGA, New York, 1 V94.
liangiim lurk and >|J0(>I1 a])|)eared for llif tii>l liiiif in tlii-
work aiitl flonhtless were a sviiiliol for noiin:iliinein ;iiicl iIh-
senses, in c-ontia-Î to rlie intellert. a-^ Riiluinl I iild lia~
pointed out.'"^'
Tlie direct t-niolional ensiagenicni ot /n Mcniiin <>J

l/>
Feelings rliararterizes the change of mood in the arti~i -
work. Even tlie titles of that xeav—ln Menion- of l/i
Feelinfcs. Xd. Water Freezes. Liar. Disappearance. Paintiinj:

Bitten by a Man. Good Time Charley— contraiX markedly
with tlie neutral. descn])tive titles of the fifties. The fre-
quently soinber and searching ])aintings of \9b2 and I'^Hj.S
e.xpress anger and disa|i|)ointn)ent.
214
rflati(iii>lii|> l)fl\\t'i'ii inilli ami aii|ii-araii(i-. .loliii- rrw iirkcil wi- max iiidri-d hirir\ nainiriL; lo he -mnc- irinark.iMr ai I nl
tiie iiiea 1)V iraiist'unniiii; all llii' I'amiliar kili lini ..li|c, i- m mind, a- it were ,i lia|iti-iii ol an olijrci. In II le I Slur and
Fool's House into (i>()l> of llii' >lii(lio: Mack |iaiiil iii (In- ( u|i. Hroini Books remarked; " lie n~e ol (he word
\\ itlgeii>tcin I
a bloom a!> a paiiil l)ni>li. and a luwi'l a^ a [laiiii rai;. I In- III pnirtiee meaning. Imaginr ii wrn- ihe ii-iial thing
is its
'"'
|>er>istiiii; iiiiporlaiui' of illn>ioiii-in a^ an i'-^nr in llif work dial the objects around ii- canied laln-l- w iili w md-. hi- 1
of Ja>|ifr.lolni-. lio\\i'\riol)liinifl\ |iic--i'nitMl. -.umii-. fioni iii- i- preci--el\ what .lolin- did to the oIiJcm t- In I nol's I louse: he
iiiteit'^l in llic rflali\ il\ of n-aliu literalK reali/i'd W itiiieii-tein ~ n-nuii k. \loreii\i-r thf n-.e
.iolinsal>ocontra>tt'<l w iial w r know w iili w liai w r ~ii- liy of. fill lAaniiilc the kitrlii-n lunom a- a paint bin-li
ronfrontiiii: images witli llifir nanii-. a- llit- Bi-lt.'ian ^nirrai- traii-loiin- it- nicaniiiL; in a manlier made all tin- mmr
i>t Rene Masriitte liad done in. for exam|)le. his faniou- a|i|iari-nt li\ the laliel.
juiintini;. riils is \ol a Ripe, in wiiicli In- |ire-i'in~ a llie ea-r with wliicli -mh -hilt- nl hIiiiHU and ili-jiin-
nalnralistic rendering of a |M|ir on a w Inic i;riinnil w iili ilu- limi lake |ilair ni tin- wmk nl .loliii- -iii:Mr-l- a drtaiheil
lille inscribed in large lcnri~ iiclow. \n olijic i ihmt w Olid 111 w liirli iliiii:^- have no intiin-ic identin . Ill llii- .liiliii-
performs llie same Innciion a- ii> riaiiic or niiaiic. \lai;rilir anlicipateii the -ire-- on the defining role of the liiiiûi-tii- or
exjilained. Bnl '
. . . in a |iainting llic word^ arc ol ilic -anic inter|ireiiM- eniiiext li\ -itch French postsiiui uirali-t- as
""
-iilistance as llie images. In Fool's House \ohn> inirochu id .lari|iie- and .lean Baudrillard.
Deiriila iliiiik the object I
liandwritten labels, setting the word off against liic (lc|iicti(l it-elf somewhat dubious conce|it.
i- a loliii- reflected.
'
or real objecl. He also created a peicepinal ambignily in flic . . one wonders if one couldn't sini[)ly shift one's focii- a bit
.
pictorial space bv leneiing the title of die |iaintiim acros- ilie in looking at a thing, and have the object be somewhere eUe.
'"-
top in a manner that treats thecal i\ a-- a- a ilaltenrd i \ linder: not be there at all.
••l.sl:i()()i.sh()."
rinoiigli the >imimer of l^'()l .loliiis read siibstantialK D/Ver of 1962
in the writing-" of the philosopiier Liidwig Vi itigenstein. w iio
had a i)ariiciilar interest in tiie reiaiion of thought and Johns attemjited the mitral scale of abstract expres.sionism
language to ilu' world of things. Such (|iiestion-- l)eiran to and pop an lot the fir-t time 'mDirer fig. 7.4? . a T'/j-by-
attain particular cnrrencv among aili-t^ aionnd !"()() a- H-fiiiii painting of l^Hi'l. The tajie measure ex tend it ii;' along
|)art of a gniw iiig mood. Nou nalK lici -ucIi
antiontological
a (iiieer connexion." Wittgenstein remarked in hi- I'liiln-
7.47 Jasper Johns, Diver, 1 962. Oil on canvas with objects,
sopliical Ifirestiicalions. "when the philoM)plier iiie~ to luini:
7ft 6in ^ 1 4ft 2in (2.29 ^ 4.32m) (five panels).
otit the relation belween name and thing. lor iihilosojihi- . .
Colleclion. Irmo and Normon Broman, Miami. Pliologroph courtesy Leo Coslelli Gollery, Ne
cal |)robl<-in- ari-ê w lien language <soes on holiddv. And here York c Jospe' Johns.'VAGA, New York, 1994,
215
Jasper Johns
panel has die stencilled names uf die pilmaiA culms — as in
'«fr^w^; /
li\
1 //.SI
iwii
.s/,;//— and a verlical
chains |)iilling
Imndlr
hm i/niiialK Irmn
nl cm li r\ held
die bulloin
in (ension
two
sidr- Ihe painterliness and die lalilrwaie recalling In
Miiii<ii\ III \lv Feelings link di is panel in die rmulimial wurk
111 die prrceding three veai s,
I inalK .iiilnis has cuiinrcird die I'il'di |iaiirl i if />/ri'/' with

llir panel 111 die lell li\ a lilm klike liai iil painl Inward the
lop. sii dial it crosses die break lielween die canxases. This
geometric gesture, with jiaiiil dripping (low n. siands out as a
st\lisiic ndditv for .loliiis. dimigli it seenis identical with a
1 iiiisciniisK ailiciilated. icciniing elemenl in die work of
Kanscheiibeig as where it appears as a single bar

in Hebii.s.
111 cnlnr. nr Canvon [fig. 7.5] where it appears as an "X").
Ihe ciiiics Cranshaw and Lewis noted in their essay on

Rauschenberg thai this shmi sunke with calculated drib-
bles" had been singled oiil b\ .Inhiis as a device Rauschen-
liergiised to integrate objects into the surface visually and he
referred In lliese strokes as Rauschenberg's hinges.'"'"'
Thus III />/rc/- jnliiis glanced retrospectiveU hmt die pivced-
iiiii lliiee \cais. and he niiisi have intentionalK included the

liiicklike. dii|i|iing siinke as a reference tn Kaiischenberg.
whil had sn niiicli In dn with setting him mi this |ieriod of
|iiii|iiiii: se||-e\ainiiialiiiii.
Periscope {Hart Crane]
Jnliiis alsii Iminil a s\mpalliclic eel I his emmimis in
die chaiged pneliy of Hall (aaiie. hi "Ciape llatleras"
( lane w inle:
7.48 Jasper Johns, Periscope 963. Oil on canvas,
The (d/itnred fume of s/xice foams in nur ems —
(Haii Crane), 1
5ft 7in A4ff (1.7 •

1.22m).
Collection, the artist. Photograph by Rudolph Burckhordt. ici Jasper Johos/VAGA, New York, iiliisperings of far nritches nn In- iiiaiii
II /ill/ I
1994. li'rlii/ising iiitii si/enee. ir/iile time ileiiis
( hii lenses, lifls a jiieiis. ii'siiireils
I iieriseiijie /o glim/ise irliiil joys iir/iiiin

llii- liiiiliiiii 111 ihi- lliiiil ;tiiil loiiilli |iiiiii-U |iin\ iilf^ it lili-ialU
( hir e\-es eini sin ire nr ansirer — llien ili fleets
inea.ûied" (iiiiiiin-iilui\ (iii llif Male. I'lact-il -.\ iiiiinii iralK
I s. slninliiiis III " laliyriii/li siiliiiierseil
across the adjoining borders of tlioe two jiaTnl^. .Inline >ii
l\ here eiiili sees mil} Ins iliiii /last rerersi'il . . .
two footprints aiul font liandprints. the latter cdiiihi inl in

|ilank-hke aims. I le told the art hi-itorian Rolterta Beiiisifiii jnhiiss painting Pem-co/je (Hart Crane) [fig.7.48] declares
thai the I'iuure is niakinji a >.waii di\t' and that the |)iiîliiin-' iis poem, while elaborating on elements from
lelaiimi to this
111 the hands and feet indiialeil difl'ereilt stai^fs of ihe earlier works: the de\ice ciicle iiiciir|imaling an arm and "
aeliiiii.'" '
Willi -.mall direcl ii iiial arrows he choreographed liaiid in [ilace of the slick nr iiiler: and die dixisinn nf die
die ilixer^ innxr^ like ilinî' iil a dancer. The diagranmiatic composition into three, widi die names nl die primaries
and sei|iiriiiial schema imlicali--. die artist's growing concern lettered across each pan in die maniiei nl O/// /he Window (a
w iih limi- ill |iainting. probably jironipted i)y his concurrent painting of 1959 in which the 'view "
out the window is the
wiirk w itii die Mei'ce famningham Dance Cômpany. words for the three priniar\ colors instead of a direct view ol
In the ii| (per left of the fiisl [laiiel i if /,*/(( v. Inl iiis |iainleil nainie . Raiischenbeig's hinge "
also recurs here just under
a multicoloicil "device circle. I he sectind panel cmisisis nl a die de\ ice ciicle." Cape 1 laiteras lies off die Carolina coast.
precisrK drawn scale in giailalimis iil' gray, ifcalliiig ihe while .Inhiis had a sindin.The back-to-front letters and
scale 111 culm sijiiaies in l)iicliaill|i s 7)/ "/« iif I'M'*. Ill die ]ierspecii\e wiili die hands pressing out from within the
liiwiT ciinieis 111 r.irli panel .Inlilts |iaiiili-il immliris dial canvas suggest the dim past reversed.
match lip III die ad jacenl panel, makilii: explicill he an aiigi'- The standard biogra])hy of Hart Caaiie. which .loliiis
mi-m and dir ciinliimity across all ri\c sniiiins, hi addilinn iiwiied.'"" details the poet's suicide in 1932. when he dove
die diinl and rnmdi panels relate In ilii- rilih mi die lighi l)\ iiiiii die iicean from a ship. The biographer described the
their ise biiishwink and sal iiraled palelle. f he liiilil diand
li II \ i\ id image of ( a'aiie's arm reaching ii]i mit ol the sea as he
216
flisappeaifci. riic (iisi'inlxMlifil liaiul anil arm in Pcriscdfic •rreal coheienre. \simi1\ a- 1 '
'">' Mir all irillal rd d II- n Ira III
(Hurl Cnirw lias ai)|)caitMl in a nnnihtT of jiaintings a^ tin- his arli-I s -.lalemenr Im lln- \ln-i- il Modern Vn-
"deviri' riirlc" that marks tlic |>i<ii;ressi()ii «•! lite in liic "Si.xteen \iiirricaiis" exliiliili aialoi:; '
\i cm-ia poiiil in
artist's aiitobio(:ia|)lii(al seiies of l*'}io lo li)8() calleil 'Tlie iiattire there i- soim-ihini; to scr. M\ work cniilaiii- -iiiiilar
Seasons" t'is:."7.52 . This tiansl'oiination of the |)aintiT > |)Ossihililes lor die cliailUMIIi; Incils oj die I'M'. Me al-o
hand into a mechanical (le\ ice. a> well a> the I'laL'meiitatioii discussed Nlaicel Diichainp - -iii;i;r-iioii lo reach die
nt the l)()(lv. imparls a sense ol'|)ei>onal (li^xilntioii. As joints Impossil)ilil\ ol -iilticii-m xi-iial iiie'iiior\ lo iraii-lrr Iroin
ri'tnarked ahont lând's End. a closely related |iaintingot tlie one like object lo aiiodiei iIh' iiirnior\ iiii|>riiil. w liicli iril
same vear. "I had the sense of arrix in;: at a poiin w here there into .lohiis's idea ol roinniiiiiicaling pei(r|i|iial coiiiplr\ii\ .
was no place to stand. '" \li(l III' concllided: (.eiieralK. I am op|in-i'd lo painlilig
whiili is loiicenicd willi conrepiion-. ol sinipliiiu , l.\rr\-

'""
tliiiii: looks \er\ liiis\ lo me.
The Perceptual Complexity of Looking
riie idea olCniiipo-ing a ]iaiiiting around a "changing
Aiiimliiiis III II hill l'ii;.~.-f'* i- another major, iniiral- foi'iis" places ill,- \ iiw er w here he or she is in reality, looking
-i/ed work. On the lar lell |ianel. .joliiis fastened a ~mall around iu diflerrni iluections. instead of transporting the
I ainas with the silhouette of .Marcel Dtichani|) on tin- fidni. \iewer into an illusionistic space with a contrixed -iii^lr
imiied face down on the surface of this larger conipo-itioii. per-|iecii\f. .iohns's work illuminates the fact that we look at
I his reveals the backside of the little caiiva-. on wliiili .lolm- the woild in Iraiiment-. fiom different perspectix is. and in
has inscribed the date, his siirnattire. and the liile Accordini: coiistanllx changing coTUexts oxer titiie.
to What." .\bove it. ujiside dowti. he has attached a cross-

//(' lool< ill (I rrrldiii ilirrrlion aiul we aee one tliiii'j. ire look
section of a real chair with a mold of a lei; and buttock seated
in iniother iray (uhI ire sve (iiKitlwr thiny:. So thai irh<il ire
on "The shailows." he explained, "chancre accordincr to
il.
rail "thinu:" becomes ren- elii.sire and reiy flexible . . . It
\xhat happens around the ]iaintinL' K\crxihin<z chansies .
f tend, irhile scttinu' one

. .
iiirolres the innire focus . . . ihiivs

accordiiiiz to sotnething. and tried to make- a situation that I
'""
allows things to change.
.lohn- sought out perceptual coin|ile\iiir- and com rail ic-
7.49 Jasper Johns, According to What, 964. Oil on canvos with
lioiis iu llie world of things and liinl m r,i|iMire die s|i,-i-i
objects, 7ft 4ln x 16ft (2.24 x 4.88m).
1
nnilti|ilii'il\ oi all of it together in lii- work. \r\ the

Colleclion, Mr. ond Mrs. 5. 1. Newhouse, Jr. Ptiolograph by Rudolpli Burckhardi, courtesy Leo
coiisiîencx of his approach has gixen hi- woik as a w hole Costelii Gallery, New York. ©Jasper Johns/VAGA, New York, 1 994.
217
Jasper Johns
^\\\\<;?\\\v'-^/y///
7.50 Jasper Johns, Qorp%s and Minor, 974. 1 Oil, encaustic, and The Hatch Mark Paintings
collage on canvas, 4ft 2in x 5ft S'/sin (1 .27 x 1 .73m).
Collection, Mrs. Victor Ganz. Photogroph by Jim Strong, courtesy of the Leo Castelli Gallery.
New York. ©Jasper Johns/VAGA, New York, 994.
ilif far It'll paiifl nl a iiiajm- iransitional work nl IT'i.
1 III
kiiiiwn sinipK a^ / nlillnl. .Inliiis introdured a palliTii nl
halrli iiiaik^ wliirli wi-nl mi In dnniiiiate his |)aintini; I'nnii

///*. Iij more aini}- fniiii il hi d/iiil/irr /i()Ssiliili/\ iril/nn l/ic
Daviil Sylveslrr dial
ihr rnd iif it:! niilil I'>;',1. .Inline told
IKimliiiis. llic pidccss 1)1 iii\ irarkinu: inntlii-s lliis iinhrcii
III- ili-.inMTrd llir lialrliiiii; on llif \\a\ to llir I lainplolls
iiiiiiiicliiJi r<l ii<n o/ Idiikiiiu III I rill 1 1 I a in ihiinis.
an
l.onLi Ulanil, lor liif Wfckcnd: lie saw iht.' ]iallfrii lor
In l''""! .Idlin^ fxcciilcd a n,-(|iiciiic (iI |iiiiiN fiilillfil inîani mi a car passing in the opposite direction."" Most ol
"l- rai;iiifiil^ \((iii(|iiiL' l(i \\ Ihil, in w liiili lif ^\ Îfiiiiil ii:ill\ ihr hairli ]iaintinjis involve predetermined ma[>s ol rcpiai-
icllidnLihi iii(li\ iiliuil \\,\v\^ III' ihf |i;iini iiiL;. .Inini-' lui^ ulli-n and noTi-repeating jjattems that the viewer has to IVrifi
iiiii
ii^fcl |iiiiniiuikini; in llii^ \\;(\ : i likf hi ii-|M-al an iina^c in out hilt tiiat never lead to any deeper subject matter.
anullii-i nifcliinii tti nli-i-i\f llif |ila\ liclw fi-ii tlie tô: tlie The right panel of Corpse and Mirror in encaustic-over- '
"
" iiewspaperi [fig. 7.50] minors the pattern of the left half in
iinaiic ami llii- inediuni. ' .Itilin- inailc \\\- first litliiiLM-a|ili
in l''(i(l ai I atâna Grosman s Inixnâl l.iniiliil \rl Johns also siil(di\ ided each half into three horizonial
oil).
I 1 1 i III III ^ L .l^.A.E. I workshop on I .mii: Ulaml. In llir iiinr^f perhaps alliiiling to the tripartite order of die
sections,
111 ilic ilfcade he made over 120 incuf. and lir lia^ runiiniicil romantic" Oiil llir II iiiilmr. .\t the lines of division between
111 inakr prints at that pare. His piiiiN piii\ idr a iiinninii. -eciions lie niairlii-d ii|i ilif ends of the marks as in the
ciiliral riiinnifntarv on iii^ painli-d (iciirrc. wliilf also siint-alist Liaiiif I .\(|iiisiii- ( (irjise. In this diversion a pcison
lnnnini; a kind of technicalK iniiii\ ali\ f. ai'slliclic dialoi; niakt's a parlial drawing of. lor example, the head of a
aniline ilu'iiisi'lves. fanlaslir cival iiir. I If oi- she llirn folds the paper so that (he
218
next |)la\er caiinul >ee it. and tlit-ii mark- ilu- |ia|iii' in
7.51 Jasper Johns, Perilous Nig/if, 1982. Encaustic on canvas with
indicate wiiere tiie neck sluiiild jjegiii. Vl tlu' end tlu- |ia|)f|- i>
ob|ects,67i 2 96 •, 5' 2in (171.5 x 243.8 x 14cm).
unfolded to reveal the always stnpi"i>in2 Hiriire. ond Jane Meyerhoff, Phoenix, Morylond. Photogroph courtesy
Collection, Robert of the ortist.
The iron mark in Corpse and Mirror refer- -imiiiia- c JosperJohnsWAGA, New York, 1994
neouslv to the techni(|iie of applyiiit; emaii-iii. in wliiiii a
wann iron is used to s])read wax over die new -[lajier: lo 7.52 (opposite) Jasper Johns, Summer, 1 985. Encaustic on
Diichamp s iconoclastic remark cited bv Johii^ in a 1960 canvas, 6ft 3in x 4ft 2in (1 .91 x 1 .27m).
": Collection, Ph.hp Johnson. Photogroph by Dorothy Zeldman, rj: Jasper Johns/VAGA, Ne
essay about using "a Rembrandt as an ironing boaifl '
'"*
to
York, 1994.
the association of the fonn witii a breast; and in a |iiin on
"iroii-v. " The crossed lines suggest a reference in ilir io|i nf
the chocolate grinder in Diichamji - Ijir<jc (ihiss. and wiili reaji-in. He once again used cast bod\ pan- and depiciiil
the ironand die pink zigzag iiie\ al-o e-iabii-li liie -iiiiaci' ul object- from his home and studio that wiiiimi iifiilial. lie 1
the minor. stick that casts a shadow o\er the right edge o{ Perilous \ ialit
[fig. 7.51 is related to Newman's zip. and for the first time,
,
Dropping the Reserve .lohns seems to have been tentatively seeking the breath-
taking confrontation in his art wHth what Newman called the
n 197u Johns ii-marked: "In my work
earl\ 1 tried loliidi- "ab-oliile finolioii-.
I my personality, mv psychological -laie. m\ inioiiciii- .. lii-iiilie(l. aliiio>l iii\i-iiilv. into die lefl ^'xU- (A Perilous
hut eventually it seemefl like a losing battle. Final l\ one mii-i \il::IiI i- from the Resurrection panel ot (,riiiie-
a i|uoiation
""''
simply drop the resene. hi the next grouji <>f work- ii wald - earl\ -ixteenth-centnry Isenheim Altar. It -how- a
seems that .lohns artem|)ted todo jii>i thai. After alia m ion iiig ilclaii. orieiiiiMJ -idewa\- and Itackward-. of the sleeping
the hatch pattern sr\"le in 1982. lie |)iir->iied a iiinre charged giiaril w iili hi- -word, llif -aiiic iniind image is repeated, "
and per-onal -iibjeci matter ilirectlv. ihrouLrh a new kiiul ol in die correci orieiilaiiou and on a -mailer -cale. in die riirht
219
Jasper Johns
220
' .TOIiXS 1990

221
Jasper Johns
center of the ri<rlit |)aiiel. portrayerl this time as a reproflnc- is shadow traced from .lohns's ownt body. The curator
a
tioii tacked to the siudio wall, hi ilie top register of tlie rijrhi Judith Goldman pointed out that Picasso's 195.3 painting
side are three casts of arms camonnajied with a llag-'ioiie The Shdflou- proxided a jirototype for the artist's shadow in
pattern of shadows, and die top of eacli ami is paiiiied in a Summer. In thi-. painting Picasso de|)icted himself, shortlv
iiiHii(iii |iriiiiai\ iciliir fin- :inii- iiiow progiessixely laiiiiT alirr till' drpiiiinrc nt his longtime comiianion Tranqoise
and I 111 111- adiih liniii Irli In liL'lii ; die first one hangs o\rian ( .ilni. a- a -liailnxx |i inking into the bed room he had recentlv
unarticiilaled. ilaik liarkdiii|i: die second arm umi a -hand \x iili lirr. John> went on to paint three more panels to
rendering of one of die iinur r\|ii«-.sionistic and lani haii h- inaki- lip a -cries of "The Seasons" in 198(). .\ll are either
inaik drawings i)\ .lohii> pinned U) die wall widi Iroiiipc bisected in the middle orcom|)osed in some modular relation
I'oeil nails thai recall the ilhisionistic devices of Peto : and to the middle, like the paiiuings of Newman, and include the
the third over a score hv.lohn Cage for his 1Q4.5 composition shadoxx' ol himself— sniToimded bx artifact- nl hi- life as a
Perilous \iglit i
silkscreeiied directly on lo the canvas . painter— in the four seasons of lili-.
Below is an illiisioiii>iic haiidkcicliief pinned lo a linri/nn- "I recent nix coniimiiiiii drpcndrncc nil pree.xistent
tallv panelled wall. Ilie pai nil ig i seems to concern die ai'li~l - Innn-. '"'.Inliii- mid an iiilrrv irxx rr ,1- n-irndx as 1987. and
personal confrontation with growing and aging and hi- xri llieni. Even the central forms
he continues to appropriate
accompanving emotional rites of passage. in ( ireen Angel though he has not revealed their
[fig. 7. .5.'^ .
From such |)aiiitings Johns launched into an i \plii iiU -ource. are almost certainly taken faithfully from something
aiitohiograpliiial mode. In 1^)8.^ he decided in iikiLi- an he saw. From one perspective Johns's whole career is built on
image for a Noliimc nf X^ allarr Sicm-ii- |ioriii- ami |iaiiilril bonowed images and einntinn- alxvays seeking himself in
Summer :fig.7..'>2 , \\\f -i-aliiii--r mark- liu- phirr in winrli an alreadv fonned e.\pre--inii Imin mitside himself i: to sense
lie paiiiti-il till- work. Iii- in-w -iniliii on M. Maailrn l-knnl m nnc- life in this wav is a tci i ilx iiig and lii-ljilf-- fi-eling. This
du- ( aiililii-an: ii al-n run lain- important inolit- In mi nilni i-. Imxx i-x whal i:ixr- .Inliii- - xx nrk -iirli |iiiiL:ii-
rr. jireciselv
earlierpaiiiting>; {.eoige Olir pottery wliii-li he collect- . ilir aiicv and imixersalirx". It thiow> one into c(Jiifroiitalioii with
disguised "foiiiid" pattern from (^riinewald. a Moiia I i-a large jihiloscjphical questions of knowing and remembering,
iron-on patch he ac(|iiiied in ilir late sixties, the flag-, and of integrilv in the sense of personal wholeness i. as against
die device circle/arm finm I'cnxcupe [fig.7.48j. In addiiinn. the oxerpowering forces of dissolution that we encounter in
he incliidcil luiildini: Murk- nf die ha-ic geonioti'ii- -hapo the contemplation nf what Harnett Newnnaii called "the
nnalini: al llir lniMiun. absolute emotion.-. painting. Johns sees the things
Ilii migli
wa> in>|)iied li\ a lejiiddiu lion ol Picassu > lM;i()

Joliiis arnimd liiin and one xisual fact lead to another in an
lets
painting. The Miintlaur Marcs his House."' showing the iniiiiiixr process that emphasizes the vital experience of
niiiiiiTanr pulling; a rait w iiicli holds a ladder, a painting, an Ini ikini; /*'';• .vc and. ill looking, of being alixe. He -aid:
iiii\ r lira ml I, and a Inn -f nixing birth all tied in place with a
( hir has In irark uitit ercr\lhiii<j: and urre])t tlic kuid of
rope, llie niiiiiiiaiir lunk- liaik at ih<- cart hill of -yniliols a-
sid/ciiii'ii/ irliic/i results us nu(U-oi(l(ible . . . one uuuits from
he traver>e- tin- lianrn laiid-i\ipr iiinlrr ilic i-\pii'--iiiiii-l ic
IKiiiiliii'j (I sense of life. The fi/uti suirgestion. the final
stars. The laildi-r. die painlini;. and llii- liaiidpiini fnim
sidlciiirnl. Ikis la he not ii ilelihenilr stdlenirnt lint (i helpless
Perisciij)!' wliirli max -land lur llir liiidi nf a in-xx rmnliniuil
sliilciiitiil. It liiis Id III- irlidt \iiii ciui '/
(Udiil sdvintr. not what
frail km--- in .Inliii- - |iaiiiliiii;- an- lied tngfilii-r x\ nil a rnjir
\-ou set dill Id sin'. . . il should match irliiil iinc is iilrciiil}': it
in die ri^'lil hall nf >(///////< 7' iindi-r l'ica----o - :-lai-. I )n I In- li-ll '
shdiililn '/
iiisl be soniclliiiiii one likes.
7.53 (opposite) Jasper Johns, Green Angel, 1 990. Encaustic and

sand on canvas, 6ft 3' E in 4ft 2-' uln (1 .91 x 1.28m).
Colleclion.Wolker An Center, Mmneopolis.Photogropli by Jim Strong. giJasperJohns/VAGA,
New York, 1994,
Nouveau Realisme
Yves Klein's Romanticism

I'l.")!) |iri|(inii;inci- (il llli- r(i-.| iiri (Iriiriii-v \l;i||iii-il
Tlir I II I
iiKik iml: iii'l K'li |>aiiil iiii:^ I ii'Idi'r ^111 am lii'iirc al I III' I liral i r
Saiali liiiiiliaiill in Pan. Iia<l a .alaK/iii- rltr, i lor I iriicli
aili-l--, |ii~I a. I\a|iiii\\ ~ liiî lia| i| iiiiiiil:- iIhI Im arli^l^ in

\r\\ ûlk al ihr ,-|hI m| ill.' Iilli,-, Ilk,' Ka|il.i\\, Malhirii
iiiailr \iiirri(aii acliiin jianilinLl llii' liaî^ loi iiiralri iliii-ii
rnL;ai:rinriii and a iirw i ln-ai i icaliu . Briwcni l''.")o anil

I '•(ill I lie an aclidii. (if ^ \r- Kli'in inrn^cil llii^ l Ileal liialilv
8
and llir li-iMlrii.\ liiwaiil a nmir dnnlK |ili\-iial i'\|iir.s-
iiiiiHiii widi an aura nl ni\~lii'i.iii llial in-il llii-in iiiln llir
Madiliiin. (il I III (i| ji-aii n unaiil iriîii. Kli'iii .(inLilil a lla^li i>|
>|iinlnal inîiilil llir In- \ irw CI .. Ill w liiili lir w a. llic nirdiiim
III I r\ rial il III: linlikr llir \llliTirail arliiin |iailllrr- ir\rla-
TUC ID/\DC A M -wmk m i-Mik.' an

InC CI
nunoriirrûnal idniinx. KIrin iiiii iinrird
CUIlUr CHIM ,n,iiini'niiiliilli,iiiMniiiinl..

In l''4J'>. llir l\\ riil\ -\ rar-iild ^\^- klrin i li^ri i\ rii'd a
VANGUARD OF THE :::i::"'i:::r:::r:;:;n."u;::T;:!a:^^

Hi iîri nrianl-l -.. all r.ulrrir (liii-lian .rcl. wliirli Klrin
m KHIHa^ ^1 ^^1 ^^ ^ludird i>l>-r--i\ I'K li il 1 1\ r \ ra I". Ai'i'i il'dillt: li i
I Irini Irl. till-
I ATrll rll r\ Wni Mhw,. when

kinikll rl
'""''' ''^^ î|>|M'oai Inmi ih.- rii<l nr tU,-
I II I Ikl^ S|„nllii-.,a|inM-iii.iiliillindi,..'
S I alirr niiniii;; In l'ari~ in 1''")."). Klfin lii'Lian
irli'irini; In liiin.rjl a^ an inilialr. -.rrkiiij: to miidi' llic
wiirld iiilii a nrw '
\i;r nlîiarr ." in wliicii "Siiiril" would

i-\i.i liri- III liinii. nliini. wniild li-\ iiati'. and |p<T>iinalitie>
wiiilld lra\i'l liliriaird Inini llir ImhU. Hliir rinlindird

Hi'indiT-. nrw a^c and aKo KIriu ^ iinauinrd lirrdmn nl llir
^kv. \> >rlt-a|i|"iiiiird Mr-Miiaer of the Blur \ oid. Klein

as|iirrd In rnirr inin ilir wmld of color, to r\i>l a-> a color.
Wlierr Innii and line î^nalrd -r|iaialciic-.-. and liinilalinii.
color rinlindird .|iiiil dial liad cnaLlulalrd riinnt;li In lir
xiîlilr lull llnl rllnlllill In |

iirci| li I a Ir inIn fnrill. ( ioloi'
r\|iir--ril iiiiiu. n| iriiiir-.-,. riiliL;lilciiinrlil — I lir wllolrliess
and iiilinilN nf --|iacc. "I rspniisr ihr iaii>r III Pnrr iolor. (
winch ha. hrni inxadrd anil nciii|piril ;:iiilrliill\ h\ dir

rnwaiilK hiir and il-- inanilr^lalinn. diawinii ill an. Iir
imiclainicil. will ilrhaid color, ami Iwill dcliM-r il. and I I
will Irad II III liiial li'iMin{ili. ~
Klrin had ^larlrd |iaiiiliii;: ^riiniisK in S|pain. w lirir lir
had s|iriil Irii nioiilh. |irinr in hi. arri\al in Pari.. Mi.

|)ainliiii:. racli cnii.i.lrd nl a .iiiiilr cnlnr. iinilnriilK a|p|ilird.
(di;r-ln-rilL!r liu.ll.l . \lirr llir Irirclioii nf ail orange

•im ihrninc" Irnni ilii- l'».').") Salnii dr. Hrali.lr^ Noiivelles
in Pari.. Klrin .nii;:lii mil dir \ mini: ci-itir Pierre Rciaiiy to

help him nhlaill a i:allri\ .linw . NrrordillK III Rr.lailN ihry
inii ill a lalV'. and Kli'in r\|ilaiiird In him ihr ililTii.ion nl
riiriL:\ in .|iacr. i|. .lalili/alinii |i\ |iiiir cnlnr. and il.
iiii|irrL:naliiiL: rlTni mi .rn.ilix il\

.' '
Klrin inlrndrd ihr

iniinnihi nmr |iaiiiliiiL: m lix a Im n. Im llir cn.inic riiririi-
lra\c-|iiir dirmiLlli .|iacr: il wa. In |irii\idr a lorn, nl
223
Nouveau Realisme
'^ *''-*- .V ':''•-'

v'>w".":.-x
, >-x^
8.1 Yves Klein, Untitled Blue Monochrome (IK8J, r959. Dry

pigment in synthetic resin on paper, S'-i > 7"8in (21.6 ' 18.1cm).
Men. Collection, Houston. Photogropli by Hickey-Robertson,
I
ici 1 994 Artists Rights Society

224
The European Vanguard of the Later Fifties
fl'iji.iS.'J if' ;i mi'lii|)li(i|- I'm' ilii- s|>iriin;il |M-iiiiiMii(in lA'
niilllev. Ill' iiioiiiilc'il ihrrii mi kmU .iihI iiîiI iln-ni iii
monorliionii- ii'lirU.
\i lir~l Klein iiKiili- lii~ |iimiiiilirmiic |

irii| mîiimi^ "
as
Ki'^Kiin lalli-il ilicin In I'liii ilwi-i/c llini |
iliili wi i| iliiial and
iinnialciKil rialnir in a \ amix (p| i olm >, In I
'•.")(> In- li\c(| mi
an iilirainaiini' liliir. I \r iln-n In i lailnn'il iln- jiali'ilr li> Mnc.
link, anil iûld ilic Hn-ic i ii. laii lnliii:\ mT ilir i-,i|m^ nl liic .
I
In mir -rii^r. \\c- kliiii - liliir |iailillli^~ wriv llic iillinialr
(//•/ ////(//7//(7 Wdik-.. iilriiiir\ III- I'Miih'iii iim Willi iiiiai:iT\ or

|iiilmial -nnclnrr Ian wiili ilir man liaU. a- DiiliiiHn had
allriii|>ird III ilu. all I nil k Iciii al-i >
{
Mi~lii'i I li<'\mid llii- iiiln
iii\ ^1 ic i~in.
Kliiii liail a I'an- i:allrr\ -lidw (iT niuniiilirmnr inniKi-.i-

Iimi-" in l'l")(). In .lamiarx l"'i~ lie laiinrliid r/.'/idCd lilii
rill- nine I .j Kiel I in llir ( .alli-i la \| n illinaiir in Milan w licir
ii irrcxncaliK alined ilic ran-ia nl ilii' lialiaii aiii-l Pii-m

\laii/mii. In \la\ In- had l\\ 1
1 Pari- ^lii i\\ ^ al I he hi- ( If II and
( iiltilr \lli-||d\ (.alli'lir- -illlll llai ii-mi-l\ . ill jiiiir lir i-\lli-
hinil III |)ii--ildmr ilii- /iTii (.ioii|i ( aiiic ImmciIiit in
( iilcii;iic' ihnin^; I
' ')". inlhu-nird h\ kiriii . and in lalf jinir
lir 1
1|
11 lied a mir man -how in I .iindmi. In -lim I. he i\|ilodrd
oil 111 dir I ino|M-aii -ccur a- lliou^h ex erv w lifiL- at muc.
le Vide
III w rill |i(\ mid dii- mm 11 11 In 111 lie lo pi nr iiiinialrrialilN
k; l.rl„/r riirlni,! , i|" I

't.");;. I or ilii- \| irirvxliiliilimr'
lir flraiii'd mil and w liilrw a-lird tlii- (.alnir hi- ('Icri.
imprcmialiiii; llir rin|il\ -jiaci- wiili hi- -|iirilualil\ . Bv

anailL'iiii: lo i^cl a lahim-l inini-irr mi tin- uiu'-l li-t lif
-iirci-i-dcd in haxiiii; Hc|inliliiaii (.iiard- ill lull n-nalia

riankinu iIn' door al the o|)i-iiini; and iii'arK .'ilKIII \ i-itm-
I III llri I ii|i.
'
I lir -III -el- w el r -o iiow drd ha I I

|
lohri- and liir
iriirk- w rrr callrd lo ihr -ci'lir.

Alli-r -mnr linir. klrin a|i|ii-aird al tin- door in loinial
dir-- and hi-i:aii iiiiidiiiL; -mall L;ron|i- inio du- \aiani

8.2 Yves Klein, Unfit/ed, 1957. Sponge, painted blue, on brass-rod i:allrr\. Main Inir-i mil and \\alked njilil mil.
laii^hinii
stand, 22^8 x 12' 2 ^4^ sin (57.5 x31.8x 1 1.7cm), including brass rod, mhrr- Ion ml /,. / /V/r dif|il\ iiio\in- and -lavi-il lor limir-.
15in (38.1cm) high x ^jin (1 .9cm) diameter, and brass base,
I lir w rilrr \lliri I ( ailiii- w roll- in ihr uiir-l hook "w ilh llir
Ve X 5' i X 6in (0.3 X 13.4 x 15.2cm).
The Museum Modern Art, New
of York. Gilt of Philip Johnson, c, 1 994 Artists Righls Society
\ oid. lull |iow rr-. '
Mranw hilr. r|a--r- ol a hliir drink w rir

lARS), New York/ADAGP, Pons iiHi'I'imI 111 iho-r wailinn oiil-idr. a- al a rlniirh -arianiriil.
Klrin had had llir hi{iiid lonrorlrd willi a hioloni-l - -lain -o
dial alirr ihr o|irMiiii; r\rr\onr \\ ho drank n had hliir nriiir
inliiilion- whirli rmild not hr roiiiinhilrd. "I lir aiilhrinir li ir a w rrk.

qiialily of the piiliirr. il- \ri\ lirinr. arcordinr lo klrin
|ie> bevoiifl llir \ i-ihlr. in |iiilorial -rn-ili\ il\ in ihr -lair ol The "Living Brush"
prime matti-r.
"*
liiilr iiiorr iliaii a iiimilli lalrr. mi .hiiir •1. l''5o. Klrin

"^Ni'S MonoihioMir." a- hr rallrd
till- hiiii-rll. miploxcd
pure pijinieiit,-.. f;i>l(l leal. llie rrmair |)od\ . liir. and w alri in
A! ilminrd In- lir-l "
l.ixini: Hrii-li paiiitiiiLr in a po-h
aparlinriii on ilir l-lr >aini-l oin- in Pari-. In ilii- ]irrloriii-
his art. and in I').")}') turned lo rmnplrirK im-
aiirr a iiiidr inodrl a|i|ilird hliir painl lo liri im-o and llirn
material work- in an oiiL'oiiiL' rllorl lo liriomr lon-rimi-
prr--rd llir pailll on |ii ihr i aii\a- mi llir lloor. dirrrird li\
ol'aild hold on lo hiir\ rial ion o| ihr inrinilr. I Ir prr-i-lriiil\
llir aili-1. \- klrin rxplainrd:
.s|)oke lit tile "iiupreiiiialion ol -|iiiiiiial \iliialioii- in a
space or a ihiniz ;is in ihr Ho>ii'riii'ian doclrinr of ."^pirii I /nid rc/cdcd //ic lini.s// Imii: IxiDic. 1/ irtis /aa
''•">"
iinprrL-'iiatiiiL' -olid oliim- .In I hr liriian ii-ini; -| i;r- /).tyilio/i)Ltii(i/. I />iimlt'(/ irilli I lie nillir. iiiiirc iiiKiiiyiiKiir
225
Nouveau Realisme
I — -
r- to create
liopinii a "distunce " betircvii
- iiir itiid my c(tiir(i.s Tlif ;i|(;irliiiriil
I
in wliiili Klein staged
r llir lir-i Living i
nil tell slim lid he (it leiixt iiitellerlittd and iiiinir\inix. \<iir. |{imÎi |i:iiiiiini! hrlnniî-d in Robert (iodi-l. ii Inrnici Resist
ltl;e a niinirle. I lie hriisli returned. I ml I Ins lime (dire. \l m\ luwv ligliier. a |jil(il. and a lillli-degi'ce black bell in judo.
direction, the jlesli itself (ipplied I lie cnlnr In I he siir/ncc. mid Kli'in hiniNfllwa- a Innrdidegree black bcli and dn^ may be
irilh jieiieel e.ineliiess. I eiiiild eiuiliiiiie la iiKiiilliiiii <i Iniw ilie\ knew unc aimdicr. (aidcl \\a- ab(
precise thslniiee Imm iii\- erealioii diid still diimiiuite its (innljiett and dccpU nivnKcd in die (iccnii and in I a^lcin
e.vecittioii. In this inn I slmi-d elenn. I iiii hiiiu'i'r dirtied icliaidns. b w a-, inn Hired ilia I ( .(idci -.ii|i|i(ii ic<l lii-^ liigll lite-
nnsell irilli enhir. iml eren ihe lips r// iin liimers. I'lie lenrk ^l\lc Ikiiii liiin-ninniiiL; nmncs and indeed lie accidentally
tiilislied itselt there in front of me iiilli I he emiiphie killed liim-i'll III I ''(ill nil die airfield in Henare>. India, wliile
eolhihonition oj the model. \nd I ennld snliile ils birth inli> |ire|iaiiiiL; In deli\ ei a |ik load of amis to Tibeian rexnln-
llie tuilgihle irorld in n lillniu: iiinnner. in rrennej dress. Il liniiaric'. Klein 11111--1 lia\e -cen >niiie nf bis nw n fanlasie-. of
inisat this lime ihnl I iKilieed ihe "murk nf the hi,dy" nflei ad\ enl lire li\ ed niil in ( .n(lel
eiieh sessniti. I li(\ disnppeored (iLS<iin nl miee. since the Ill 1 I'bniarx I'llill Klein began lea\ iiil; die blur iiii|ii'inl
icliole ellecl liiid In eridence nf hope Im

he iminiichriime . . . nl die iiindeb bndii's nii die caiix a^cs. rallier diaii cn\eriiit;
^
the peniKinence ihniiuh niiiiinhrnd nl I he /Jesh. I lie w linli' nf eaci I caiuas 111 a lllnllnclilniiie lielil. I Ic calli'd
8.3 Yves Klein, Anthmpometne de

I'epoque bleue (ANT 82), 1960. Pigment in
pure synthetic resin on paper mounted on

canvas, 5ft 1 'sin x9ft3"4in (1.57 x 2.83m).
Collection, Musee Notional d'Art Moderne, Centre George
Pompidou, Pons. (£1994 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New
York/ADAGP, Pons.
8.4 Yves Klein, Per/ormpnce.

Anthropometnes de I'epoque b/eue, March 9,
1960. Performance, Galerie Internationale
d'Art Contemporain, Pans.
Photograph c by Horry Shonk c 9941 Artists Rights Society

226
llic I'oiilliiii; xM'ics (it paiiiliiiiis " \nllii(i[i(iiiii'Irirs lii W III II II -I ir 1 1 lid I 111- aLllvi-d I(m li Ml , -ii K Iriii ilr\ i-rd hi-. lliliKll
8.3 . 11 If nuol ct'lflirali-cl |iiihlic |m-i Idi iiiainc ul ilic I i\ m^ far ihf Ii(liiii/iiis/niii2 III lliiiiiiilriiiil /niiis iif I'lrlnniil
Bnisli.'-" was un March '•. I'XtO li-.n.-t \iiiir,l m I, In. >i7/\//(////r. ( III \(i\ riiilici jr., I
''.)'• lllr liinci iiicl llir ai li-l
lormal wear ami hiii-ii-inniiial crd-.- ol ihi- Onlir u| M nil llir i|iiai III ihr ^rillr, drlivclrd a |
iiv-i ill ird i|iiaiilil\ nl
S(>lta>lian an aiiticiil lialriiiilx nl kiii::lillir had innicd In |>iilr i;i>l(l III r\rliailL:i' Im all iliiina In la I /nllr nl |>irlii|ial
appeared Ix'liirc a xvilcd andiciiri' al die .alri ic liilniia- ( -rii-iliilil\ and in r i\ rd a iriri| n w hull, Injliiw ini; 1 lir Irini-
lioiialf il' \rl ( 'umfm|Miiaill. Mr i;r-llirrd In dir iinhr-lia. Ill llir aLllri-nirnl. I lir I iil\ rl -i ilrn II il\ Inn liid I In- ai I i-l llirii
and llii'X lii'i;aii in |ila\ hi- Miiiiiiluiir S\ iii/i/inin — i\ -iiiiilr llnrw hall dir i:iild iiiln ihr ii\ri and iIh- riiliir iian-arlinii
I'hdrd held Im iwriilx ininnir-. lullowi-d li\ l\\rnl\ iiiiiiiilr- \\a- iiTnnlid in |
iliiiiiii:i a| ill-.
Ill -ilrncr. I Ir i:r-lllli-il aiiaill and llirrr liakrd wiMllrll laiiir l)r-|illr llii- Irlrnllr-- dli\r (nwaid ihr I'liniinali I
iilK. -nii'aird lliriii-rl\r- w idl lilllr |>ailll. and. illldrr III- llir i>li{rrl in all. lIlc Iriil.ilr linill riinliniird In di'lliaild
dili-iliiiii. 1
1 It ---I'd ihr 1 1 linihr- ai:aill-l -lirri- nl w liilr |ia|iri kin II - a Mm I inn. I jr n la dr -niiir nl 111- \iil 1 1
1 n| iniiirl rlr-
(111 ihf lliinr and wall. Klein ih-mt Iniichcd ihr wnrk. Ii\ -| nax in:^ |
laiiil ai niind dir Im in nl ihr iiindrl In a mlnrr a |
remaining; al a iinr. 'iiiiiiKnriial I

di-lancc. iiri;ali\ r iiii|ii mi dial ha- a--niialinii- w iih ihr Iiaiiil|iniii- in
ihr ra\r- al I'rrh-Mnlr and i.a-ranx li-.i",.:. Mr al-n .
Seeking Immateriality -pra\rii inndri-wnh wam. had ihrm inr- iiimi-rKr-nn m

llir raiixa-. and lllrii allarknl llir -iiilair wiili a llailir
n
M Iranwhllr
ii-i
-Iniiil in
lain nl iiiiniairnaliiN
III
ihr -|iair allnllrd Im' In-

l*»."l'l KIrill
.
|ill-llril
\l an rxlnliilimi
wnik and irad
-lill linlhrl
m \iiiw
illln
a |ia--aL;r
n |i
ill
h
llirnw
linnian -liadnw
Ihrn-hiina: "In ihr dr-rri
In lra\ r a haiinlini;
- Irll nii
iiii|iiiiil
ihr wall-
nl
w liirh
aim
ihr almiiir rala-l
lir
llir
likrnrd In
r\|iln-iiiii
i'n|<lir lhr\
llir
in
liniii llir wiilinr- 111 (.a-lmi Barhrlaid. iiii|iirrnaliiii; llii wrir a inrililr |ii'iiiil III dir iiiiiiialrrial |irrnianriirr nl
-|iair willi hi- -|iiiiliial xilnalimi-. In \iiuii-l. w lirii In dirlli-h."

drridrd In ahandnii In- ( Im h H a iiimr r-ialili-hrd drain'.
Ilr did llnl Irll I ir I d I Iri 1 1\ lull wrill I n n 1 1 1 ir i:a llr I \ . |ii(kril
li|ilii-wnikaiidlnld(:lril-a-,-laiiMliallii-|,aiiiliii^-wrir ^'^ YveS Klein Anf (hropome(ne) 96. People Begin to Fly, 1961 Oil .
.... . .
, 1 • on paper mounted on canvas, 8n 2' 2in >^ 13n '2in (2.5 X 3.98m).
IIIM-llllr and llial |„il-|,rinM. |,llivlia-rr-
I
-llnllld
I
-ll,l|,K
I
Men,l ColleCon, Hous.on Phologroph b, Paul Hesler c 1994 Art.s.s R.ghlsSoce.y (AR5,,
wrilr hrr a rlirrk. In lirr --nr|il'i-r. ihr \rr\ lir-l |iri-nll In New York/ADAGP, Pons
227
Nouveau Realisme
8.6 Yves Klein, Leap into the Void, near Paris,

October 23, 1960.
Phologroph ic, by Horry Shunk. ji )994 Arlisis Rights Society (ARS|,
New York/ADAGP, Poris.
Ill l').')<) ill.- Bfl-ian aili-i P,,l Bmy puMi^li.-.l -.t ^n\uuu Kliin - iîihiieiiil al the lime, lieriiadelle Ulaiii. did -ee the
III Klrin- wiilinas. which are tilled wiili lii^ \iîiiii> nl leap hnt later remarked that hir a jndo black belt, trained to
ii^liri'iiiL' ill llie new ase of tele|ialh\. Ii\ iiaiimi. ainl lall w ithoiit injniing himself, it was not spectactilar.
iiiiiiiairrialil\ . Thi- |inMiraliiin iiilrn-ilii-ij Kleiii^ ruiiiinii- When Klein reported his feat he was ridiculed and
iiiriil III li\r ii|> III lii^ |ii(Mlaiiialiiiii~. I liiml miK -nM di>helie\fil. -.o in October he arranged another leap into the
iii\i-ililr |iaiiiiiiii:-.. lull III r-iahli-li hiri i-ilil iilil\ a- llie -k\ from (he second story of a binldiiiE; at an undisclosed
hii;lii--i iiiiiiali- ami \Ii-~-.i-iil;i-i- nl llir \i;i- nl 1 ,r\ iuiiiiiii. he Inraiinn in Paris. He selected a \isnallv unidentifiable sjtot
heiiaii |ilaiiiiiiiL; a |piililii- (leiiiiiii--liatii)ii ul IKiiiji. "He wa> acioss from a judo studio and ananged for a gioii]) of
"-lire he coiilcl IK. "
hi> irii'ltVieiid Rotiaut later reported. "He judokas whom he niisted to hold a taipaulin to catch him.
ii-eil 111 ii'll iiif that at one time niniik- knew luw to le^^tate. He then had the photographers create an altered photograph
and ha he w mild
I I <fet there Inn. 1 1 w a- ;iii nli-r-.-inii. Like a that ctit out the net and swore them to serrecv. On Simdav
lillle rhilil. he really wa-- cnininrfd he rnilld lid il."'" The \(i\cmber 2". P'hO. the magnificent picture of Kleins
aiii-i .lean Tingiielv. w Im lirraine liiemU w iili Klein in 1 ''.">">.
/,((;/; ;///(; t/ic laid captioned "The Painler of Sjiace
aUo remarked on that a-']iei i nl hi- iharactei : He read lliiiliiii: llim-eir liiin die \ old >
Tig.S.f) ap|>eared on the
<<iniir books and talked ahmii kiiii;lii-. and the Hoiv Grail. linni pai:e nf a rmii-page newspaper called Dimanche, le
I hn-e maixeloiis thing's rlial e\i-i in ilie world ot'a child --lill /oiiniii/ (/'ml sviil jour Snnr/cn: ihc nrirspa/)pr of a single
Wiilkeillnrhini. "" <l(i\- . which Klein crealeil and di-liiluited lo newsstands
Klein a-krd Pii-iie He-.|an\ In riiiiie In hi- a|iail llieill nil across Paris. Howevei' contri\ed ihe actual event, the
.laniiaiN 12. l'l(i(l Inr a mallei n| iiii|inilaiice. Re-Ian\ realization of this gestme expressed magnificently Klein s
airiveil lale in find ihi- aili-l nii hi- \\a\ hack Irnili a aesthetic ap])ro]iriatioii of all of space and ils contents. It
demnn-lralinii nl IKiiiiZ. Iini|)ini; -lii:lnl\ and in a -lale n|' was a -iniiiltaneouslv frightening and exhilarating anticipa-
ec-la-\ al haviiii: accnin[ili-lied ihr Iimi nl le\italinn! linii nf dematerialization into the womb of infinite space.
Re-Ianv \\a- inlended In lia\e liri-|l a crei |i| ilr witlie».
228
Klein's Demise
!''•>'' Kir 111 c.oi'd( Iracllilli; judo. Ii\ w liiili iiic-,iii~ lii' liail
III
bt'cii siippmtiiii; Ininsfll. His ix'aiiiiliil iniualdiiKiiiNi. '
as TiiimicK called il. vt'fii'd hirllitr nin i>| ( (inlml ;iMd ex en

liis r(-iatii)nslii|) wilii Holraiil ( aiiic luidri ^lic^^. l.iiK in
and Kl«>iii wen!

1^)()1 si If tor I\\ n iimiiili^ itioii \\ M'- a diâ^li r I li-- iniiod \\a^ dai ktiiiiiii. Hack in
Paris he slaiicd lo make \mlii(i|i(iiii(irics'" willi hlood: he

was |>n"(iccn|iicd willi death and a^ôciated il with his
proi:ie~~ iiiwaiil deiiialerializalioii. I lirn he receivefl news
that a .ia|iaiie-.e artist, iiiniieiiced li\ him. hail killed himself
liy lea|)iii<; frotii a high hiiil(liii<,' in Tok\(i on to a canvas. He
was also still suffeiini: I'rorii the hiitiiiliatiiif; portrayal in a
filin by Claude (^halirol of "an artist" making "Anthropo-
metries": clearK the lilni-maker did not see it as art.
iiotrant hecame pregnant at the end of the vear, and on
January 21. 1962 they had a magnificent church wedding
attended l>y the Knights of St. Sebastian in full dress. But in
the spring he suffered another stinging humiliation at the
when he went to see footage of himself
(Cannes Filtn Festival
making ".Anthropometries" in the film Mondo Cane and
found that he had been portrayed like a freak in a sideshow.
In mid May he suffered a heart attack after an agitated
public e.xchange on a panel at the Museum of Decorative .\rts
in Paris and on .Time 6. l''()2 his heart gave out, ending "The
Miiiioi hiiiinr \d\enture.
The Nouveaux Realisfes
The critic Pierre Restany and the artists Annan, Frangois

Diifrene. Rayiiiond Hains. Yves Klein, Martial Ravsse.
Daniel Spoenn. .lean Tinguely, and .Jacques de la Villegle
founded \oiire(iii Realisme (New Realism) in a inanifesto of
October 27. 1 960. issued from Yves Klein"s Paris apartment.
Clesar and Rotella were invited but not present, while Niki de
Saint -Phalle. an .\merican expatriate who later married 8.7 Arman, Large Bourgeois Refuse, 1 960. Trash in a glass box with
Tinguely. and Gerard Deschamps were also associatefl with wooden base, 25% x 15% x S'Ain (65.4 ' 40 - 8.3cm).
Collection, Jeanne-Claude Chnslo and Chnslo, New York. Photograph by eevo-inken,

these artists if not formally in the grouj). The young (Ihristo courtesy the artist. © 1 994 Artists Rights Society (ARS),New York/ADAGP, Paris.
was friendly with several of them and sharefl their inclina-
tion toward tlie a|)[)ro|)riation of the real environment,
8.8 (opposite) Jean Tinguely, Bolubo ///, 1 961 , Motor-driven
without e\er formallv joining the grou[). scrap metal, with feather, wire, rubber belts, bells, and electric light on
Wliereas Klein's aesthetic subsumed the entire cosmos. a wooden base, 4ft 8%in (1 .44m) high.
Annan created collections of cast-off earthly materials in his Collection, Museum Ludwig Koln. Photograph courtesy Rheinisches Bildarchiv, Koln. (C) 1994
Artists Rights Society (ARS). New York/ADAGP, Pons
Poul>elles" "Garbage (Jans'j [fig. 8.7]. For his famous
I
exhibition "Le Plein" ("Full Up") at the Galerie Iris Cilert in

1900. .\rman filled the gallery from floor to ceiling with assimilations involved wrapjiing and stacking collections of
accuimdated trash that he had found. The title suggests a found objects but they evolved into a broader attack on the
direct response to Klein's Le Vide. flefinition of art. to which we will return in Chapter 1 1 Niki .
Ce.sar became famous for compressing whole auto- de Saint-Phalle and Martial Raysse took French assemblage
mobiles into cnished blocks of supercondensed junk metal. in the direction of pop art.
Rotella. Diifrene. and de la Villegle made their compositions .lean Tinguely — after Klein, the most iiiijiortant sigiia-
by learingoff layers of commercial posters that hadaccumu- toiT of the Nouredii Realisme manifesto — evolved a junk art
latefl on top of one another; Spoerri. Deschamps, and Hains aesthetic[fig. 8.8] from an interest in motion and iin-
assimilated other kinds of found inaterials. f^hristo's permanence. accident, and indejtrniiiiacv. V^ ilh an ironic
229
Nouveau Realisme
230
i(iiiiii(la-iii. himt'ia-iiuitic- wt-n- iniiiicallx I'l .
8.9 Jean Tinguely, Homage to Nev.- York, 960. Self-destruding

1
maciiiiies that meclituiicalK |iaiiit«*fl "abArfaci fX|)re-->i(niist"
garden of The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
installation in the
piciure>. OtlitT work^ iiiM)ived radio-, hght-. and motorized Pfotogropr 5 oyDovioGchr, c 1994 Arfisis Rights SocieTy :ARS;, New York. ADAGP, Pons.
mecliani?m.- litat jerked ihi? wa\ and that in an energetic
display of |iointh>>s activiiv. Often he even invitetl the
\iewer to paniii|iate in hir. fanii\al-nke «'ontTa|iiion-. machine. B\ accident he had attached the belt backward- on
ni.- iiio.-t relel)rated triiiniph wa? h\> Hoiihi'M' to \eir the paper roll for the paiming machine: it immediately rolled
York fiti. 8.*^) whidi. alter e\ten?ive negotiation, tlie the i:ia]ier uj) and Itetran flaj^ping instead of making "auto-
.Muêimi of .\hidern Art agreeii to have inaugtnaied in it- niaric drawini:-. From there the whole conn-a|)rion took on
?ciilptin-e garden on March 1~. l''()0. Homage war. a giant an un|>redictal)le life of it- owni. like all Tinguelv machines.
tiiotorizedjunk as-einl>lage wliicli included a weatlier bal- It created a n-emendou- din and (lames liegan to emerge
loon, a klaxon horn. fift\ l)i<\cle wheels, a |)iano. chemical? from the piano, where a can of gasoline had been set to
that emitted iiomble -mell- and ^moke at some ini|)re<lict- ovemmi on a Imrning candle. Then, as CâKHn Tomkins
able moment, and tliotors. He painted the entire construc- recounted it. a '-mall cairiage suddenly shot om from under
tion white because, a- he conl"ided to Peter Selz the cm-ator the piano, it- kla.xon -hrieking. an<l r-moke and flames
in charge . he wanted the Hnnut'jv to be so beamiful that ])ounng from its rear end. It heafled -traight for the
peo|)le wouhl be distnavefl when it began to de-trov ii?elf audience, carotnefi off a |ihotogra]ilier and rammed - l)ag.
which it wa? desigtied to do .' into a ladder on which a con"esponflem {or ParU-Match was
Tlie Muieiim ga\e him use of the Biickmiii-ier fuller -tauding: he couraiieouslv de.-cended. turned it around, and
"'^
dome, then in the garden, and he w<irked imder there in the >ent it -ciutling into the NBC sound eijuipmem. Things
chilling New ^ ork weather for three weeks. Dr. Richard got sufficiently out of control to frighten miisemn officials,
HueKenbeck. the Berlin dadai>i who had sub.-e<[ueinlv who \isnalized the entire building on tue. and callefl in
become a psvchiairist in New \ ork. introduced Tinguely to a firemen to <piench the blaze.
crowd of like-minded ani-t-. including Rau-chenberg. I'll tell vou w hat- going to hajipen.'' Marcel Duchamp
Stankiewicz. and Chamberlain, to cheer him on. Rau-clien- amiounced. "The public w ill keep on buying more and more
bers e\fn produced a machine thai threw monev. to bi- -ei art. and luir-band? w ill stan bringing home little ])aintings to
pan of the event.
off as their wives on their way home from work, and we feall going
The jiisrht of the inauguratioti war- cold and drizzK. to drown in a sea of mediocrity. Mavbe Tinguely and a few
Watched bv the Ciovemor of New \ork along with \ annus other- sen>e this and are ir\ini£ to desrrov an before it :
'^
diirniiaries and -ocialite- in black tie. Tini'iielv -taried die too late."
231
Joseph Beuys
Joseph Beuys
ariccil ;nl in llic ilividrd pdîwiif iri-
The (•<-iili-r l(ir :i(l\ (
Revealing the Animism in Nature
iiKinx and Dn-.-ldml, ..n dir ,i\i^ (il die
r\,,|\r,l in Kr.lii
indn-li iai Kid ami Nnrdi Khiiir \ alli\ - ivik ail dinnin-
ii I li
Brii\-- diawinr- air nut alliaiiivr in Iniiiial Inins [I'jir.
ali'd die (.rnnan -ccnc iiiilil well nihi lln' lillic^. lir I i"> HI . I lir\ ^ll'ikr dir \irwr|- a- nnlalinii- nf an iiMiioillg
(•\|j| rvî,iiii~iir ii~c III nialniaU in /(/// inlniiiifl and lln- llnw nl iilras. frariiinil^ nl a |in|irlnal w ink -iii-|ifi)gress
i!c>liiral ilidi\ idnalilv i iT /(((7//s//(r |
ik i\ k Ird llic(niiic\l Ini whiili wa- hi- lilr. K\ r\lrn-iiill llir ail iiliini iin Iniiger
till- ircc|iiiiin III WiiU riL;.li.4 . llir niii-l adinnrd iirw -1.1 ml- mi 11- nw II lull lakr- mi il> signiliranrr a- an arriiacl
(irrinan ani-l nl llir |irriiiil. I lini \iiiriiraii alisiiarl III ihr aili-lir arlimi dial |iriidmril il. Eacil ohjcct by Rni\s
r\|iii'--.iiiniîii aiii\i-il. |iii<liiiiiidl\ iid Iih-ik ini: Imdi ali--(iaii ha- an alinn-l airhariiliiriral rhararler witll a xague sniM' nl'
and liiiiiralix I- |iainliiii;. In l''i~. ^ \ r^ klriii aUn lirranir laniilial n nil ml inn willi llir Nmi lirrii I.in'ii|ii'aii iiu lliiilni;\
w rll know II in Kill 1 1 and Dii>->rliliii I. w lin.- In- iii^|iirrd I Iriii/ .iild Inlklmr dial inlrir-lnl Inill -ilirr hi- -rl |ila\-.
Mark. (.Illllri- I rkr|- 11-. jOJ,", , -illil Ollii I'liaii- In riiMIld I III Brin-. aiiinial- li.id -|inial -ii;iiil iraiirr. -.\inlioiiz-
llir L:riiii|i /.rill' in i''.")i'l. Hnl .|iisr|ili |{cn\^ \\a^ llir lir^l inr a dii'rri miiiirrlimi willi llir lir\iiml linili lilnalK and
aili^l 111 riiii-ii;r in |iii^l\\ai ( .iTinain and arliirxi- inlrrnalii m- lii:iir.ili\ rl\ . He inuiiiiiifd llir ^tai; and llir hair lra\ rr.sing
al I i-|rlilil\ lia-ril, ni laiLir inraînr. mi llir all I liriil iril\ nl llir jilaiii nl' Ijirahia. uncniiscioiis of'di.staiKr and rmi\riiti(in-
llir r\| ill II a inn nl
I lii> ( .rll nan idriil il\ .
\-- rai l\ a^ Km nan al 1 iilaiir-. linking tlieves In tlir far >lr|i|ir- III ( :|iiiia. On
linii-^. iiliî-i \rr-- lia\r mi i--i>lriil l\ inninirnlrd mi llir in\>- : dm lr\rl. die figlire.S of ihr hni-r. llir -lag. llir ^waii
Iiri^ni and llir ^rii^r nl rlnînr^^ Willi naliiir III (.rnnan and ihr liarr mn-laillK rniiM' and g(i: fignro whirli |ia--i
rilllinr. iinlli air irnlial In llir wiilk iiT Hrll\^. llrrK Inn lr\ rl iirr\i-lriii-e to anotll(M\ wllirll rr|iir-rill
Km n ill I
'•_' I. Hri i\ ^ r|r\\ n|i III ihr --I nail Inw II III ( 1r\r^. llir inranialinn nl llir -mil nr the eartllK fnrin nl -|iiiiiiial
iirai llir Diiirli limilri. \^ an adnlr-iriil lir ran .iwax willi lirilir- w nil arrr-- In nllirr rrrimi.-. ''
dir III 111- and Irai nrd In |iri im III -I iiiil -. Ilirii al ninrlrrn lir Bni\ - - rr|rriiiiii nl malrriali-iii in la\iir nl an r—n ilia I
|nlliril lllllrr- 1 .1/// liii/jc . ( rllaill liaiinia- a--iiiialril willl -{ iinl ii.'ilil\ -Inn- {rmii llir ( .ri'inan I'nnianlir l radii inn in ail.
dir w ai 1 I rain! an iiilrrii.il i li-i- Inr Kriix - dial i rni.nnrd a I a- dnr- hi- |iiilidriiiii- -\ I ill ml i-lil — I ml h nl w hiili lir |ia--.rd
dir llirina I ii I nrr III 1 1 i- a rli-lir r, I irri. In I

lailiri liar. Ill- nil 111 nil In \ll-rllll Kirlrl ami .liili: I 111 1 1 in idiill I , hi- Iwn nln^l
irriiiinlrd llir -liir\ iiT a |ilaiir i la^li III I
'•-(.! ill a -I Inw >lnl III
ii\ rl ( linira. Iiiiw nil dir Kii-.-.iaii and ( a riiiaii Irmil-. Mi-
iniii|iali inl- Liaxr liiiii iiji Im drad, linl nmnadir I arlai-
rr-i iird liiiii. rii\ riiii:^ Iniii III animal l.il and la\ rl- nl Irll In 8.10 Joseph Beuys, Astral Chemical Goddess, 1974. Pencil on
paper, 10 10' sin (2.54 ^ 26.7cm).
f.li-r hi- liiiiK lriil|irialnir. W lirlliri Inir m mil. llir -liiix
>•
Courtesy Anthony d'Offay Gollery, London, ici 1 994 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/VG
|irii\ idr- a kr\ In I lir all l-l - ir i:ia|ill\ .
Bild-Kunst, Bonn
In \'H~ Krnx-rinnllrd III dir I )n--idili H I \ll \iailrillS.
Inn II \\a- mil niilil I'H'I dial llir -rn-r nl lianina."

arrmilinr in ihr an lii-lmian ( anilinr ii-ilall. Iirraiiir a
iral illiir--. llir -ra-mi in lirll lliriiiiL:li wliirli r\ri\ riralixr

|iri-mi inil-l l;ii. \- Krii\- r\|ilailird In lirr; "
llir |iii-ili\r
a-|irrl iif dli- i- llir -la 11 iif a lirw llir. 11 ir w liiilr lliiiiL; i- a
din .l|irii(ir |iinir--. Inr llir il w a- a I II nr w lir n I irali/rd llir
{lail llir aili-l ran |il;i\ in indiralinr dir liainiia- nl a liinr

and iiiilialini: a liralini; |iiiirr--. '"
( .1-1 Ilia II- ll\ nl an a-rrlir lilr allri llir war. w llii ll Kril\ -
iniii'iiird ill llir nidinirnlaiA niiilind- ami inalrnal- nl' lii-
an iiiniilalimi- and -miirlinir- li\ la-liiir lirlmr |irilnniiinr

hi- ail aclinli-. '
Miri a ilr\ a-Lilin;: -lildin r\|iln-iiiii ill
I ''•)-+. Kril\ - - 1 1 in 11 a I mm 111 n in lirâil In ill-illlri:ialr '
aii.iin. In I''.").") hr ili-a| i| irai nl li I )ii— rldm T In w mk in
llir miinlrx — inilinr in (hr lirld-. -Inllinr iiiainirr in ihr

-lalilr-. and li\ hi- nwil ilr-rii|il inn diiiiii; "a Inl nl
"
w hilrw a-liii|r. '

"
-\ ml inliial l\ rlraii-iiiL; awa\ IrrliiiL;- nl'
L:iiih and an\iii\. Ihr diawinr- willi wliirli Krn\- ir-

.i|i|irairil al llir rild nl llir lillir- dr-nilird mil iili|nl- lull
mnilal |iinrr--r-. an nn|iliaî-. dial lirranir a rliaiailrri^lic

111 In- ail.
232
inin (Ifcliiif lliioui.'li ilii\ rr/calnii- ^(iri-jii-m nnilri in- iIm-
|ilnlii~ii|ili\ iiT .|ii-c|ili lirn\ ~. Iii-ii\ - w ;inliil In- ;ii'l ;iri inn- i.i
inlii'-- ihc irnlialanir \iri/-iiii- |><iinh'<| ,n[\ liriwirn iln'
ml ml i\ I'.
I
>a--ii iiKilr. in ,il ii iiuil -mil i ij iiKniLiin I -\ nil n iIi/imI
lor liriiN- in iiniiiKil- anil ri| n.-.-iilri I m \iri/-ilir .1- ilic
l)iMii\-ian ami llu- |"i\\irnl alp-lra.i iln.imlii ami

inliilcrl. llii- >iirialli iiiiml llic \| m ill iiii.ni 111 \iii/-(iir -
laiiii III- (liiiii III iiii\ .
BrllN-- /,// ( Iniir Il-.;'i.l2 iillrl- lllrIa|i||M|- 1,11 iln-
|llii(r-- III lrilr|ll|il inn. Illr rliail riilllnnil- In lllllliail
aiialniin and niiln , i al -iiinilir- rlian- linaii-i- il iiin In i;i "-

lailiral im-laiiinr |
ilm-i'- Willi -iiliilr -lull- in liiii| irraliiri-.
""
I III l!rii\-. I'N ri \ lliiiii: 1- III a \/(//c (// c/iiiiiLti- ami ilir
I r-ilhilii: liiaii- r.ill lia\ r a Ili-alillL; rliararln .

"
I Ir -rr- all
ana Inn |ni -|iii il iialilx in ilir |ia--aL:i- nl la I In mi niu- -lair In

alliillii r — lliali-. llir |inlrnlial tnr -|iinllial II all-i i-mlrlirc in
II Kill, ^niiir iiT Brin - - lian-ri'mlrnlali-in iiia\ rniiir I ml 11 lli-
mli-|i--l in llir w liliiiL:- iiT till- nil n-nl-llii-i riiliii\ ( liii-liaii
iil\-lir RmlnllMrinri .-'

Imli-cil. Iîii\- - wnnli-n Irll lial ami
li-lii-rinan - jarLi-l w liirll lir w 1 u r al all I iim-^ iiia\ Imllilir
8.1 1 Joseph Beuys, Stag Hunt, 1 961 Mixed media,

Wooden
8.12 Joseph Beoys,
.
Faf Choir, 1964. chair with fat, -
6ftl0^sin 6ft2-=in 3ft S^sin 12.1 >'

1 .9 ^ Im). '
3538 X IP, ..
IPîn (89.8 X 29.8 X 29.8cm).
^ '1 '
HessischesLondesmuseum.Darmsladt. c 1994A^1lslsRlgblsSoClefyIARSl,NewYo^k'VGBlld-
Kunsl, Bonn
dll.'d -imii-iil-. Ill S/dii- Hunt rii;.;'..ll . rarli dilTiTt'ilt
eicillfiir -t-rin- in riri-i\i- ami iian-inil |pariiriilar -|iiiinial

im|>iil-f-. iinkiiii: ii|i w illi mir aiinlln-r in -niiir rn-inic unity.
From Ixniiood. Bcin ~ liad iiiadi- cnl In 111111- nl w liai -crnii-d
sui)j('(liv('lv iiiosi it'|i-\aiit In jiarliiiilar [ilaci-^. I Ic âid liiat
tlifx- accimnilalion-. ranged iVoiii lii't'ties. micf. rat-^. frogs.

""
fi>li. and nif> Id (ill! airriculnnal matiiinen . pit- figuring
tiit'cnigiiialiialU riliiali-iic nidrriiiL'- citV>otfric inali'rial- in

lii> nialnii" work.
Bt'liv> souglil 111 liriiii.' In llii- -iiilair lln- I laininlal
relation>lii]i of |>co|ili> to ami inaLlir. Ir luiirx id dial
iii\ tli I
inodcrn -cii-miaii<l li'cluiologv had nli-riin-d dial rnimn-

lion willi a iiaiinw rationalil\. and In- waiiiid m rmii li
scifiiiitic inctliods witli a |)o\\irlii! aia\i-iii knowledge.
Ben\> had a keen eai-|\ intere-l in î inn e and dr-i rilied a
linning |)oinl in a leetnre lie allemled at ilniii\ri-ily nl I
Po>en during the war. given li\ 'a |iiofe--iii wlm had -|ieiii
hi> whole lil'e pondering a conple of i'nzzv iiiiaL:i- nl -iiii;ie
<eil> somewhere lietween |ilant and aiiinial -tnntine ... in 1
still hatnued liv the image of llin-e little ainneljae mi that

""'
blackhoard. File narrow tie--- nl the |iiiire--ni- Incn-
slioiked Beu\> into the realization thai he hini-ell had not
engaged life in a more meaningliil w a\ . Later, diirini; hi^ ai t
actions of the sixties and r'e\entie>. lie oli-i--i\ il\ drew

amoebae-like forms on hlaekl)oard> fig.J'i.l) . a- though
perfonning a homeoj)atliic e.xorcisiii healing like w iili like
of this traiiinatic revelation.

Nietz-elii - de>cri|(tion of inndern -minx a- hurtling
233
Joseph Beuys
8.13 Joseph Beuys, The Chief— Fluxus

Chant, December 964 (first performed
1 , 1
Copenhagen, 963). Action, approximately nine

1
hours, Rene Block Gallery, Berlin, showing the

artist wrapped in a roll of felt approximately 7ft
4' iin (2.25m) long with two dead hares at either
end and a microphone inside connected to

external speakers; along the baseboard of the
wall at left a strip of fat and above hanging on it
the wall (out of photograph) a tuft of hair and

two fingernails; in the corner a wedge of fat
where two walls and the floor meet; next to
Beuys on the floor a second roll of felt around a
copper rod with another capper rod leaning
against the wall,
c 1 994 Artists Rights Society (AR51, New York/VG Bild-Kunsl,
( liri~liail ivlrivih I--. -\iiil"ili/iii- [\\r li-li înil lllr 1 .;illlli nl Brn\- lir-l jirrlnnned Tlir ( liirj — Hiliiis ( limil in
c;o,i. ( 1^03 and tiien npcMii-d

o])enhai;eii in at the Rent' Block it
Ill l''()l llli- kllll-lakjdi'llllr III l)ll~~rliliil I a|i|i(iinlc(l Gallervin Berlinavear later [fiii.il. |.') lii^nine-hourevent . I
Briu-- prol'e.s.sor of niomiiui'iiial -. iiI|ihi]c. \ ilii;i(lc Lini. was an expressionistic rittial using the artist s body a- a
,iiiii<lst acciisations of cleiiiaiiniiiirix . the Vcaili-iin ill-ini-^fil ])SVchologicallv charged material for sculpture. 1 he \ lew I'r
liiiii I li- riiiiiiii\eisial career as a teacher not onlyeclioeil the entered bv wav of an adjacent room and looked in to see a roll
;i(l\ iiiiinr III In- art hut l)t>loiii;f(l incxtricabh' to it. He rlirl of felt, which enshrouded a seemingly lifeless human body
lint iii;iiiiKiiii ilif idiiM'iiliiiiial liiriarcln nl -liiilcnl ami Beii\- l\ ingiiii the floor. The si iff cor] p>es of two deaf I hai'es
|iiii|i---in . iKirdiil In- icarh ail in llic nminal -i-n-c. In-li'ail. rxlcndcd Ikhii and againÎ the
die roll at either end.
Ill- lalkc(l in an inliinalc \\a\ In lii- ^tuileiu^ aliiiiil Ininla- ba-ebiiaid iiie wall ran a long stri]) of fat. Fat was also
iiii-nlal ai--lhi-lic ami lininan |in i|i|t'in>. nieilindii alK weilged into two corners of the room, where the
walls and lli>nr met. and on one wall hung txvo fingernails
I.dcli inrsdii imisl /Klin/ mil /lie iidv liiifunls
and a mil nl ban Two copper roib lolled in felt and various
.
iiiitlini/i(ili)ui((il iiii(lirs/iiiiiliiiLi l/iniii<jli Ins Jic/d nj iriirk.

wires also la\ about. Through a inicinplinne in-ide the felt
Thill irliiil llfr IS iiiinliril irilli —/iiililics Inn. Ij'niic nfiny
roll BeuvMiiade -onnds that tela led m In- iiiiml, m the hares
'.V
sl I II /fills si inn III nil r ilny irnr Inr i liililrrii ni n liiilir liny,
and the call n| die -tag: -peaker- limadca-t (lie- -oimds in the
llirii fur iiir I lull is iiinrr iiiij inrlnnl I linn /iisl linrnnj IiiiiliIiI n
Liallerv and niii nii to the -Heel. In eniiira-t In these animal
urrnl nrlisl . . . mi niiil llir /irn r/ilmns uniiinl lliminjli mi
call-, tapes of modern inii-ic pla\i-il ai irregular inteivals.
inn irrnir mi rlriiirnl nf Inn kflnir iiitn li/i'.~
In 1^64 main part- nl i5erlin -illl had a primitive.
bnnilied-niii at iin-iiliere. accentuated by the Vi'all erected
I
The Artist as Shaman in l''()l which cut through the heart of the cit)- like a crude
.
;:a-li rile ])rimal disarrax of tlii- and indeed all Beuys

|irr-rnlril In- lii-1 {inlilii' |iei-foriiiami- in i-liinai\
Brii\- I
|iertniiiiaiices' has to do willi a -eii-e n| prnfnund injury as

!''()-) u- part of ihf "I r-i f lu.xoriini llu.\u^ wliich
embodied in die face of postwar Berlin and in the niemoiies
lir iirtranized at the Staailirhc Knn-takademie in Diisseldorf.
of the arii-i - experience in Crimea. '
riieie i- certainly an
I'll lormances or. as lie rallnl ihem. "actions." instantly
e.-liunrilienninad-in rili'C Inrf he lell.vled.
In ranie his principal nuilnnn I In- objects he made took on
iliiir meaning in relation in liiher proposed or realized iuhI sniiictliiiiu: Liirasimi in tin: Iriiiisimssinn nf I lie sninnls nf
ariidii-. Benvs planned the objects and sequence of the the stag nut on to the .still-rninefl .streets of that part ofBerlin
pii fill niances ahead of time in a "score, alwav- in\cil\iiiL; . . . The C^hief iras above all an important sound piece. The
-uiiml III a central wav. His delilterate u>e i>\ dir inn-iral niin iiinsi recurrent .wand was deep in the llimnt mid hoarse like
/imiilnr nr -core: instead of "-ci-i|)t" hail m du wiili liiir\of the stag: do. This is n /irininry sniiiid. reaching far
till-
alliailinii III I liiMi-, die raiK -ixlir- |

iciliirniaiici' inn\c- hnrk rill- sniinils I iiinkr nrc Inkrii innsiiniisly frniii
. . .
ini'iil llial iiiiiînalrd mil nl new iini--ic: .jnlin ( ai;i- and \ain innniiils. I see il as a irny nf iniiinig niln cniitiirt irilh nlher
.liim- Paik had -r\ ihc pn-ci-di-iit for perforniaiicr- in a forms ofe.ristence. beyond llir Inniimi nnpresence there . . .
(iinrril fiiinial. \ri i5(ii\- - pi-ilunnances ne\iT had (he in the felt iras like that nf n inrnrr irnri: attempting to
riiiiiii.iiial iii-iiiralit\ nl a I lii\ii- r\ ciii. switch offm\-oicn species' rnngc of sciiinntics.
234
1 lie |iiiiiil \\;i» 111 icacli -uiiii' |iriiriiiiriil iii~liiiilii;il nv l'hIiI |>il.'iii(Ml. linl :i ^li-il -nlr nii In hi- liL'lil -linr ami a till
ala\i--lii' li'\i-l nl i-\]it'rii'lH'r. -o Imiilaiiu-Illal a- in [iriTrili' >nliin lii~ Irll In lr|nrî-ill haul ira^nii anil -|iirinial
lailiriuijie. I If wi'iil oil: waniilli . ami linn -|iinl llinr I i - îlrnlK i illnnii
r\| ilaiKi H I- iiT 111- liil 1-~ In a ji-ai II la r ir
,
II l(ik('x
,
...
I
II lilt (If
,,
,
.
I- I-
(lisrinlinc to (irniil //(iiiichinu
, ,
•;
., ^.
;•
' .
III siicli
;
;
(I
•; anil.
...
I 111-
I ii
w nik
, .
i~ mill
| 11 1
iTiii-il
i
Willi
i
i i
iliiiiii-li'\ami'
I
i
I lial I
111
.1
lii'li
i-\|ilaiia-
I ill i nii'
nmdilioii. Ilmitiii>r empty iiiKltlfioKl of finolioii (ind iritlioiit

an
, , ,
.,-,.',. V I / (
'
/ ; Iinii~ 111 anil Willi niiciiiiii; niMiiiililiicaliiiii In llii' iinii-
utctilic cliiii.stronluiliiii or ntiin. lor nine
', •
Icvliiiir.'^ ()l
//«' .iiiiiiv jiosilioii.

:.,,,
Siirli
'
(III (ictioii. (111(1

, ',
iiidccd (^rcrydclion
,
lioiir.'i III
raliniial
,
w mill
,,
nl
, ,
ill.' -niil
1 11
I
'
liiiim i-nilinilir- a
1 i. i..
lili' Innr ami
, i
a
iiicta|>lini Inr ill.- |irniliiri- 111 rriali\il\ in liiin- - rn-ninl-
c/iiinisc.'i iiir nidicdih: In a inn' it \ dcdtli. a ivol iirtioii mid
<li;\. I 111- lll\~ll-nnll^ imiri'-^ ||\ wimll lllr liri'~ innilnrr il
not III! iiitt'niivtdtioii. .
1 •
.1liTumliu ami ami
I 1 I , 1
r\iikr^ llii' iiliM- nl 1 lan-lnnnalinii

Tliii> till' aitiiili iine^ lii'vniiii iiiila|ilini iiiln real i\|nTi- [(rn\ iiji- a |iarallil In llu' rri'aii\ >• iii\ -li r\ nl ihr aili-l. mil a-
I'lUT. M'fkillir In evoke tiaii>roniUili\e iii-ii.'lil- llial |pri- nliji'ii -maker liiil lallier a-- a inediiiiii nl r-nli rie kiinw leiJL'e.
paie llie indiviilnal lor a iieiuiiiie >|iirinial exoliiiioii. Bein - lêiix -. i\|ilaiiiiil. "W lien 1 aiijiear a- a kiml nl -liaiiiaiii>lii-
(oneliitleil: liiiine. nr allmie In ii. I iln il in -ire-^ iii\ lieiiel in nilier

"
uimiiie-.
Tniii.tforiiKitioii.t of the .<elf iiiiist f'lr.'it lokc /dace in the
I nr 15eii\ - all rrealix e lliiiiii;lil w ,i~ an. In I In- -a I lie wax
/)ott'iiti(d of tliouiilit (iiid mind . . . '/'/icn' is no other
i)ossihiht\
',.
little
, .,
considered
III iiiv iin(h^r.^t(infhn<j.
•
, ,, . .'
I1V Mar.r. for instdiiee. I lie ideii of

(ind this inis i>erhiii)s too
.,,, ., .
llial
man
llie
w a- a
....
(.eriiian rninaiilir jmei \n\ali- rlaiineil llial
iinel. I>eii\
.
-
,
waiileil In iniinleiacl llie iiNerlialam

111 e\i-i'\
1 1
ralimialin ilerlarini; "r\ei\

1
in rniilriii|iiiiar\ ~niiel\ li\
rerotntion coiiiiiii^from outer conditions, in tlie indiistridl
one an aili-l. ' >iiirr earli im li\ ii Inal 1 an I mm I lln- lial ni r n|
field or the so-cidled redtityof economic conditions, con
exi^leiire w illiiii liiiii-i-ll nr liri^rll 1 1\ 1111 1 1
1>| ini mn — an ii Ira
nerer lend to a rerotiitiondnstep niifess tlie trdnsfoniidtion
Beiiv- liink Irnlll ."îlini lenllailer — earl 1 i~ llierrlnrr al~n
of soul, mind diid iritt power Iids Uikeii pldce.''
ra|ialile nl rrraliiii; a ie\ nliiiiniiaix ilialni; lielweeii all
rrealixe tliinirlii ami real exeiii-. I liii- an -eiAe^ a- a
Art as the Creative Life of the Mind iioiitiraiK lii.eraiin^ tnivr-|,rri,a|,~. a~ wmn. rmn, nn-
l.rn \lairn-.rlnllarn|i|Hi,.rlllirr::lia\r-lirrr-lr,l.nnrntlll,-
— ileliheraleK -elerleil iw enlielli niiK nnr^ Irll in a niri lia-i Inniiiialril -.nrielx
Onaimixerân .IliK 1^0. l''()4
ol tile failed allein|>l 10 a~â^-iiiale

a-- llie
1 liiler —
\
Biiix-.
iaiilr
made a leli-coxered |iiaiiii Inr a |)erliiriiiaiiee nl

.
Beuv-- iierloriiied ail ail aeiioii in die Cailiedial ai Aachen. !'•()() eiiiiiled Infiltrdtioii-Homo'M'n for (irniid Pkiiui. ttie
Till:- perrormaiiee involved l'illiiii;a iiiaiid ]iiaiio w illi \ariou- (iredtesi Contem/xinin- C(jm/wser is tlie Tlid/idomn/c ( liild.
inalerials. inelliniisoine l)loek- ol lal. and iheii raiîiii; a lell- llie fell -.kin lra|i|ieil llie >oiiml of die |iiaiiii iii--ide. ami die
w ra|>|ied eo|)|ier rod over ills head. Al lliai inninenl. liefore red n n~-r^ w liirli Bniv ~ |ilarril mi ilir flank- w nr in imlii-ale
he could liiii>li die action, ritrhl-winr -imleiil- ni-hed rlie an rnirirrm\. W lieiea- lai inlihialr- niliei inainial-. — in
-lai;e and allackefl him hard in the face.
liini. One -tudeiil hit ilie in -la la where Beuys placed lal ii|i airain-i die wall
I lion-
inakinu hi- nose Bleed drainaticalK and the police had to lie . nm- an leadiU -ee it soaked up into the pla-iri — Irli ali-ni li-
1
called to -toji a riot from en-iiiii!.'. e\ri \ ihiiii: — lal. din. water, and -mind. Inr Briix- the
After thai incident. Beiiv- liecaiiie iiinir dinciK pnl ideal -mind. -\ nilinliralK lirld in llir ]iiaiin |i\ iln- fell, nllrred a
in hi- \xork. In particular, he lampairnrd Inr a ;:eiuiiiir ninaphm lni ilir imicli-di-rii--ril iraiiriK n| ihr rliildrrii
democracv in xx liich the iiiialiiiiied \nier w mild liaxe a real w Im -nirrnil Innh drirci- caii-ed li\ ihr drii:: ihaliilmimlr.
\«>ice. Thi- -hilt paralleled the nioxe in Western -ocierv al ii-nl w idiK in l,iirn]ir in the filiir- m aljrxiair 1 iiiiii.'
laiiie loxx aid |iolitical actixi-in and unrest in (he late si.xtie-. -ickiu-- in picL;iiaiicx. I heir iiialiiliix in Irad iiminal lixe-
associated xxitli iridxîttir jirotests aiiainst the .\iiiericaii uaxe ri-e in ihr imin nninnil thai Brin - lielieved necessary
involxt-ment in \ ietnani. Beiix-- lomided the (lernnfn Stu- forcrealix il\ . I liii- llir hll nliirci- iiiipK warmth, protection
dent I'artx in U'l)"? the precursor to the (ireeii I'artv : in from mii-idr di-ini haiicr-. ami -ilrm r. Inn al-n i-nlaiinii. an
l*'~(l he created the Ortranizatioii for Direct Deiiiocracx: and inaiiililx m cmiiimmirair. and pnw rilr--iie--. \- wiih lii-
after hisdismis-al from the Diisseldorf .\rt Vcademx in I''~'J delilieraie e\ oca lion nf ihc Nazi- lirn- ai:,iiii Briix - innk mi a
hi- art actions increasiiij;lv le-einhled eccentric lecture- mi -iilijecl -n eiiiniiniiallv chaiiied dial ihr iiinr inriiii t il
social anil |iolitical issue.-. .\t the inlernational Dokiinienta (> ;;reallx di-tre-sed his audience-.
e.xhihition of I')"" he esiahli-hed a Free Inleniational The /'nek oW^H)^' fig.8.l4 -w niiv -l.d- i-iiini:
iili ixx
liiiversilx. xxitli non^to|» di-cii— imimi nuclear enerirv. mil nl die liaik nf a \ nlk-w a^'m Im- — ha- a -eii-r nl iir;:eiiiy
einialitv lor xxomen. glolial jioliiic-. \orilierii Ireland, and alimii ii. iiiipUinr pan iii\a-inii. |iari r-rape in -invixal.
other topical issues. I.acli -led cairie- a mil nf felt Inr waiinlh. lal Inr nmn i-h-
Beiixs had hi- firr-t one-peison exliiliition. a- -iicli. in iiieiii. ami wa\ h i- imi niijx mir nl ihr
a lla-hli^hl to find the .
1')()-") at tile Galefie Schniela in Diisseldorf. and h>r tlie arii-i- iiin-i exocalixe xxork.- but a market landmark a- will:
opetiiiii; he flevised a peiformance entitled To E.vpldin
/ hiir it -old in l"l|)<) for over 100. 000 marks, making' it nin|iai- 1
Pictiiies To 1 Dedfl Ihire. lie cox ered hi- head ill linnex and :il ilr in |irice ma iliajnr Raii-cheiil.ri l' nr inhn- at die lime.
235
Joseph Beuys
8.14 Joseph Beuys, The Pack,

1 969. Volkswagen bus with twenty
sleds, each carrying felt, fat, and o
flashlight, dinnensions vary.
Collection. Neue Gallery. Stoaliiche Museen.
Kossel. Ptiotogropti byMary Donlon, c Ttie Solomon
R. Guggenheim Foundolion, New York, c 1994 Artists
Riglits Society (ARS), NewYork/VGBild-Kunst, Bonn,
8.15 Joseph Beuys lecturing i
New York in 1974.

Photograpti cthe Estote of Peter Moore.
236
III IVIiniiiiA !''"'(). iil'ti'ra L:i';i\r illiic~~ in llir |iircc(liiii: lia> |ireori-ii|iii'd (aainan^ of Heiixs-. Lieiieralicin. and
-iimriic-i-. HcMV^ a^xMiililcd nin- <•{ lii~ inn^l 11,11:11 Jinl d II I 111 l; 1 1 In ^ an Hrii\ ~ ûni^lii m lira! die liainna li\ reii| iriiini;
(listurliiim iii-lallaiiiui-. S/niir )(iiir 11 im/nL 1 \r -n iIh- |iii

n- dir wiiiiink (lure aiiaili die wniind nl ( Ini^l iiia\ lir a
ill a baiTt'ii rmiciiii- |ia-âi;i'\\ a\ iiihIci' a «iirri in Miiiiirli, ^lllui'Miial irleieiiec ill dii> w ink.
Slioif Yitlir II (;////(/ ri'lalf-. a- In- -anl in nlii iikc lu an rai lii 1 Mill I'l".! Brii\^ did inmr and nime leeliiiini;. 1 le
work, to "tlie wound or irauina lAiiirnin id li\ i\ 11 \ |i(r -on I

II I iiii|ilri I inleii~i- ^r>siiin~ 111 |iiilniral iiiiiêiiinîir---iai-ini:
a> the\ ciiiiit' into <-oiiIaci w idi ilir liaid inana lal rdiidn mn- a Inn 1^1 like l;i 1 ni] i-dieia| i\ ê-îi ni^ draw iiii; diai: rani-- and
of tilt- wiirld diioui:ll liirili. " ml u nni:ln lir adilid. llni'nL;li iiiilalinii-- nil lilai klinanl- In |iniirliialr lii^ iiii| la-^mned
protoiind |)>\cliii- injnr\ . 1 In- ii|i|i'ii — nmiinaiN i,iMi~, drll\ei\ ri-.;'i.|."i . \~eaiK a- l'»(i.'. HiMi\-ii-ed|,|a. klinaiiK
filters and glass jai-. liallciic~. lal. and a |iaii nl old dnir- In eai'l'\ illlnrnialinn dial lie rmild eliailLie in die eniii'^r nl a
proniZi'il |>ilciifork- willi lln- crnii'i' ihmiim luiikrn mil — I
lerlnniianre. lull llie\ lii^l arliievnl an iiide| leiideni ^laln-.
create a •nllnioii-. a(niii~|ilii-ri-. I lie |iri-iailaiinn nl r\r\\- a- nlijiTl~ ill |iellnllllallie^ nl l''(i(l like LlllilSKI and
tliini: in |iaii~ r\(i'|ii iln- ~knll nl a iliiii^li riiiri 1:111:; Innii a lii/il/idliiiii-J /iiiiKitsni fill (iniiiil I'liiini. I lii~ ^liill Irnin
Ir-i iiiIpc and ilir |nr(iîon (il llirir ini{ilii'il liinal ii^r a en nil- In leellires did mil inll-l II nie a 1 1 leak Willi -eiil| il me.
enlianre- iln- |iii-ii irii:. inaliMiial and iiiHMn-i ii>ii~ irali-ni nl iiiit lallirr a lindiei evnliiiinn inwaiil an 1 iienin|ia---ini;
die work, >liiiir } I Ilir II ihiik/ nm-- liaik hi a |MM|iii-al in I

'<');')
social --eiiliiiini'. Beii\- died III .laiiiiarv l''Iil) ai die aiie of
for a nil III 11 men I al Vii-cliw il/. ( .iiill Inr dn- \a/i aire nil ie^ si\iv-lniir .
British Pop: From the Independent Group to David Hockney

lii-iiinir III ( iinleiii|iiiiar\ \rl~ in l.niidnn ii|ieiieil in
Tile
aim nf |ini\ idini: loeu.- and eiieiiurai;eniem
I'Hl) w idi die
for new artistic developments in jjostwar England, .sir
Herbert Read, its pre-ideiii. l)p|onged tea liberal iipper-ela>-
art establislinieni w liieli -.aw the embodiment of its \ allies in
the consenatix e heir> to ela-îc prewar styles, particularly in
Ben Nicholson. Barbara Hepworth. Heniy Moore, and
Graham Sutlierlanil. hi l'*-'>2 some younger members of the
histitnie Inr nnlempnraix Arts formed the hidependini
(
{".roup, and Imm dn- -lari their emhlisiasm for pnpnhn
eiilnirr and teclinn|iii;\ -ii diem mi a enllision cour-.e widi

the mainline mnderni-m nl die In-linite's founder-. he 1
hidependent CJroiip attacked rhe ninderni-t concepl nl a -ell-

referenlial and "limele--" high an: they npened n|i die
discom-e an in idea- IVnm areas as diverse as cyberneiie-.
nil
game iliinrx -laiiinlii -. -rience fiction, and the mas- media

.
especialK American ad\iali-ing rhe\ w allied ail In be nl .
the mniiirni ralliei diaii alin\i- ii. demneralie iii-lead nl
elili-l. and linked In llle li iiw aid edi:e nl' new ler|inn|og\ .
Key Figures of the Independent Group
Peter Hevner Banliam. a doctoral studein in anliiii'i iinal

and design hi-Inrx emeiged as die leader nl die giniip in.
September I''')l2. Ilie lerlllie -erie- III die lir-l -ea-nii
reflected hi- keen inleri--i in die machine ae-ilieiic. I he

imagen of scienie and engineering also fascinated the other
leading membei- nf ihc Independent (iroiip: Hichard
Hamilton. Edoiiaidn Panlnzzi. Peter and Ali-on .Smidi-nn.
Lawrence .Vllowav. .lolm \lcHale. \igel Henderson, and
James Stirling. Hichard lamilinn had organized the "(iiiiwih I
and Form" e.xhiljition ai die In-titute of Côntemjjoraiy

\rl- in 1''51 inspired |i\ (In <, mirth and Form, a book on
8.16 EdouardoPaolozzi, Real Gold, 1950. Collage, 14 19'4in
foi-m in aliire piibli-lied in I'M" His rlynamic installa- .
(35.7 - 48.9cm).
tion- for nwlli and nriii.
> Man, \laeliiiie, and Mnlinii I Colleclion. Ihe Trustees of Ihe Tale Gallery, London,
237
8.17 Richard Hamilton, Jusf what is if fhat

makes today's homes so different, so
oppea/rng?, 1 956. Collage on paper,
10'4x93 4ln(26x24.8cm).
Collection, Kunstholie Tubingen, Sommlung Zundel.
c Richard Homillon/VAGA, New York, )994.
'1955;. and "This Is TomoiTow" (1956 demonstrated a Independeiu Group a particular and
affinity for advertising
ln'illiant design sense. Ironically, its principal source was in communication. .\s in .\merica. merlia and information
ri)iistiiicti\ism one of those classic prewar stvle-i airain-^t theory grew at a staitling rate in mid-fifties England, and in
w liich the grouj) rebelled . Alloway view the failure of the Bnti>h cidtinal establish-
s
Since the mid forties. Paolozzi had niaile collages using ment to respond to this was precisely w hat held it back. "The
images of consumer goods, technology-, and |)()pidar culture aluuidance of twentieth -cenruiT communications is an
culled from books and inass-market magazines [fig. 8. 16 . embarras>ment to thf iiaflitinnallv educated cusrndian of
For many of lliese he drew on science fiction, which has cidture." ''
In- w inii- in 1''.")''.
always had a close relationsiiip to the forefront of technol-

ogy. One of the galvanizing events early in the Inde])endeiii
The Key Exhibitions
Group's first season was a "lecture" in which Paoloz/i
showed images from popular media, especially -\merican
All IT a \ ear nf meetings, the Independent Group organized
sources such as Life Magazine. The images ranged from an inexpensive and accessible exiiibition called "Parallel
advertisements for home appliances to automobiles, comics, of .\rt and Life." Inspiied by the variety of source material
pin-ups. and illustrations for science fictinn. The presenta- illustrated in such classic texts of design theory as Ozenfant's
tiiin lasted for several hours, without comnirniarx Foitndatioihs oj Corbusier's Toward.s a New
Modern Art. Le
The architects Peter and Alison îiiiihsun — whom Architecture. Sigfried Gideon Mechanization Takes Com-
s
Banham later dubbed "New Brutalists"*' to connect them mand, anrl The .\ew lision by Laszlo Moholv-Nagv. they
w itli raw use of unconventional materials in Dubuffet s
the displayed sheets of Pollock-like automatist drawings as well
(/// /;////. with the toughness of the English working class, as blowii-up photographs of paintings, children s drawings,
and with befon brut, the raw concrete of the new primitive art. machines. X-rays, microphotographs. ath-
architecture — anticipated Robert \ enturi by more than a letes, pilots, hieroglyphics, scientific illustrations, and dia-
decade in drawing on conuuercial vernaculars. The Smith- urams. They hung these reproductions freely in space with
sons and the xounj; critic Lawrence .-\llowa\ InniiL'lii in llnnil labels.
238
Dniiiii; lln' -.t'coiiil aiiil iliini -.ca-uii-. I'l.").'?-.") ihc Holili\ die Kolioi caiixiiii; oil a \oln|iliion- woman — a -lill
i:riui|i iiii ri'aîni.'l\ iiiiici'iiiraiiil on |iii|uilaf iiiiaiii-rx . Im hoiii ihe lilni iiirhiililrii I'lmirl — awA in die -liaijow- llicN'
which ihrv hciraii In ii^c ihi' Iciiii '|iii|i ail. l\\\- lin|ihr(l a -ll|iei'ini|)o-ed llic lanion- |
iIioIomi ;i| ,|| i,| \laiil\ii Monioe
iIi'Miiim- a|)|>r<-(iali<iii lor ihc iinaui'iv ol ihi- coiniiiciiial -laiidiiii: ()\ er an an \ cnl in IlirSciiii ]r(ii ll(/i. I'aii|ii//i.
i'n\ iroiniu'iil and a rcjci-iioii ol ihr ili-iiiiciion jiciwrcn ihc Sniilh-on-. and die |
iln iloi;i a|ilier \ii:cl llender-nn
hi^'liixow aiul |io|>iilai' riiliiMi' ilc-iL;ned a nii hincnlai \ -hack ol |Miinlcill\ cliea|i nialcnal-.
I hoiii;h the hi<li'{iriii li'iil ( .roiiji olliiialU i li-<liaiiili'il in liilered w ilh foniid ii|i|ci I- and iniaLic-.
I
''.")').
the iiiosi iin| >ni lain i:i(in|i nianilr-iaiion ol' llicir idi'a- Behind die aciixiiic- of die h ide| icni Icn I (.iiin{i la\ a
\\a>an fxhijiilion in \nL;n--i ami >i|iirinlMT l'*.)l) al ihc -ciiim- cimccin loi die diiciiion in which die world wa- '
WhilcchapclCailciA in I .on.lon. Ihc cxInlMiion called Ihi- hcadcil. We -.III! liaNc no huniiilaled inlelleclnal alliliide- |
U lomoiTow." i-oil>i-'lcd of indixiilna! |ia\ilii>n-. each <lc- lor lixini; in a lhiow-awa\ ccononu. '
l\e\ ner Hanhani
-iuiicd li\ a icaill — i;eiiriall\ a |iainici. an aichilcci. and a worn, -dm l'».').'i. Inanc-a\ of I
'!.-,(, mi ,i I,, | Hm |,„|,i\ W e
-ciil|>lor. Ihc diMcrciil -cclion- ol ihc -how ic|)r{-ciili'd a (ollccl \d-, \h-on and l',-lcr--niHh-onol,-er\ed dial: I he
wide \aricl\ ol ai--lhclic |ii-r-.| icci i\ c-. lull a- a whole lliex -indeni dc-iiincr i- lanuhl lo re-|ieci hi- joh. lo he inlcii--icd
e\ o|\cd Ironi an nndeiK iiiL' coiice| ii ol collalioi ali\ e di--iL;n in die lorni oj die ohjecl lor il- own -aki- a- a -oinlion lo a
a- a \ chicle loi- idea- and an o\ erall -ire-- on |po|iiilar ciilnirc Llixcn ciiLiincerini; and dc-ii;n |iio|i|eni — Inn he inii-l -oon
and Icchnoloiix in [ilaci- of roinanlii- iiidiv idnalin \- in hi' . I li'arii dial . . . ihi- i- a re\i-r-al of ihc n-al \aliii- til |iii--ein-
(iidwih and loiin. Man. \lachiiii-. and \loii<in. and da\ -ocicix .'
I hex coni hided w iili a i|iioiaiion Ironi \rlliiir
Parallel ol All and l.ile cxhihilion-. ihi- I- Toinondw" '

l)rc\li'r. die dc-iiin iiiialor of die \In-eiiiii Modern of
relied on ie|ii'odiiclion-. olieii erilaii:ed III a cinenialic -cale \n: \\ hal i- iin|ioiiaiil i- lo -ii-lain |i|odiiilioii and
and i'onliL:iii'ed inio loial en\ ironineni-. con-inn|ilion. I lainillon delii:lilc(l in ihc idi'a ilia I ad\ er-
Hi. hard llaniihon. .lohn Mcilale and .John \ oel, kci li-ini: could acnialU -lia|ic die ilc-iie- of die con-iiniei lallier
I mill a |>i)[i ciihnic Inn lion-e iii-ide die hi ml dooi ol I In- I- ihaii iiiiacU re-.|ii miliiii; lo ilieiii
1 Oinorrow lii;. Jl. IJl : lhe\ inchided lihn-. a live inicio-
|ihonc lo |ironi|il an iiileiacli\e elaliim-lii| wnli ihc

i i
Paolozzi and Hamilton as Artists

\ iewer . and a woikinu jnkc lio\ dial -nccc--ln IK am ai led
woikin^-cla-- ]palion- lioiii die neii:lilioihood anmnd die Paolo// 1, die -on ol ha hail iiniiiiiiiani-, uicw ii| i around ihe
iiallcrx . Ihi- -ccli.m al-o inclndci a I I 4-looidiii;li hlow -iiii ol dock- of I .diiiliiirL;h dining: ihc dc|iri---i(m of ihi- iliiri ie-.
lie allcniled all -iliool- ni Ldinlinriih and London from

l''4.'i diroiiiih l'^". and llien. al lliiai:c of Iw ciii\ -dirce.
8.1 8 Richard Hamilton, John McHale, and John Voelcker, iiioxcd lo Pan- lor iw o \ ear-, I here he iiici iiiaiix ol die olller
Pavilion for the 1956 "This Is Tomorrow" exhibition otthe Whitechope! lnol Iciii ina-lcr-. inclndiiiL: I cuci. w ho arraiii;ed |oi Panf i//i
Gallery, London. III -ec hi- ISii/lii iiii'( iinii/iii' a film dial l.i-i:ei had made in
c Richord Hamillon/VAGA, New York, 994.
1
1''L!4 cclcliialini:machine ac-ihclic die . To Paolo//i die
work of Diilmlfci and .iai-omdi like ( i. dial of Pollock.
l'e|ire-ciilcil liecilom Ir c-iahh-hcd coii\eniioii-. Paolo/-
/i - collaLic- of I hi- laler loiiie- and alleiw aid- are inileliied
lo die (.crniaii dada arll-l Knil >cliwillci-. Inn Paolo//i'-

iiihi|iic wax ol |iai kiiiL: In- con 1
1 lo-i lion- xx illi xx hole iinaLie-
cli|i|icd Ironi maiâ/ine- di-|ilax- a iiewi-i. \lcl ,nliaiie-i|iie
con-iion-iic-- ol -cimoiic-.
Pichard llaniihon. who hin-hed al the >lade School of
\n ill I oiidi ill in I
'•) I - had xx oikcd in adx erii-ini; diirini: die
loiiie-. MX li-liiallx . hi- an came io;;i-|lici ill I''-")!), iiilln-
ciiced hx Paolo//i- colla-c-. Ill- oxxii -mall colla-e. ./nsl
irliiit IS il lliiil niiikis t(i(hi\'.-i liniiics sa tliffricill. so (ip/iial-

iii'j:'^ liii. ('). I
~ , marked die inrnini; |ioiiii, I -iiii; commercial
Ui'a| ill ilill '-11:11 1 cell nil |iic- and imaiici x Irom io|mlar media.
|
he iillderlook a -o| ihi-iicalcd c\|iloialioii of ilic kinimaue of

X i-iial -iîi-.
llaniihon dc-crilicd llii- collai;c a- In-lanl ail from

die maiia/ini--. The collaiie made for die calaloi:iie of ihe
I hi- i- lomorroxx cxlnhilion i- a re|ire-ciilal ion ol a li-l ol
Hem- con-idered iclexanl lo die i|Ile-lioll of die lillc. Ihe

iinai;e -lion Id. die re lore he dioiii;hl of a- lalnilai a- well a-
|picloi'ial. '^
Thn- he iiicain die work lo he read like a le\l
239
8. 1 9 Peter Blake, Sergeant Pepper's

Largely Hearts Club Band, 967. Album 1
cover for the Beatles, 1 2"2 x 1 2' 2in
(31 .8x31 .8cm).
caKiluiiinL: tin- ciiiiccrii- iililic (Aliiliilidii. In ;i Lilricdmiiicii- In ai li lil h in. |ii>|i mu-,ir IkkI a -.|iiTiiil ciinnccliiin willi
lar\ on llir wmk ln' li-n'i| llicî- ^nlijrcl-. a^; '.I nali-ni. |
m)|i ;nl am I w il li llir British an ^cIhmiI^. wlnrli nllriiMl mir ol
( incnia. \i l\ rill-in^:. Irli'\ i-.inn. St\iinL;. ^cx s\ nil mli-in. ilic Irw nircliani-in^ Inr lnw ri-cla-^ Îndcin^ I(m-iii^~ (imt llii'
Kamlimn/alidii. \nilicnrc |
iarliii|iali(in. I'Ik il(iL:ra| iln<' ini- n^nal ^(irial ili\ i-imi^. \lan\ ini|Miilanl Knuli^li |iii|i niii-i-
ai;c. \lnlli|ilc iniai:i-. Mechanical ciin\ci-i il I he iniai;iT\ . cian^ of I hi' î\l ir^ — inchii liiii: .lnliii i.cniKin. laic ( 1a|ilnil.
Diaiiiain, ( Milini:. Tc( hiiical (haw nii:.

"
" I 111- llic criliiiLL nl ( al an Anuaican r\|ial lialc in lainlaml. I'rir
Slc\ciis
ihr I 1 in hi- cnlhii:c I hiniilmn n-cil a lclc-.cii|iic |ili if Idw and Keith HichaiiK — w lail tiiail -cl
n-hciiil. Unn
ihe -niiace nl ilie niiKin: ihe muIiIiIv caipel \\a- niaile li\ i;(i\ einnienl liraiil-. The ail -cIhm iK ]il(i\ ideil rhem w illl lolh I
hliiw III- ii|i a W eeiiee iilidKim-apli (ifpfn|ile (III ihe lieach al aliaviai and a |ilall(iriii Irdiii which lliey ile\ el(p|M-(l iheir
''
( v Ulaiid landdini/alidii |ierlia|p-.':' : and w ilh l he iiinx ie earl\ inii-icai career,-'.
iiiaii|iiee a(l\ lai i-iiii; \l .lnUdii in 7'lic .liizz Siihît I la mi lion \ili-lic >elf-conscioii--ne--. and die Iniili ail -eiii iii-iie-.s
|jiii\ided a chaiiied iiiela|ili(ir li ir lli^ enlire -emiolic ell- thai il em;('iiilert>d. was |)friia|i> ihe leat.iiiii; conlliiiulioii ol
dea\(ir. liir T/ic .hi:: Si/rjiT w it^ die lli-t film to -\ iichronize tiieBiili-h hand- lo the pop imisic scene of the sixties, which
-pokeii wiikU and line malic ma Lie-- i wa- ollierw i>e dominated by African-Americans. As a corol-
lai\ lo ilii- increased intellectnal aspiration, the British po])
" uhivated their connection with fine artists The
Reintegrating Popular ImageryI into High
«*
Art ' ' ' ,
"' ^ ^ ' Beaile-. lor example, commissioned Peter Blake to design

ii-e |M>piilai imaiaax im|ilied an aiiack he die coNcr loi- their 1967 album Seroeanl Pepper's Lunch-
The III
iiadiiKinal (li\ i-i I liii:h and low '
ari. w Inch in linn llciiils ( liili liiiiid [fig.u.lQ: and Richard Hamilton to cre-
emhodied an a—aiili mi ihe -ocial hierarchv m Britain. Ihe ale die c(i\ei and insert for their 'white album" of V>b?>.
ii-c III \in(ai(aii popnlai imaiieiA carried a coiin(|oii-I\ i he lii(lep(aid(ail ( aonp liroke aw ay I'idiii the iiiln ispec-
ladical. -ocial iiie--aiie. The prominence of black people in li\e and e\pic--ioinstic niiidel of aili>l-' like Bacon and iV-
\iiieiicaii popular inii-ic part icniaih -truck ihe-c liini- Kooiiim:. \i( mud 19(iU. their atlia(lii m h i ma— cnllnre wa.s
pean-. who li\i'(l in a more lacialK and cnllnialK liomo- picked up and reintegrated iiilo a fine ail coiiteM li\ two
geneoii-. eii\ iidiinieiit w ilh little -ocial moliihiN . succesî\-e groups of student-- and loriner -tiideiil- Iroin the
240
Roval C.ollfiie of An in lunilon. imniliK I'cin lihik.-
Ricluinl Smith, and W Y\\-nu ai ilif l^.\;ll ( ollrm- in ilir
inidfiflie- and Derek B.wlnn. l)a\ id lo, kn.\ Mian I.. n.-.
.
1 .
FeteiPliillip^. and Huiiald Kiiaj wlm -iiidieil ilu rr iMiwccn

10.")') and 1'>(>J Tlli- devel(i|iin.MI |iat all.led lir \ irliialK
.
f
>iinultaneou> events in \i\\ \ mk Iniwriii l'i.)''anil !"()•!.
liei:iiHnn<.'vvitli the work (il.la-piT.lolin- in ilir mid 11 hi.'- am I
followed 1 1\ ihi' Vnierican |io|i aili~I- \nd\ Waiiml. \{n\
I.iclitenstein. and .lame- Ho-enipii-l.

Tlie revoltitionary a-piTi u| |in|,aii iian-|iirrd on a lr\,l
-o fnndanieinal that not e\en ilir |iririri|.al- (|mh- ai la nland
it in wiird>. W iiat the lTide|(endrni (.ii.n|i and r.inrniivnd\
.ia>|(er .lohn- in New York had -.m in nioiKin. and dim l.-li
for the ai-li~i- "I ilie i-arK -ixiie- in |iiirMa-. rminrd on ihr
idea of nsini; iiihiire laiiiiiiii: Irom c-oniir liodk-. in-.iniiiioii
inaiittal.s. and ail\ erii-ini.' loan lii-nu) and lileralme a- tiu-
sonice of an. in-tead of the direct e\|ieiien<c of natmr

inehidiiiir one's own human natiife. as in de Kooniiii: and
Pollock . Indeed, the onlv ineaniniifiil definition of |m)|) an
d.M-i\c-IV.imlhi>eoneepi <if cnhiirr a- nu-dialiiiL; ilieicrm- in
w Incli unr experience- e\ eill-.
David Hockney
id 1 Inckncx . the mo-i L'ifled iraditional painter amoni:
Da\
the Bfiti>ii pop aiti-t>.wa- intliienced by tlie i.'e-ttne
paintinjioftliefifiie-. However, he differed from the ire-tiire
painters in hi- -emioii.- -oplii-iicaiinii. wliicii yonni:rr arti-t-

leaiTied from tlie new con-cioii-ne— oi imai;e- i;eneraied hy 8.20 David Hockney,
Adhesiveness, 1960. Oil on board,
4ft 2in ^ 3ft 4in (1.27.- 1.02m).
Collection, Wmn.e Fung Photograph by Willio
Nettles, Los Angeles, 'C; David Hockney.
/
X
8.21 David Hockney, Picture

Emphasizing Stillness, 1962. Oil on
canvas, 6ft > 5ft 2in (1 .83 x 1 .58m).
Private collection, c David Hackney,
241
llii- infcli;i .iriimiil l'*(>(t. Roni in I''"57. Horkney now lives of style came to the fore in his work at that time. The
|piinii|iall\ In In- \ni;ili- ami |);iint< in ;i Insli. <-()l(irisiic marriage of sfvles is the theme of several ])aintiiigs of 1961
-l\ ii- indchlfd lo l'irî-.-ii jinl \l,iii-.-..\ I Imkni-x caim- Irnin a and 1 •'(i2. inchulitig. 1 Grand Procession oj Ditinitcwies in the
\\ iiikin<l-cla-.> t';ninl\ in NmL-linr. ami in l'l"i'' In- ln-Lian Srnd-!\ir\pti(i/] Sl\le. Hot Style. Ten Painting in
Figure in a
L'laduali' -imK al liii' Hii\al ( jillciic oT Art in I (•imIimk <ni llliisinnistic St\ic. and I l/c I irsi Marriage ,1 Mcariageof
l)r-|iiii- i II' |iri'--i nr 1(1 laini alislraclK iliai |n r\ ailnl ai Sfyli'x .
] deliberatelv -il mil in prove 1 could do four
1
llir linir. Ilnrknrx alianijnnrd ali-l larlion Inl nairalixr cniirrh iliUncnl -nrt- nl'|iictiircs like Picasso." he told Larrv
|iaiiilinL: in l''iill. \i-\ i-rllicic--. dir i;r-lnral liandlini; nl l{i\ri-iii !''().).' lliicknix ticated the stvles in these works
ll,Mknr\-\\nik Midii-farK sixties .ii-;,. 8.20 and ;',._' I Mill like rlinii-nt- in a -till lili-. Ilic captinii- and the rectiiTent
ii-lliii-. die inrinrnci- of alistrad oxpressioni--Mi wliuli lir cnnaiii- a- il all aclinii liilnniiiij in die artifice of the
iMiidiinlrii'd III llir Ai-w \nii-iicaii PaintiiiL: cnIiIIhi inn llii-atci indicalc the arii-t - nrirntalinn tnward the world as
(ir<lllalrd in laiiii|ir in \'>7u\ \,\ \c\\ Nmk - \ln-iiini nl a land-,aprnl -i-n-.
Mndcni \ii I III' ins])irali()n oil- rancis Bacon anil Dnlinlli'i llir \ nralinlarir- nl |inp ail and gc-tnrc painting
i-rxidcin Inn. I locknev also liroke ranks witii rnii\ iiii inn in cnllidrd licad-nli ill lloiklirx- caiK woik. In I'iclure
his trankU lionioscxiiai subjert matter, inilitanily a----eiii-<l Lnipliasizing Stillness the armature ot lines around the
bv such [laintinirs as Ad/icsirenes.i. Doll Boy. and (Jitrrr |)ainterlv figures suggests his ilebt to Francis Bacon, while
uh 0(,o. the iiurodnction of lettering into a gestitral style of figtirative
riial -nniinrr. I Inckinx irad die c-nin|ilclc\\nrk-nr\\ all painting shows the influence of Lany Rivers. The caption
Wliilnian. w lin al-n n|irnl\ (•\|in---ril lii- lioinn-.c\iialil\ in TlicN air perfectlv safe. This is a still." implies that the
In- unlk. llncknrN Innk llli- llllc Inr \(l/lcsircilCSS Irnin liiigiii-ii( rnntext of the pictini' as a i)icture (rather than any
W liinnan a- w rll as the idea olCortelatiiiji; niunhei- with the rclcrant in nattirel defines the reality it describes. "I realized
al|ilial"i a- a code for someoiies initials. The two ^cxnally that w hat was odd and attractive about it was that, although
engaged tigtn-es m Adhesireness are labeled "4.8 '0.11. it lonk- as though it's full of action, it's a still; a painting
for Da\id Hocknev and "23.23" for Yi alt \Xliitinaii . cannot haxc anv action. \x was the incongruity of it that
Hocknev made his first trip to New ^ ork in 19(il. when attracted me to it as a subject.""*
he \\a- twents-four. He retinncd -[inrtiiig stunning cos-
tumes, with his hair dyed platiniiin blond. He had come to
8.22 David Hockney, Henry Ge/dzo/i/er and Christopher Scott,
the realization that he could con.sciously invent his artistic 1969. Acrylic on canvas, 7 10ft (2.13 x 3.05m).
persona along w ith hi- -txle in painting and thi- ccin-ciniisne» Private collection, c David Hockney.
242
Hi)i'kiic\ iiiaili.' hi? t'ii',-.l lri|i Ui Lci> Aiiui'li'^ al llu' ciul uf

8.23 David Hockney, A Diver, Paper Pool 1 7, 1 978. Colored,
19t)3. ailiartpfl by homoerotic magazines like Pliysiqiw pressed colored paper pulp, twelve sheets, 6ft ' 14ft3in (1 .83 x 4.34m)
Pictorial, wliirh originated tliere. In Januaiy 19t)4 Hock- "
overall, each sheet 36 ' 28in (91.4 ^ 71 .1cm).

iiev moved to Lo? Angele? and liis work took a timi toward Private collection c Dov.d Hockney/Tyler Grophics Ltd. t978. Photogroph by Steven Sioman.
greater realism. He also switched to anylic paint at this time,

a mediinn that made the stn-face of his painting increasingly 8.24 (opposite) David Hockney, Nichol's Canyon, 1980. Acrylic
flat. In addition. Hockney bought a 3.5mm camera in IQb"" on canvas, 7 - 12ft (2.13 1.52m).
and began taking picnu'es incessantly, using many of them Private collection, c. Dovid Hockney.
as notes for paintings, as in the ponrait of HennGeldzaliler

and Christopher Scott [fig. 8.22 . This magnificent ]:>ainting
has a stark classicism in the precision of its drawing, in the
hard-edge application, and in the order of its composition involvement in designing sets and costumes for opera
and one-point perspective. Nevertheless. Hockney felt that between 1975 and 1978 and again in the eighties seems to
photographs distort the way we see by taking in too much at have brought out this expressionistic tendency.
once, so in V)~:'2 he joined multiple photographs of his friend It was five years before Hockney finally returned to Los
Peter Schlesinger together to give a closer approximation of Angeles, and his return voyage was not without a final
the wav in which we actually look at soinething. focusing on detour. Ken Tyler, the master printer who left Gemini G.E.L.
one detail at a time. From this came a sequence of so-called in Los Angeles in 1973 for a house in Bedford \ illage. 35
joiners'— composites of several separate photographs into miles noith of New York Cir\'. had been pressing Hockney to
a unified image. "I realized that this sort of picture came make some lithographs with him. On the way back to
closer to how we actually see. which is to say. not all-at-once Galifoniia in the fall of 1978. while held up in New York for
but rather in discrete, separate glimpses which we then a few days waiting to recover a lost driver's license. Hockney
"*"
build u|i into our continuous expeinence of the world. went up to see Tyler. Ha^^ng just finished the sets for the
he explained. opera The Magic Fhtte. Hockney had intended to let Tyler
The>e plioiograph collages a> well a> llocknev s paint- know he was going back to Los Angeles for some solitary'
ings of the eighties have a moving focus in which the eye painting and did not want to start making any prints — but
follows a |)atli from point to point rather than holding to a when Tyler showed him the colors possible in a new
conventional one-point perspective. As the art historian Gert technic{tie of painting with dye in wet paper pulp Hockney
Schiff has pointed out. the eye also wanders through a cubist decided to stay over three days to tiy it. Forn -five days later
[)ainiing in this wav and the idea may have derived from he had completed a spectacular series of rwent)-nine "Paper
Ilockney's ongoing dialog with Picasso."" Indeed, in Sep- Pools, by "painting in vats of licpîid pulp. .4 Direr [fig.
" "
tember 197.S. Hockney two years to work

\Kent to Paris for 8.23] has a Matisse-like simplicity and richness of color,
>ii a suite of etchings in homage to Picasso, who had died suggested to some extent by the technique. The fauvist
o. April 8. Shifts in technique often signal jumps in st^le for sensualirv anticipates Hockney's stage sets for the Met in
Hoi ';nev and in the mid seventies he went back to oil paint 1 980 as well as the saturated hues of eighties paintings such
as hi turned awav from naturalism, Hocknev's intense a> Mciwl's Canyon I flg. 8.241
243

The Electronic Consciousness
and New York Pop

Tllr ^lllll ;l\\il\ Irnin i'\is|ci || i;i liî n In l\ liiills nil -i-illiiil ir-.
In III! iili'iil il\ III ^1 ri II III' 11 1 w il li I III' L'liit^naL:!' 1

1| ail in llii-
wink 111 -II ma II \ III llir ai'li-l-- w In i niii'i L;ril in I lir -i \l ic^ w a^
ili-r|iaialili' liniii llir I irw ili In iiii^ ni'w -iiiial anil |iiililiral
iralilir- III llir ili'iaili' |
la 1 1 nil la I l\ 111 \ini'iiia. IIiiiil;--
rliaiiLiril railiralK a- I lir I il I ir- i II r\\ li i a rli i-r, am I li iiriiii I'^l
aiiiiiiiL: llir iii'W riiliililiiiii~ wa-- llir i]iianlil\ ami \ i\ iilni"--- nl
in Inn mil II III a I I llir w mM a I larijr ilia I lirraii iii\ ailim: llir
air (Ininaill- nl car- all rr
9
|ili\ llir illili\ lillial. Ill llir Ir II \ I ''-t""
llir llllllllirl 111 Irlr\ l-inll- III llir I llllril Mali'- |lllll|iril llnm
li'ii I linii-ami In liii'lN inillinn. |
ml I iiii: Sriiiia. Maliamaaml
>airnll. \ irlnani rir|ll lllrlr in r\rl'\iillr - li\il|r riinlll lii:.
'M . Wr hail liiiiM'il iiiin \iai-liall Mrl ,iilians (;lol)al

\ illarr. |ila\ ilir Hiirkinin-lri' !' iillri' - "W nl'ld (iame.
THE LANDSCAPE OF But Fuller
wni'kril (Hit. Instead nl
S I In|iia nl
an
wni M
inlriiuiliniial
i nii|irl'alinll -nlllrllnw
|iiHiliiiL; nl
nr\
lilnlial
ri-
irsdunr^. \\ r lirâii •'ffiiig llie worlil - \riialil\ III i:rralri'
SIGNS: AMERICAN POP ilrtail llian i'\t'r
iiiah. riie facf tliat

betorf. Iiighliij;liting
Americans reacted
a m\
witli
riad nl
shock
nmial
in (
ililrin-
)('inlirr
1''")'* ti) the revelation that Ciarl \an Doren had lirni -n iiji
ART 1960 TO 1965 In give tlie right answer on

Foiir Tlioiisand Dollar Question points to the late date of the
tlie popular cpîiz-show The Si.itr-
nalinll s loss ot'innorrme: |irnplr had to admit tn ihnii-rKrs

that not evervthing nn trlrxiînn wa'- a-' it appi'arrd. and
the American failli in llir linnr-t\ nl tlir I'nniinnii man
seemed >liaken.
A Turning Point in Theory
Tlir inllnrmr that trlr\ i-imi rxritril nil the \\a\ ill which
increasing numiicr- nl prn|ilr xirwnl ihr will Id ai'niind
them iiecame the ])rolnnnd >iiliirci matirr Im- thr pnp arii-i-
of'tlie earlv sixties. Predicated nn the min--rlrcti\ r npniiir--

work of John age and .la-pri'.lnhn-.. pnp
to exjierience in the (
artwent further, detaching thr pri'\a-i\c imagr^ ul the

media frnm anv specific locatinn in timr and jilacr. Iniagr-.
suddriil\ filiated freelv in llir iiiiml. Iinnniiiig interchange-
alilr part- nl the |)uzzle dial iiiadr up the ne^' reality of
thr -i\iir-.
Ihr parallrU lirtwcrii pnp all and il- I'nnlrmpnrai'N
-inii'lmali-m. liel|) clarif\ w hat i- rr\ oini ionai'x a I mi it ihr in
lintli in alining the wav in which thr gninal piilihr wnr
beginning in look at r\riit-. Siiiiciiirali-m. thr inllmal
theorv |linllrrl'rd li\ thr anthrnpnlngi-t ( lalldr I .rv l-'^tlan--.
Incii'.rd nil tllr -iniitiirr nf a m\lh ratlin' than mi thr

indi\ idiial xri'sinn nf it. riicnmitnri I in a pal liiiilai cniitrM
Levi-Straus.s argued, fur example ihai I inid - wiilim;- mi
the Oedipus fioinjilex constituted imi an aiiaK si- Inil iiinrK
a restalemriit nf the ( )edipii- iii\ lli in irnn- that cnntrin]inr-
aiT culture 1 nil Id iindcr-taiiil. " In die -amr wa\ pnp . arli-t-.
began lo treat image^ as >igii- that r\i-.|rd iiidr|irndrnll\ nl

245
The Electronic Consciousness and New York Pop
9.1 Quang Due, a seventy-three-year-old Buddhist monk, soaked

hinnself in gasoline and set himself on fire, burning to death in front of
thousands of onlookers at a main highway intersection in Saigon,
Vietnam on June 1 1, 1963. He was protesting against the American-
backed government's discrimination against Buddhists. A group of
nuns and monks circled the burning martyr with banners that read "A
Buddhist Priest Burns Himself For Five Requests."
Photograph courtesy the Associated Press, London.
246
The Landscape of Signs: American Pop Art 1960 to 1965
aiiv paniciilar ciiiilexl in iiaimi-; ilui- ilii\ iinL;lii \\r arii-l- lo -coin oin I'lc-ii lalciil. uricii liraliiii: llic dialer- lo
rt'roiit'ijmii'd al will. Moncncr. imai;f~ Immmiih- a |iaii i<{ lllf -liidio ilodi, Hcloiv li.ii;^ a ria-- nl rcli-liiilx arli-l-
nature — equal, iu leiinsol how w pcKcix c ilniii. Icki in dc\c|opi(l. and llicx liii ailir iiilitî a li 1 1 iiilo ilir .-im lal world
a eK)U(l seen in the laii(l.'iea|)i- B\ iln- î\ iiiin-- ilii- mw ol ihc \\c,ihh\ \il i'|iriiiiiL:- li.iaiiic llic ni |i|aic lor ikIi
definition ot'natine as a landscape ol >ii.'H^ iiad cNnKiiJ inio -orialllr- hi 111- -iTIl III dir -l\Ili-- ami rulln Im - riillnlrd llli-
what i-aine to be known as "postmodernism ; |ioîiiioili rri- all -I- lliclil-i-|\ r- a

I I 1 Ilir parlir-. I 'up all. w hull rainr along
isni and its corollaiy. "posi>[ru(iurali~i iIhuia wiiii jii-l a- ma-- adx rrl i-iiil; and lrlr\i-imi lunk llirn i|iiaiiliim
bevond detaehinj; the image Iroiii a IimcI liine ami jiLk r id Irap. rrlrlirali-d iiirdia -lar- and rmi-iimri riillmi-. wliilr il
relieving images of any necessary coherence at all liii^ ihr I ill liiiii rmilil mil lia\r pniviilril a mmr naliiral -iili|rrl lur
emeriience of an electronic consciousness aroiuiii l''()() lui^ llir mrilia lo Imll- mi,
aflVilcil ihr w a\ ii.itmc ha^ imiiic tn be \irw ed e\cr -inci-. .Minost iiisianlK ail became a po|)iilai interest nalion-
w ide. Rapidiv growing numbers of people attended openings

The Events that Shaped the Popular at local museums and art centers; iliev took art course- and
subscribed to art magazines: and Im iIh- fir-i liim-. in ilir
Consciousness
earlv sixties, the demand for avant-garde art exceeded the
pnliiical lidiu. Lneal ciinceni had ari--en in 1''.")"
-iippK 19b2 even Sears Roebuck launched an art-selling
In
Onabout a lllc
sup|(o.--e(l mi>>ile gap w ilh the So\ iets w hen lhe\

.
plan under the aegis of the Hollvwood movie star \ incent

laiuiched Sputnik, the first man-made satellite, and then in Price, .\ssi.sted bv the careful promotion of a few key dealers,
l''()l ihrvpni the first man in space. Meanwhile Fidel Ciastro the price of work bv the most fashionable young artists of the
(ixiTilnvw .III \iiierican-backed dictator in Cuba in 1959, -ixiics escalated as much as 4.000 percent over the decade.
and iii\ited the Kremlin in to begin setting up an amied In die foities and early fifties, the galleries of Samuel
camp American early wanting defense

there, well inside the Koni/ Sidnev Janis. Bettv Parsons. Martha Jackson, and
system. The CIA miserably in its Bay of Pigs
failed (Charles Egan became a stamp of authenticit\- for the major
in\a.-.ion — designed to oust Castro — and finally, in June new artists on the scene. These dealers had a great deal to do
19()1. the entire world held its breath as President Kennedy with shaping the image of the artists and with associating
brought the nation to the brink of armed confrontation with them together as a movement. But in the sixties, the role that
the Soviet Union l)v ordering a naval blockade to stop the art dealers such as Leo Câstelli and Sidney Janis played in
deplovinent of Russian missiles in Ciuba. The construction making a name for their artists — carefully directing the
of the Berlin Vi all in l^'Ol .uinmed u]i the tone of Fast— work into important collections and exhibitions and con-
\^ est relation-. trolling the market su]}plv — set an albeit restrained ])rece-
For a brief lime John V. Keiiiie<ly raised the spirit,- ot dent for the coarse manipulation of the contemporary art
Aiiiri ira and Eiiro|)e. He was the first television President, market bv speculators in the late seventies and eighties. More
and the public identified with this young, glamorous, and and more artists organized their social life with their careers
dvnamic First Familv whom they came to know in an in mind. .\s monev and fashion came on to the scene, the
illusivelv "personar' wav through television and magazines. intellectual tone of the art world declined. In 1964 .\llan
However, the inood of involvement he engendered also Kaprow quipped that "if the artist was in hell in l''4l). now
mobilized movements against social injustices of which the he is in liiisine-s.
ex[ianded media had suddenly made eveiyone aware: the

Ci\il Rights movement blossomed during the sixties, as did a Collaging Reality on Pop Art's Neutral Screen
consciousne-- ol \nieiican adventurism abroad. The effect
of Images
of Keimedv- -i\ le <>ii die conscience and activism of the era
demonstraled ilir pnwi-r of telf\ i-inii. the members of the Independent Group in London, the
For
In Kermi-d\ - Aiw f loiilier." iiihiire brraiiK' a pii]iular elimination of distinctions between high ait and popular
piioriu . The I'le-ideiil initiated the Nalioiial Fiidi i\\ inriii on riilime was a vanguard political statement— they wanted to
the An-, anil .lackie Keiinedx iiiiiled fa-liinii and (iilnne iliinocratize art and anticipate a more egalitarian future.
Willi hrr Liiamorou- media image, lilt- .\Ielro|)olitan The work of .\merican pop artists, on the other hand, was
Mii-enm - piirciia-f of .lack-on Pollock - Aiiluniii Hhvthni lar<:elv apolitical. .\ndy \t'arhol. Roy Lichtenstein. and
for S.'U).()t)(l had alreadx gi\en contempoiarv arli-t-

ill I'l-")" James Roseiiqiiist the central figures of pop art in \ew
a new |)resligi-. and in P'.")'' the de Kooning -how al >iiliie\ ^ m k remained unambiguously within the realm ot tine art.
Janis sold out on the fiisi (ia\ for > ")l 1.111)11 — an iiiilirard-nl
I lull w iihiii ihis essentially traditional context iliry explored
amount of monev at the time. ihr matter and devices of popular ciiliine. They
-iilijrii
Newlv ricli collector- were ke.-n to be first in picking up immii\elv recognized that the imageiy of mass culture.
on the latest treiifls. and -ome of the Ijiggest collectors, such raihrr than a direct encounter with nature, increasingly
as Robert Scull and the Italian ( ioiim Panza di Buomo. i)egan diliiird the contemporaiy world.
nomis of experience in the
buvingin (niantiiv. Thev wanted to build their collection- by 11 le and

flux of free-floating impressions in beat poetiy
geiiiuL' in earU ami cheap, and llic\ rejii-d mi ii|i- troni ill the lonibines of Rauschenberg foreshadowed the passive
247
9.2 Advertisements for the

ABC television series
Chorlie's Angels and Arby's
Roast Beef Sondvîches in TV
Guide, vol. 26, no. 37

(September 16, 1978), pages
A-104andA-107.
There s more than roast beef at Arby s /^^

Jills back as the driver of a top-secret race car
There's Arby's Ham n Cheese, Arbys ( \
Now the Angels must stop a murderer who Turkey, Arby s Turkey Deluxe, and - - -
want^ keep her out of the race keeps'
[o
Kate Jjickson, Jaclyn Smith, Cheryl Utdd,
for
thenew Arbys-Q'. For a delicious ilrbyr
David Ooyle u.^r change of taste'
CHARLIE'S ANGELS
8:00PM New Season!
® We're the one to turn to ®Q C* Bradley
Normal Pekin
Ctiampaign
Peoria
Danville
Sorinafield
Decatur
Urbana
ilclarliiiit'iil \\illi wliirii tin- |iu]i ani>t> tl'ealfd whal caillf .latiisi)|)ened "The New Realists "
exliibition wiiirh linked the
iiiiu \ itw . But ilit'v. aloiii; \\ itli Rausciienberg liiiuseli in the .New \ ork pop anists with others in New \ ork as well as with
sixties, replaced found objects with the found images of the French noiireait.v realistes. The show also connected
magazine culture. This laid the groundwork for realirs* as it [and thereby validated i
them by association with the blue
has come to be seen in the eighties and nineties. The critic chip modems, for which the .lanis GalleiT was known. Pop
and pop culture producer John Carlin has characterized it as art outraged the abstract expressionists and infuriated the
"icality homogenized on the level of the sign, and he
. . .
established critics, iiut it inîaiitU >\\ept the wmjil-- uf mass
])(iinted out that "the exchange of images has become the media and fashioti.
-.ynibolic structure through which our seemingly entropic Tom \\ essehnann w as one of the larger circle of artiste in
"*
ôiial. cultural, and economic existence is unified. "The .New Realists show who made it difficult to draw clear
On this level plane of images. Tr Guide [fig. 9.2^ could perimeters around pop ait as a phenotnenon. Wessehnann
market the "girls "
in the Charlie's Angels detective show just liegatimaking collages of found materials in 19.59 to I960.
liL- .Vrby's roast beef sandwiches. The New York pop artists By 1962 he had extended his paintings off the flat surface
aildiessed this asjiect of advertising in the neutralir\- with with three-dimensional objects, and in this sense his work is
wliiili thfv liandlcd tiieii' inotif>: tile utterlv iioii- indebted to en\'ironments and happenings. But Vi'essel-
iiitio^jiective character of their work was radical with tnanns art did not have the gestural surface or expressionist
resjiect to the art that preceded it. although the deadpan tone of works by Oldenburg. Segal, or Dine. Instead he
repiesentation of commonplace subjects bv .Jasper .Johns in explored the world of the popular imagination with an
the fifties anticipated this cool attitude. The pop artist> analytical detachment, appropriating images from contem-
1 iiltivated impersonalitx". They even developed commercial ](oraiy advertising and actual objects of consumer cultin-e.
art teclinifpîes in order to evoke a feeling of mass-production: On the other hand, his art did not suggest the same leveling
Warhol used photosilkscreening. Lichtenstein's style allu- of itnages that characterizes the work of \X arhol. Lichten-
deil to the commercial process of printing flat color areas in •-trin. and Rii>eni[tii-t.
ill 11^. and Rosenquist painted in the style of billboards. In Still Life #/2oi 1962
[fig. 9.-3]. Wessehnann screwed
New ôrk pop an evolved in the studios dining 19.59 a metal sign depicting two Coke bottles in shallow relief right
ami 1M(,|). the anists saw one another's work for the first on to the canvas, alongside magazine illustrations of food
time in 1961. and it burst on to the art scene in 1962. when and a camera. The clear geoinetr\' of the composition sets off
Rosenquist. Lichtenstein. and \^ arhol all had major one- the slightly janing shifts in scale amongst the objects as well
pei--on shows in New \otk. Tnwaid tlie end of l''h2 Sidnex a- the syntactical jum|)S f'roTii tlie painted fmit to the
248
The Landscope of Signs: American Pop Art 1960 to 1965
?»;c'«: -^^ '", ^v-y^'sQi*^
In l''()(l. W e-.-.elniann inaugurated a series of •Great

9.3 Tom Wesselmann, Still Life # )2, 1 962. Acrylic and collage on
Anieriian \iide-.." drawn from life bnt evokin;; an olten
fabric, 4 4ft (1.22 ' 1.22m).
literallv faceli---. ma--- lun^nniererotiii'-ni. In l'>()2 he ln-gan
Collection, Notional Museum of American Art, Smithsonion Institution, Washington, D.C.
Photograph courtesy Art Resource, New York. © Tom Wesselmann/VAGA, New York, 1 994. inror]ioratitii: wmkiiii; telex i-iun--. tele|ihnni'~ that rani:
window iiliniU. and otherreal object--, making' -oiiir nl liii'-t
Iliasraziliead" to the real nietal Îlti. w liirli i' al I lie âiiie limr inio ilirec-diineii--ioiial tableaiLx tiiat rMeml nim iIh
a found iTpresentatioii oi Coke liotile-. "One iliiiii: I liki- viewer- real -pail-, while he -iniiiJtaiii-on-K made ihi
about roUajre. lie told Gene SweuMui. "i- llial ymi ran iiê liiinre- inii'i-a-iiiiiK anniis innn-. in (iifiil Inicrudii \iiil(
aiivtlliim- wliicli i.M\e> von that kind nl \ariei\: ii -ei- u|i #57 lA' l"i)-+ lii.'.'i.-f the figure i^ a ;-iin])ly outlined. Ilai
rexefbefalioii.s in a |)iitini- troiii oin- kind nt iealit\ to fle^h-ciiliiied -haiie: instead of rendering the face. \\e-.-.il-
another. ' inann |p|o\ idid |poiiiIedl\ detailed giitii|)>es (if oiiK llie nm-l
249
9.4 (above) Tom Wesselmann, Greaf

American Nude #57, 964. Synthetic polymer
1
on composition boord, 4ft 5ft Sin •
(1.22 - 1.65m).
Collechon, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York,
Purchase, with funds from the Friends of the Whitney Museum
of American Art. Photograph by Geoffrey Clements, New
York. '.ciTom Wesselmonn/VAGA, New York, 1 994.
9.5 Richard Artschwager, Toble and

Chair, 1963-4. Formica on wood, table
293j 52 3734in(75.7 132.1 •
95.9cm), chair
45' 4 X 21 X 17V4in (114.9 x 53.3 x 43.8cm).
Photograph by Richard PeHie, courtesy Leo Castelh Gallery,
New York, 994
ic) 1 Richard Artschwager/Artists Rights Society
(Af(5), New York.
250
sexiialK cliariied IVaiures — iIh' li|i-. iri|i|ili-. ami (Hiliir an inli'ri->l in indn^lrial niatrrial-. '\\\c t'niiiiiia ami llir
hair — \vlii<-|i lu' (l<'lil)i'rately i]! il in llir \a^c n| llowii^ ^\rnln'iic. |iriii'\lnird Imard \\v w-'vA Ini' lii^ |iainlnii;^ aUn
Wosscllliuim dejiit'lcd tlir Vnii'iicaii wmiiaii a^ ciiiinin " lil\ . aina(ii'(l Inin |
iic<isi'K lician--i- llii'\ make >mli an nncori-
sedlU'liM' and dcin-ixiiiali/rd. like a |iaL:r nl adx criiîni:. \ im int; ani-rn|il In îirndan- w (m n I ni a ham lainH'd --intace.
I -|
Ricliard Arlscliwaiicr i> drawn m iIh' |i(i|inlar la^lr Im In i''li.l. /////r I i'|inrii-il dial I lie a\ rrai:!- \niiTi(an was
tlitMMsaiz. His Table (ind Cl)(iii<>\ l'i(i-t Ml:.'' '>
niMii^dic iA|in->-d In alinill 1 ,
1 1( H I ad \ el 1 I^ci ilcliK |
iciclav ," Tl Icli' was
cii>loiiiarv represfiilaliciiial nan-'riirrnaiHin nl a llai ^nrlacc a cnniiiaialiK \a~l c-\|iaiiînii hi llic |
irc-rnci- n| nilicr kiinU
into an illusion of ()l)j(nl-' in --|iair li\ iiaidn ini; die rlcai l\ nl iinaiio a> w I'll. Pn| ail I lai l;i'I\ idiiccincd iIh' w a\ in w mil
I
recoiinizalilt' olijcci-- a- llal. caiii alni( -liki' |iirinic^ nl dir iiidi\idnal |iniir>>i-d dic~i- -.liiiinli. Il addir^^cil ilic
funiituri' on dir --idc- nl' a lilrlc—. Inn ni-\i'rilirlc^^ InlU iin|ia(i nl laiiLinai;r nil ('\|ii-lii-mc and lindici ^liillrd dir
voiuMli'Ific rnlir. Vrl-chw atiiT ri-i;aidril i-\cn llii- Inrnnca sliTss a\\a\ IVniii die indiviiliial |is\(lu- as llif sijincc n|
itseli' a> a kind nl |iiiiuri' nl die w I ii >ininlair>. I li^ aili-'lic îiliji-il nialliT. Wlirir r\i-.tential exjnrssioinîn
riiioron- >ini|ilili<aiinn nl |ii-nvaic iniai:i'^ inin iicnnicliic dnniinalcd arl linin die iliiriio ilii(iiit:li rlii' Fil'tifs. llir ^liill
objecl- widi cnnlK ini|iri-nnal ^nrlacc^ ~ni;L;c-.|^ an iininc In a^siniilalinn and a|i|irn|iiialinn — llir |Fn|i ri'\nliilinii. w illi
rros>n\ rr liciwcrn dir \ iM-alinlani'- nT |in|i ail and nninnial- ils classic |irlin(l ill lllf lil^l liall nl llir si\lir> — has
i>ni. a- <\iH-~ lii- cliaraclrri^lir u^c nl Iniinira. w Inch irllccis icnlicnlrd die i-.-.||f-. Inr die Inllnw in;: lllillx \ cars.
Andy Warhol
Tlirrc \\a^ iinlliini; \ml\ \\ ailinl waiiird iiinic diaii wcallli
and laiiif. ami In- Inin id aii\ lind\ w Im had ilii-in I a-ri Hal-
ing. Hi? (Ii'\nlin|l In llli' ar^lhiiic nl lclr\ iînii. ^ncirlN
roiiiiiiiis. and fan inagaziiir^ -i nnd in diaimiiic n|i|insil inn in
tlie Eiiro|)ean iilodel ol dir siriit;L;liiiL; a\ aiil-L;aidr aili-^l
wliicli tile ali>li'aci expir^înni^ls had rniiilaliMl. In ai Mi I ion.
lii> |i|i>lick-and-|)ero.\idr |jalriir '
i>. a^ .\dain (.opnik ha-.
I
mill I nl niii. "a coiiiplerelv original sense of color . . . , \\ liich
inakrs all |ir<'\ioiis .\merican palertes look European. llir
orifrinalilx of \X ailiol's denial of originality defined liis an

islic peixma. and die fre>li look of hi> paintings valiflated ii
Pari nf Warlinl'^ uriiiii- la\ in lii^ rrrngnitioii that a

pri-ôna cniild lir c-nniiiinnii aird \ ia dir iiirdia hrtler than an
an nlijril rnuld. ami lir allrmpird In di'lini' lli^ rxi^^tenoe
enlirrK nn llir -.hallnw plane nl rrprr^rniaiinn nr rrprofln-
cible images .
'
II \nii w am m know all almiil \iid\ W ailml.
just look al die --inlarr nl ni\ paintings and liliiis and inr.
and there I ani. hr ~aid. I lirrr s nnthing heliind il.

'
( rom
the earlv -ixlirs niilil his draih in l'*!!'" Warhol cininingly
exploiird hnili s|\li' and ihi' inrclia. and in sn doing hr
exposrd ihr \ahirs nl rniilriii] inraix sniiru w ilh an II m (11 11-
forlahle frankness thai was lioili snlix risixr and vangiiaril.

He deinoiislrateil dial all lanir is r(|nal ami esseiitialK
meaningless in dir w oild nl iiiieri-hangealile images: his own
public persona was ii irsiîiMv glamorous, yet its shallow-
ness also Irli a dis(|inriint; einoiional \iiid.
Warhol's Background
Andy Waiiml was Imrii onlsiile Piiishiirgh in 1**L'(") In
working-class (,/rih iininigiaiils. \llrr giadiialinv: in
from Cârnegie
gra|)hic design 1 r( h in I'i4'' lirnin\rdiiitn
an apartment in New ôrk wiili his rjassniair Philip
Pearlslein and quickly a.hievrd surrrs, as a coinmercial
9.6 Andy Warhol, D,ck Tracy, 1 960. Casein and crayon on canvas,
artist. Warhol's delicat<' drawings nl' shnrs for 1. .Miller and 48 33'8in (121.9 86cm).
{:ompan\ in the \rir )(irk Tunes |irnlir|ll him pailirlllar Pnvatecolleclion.NewYork.cTheAndyWarholFoundotionlonheVisuol Arts, Inc.
251
Andy Warhol
9.7 (above) Andy Warhol, Storm Door, 1 960. Synthetic

polymer point on canvas, 3ft Oin > 3ft 6' sin (1 .1 7 x 1 .07m
1
Courtesy Thomas Ammann, Zur.ch. ic The Andy Warhol Foundation for the Vi
Arts, Inc.
9.8 (right) Andy Warhol, Storrr) Door, 1 961 Synthetic .
polymer paint on canvas, 6 x 5ft (1 .83 x 1 .52m

Privole collechon, New York. Photograph by Bill J. Strehorn, Dallas, c The Andy
Warhol Foundotion for the Visual Arts, Inc.
arrlaini. and by Ilo*^) he was one of tin- liiiiiic^t-liaiil -.iiddi'iiK iifi;an tn appl\ a ci iinnirniai art ^tvle to [tainting at
commercial arti*t> in tlie citv. eainiiit; nearly S()3.()U() a tile end oi 1 '^ô'-K Nor was there any precedent for his raflical
year." \^ arhol continued to make hi? living in advertising apjtropriation of subject matter straight out of the ])ulp
until the end of 1962. hut from the beginning he also had media for his large canvases of comic book images and
aspirations as a fine artist, making fanciful drawings and newspaper ads [figs.9.b— 9.8 VSarhdl ii-id an opaque
.
collages of shoes— personified as ]iortraii>"— as well as projector to transcribe and enlarge his >ource> with mecha-
-iiiiple line drawings of other subject-^. nical acciH'acy'" in the early si.xties. and in his statements
Stylistically. \X arhol's attempts at art in the fiftie> about his work he made a point of dismissing any originality
closelyresembled his work for advertising, and several of the in it. .Nevertheless he abandoned the comics as a subject from
techniques from his graphic design practice anticipated the moment he saw Lichtenstein's paintings of comics at the
aspects of his later art as well. For example, he organized Ciastelli (ialleiy in 1961. demonstrating a keen instinct for
"coloring parties " to produce his advertisements and dele- constructing and marketing an original style.
gated signatin-es and lettering to his mother, presaging his Having settled on a subject matter — comics, cheap ads.
extensive use of assistants in painting after 1962. Similarly, and headlines from the pulp tabloids — Vi arhol experi-
hi-, technique of drawing— or tracing images from mented with style between I960 and 1962. hi some com-
magazines — on non-absorbent paper and then transferring positions he transcribed his sources in a loose, brushy
ilif lines in wet ink by pressing them on to a prepared manner with deliberate paint drips to give them an e.xpres-
background set a precedent for the way he subsecjtiently si\'e character, as if in a jjarodv of gesture painting. At the
u>efl silkscreeos. same time he rendered other pictures w-ith hard, precise
edges. Eventually he decided he prefert'ed these coldly
Selecting Non-Selectivity handled, "no comment" paintings, as he called them."

indeed he favored the most mechanical look he could render.
though some of W arhols studio practices of the fifties just as he had sought out precisely the kind of subject matter
E\'-n
persisted in his later work, they can scarcely lie sairl to that went most dramatically against the prevailing prescrip-
have led up to the shocking directness with wiiicli Jir liiiii^ iif hiiili art a-. indi\ idiial and ex|)ressive.
252
253
Andy Warhol
-iiii|i fans retain ;i ili'lii mIi-. i.'''~im'Ml cpiMliix a^ laii- a-- I

*'()'_*. -ii'fiMi-.. thi- iMii'MMi inking, and the orrasional smears.
llli--!' canvases lia\i- ll<> iraic nl r\[iir~~i\c i:c^liin' (If \l<irll\n \l(iiiriic'.s Lif)ti fl'ig.f'.lOl looks like an imperfect
irii li\ liliiallix . |il ilil I nil. Ill w llii'll llir lilai'k lilir and llir nil nr -rrrrn dn nnt
i|iiilr n la ill
I ii|i and llir ill ki 111; \ arir- w iilrK . I hr in\a.-i\ r
lianaliu riraird |i\ dir nirrliani-iiinl inn-ninrr culture

Eliminating the Artist's Touch
-rriii- In lir al ndd- w i ll I all alliril |ia--i\r inili\i<hial
W
di-riiv
rliiil
I'll. I
paiiili'il llic --uiiii
and \'U,2\<\ liand^

iTcd liuw hi liaii~lrr a |iirlnn'
ran- and new
I. in I.
^|ia|iri- liradlini'^
.ward ihri-ndiil
|illcihiL:ia|illirall\ nil hi a
l'»(i_'lir
III 1
'I.
1 ir-r II rr in |iainliii;:- likr
I I . I
ilrcmalixr |iallrni while

hr ir[irliliiin Idler-
llli-
|
and
llir iniaLir- illln
lail ii
(,'<i/i/
iilai i/iiii;
Marih n
an a
Iralinr-
\l(inriic
II nil
ill
\ II
|
I'ig.
in us.
racil
-ilk-nrcn anil iinnin liah'K -w ih lird ii\ n hi dii- hTliiiii|iir. ilii|irilrill\ laliliiaird iiini innliniir In a--rri lliriii-rl\ rs.
rliminaliiiL; all \i--lii:i'- nl dn- aili-l - hmili and rrraling a ci-ralinr an r\|iir--i\ r di--nnaiicr lirlw rni ihr inaclliiie-like
iiiiiii- nirrlianiralK drlarlird iniaL:r. \liirrii\rr. Iir increus- ia(;a(lc and die >rii-r nl ilir indi\ idiial Inn ird w illiin it. This
in:il\ irlird iin a-.-i-lanl~ 111 inaLr ln~ iiainlint:-. In .In in- I'll).'! n\ rrw hr Inline; hariai^r nl -iirtace glittei' rednces the observer
Iir liiii'd ( .rial d \lalaiit;a 111 w (II k liill-l iiiir i m llir ~ilk-rirrii and dir aiii-i In a lirl|ilr-.- \ oyeur, passively experiencing
liaililini:- and t;railnalK nllin-- jmnrd ilir |ia\riill hm. in lilr a- an a--riiilil\ liiir nl images.
adililiim in lln' niia-'lnnal lirlji dial lir al\\a\> had amnnik
Warliiil nianai^rd a-î-,ianl~ likr llir -lall a i:ia|iliir
liiin
A Terrifying Emptiness
ilr-ii:il iilliri'. ii-'ini; llirlil a- In- innj-. Wlirn I lii-l kiirw
wi-rr wnrkint; mi dn- MaiiKii Mnnini-. mir hand
\iiiK llir\
01 ilir |irnliteration of portraits of .\larilvn
nriilar ir|inrlrd, \|alaiii:a and HilK \aiiir did mn-l nl' llir Mnnrnr. Troy Donahue, and other movie
|,i/ la\liir.
w nrk. ( iillinL; lliiiiL;-. I'lacini: dn- -rn-cn-, \nil\ w mild w alk -lai had In do w ilh \\ arhol s enthusiasm for the glaiiioui' of
-
aliini; llii- inw - and a-k. Wlial cnlm dn \iin diiiik wmild I InIK wnnd. "I love Los Augelcs. love Hollywnnd.- hr said, I
lirniir>- '^
riirx'ir lirautiful. E\ ri\ linih V plastic... 1 want to be
Warlinl iiiadr a -l\linl III- in in-in\ iK I'liirnl
i : Smiic- jilaslic. ''
lie was the nitimair tan. acting as though
liniK -I Id lir alilr In (In all ni\ |iailllillli- Ini' Uir." Iir cm 1-1 lining ii all \ icai'imi-K iiiailr him a |iart nf it. ^ rt the
ii-niaiknl in I'lli'i. llir ira-nii I III |iainlini! llii- wav i-.
Iirraii-r 1 wani In lie a inarllinr. WhalrMT I dn. and dn

niarlnnr-likr i- lirran-r il i- wlial I wanI In dn. I lliink il 9.10 Andy Warhol, /Man/yn Monroe's Lips, 1962, Synthetic
wmild 111' Irnil'ir il r\ ri\ liniK \\a- alikr."'" \r\ lallirlr--. polymer point, silkscreened, and pencil on canvas, two panels
6ftl03'4in x6ft834in(2.1 2.05m) and 6ft lOâin 6ftl0%in
W arlinl rniild lia\r rnnliarlrd llir wmk- mil illir had real l\
(2.18x2.11m).
waiih'd a |iriirrll\ ri iininrrrial Innk. hi-lcad. hr |iirlrni'il
Collection, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Gorden, Smittisonian Institution, Washington,
llii' liiinian ninr irllrrird in llir ini-rfui-lralimi nl die D.C. Gift of Joseph H. Hirshhorn, 1 972. ©The Andy Worhol Foundotionfor the Visual Arts, Inc
C^ C^ C^ C^ C^ C^C3^ tf^ C7 C^ ^^ ^^ %SI^ C9

254

255
Andy Warhol
9.1 1 (opposite) Andy Warhol, Gold Marilyn Monroe,

1962. Synthetic polymer paint, silkscreened, end oil on
canvas, 6ft 1 1 "4in x4ft9in(2.12 >c 1.45m).
The Museum of Mcjdern An. Gift of Ptiilip Johnson, ffi The Andy Worhol
Foundation for the Visuol Arls, Inc.
9.1 2 Andy Warhol, Sofurdoy Disaster, 1 964. Synthetic

polymer paint, silkscreened, on canvos,
9ft 1 0'ein X 6ft 9' am (3.02 x 2.08m).
Collection, Rose Art Museum, Brondeis University, Wolfhom, Moss. Gervitz-
Mnuchin Purchase Fund, by exchange. ©The Andy Warhol Foundation for the
Visuol Arts, Inc.
MaiiKii- aUii lia\i- a dark >i(lt.-. Hie series lnllii\\i-il In my.) Warhol embarked on a lisa-ter series [fig. 9.12] I
"
\laiil\ii s îiiiiilr ill Vugiist 19b2. Moreover, the ineclianit ill iliai morbid preoccupations of the "Marilyns.
am|)lified the
ii|iiiiiiiiii III iier [lortrait makes her seem paper-thin. 111- lia>ed the series on gniesome tabloid photographs of
iiiiiliiiiLf Iter lit any sense of existence beneath tlie superficial nintilated accident victims, the atomic bomb, the electric
iinai!!-. h i> a frigliteningh' annihilating depersonahzatiini iliaii'. He multiplied the images in decorative patterns and
anil rcliiies an anxiety tliat iiniicilir^ the artist's image nl I II i 1 1 i a II 1 11 ilors."The more you look at the same exact thing.
liiiii~iH. As late as IQTohew'inif: I in ->till obsessed witli tin- lie âid. "the more the meaning goes away, and the better
"" "'
iilra III Iniiking into the miiTor and seeing no one. notliing. and emptier you feel. These images not only disturb us
hi till- television coverage of a natittnal tragedy like the because of their horrifying e.xplicitness. btit also because
ili-atli 111 MaiiKii Monroe or the KrnnnK funeral (which Vârhol's detachment suggests— as in the "Marilyns'—
Warhol aKo painted obsessively llic -anic film loops ]ila\ de|)ersonalization that is in itself teirifyinglv death-like.
i)\er and over on the television for (la\>- on end. Warhol > In l''()2 and 19b3 W arhfti also made several [tortraits of
'Marilyns. especially the double caina^ of Mcirilyn Moii-
"
Robert RaiiMlienberg. whom he admired for having risen
nie's Lips, have that same anaesthetizing repetition; thev irom ])overr\- to fame. W arhol named one of the Rauschen-
ha\ e the focus of a Hindu mantra, an incantaton" reiteration berg portraits Let f Xoir Praise Famous Men. appropriat-
.s
of the iliartlfd f\<-iil. ing the title of a book li\ James Agee with jjliotographs by
256
The Landscope of Signs: American Pop Art 1960 to 1965
WalktT Kvaiis of poor [i('o|)lc IVom ihr imal Smilli I'mm

wiiirli Rau->fliciilu'r!Z also caiiir I In- hinik iinl"iilii(l
\\ arliol s taniasv tiiat "in I lie tiitiiii- 1\ ii \ IhmK w ill lir w m Id

famous for fifteen minutes.' " in ilii' -imi-i- ilun ilii~i-
anonvmouscountn people hecanii- ailiiliarlK ami lliriiii;;l\
famous. Warhol liked tiie noiimi of cliKr ii\ a^ a kind ol

iiMi-nnier L'l'od that an\ hndx can Iki\ c
The Factory Scene

ihf.nd ol I'lo:! \\ arhnl inuM'd hl^ -tiidio tiia lliMH- in an
Alold faelorx hnildiiiL' on I a-i I m t\ -~.\iiiili -inn i In
FacIor\. "
a'- it catne to In- rallfd. f\n|\i-d intn an I'lixiinn-
nii-nt iini-il in -.iKi-r foil and lillrcl wnli dia^: i|nri-n~. Ii-tli---
"heanlifnl peojile. ihic laîiion per^nnalilir-.. and tin- rock

linisic luidersirouiKl. nianv ot them \\a~tcii cm driiL'- or
eiiiiaiied in hi/arre hehavior. Waiiiol -.eeined to need ihi-
cireus around him. .V? his friend Henr\ Geldzahler recalled.
".\n(l\ can't he alone . . . Sometimes he would say thai he v,a~
"'
scaretl of (ivini; if lie went to ^leep.
Bv I'lt).") \\ arhor> celehrilv was attracting' the ii( and li
famou-. w ho wanted to see aiifl he seen at he ac ti>r\ Ihe 1 1 .
pres> hounded Warhol too and everyone \ied lor hi>

9.1 3 Andy Warhol, Self Portrait, 1 967. Synthetic polymer point,
attention. Edie Sedgewick. a rich and pretty yoniiir -ocialite
silkscreened, on convos, 6 > 6ft (1 .83 ^ 1 .83m).
who self-destnicted on drugs at the age of n\ enty-eiiiht. Tate Gallery, London c The Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, Inc-
SMiibolized The Faetory of the mid sixties: -he wa> a

personification of "mod style, and for a time she w a> Andy >
"
constant escort, hi the fall of 100.5. when .\ndy and Edie

went to his o])ening at the Institute of Contemjioraiy Art in on the stage while Paul \liini--e\ his film a--i-iani
Philadeljihia. nearly four thousand people crushed into the answered questions. or ahout four months in the tall of
I
two small rooms and the staff had to take the paintings off 1967 Warhol eyen had Allen MiilL'ette. another lactoiv
the w alK for security". It was an art opening irithont art. hand, spray hi- hair -il\fr and 1:0 a- a -laml-in until
"\ wondered what it was that had made all those people somebody coinpareil a |iliiitiii;iapli tliex took at mie -iich
scream. W arhol later recalled. "I'd seen kids scream oyer

" a])|iearance with a piihli-lied picture of Warhol and recog-
EKis and the Beatles and the Stones — rock idols and moyie nized the deception.
stars — hut it w as increrlihie to ihink ot it hap|)enini: at an nrl Warhol had alwax- wanted in net intn Leo a-telli- (
opening. . .But then, we weren t jii-t (it the art exhihit— we him 111 I'Mi-t. Hi- fir-i -Imw.
gallery. anfl t:aslelli finalK took
were the art exhihil. we were the
art incarnate anil the -.ixtie-- in .Noyember. wa- of the 'Mower-/ With the Mower-."
were really ahoiii people, not ahout what they did. ""*
W arhol broke further awa\ from natiirali-m in hi- palette —
In 10()() The Factoiy crow rl began to spenii the eyening-- not that one could call his earlier works naturali-tic. hut up
in a restaurant on L Dion Square called Max s Kansas City. It until 1064 he had tended either to print the -cnin- in
catered to artists and writers and the back room hosted a inonochtonie. so that the scale of values corre-]innileil m
caniiya! of exhibitionism, drug-,and the most o|)en homo- nature, or to find more artificial-looking yersion- ot naiiii -
sexual scene anyone had eninnnicrrd np to that time. alisiic colors. In 1964 and 1965 he pushed his jialetie mneh
Evenone from Bobbv Kennedx to nniian apotc showed 1 ( hirther. painting |)ink and turcfuoise "Campiull - >oiip
up there, but .\ndy was the presiding catalyst. '.Andy s like (/ans instead of red and white ones and making imilii-tone
"
the Mar(]uis de Sade.' his friend Emile de Antonio obserxed. "Self Porrrait- with a blue face and yellow hair, toi'
"in the sen-e that his veiT ])resence wa- a releasing agent example, changing the values ot the |iliotograph and dis-
which releaserl people so they could \\\f out their fantasies sociating the colors from any reh'rence in nature "fig. 9. 1.3 .
and get undressed, or. in some cases, ilo yery \ ioletit tilings to Ihnine hecnine tiie decade's leading art star, with an
"
get .\ndy to watch them. exhibition in the most lashionable galleiy. Warhol piiMn ly
"I mean, he doesn't go aroiuifi hurting jx'ople. Hemy "
aimounced from painting in Ma\ P'ti.). Ii wa-
his retirement
Geldzaliier said, "but thev do get hurt. """ .\ndy did not an outrageous gesture, cappeii h\ a -how at (a-ielli the
acnially |)arlicipate — he watched, and often he took photo- following season in w hich he covered the w alls of one room
graphs. Flyen when he went on the college lecture lircuit with his Coir Hal/fxi/ier and filled the other sjiace with
.\ndv remained lotalK pa--i\f: he did nothini; Inn -it silentK heliimi-inflateil -il\er pillow - de-iLnieil to tloal at lieail le\-el.
257
Andy Warhol
Ii M'rint'fl ilie loiiital next step to tiini ait into wallpaper and back o\er the decade. man\ critics still feel that WarhoFs
ilicn sav t'arewt'll to paintini; In niakin<: "paiininiis iliat important work dates from l^^'t)!) through !')()+. In lOoQrhe
would lileialK I'loal a\\a\. nalional |)ress carried a tpiote from one nf \iidy - -tuilio
Ill !''()() t'iliil and die ii-|i-iiril\ 'ii'llc ((iiili iliMrK cajili- haiieei--mi that reinforced this o|iiiiiiiii: -lie -aid Andy';'
\ali-d Wailiiil 111- •j.Ki l"iii'd w idi paintini: and \iiniall\ I've been ilniiiL; il all Inr die la-l \ear and a hall . . . .Vndy
lii|i|ii'(L iii^had I
linn II II i ml: and Iniiriim with a ]i>\ cliedelir. line-Ill (III ail ail\ more. 1 le- limed w illi il. I did all his new
niiilli-inrdia |
ii-i li HinaiK r railed '
I lif lAplodiiii; I'la-ln -imp can-. "
W arhol had turned I ii> at I em inn in emerprises
lni\ iialilc. rraliiiiiii; die rock liand \i-l\i-l I ndfiiiroiiiid like hi- jei-M't gos>i|) magazine liitciricir. and in other
lie al.-o made I'/it' Clii'/si'd Cirls. dii- liist I'inancialK bii:-ini'-r- \eiiluie>. But the idea that his staff was ])rodiicing
-ii('ie»riil iiiiderKioimd film, w liii li ( aK in I omkins descii- jiaintings without him was part of his ongoing effort to
hed a- a dlieedlonr. l\\ill--( Teen examinalioil of a-'Orled -Hike a -hocking pose. "1 realK worked on all of them." he
I'leak^. diiii; addicl-. and lraii--\ e-.iile-." and added dial laler admilled."
\\ arliol had lemoxed die aili^l I'luiii ail lliroiie|i die ii>e nl In the earlv seventies \\ arhol rediscovered his interest in
cominercial teclmi(|iie~: lie weni mi in -.nluiaci inoxeinenl. |iaiiitiiig with a seriesof society poiTraits and pictures of Mao
incident, and nanatixe iniere-i Ihmii iiicixie-. erindiiiL: mil l-i'-timg. Bv this time Warhol had become a household
epicalU lioriiiL;. l eel mica IK aw fill I il ill- dial failed -.i;:iiall\ In word, die most fanions artist alter Picasso, and a regular
li\ e ii|i 111 llii'ii -e\-,iiid-|iei \ er-imi liillilii;>. on elite guest from Halston's to the Wliite House. The
lists
\\ ai liol - III -I film--, like die -i\diiiiii-. act ionle--- .">/(('/) of la>i and most painful phase of the ^ ietnani W ar and W ater-
-impU mxiiKed
l''().!. camera at somi'one or
|iiiiiiiiiii; die iXate dominated the ])iess in the earlv seventies, and more
-miieilimi; and leliini; run: llie\ had no sound track-. I.dt

il than e\ei linili die \ er\ rich and ihe counter-culture of
I'll).! focii-e- imfhnchiniÛ mi die head of jiop arti-1 ]iiililical prole-^t alike cnncerned diein>el\es with images
Hiilieii liiiliana a- he eal- a nm-hromn Inr lml\-fi\i' and -Miiliol-.
miniili'-; l.iiiplivUH)4 con>i-led of an unmo\iiie fociis on Warhol > paintings tif Cdiairman .\lao pro\ ided a little
die iiiji of tiie Empire State Biiilding for eislii iioins. "I ideological |ioniographv. Thev titillated the wealthy collec-
alwax- wanted to rio a movie of a whole day in Edie - life. tor while at thesame time confirming the niumpli of money
\liil\ e\|ilailied. Bill dieii. dial wa- what I wanted in do bv transforming die great hero of the anti-capitalist world
will I mn-l |ien|i|c, I iie\ CI likeil I he idea ot ])ii'kin<: oiil cerlaiii rexohition into a consumer good for the rich. The photo-
-celie- anil |iiece- nl lime- and |illllillL; iheili lnL;ellii>r. i;rapli came frmii die finiii of (Jiioldtiiiiis jroni ('liiiirniim
hecaii-e II end- ii{i lieiiie dillereiil Irnin wlial realK

ha|ipeiied — il- jii-i not like life, it êems ,-o cornv. '"
Business Art and the ^'Shadows'' that Linger 9.14 Andy Warhol, Ga/e Smith, 1978. Synthetic polymer paint,
silkscreened, on canvas, 3ft 4ln ^ 3ft 4in (1.02 x 1.02m).
Behind It ,c The Andy Warhol Foundation tor the Visual Arls. Inc.
l''li~ \iid\ moved The Factory to 33 L nioii Si[naie W e-t

In
and die scene got more and more liizarre imtil one day in
Iniie I '!();> when a groupie walked in and .^hot \^ arhol. Hie
-ide--liow aimospliere aliruptlv ended. Vt arliol was jiro-
iioimced dead on the operating table but revi\ed. .\fter
spending two months in the hospital he letiinied to The
Facton \erv frightened. His assistants started limiting
aece--- III The 1 acinrv. de-pile his anxiety that lie w mild In-e
his creati\ it\ w idimit the carnival around him. Ilie I acims
liecaine a place for the mass-prodnction of art that would
-ell: cnmmercial Miuvenirs of the avant-garde that Warhol
called Business .\rt.""'' To some extent W aihol's work had
lieeii 19t)3 — in tiie mid
an assemblv-hne product since
-ixties The FactoiT produced a- iiiaiiv as eighty silkscreen
|iaiiitiiigs a dav and at one poini a mo\ie eveiy week.^" At
dial lime, however, the overjiroduetion was part of the tease

diat gave him celebritv in the first place, and it succeeded so
well liecaii-e il Inrced inin die open the growing sense of
alieiiaiimi dial |ienple fell a- mass culture came into its
a-cendaiic\ . "I'laNiiig u]i what thing- really were wa- xi'iy
Po]i. \er\ sixiie-. \\ arhol -ai<l.
B\ I'll)''. Iliiwe\er. ihe jiniiil had been made. I.niikillg

258
a^mif^-l&fiîi.
9.15 Andy Warhol,

S(<u/(s, 1976^ Synthetic
polymer paint, silkscreened,
on canvas, two canvases,
15 19in(38.1 • 48.3cm)
each.
c The Andy Warhol Foundation (orihe
Visuol Arts, Inc.
259
Roy Lichtenstein
lA/<» '/'.<r-l„nii ill.- l.inlr \{r,\ li,„,k- . |,iiMi.lir,l in 10(,(,. ill llii- M'\i-nlii'> and I'iiihlii--, The inalerialisiii of those
uliiill \\;i^ Cillliril aioiiiiil li\ ciiiiiiHi^ liH li(:iK iil llif decades Icll |icd|ilr ji-rliiit; imrra-.ill<:ly aliciialofl iVoiii one
l;ilc >i\lic-. aiiolher. Iruni AiiK-rican ^dcicix. and I'iiiallv from tiiein-
MiMiiw liili-. W^nliiil ^ -.(icii-lv |iiiili'ail-- ol ilic scM'iilics scUes. Idcnlil) (li^solvfil ml n die iidn lninfiol'tlie voyeur. As
li'\ il:ili/(cl ilic Hrnic iil ]iiiilr:iilMi r riL:.''.l-f . Wlm e-1-.f \\ arhdl •'aid. "W Inn diiii!:> really do happen to von. its like
cDiilil iiiakf a |iiiiiiail in I''"!! thai cnuM claim id In- a\ani- iîdii — \dii don
wall him; irli\ feel anvtliinp."''^ Elsewhere
t
irardry \ii(l llial. iil cdiii-.r. i^ aUo wlial inadr llifiii sd rrmaikrd: Uiii ihfii i'\ i'r\ lliinii is sun of arlifiiiai. doiri
III' I
inaiki-lalilr. I lir arli-l ]iiiiili-il nian\ ul ilicî- -.ilk^cii-cii know w hrri' he arliliiial snips and llir ri-al siarls. '"
I
|Mitliail- d\iT |p|f|>arf(l iirdiiiid^ dl iiAliiial In n^liw dik in a Hrrdii- nii'dia. Waihiil relleeted. "there used in lir a
niiildrin Idiinal ot Iwo -+0 X -fd-iinli |iani-l~. I lie -illri> aii- pli\ siral liniil uii Imw niiirli sjiaee one person Cdlild lakr II])
diini'ii-idnlr--. |ila-lic i)l)jt>rl-. dl In 111 I -l\ Ir. W ailidl lirdn;:ln li\ ihi'iMseUes. Peojile. I think, are the only things that know
die runlnrirr llaUldii in Id dcîv;n die di-cdr' w lini die III iw Id more spaie than the space they're actually in,
take up
Wliilncx Mn^rnni had a nia^-'i\c >lid\\ d| W arlidl ^ new lii'iaiise with media you can sit back and still let yourself
|idiliail^ al die I'lid dl ihf di-radr. and ih'- niiiîanii chaiLird fill up space on records, in the inoyies, most exclusiyely
S")() a lickrl Id allrnd die d|irnin:;. on the telejihone and least exclusiyely on television.'"*^ But
Warhol Iddk dn nidic ad\iTli-ini; and dcîiin <'dinnii^- iiii'Miicably linked to this materialistic vanity is a dissolu-
-i<in> in die' -I'xrniic^ ami ciiililir-. ind. In- ''('>() !lirisnna> 1 I ( and while doing his ingratiatiiig society portraits
tion of self,
lalaldi: IdT dir \ciinan-Maicn> di-|iarliiH-iil s|dic> tncii Warhol al>o embarked on a series of Skulls" [fig. 9. 15]
ad\cTli-rd a |idniail -.r^înn wilh W arhdl for S.' !.").( )()(). that did not sell so well, and then "Shadows." which
lc'm|ilini:nisidniia-. id BfCdinc a lci;cnd wilh AniK \\ arhdl showed only the indirect evidence that "something" was
...
"'
W arhdl ^ inii-nîh inv; in\ dl\ i-mi-in wilh --dcial ^latn-- there. "F,\eiTthiiig I do. "
W arhol obseiTed in 19^8. "is con-
"'''
a ml nidm 'S I
ila\ rd (in (III' -ii|iriri<iali(ic's nf Amrrican ciillnrc nected w ilh dcalli.
Roy Lichtenstein
Like Warhol. l{o\ I .iclneiislein wanted his art lo look separates him from abstract expressionisin.
I
irograimned or impersonal." mirroring the impersonality "The turning point wâs probably the influence of
III mass culture as .\merica entered the sixties. Unlike Happenings." he reflected. "In Happenings, there was the
W arhol. however, he added "I don't really believe Fm being gas station culture and the objectness," with the object not
impersonal when 1 flo it.""*" Lichtenstein sought to use connected to its ground by cubist composition. ""*" In
paimiiiL; as a sill-ciintained arena in which to investigate Lichtensteins paintings of single objects. \ike Stdiu/iiiu' Hib
and ii'spiind id ihis subject matter, and he had a probative
iniiiaiiidii wilh his niaterials. as in action ])ainting. "1 was
liiiinLihl ii|> III! abstract ex]>ressionism. '"
he said, "and its 9.16 Roy Lichtenstein, Standing Rib, 1962. Oil on canvas,
cdiuiin with liirming and interaction 21V4x25V4in (54 X 64.1cm).
is. 1 think, extremely
Collection, Museum of Contemporory Art, Los Angeles, The Ponzo Collection. Photogroph by
inipditani. e\en though ... it's veiy hard to tell where I have Squidds & Nunns. £' Roy Lichtenstein.
Inirracted with the developing work because the tracks are
iiiii there."'*" That lack of any ])hysical evidence of the
piiiccss in the finisiied work suggests the more formal nature
111 Lichtensteins interest. Rather than a concern with
asseriing his identitx in the wink, he seems focused on
ex])loring the imagery and style.
"In abstract expressionism," Lichtenstein explained,

"the ])aintings symbolize the idea of ground-directedness as
ii|ipiisi'il Vou put something down.
to object-directedness.
react to something else dowii. and the painting itself
it. ])ut
liecomes a symbol of this. The difference is that rather tlian

s\ml)olize this ground-directedness 1 do an object-directed
appt'aring thing. There is humour here. The work is still
gi d-directed.'"" By "ground-directed" he meant thai die

work ceiiteis 111! the internal, aesthetic unity of the painting
and die internal dialectic between the formal elements thai
generated it. rather than on the subject matter. As a
metaphiii- till 1 .ichtenstein's w m Id \ iew . this more detached
peispectiM- with regard to sniiject matter iinamliigiiiinsK
260
CiL'.". 1() . I 111- ol)ii-rl liaiit:^ a^ lliiini;ll -i-ll -riuil.iinril in a I icliii-n-li'iii - w (H k in In- clinh r nl -n|p|r(i i nailer (Ic~|mIc
\ariiiiiii — II iliii-- noi rrlal<' 1(1 llic \ i~nal Liiiiiinil inn lia\ r a I iclih-ii-lrin - imin. I lir lia| i| ii-inni:- had a -innlar
-[lalial c(iiiic\l. Ill ailililiiui. Iir --iniiililii'd ilii' ii|i|ri i ami— iinMiiic nl cxi iic--i(iiii-ni. drna lird liiiinni. and iili|c(ii\n\
llnniieli llir ip|i|rcr- rniiilalllx — llir ~|iaic ilil" a Ili'aiU — llir 1 1| i|c(I i\ il \ ol a^-iniilal II ii: Idillid (i|i|c(l- liinii llic
ali>li'arl liii'iiial >'i>ni{iii-'ilii)n. ( )n ili>' niir hand I In- -l\ Ir i

>l ml >aii i'ii\ ii i niinriil w il Immii ahrral h hi.
nMKlerill<; (ilijcri- ri--finlili'- lln'ii- |Mc-rniaii(in in lln- -ini|ilr Dining: 1 ''(lO I n liiin--irin jiainlrd an ah-ii ac I r\|iic~-
liliear siveU'lii'> o! ini-\|ii-n-i\ r lundiicl calalni:- ami hack- -loin-i |ii(linr \\ nli \hikr\ \liin--i' in il. icIaliMl -i\ li-iiiall\ \n
page acl\'erlisenii'iil- in ihc new -|ia|irr-. I ikr dir cdnm-^. llic llir dr Kiinnini: "W (inicn, llirn in l''(i 1 In- hi-iian |iainliiiL;
advcrlisi'mciit-. had "a hiiîic-- and lira -.line-- dial i> ini|iiii - ciilai ^;rd li aiiics nl iiiinic-. and iiiiai:c-. niii nl aiK irM-rnicnl-
lanl." In- |
minird nni. 'aMd il i- indii-lrial. h --lamK Ini- I lir I'ius. ''.!()-'*. 'JO . iin|irn\ iiit; -liiihlK Iirm m ihr
^
acnial w nild w i- air in.
Bdi'ii in l''l2.H. \{o\ I.ifliliii-liiii l:ii\\ ii|i in Manhallaii

and >lii(lied lirii'fl\ with Rfiînald Mar-li al llir \ri --indrni-
, n Ill w. II 9.17 Roy'
Lichtenstein, Eddie Diptych, 1962. Oil on canvas,
,
.(•ai^nr
1
lirlnrr l: i; nil In II
cnllri;!- al
.
(Hlln ^lalr. ,
Mic
3fl6in
,,,.,_',,
(112
4ft 4in 1,32m), two panels,
,
-i-nlinii'iila il\ ami inncrrn w nil iniinnnii iiillin r and lilc ^ >, .
Collection,
.,
Mr ,,
and Mrs ,, ,
u j ki
Michael.cSonnabencJ, v
New York du ,
Ptiotogroph u Erie
by c p n
Pollitzer, i . i,
in lilf |iainlini;~ nl \lar-ll Irh an rlldinillL; ini|iail nn courtesy Leo CaslelliGollery. New York,? Roy Lictilenslem
I TPIED JO I HAVE SOMETHING FOW VOU

REASON IT TO EAT IN THE KITCHEN PEA[?> ,
OUT./ I Tf?IEP
TO SEE TM
NOT HUNG f?y MOTH Ef?.
THINGS Ff?OM PLEASE. I JUST WANT TO
MOM ANP TO MV f?OOM /
PAP'S VIEW-
POINT/I
TP?1EP NOT TO
THINK OF
EPPIE. SO
MV MINP
WÛLP BE
CLEAP ANP
COMMON
S'ENSE
OÛLP
TAKE
/ ÛT
OVEf?
KEPT
COMING
261
Roy Lichtenstein
B\ linninL; r\rr\lliinL' inln a Inini llial ran Iir repro-

9.18 RoyLiehtenstein,6lom, 1962. Oil on canvas, 5ft 8in 6fi8in
(hiri-il in new - papers or on teieviîun. dif nifdia homogenize
(1.72 X 2.03m).
ex[)erifiiri-. )iir image can readily he -.nlisiiinicd I'm- another
(
Collechon, Yale Universily Art Gallery, G.ft of Richard Brown Baker. Photograpli courtesy the
ortist. Ci Roy Lichtenstein. on thi> flat scieeii of events. Lichtenstein explored this
situation in a cool stvle that he has consistently described in
term> nf it-, fnrnial i|nalities. as if he had little interest in the
<(iiii|iiiîli(iii iiiiil clciiiik. \l'ii-i' l''()l III- iiliaii<l(ini'il (111- iMîK siiliirci inaiiri .
( )nr iif the things a cartoon does." the artist
iclfiiiiliiililc cailiKiii I'liaracters likt' i^()|if\c and \liiki-\ liilil ( .i-nr S-iwiaisiin in l"*h.'l "is to express \iolent emotion
\liiiiM' ill la\iii- 111' anonymous strips, mo^l urii-ii willi Mia|i and passiiin in a ci niiplftcK mrchanical and removed
ii|ii-ia iiiiiianif iir aiiiiui themes. With thi> Uiiil nl iinai»iT\ . sInIi-.'"'"' Hill 1 .ichlen^lcin's dflachnifiil rrum die exjilicit
ihf Miliji-(i nialliT (limes ah'eady translalnl iiiin ihi- hii^lily ^nliicii is die /('(//.snlijeci of his work.
rniix fiiliiJiiali/ril laiiiinaLTc oflinedrawiui; ail\ t-it icemen I > nr l.irlilfiisirin the single nlijecls fniin lÔl
paiiUfd
niinirs. I'lin^ I, iiliirn-lfin was not painting tliiiifis hill îi:n^ ihningh ami ihf rumir^ rnnii l''()l lliinngli 1965.
I'M).'!
Ill iliiiiii-. I lis inii- ~iilijnii^ not till' iMnlii-aring rniiplf. a rill Imni llir lii^l painlinii> which lie mailrol lif cdniios, he I
nia-'t. iir j<i- in a (liiiili-lil Inn lallirr ilir iriin- nl llirir inrrra-iiiLiK ii-nl tiirjit rows of small ilm^ h rn-ate the rolor i
traiislaliiin iiiin I Iir laniinaiir nl iiinlia and I lie iiii| iliralii ni- |ilani--. ,irlilrii-li-in maile stenrils to mil a
I In- cnmmercial i 1 1- I
"I iliat miianidi pliiisi-. pnniiiiL; irrlinii |iiinl' ^^^l<ninli t'lal rnlnr arra-- inln ri-gnlar
262
9.19 (below) Roy Lichtenstein, detail of Drowning Girl, 963. Oil 1
and synthetic polymer paint on canvas, 60' j ^ 36' jin (153 x 92cm).
The Museum of Modern AD, New York Phil.p Johnson Fund, .c Roy Lichlenslem
9.21 (above) Roy Lichtenstein, Little Big Painting, 1 965. Oil and
synthetic polymer on canvas, 5ft 8in 6ft Sin (1.72 2.03m).
Colleclron, Wh.tney Museum of American Art, New York, Purchase, w.th funds from the
Fr.ends of Ifie Whitney Museum of American Art, ^ci Roy Lichtenstein.
9.20 Roy Lichtenstein, Drowning

Girl, 1963. Oil and synthetic polymer
point on canvas, 60' 4 x 36' ain
(153 x92cm).
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Philip
Johnson Fund. © Roy Lichtenstein.

263
James Rosenquist
|ialliTii^ lit wlial aic railed Ben Dav riots. However, willi -iiidied elegance — the waves recall the prints of Hoknsai.
-iii;ill Imli-^ anil liraw ]iitriiieiii I .i(liteii>leiii's screens tVi- ( )iire IJchtensiein had planned his siibjecl. he focused his
i|iiriiil\ rl.i;:i:ril ii|i. >ii thai lir IkiiI III liiiirli ii|i Nrrlimi-. Ill llir allinii Ill die I'ornial refinement of the composition and
|iaillll]IL: \<\ liailil III I'lilianrr llir llli'i'liailira I . Inuk! Ill ilciaiK I iliiiik 1)1 it as an abstract ion. Hall the time they are
np-idr-dnw w mk.
'
ailililinii- III- iilliiiriiiilia^lril ihi-^r iliil-|ialliTiiril arra- w illl II aii\ w a\ . w lii-ii I he âid.^
llalU |iaiiilri| |ialrlir> In ailiirxr llic na^^. \i-iial |illll(li nl I irliii'ii^liin \\a^ liainrd in line ail ralhrr lliaii in
|Mi|iiilai- media iinaiii-i \ iiiinmriiial ail and liniii llir niilsci drew îiNirnanir linin
Till- |(uinlini;s ol I'^nl ami laily l''()2 iiiid m lia\r a ail lli-lnl\. W llriva^ Waiiml Innk lin lilirrlir- willi lii^
|ialrli\ aiililicalinii ul ilnl^. I ml li\ I lie end nl I'NiJ I .i^llllll- --iili|rrl iiiallrr. I .irhlrii^lrii I siililK ri'^lia|ird and irciim-
-lcin had |)erterii-il liiii-(liiiii|iii-. i^niiiii; iiimr r\i-ii n-îili-. |in~i-il lii^. \lnicn\rr lie ii-ril lii^ nimir> ^l\le to cicaie a
\]\ I'M).') ihr |irimili\e milliiir^ and lialrliiiii:^ liad aUn di fiance from the existential aiithenticitv and inunediac\
ii-rrdrd in In a more retined ^l\ Ir nl i haw iiii;. in w liiili rarli 111 abstract expressionism. He even atleni[)ted to neutralize
line îiiii-- conliolled and ronscioii>lv >ha[)ed. Lichteiisiein llir abstract e.xpressionist brushstroke as. for example.
]K\\t]ifi\/)roirniiig(,'irl [fi<;s.9. 19 and 9.20i in a reinarkaliK Ill liis series of brushstroke paintings of 1963 and l*'t){)
iiii|ia^î\r --Ixli-. lie aKo --liaiii-d die iiidix idiial liirm- willi Ik.'*. -jr.
James Rosenquist
l''(iO .lame- |{ii^riii|iii-l lia^ jiaiiilrd large-scale niii\ crsitx Roseiii|iiis| headed Inr New ^ m L in 19.*)."). He
.
s i|iiwiiiiiiis nl IragmeiiiarN images, mostly from niaga- sho])])ed aroimd in classes at the Art >iiidenis League for a
zincs. iii\la|inscd in a st\lc dial .hiditii fioldman character- while and then began working as a billboard pa' ler again.
"*"
i/cd as "noisy, fast, vulgar. oyerla|iping. |)ublic. visible. By 19.58 Rosenquist knew many of die most in;eresting
I he complex layerings of images evolve from free association \nimger artists and was actively painting on canvas)
lather than from conscious themes, and draw mi the foiinal himself, though he had not vet found his yoii aitisticallv. i
ilex ices of cubist collage and Pollock s "all-n\er" cnmpnsi- Meanwhile, he continued to earn a living |)ainiing billboards
liiiii. But if the inexplicable shifts in the scale and context nf nf movie characters over Times Scjuare and salamis over
Rnseni|iiisrs images invite comparison with sunealism. tliex Brooklyn. The huge, simple forms of the billboards looked
are not intrt)spective like sunealism. nor did the artist abstract close up. from the scaffolding: to him thev resem-
suliject the objects to the dreanidikc metamorphoses of bled the sensuous abstractions from nature by his friend
surrealism, bistead images create a flat screen of
the Ellsworth Kelly. He also admired the sheer pleasure of laving
iiii|)ressions that resembles the fast cuts of magazine lavouts. on ])igment that he saw in the work of .fasper .lohns. though
"rm amazed and excited and fascinated
iele\ision. aiifl film, he probably did not yet see its relation to the sweeping
abniii diewa\ things are thrust at US. RoseiKpiist exj)lained. gesuires of liquid paint he was laying on the billboards.
\^ e are "attacked by radio and television aiifl xisnal cmn- In 19(i0 the sense of scale that al)stracted the images on
munications at such a speed and with sni h a Inicc
. . . the signs at close range and the sin'e hand he had developed
that painting ... now seem^s" veiT old-fashimicd win . . . in making them coalesced with his ambitions as a fine artist.
shouldn't it be done with that pnw er and giistn nl adxcriis- I I leci( images that w ould
led to inake pictitres of fragments,
""'
iiig . with that impact. sjiill off the canvas instead of recede into it ... I thought each
extmialK directed gaze, his |iaiiil-

Despite Rosen([uist s fragment would be identified at a different rate of speed, and
ings in that they thaw
are autobiographical upon his that 1 would paint them as realisticalh as possible. Then I
niemoiy and associations. \et they do not attempt to define ilimight aboiu the kind of imageiT Id use w anted in lind . . . I
'"
die identify of the artist, as in abstract expressionism. 1 images that were in a 'iiether-nether-laiid. '
""^
want In aMiid the romantic cjtialitv of paint. he said. He painted the 5-foot-high JJhitc Cigarette [fig. ''.22
Rosen([uisi reli\es his experience through his associations in mi caiixas. and he made the images in the composition all
the things and images he paints, yet he only reluctant l\ legible. Bill he used fragmenting, shifts in scale, and abrupt
leveals his feelings. "Painting, the artist reflected, "is the ciiis to black and white to keep the imageiy on a single
al)ility to put layers of feeling in a picture ]jlane and then peice|itual plane in contrast to the varied contexts of the
have those feelings seep out as slowly as possible, and those indi\idiial |(ictorial references. This style reduces the sub-
^"
feelings, a lot of them, have todow illi w lure \ mi are Inim. jecis inei|iii\ aleiii units of Signage, bi other works of 1961 he
Rosenquist was born on Novenilier '2'K l''.'!.! in (Jrand disoi'ieiiied figures, in addition to fragmenting them and
Forks. North Dakota, and grew up in various places around |)ainting them in grisaille, and he creaied e\ en more I'adical
the .\Iid-\X est. The solid technique he accp.iired in art classes shifts in scale that made iiiaiix nl die images hard to
at the L iiiversity" of Minnesota and the skills he learned doiiii: decipher.
summer work as a sign and liillboard painter laid tin- Hnseiii|uisis style of enlarging Iniins does not provide
technical Innndalimi Inr his |inp sl\ Ic. Al'icr liner \ ears at die iiinre deiail. Instead ol a microsco()ic x iew ot every |)oi'e in
264
the lop of a woman -- leu-,, i- a deliberate ap|iropiialion of the

wax ill which ad\ i-ili-iiii: e\|il(iil- -<iibliiiiiiial -e\iial im---
sagt-s. Ihe lallini; ulas.-. be-low ecline- ilii- I heme with a '\ iiibol
forthelos-of vii-i.'inily thai dale- back a- far a- ( .leek black

tiuiiri- polii-rx anil coiiiiriii- die cnii-iii 111-111--- w iili w Inch I lii-
aili-l liaiiiaiii{iiilalei| die ]iiiioiial laiiiiiiaiie. B\ l'l(i_' die

lompiex jiixlapi i-il ii 111- luhi-re iiiil\ in e\lieiiiel\ iiiilii|iie
wa\-. and il i- rare dial -iicli a lileral leadim; can be caiiied

ihrolliih. Hn-elli|lli-r- -iiphi-licaled coilllol hmt die piclo-
rial semioiic- make- him die mo-i direci and -iibile heir lo
la-pei- .loliii-.
In ('(ijnlldn \<li,iii of l'»():^ bi:.''.--! - -mall camases

|iii|i ii|i on die -iirlace ol a sini|tle land-cape, painled in a
coiix eiiiioiial iiio\ il- po-ier style. Tliese -mall caii\ a-e- -i-i-iii
lo have drawn up die -nrlai-e rreatmi-m ol die -iirroiindiiiL;
ari-a- — a-ilb\ capillars action — excepi Im die iiiiiiiiiihioiiie
caii\a- in die upper leh anil the nnmodiilaled L;reeii caii\a-

iii I he upper 11 nil I. These two appear as ihoiij:h in an earlier
i-\ohiliiiiiar\ -lale. The presence of the -mailer caii\a-e-
creale- a kind of -tatic that break- die iiifoi niaiiniial
cominniix III die -iibject matter and -iiddi-iiK make- om-

aware nf llie mean- of the paintini;. Ihe paiiii-ma-kiiii;
jiaper an mi id die unfinished green cam a- in die upper right
break- lo \ el a i ml her -iimillaneoil- -\ mbohc lex el bx locii--
iiiL: allenliiiii on die proce-- bx which the xxmL wa- made,
and dm- imroihices an awareness of the arti-i at w mk.

Ill I'Mtl .\llan Stone \isited Rosenquist- -iiidio. fol-
lowed almo-t immediatelv bv Ileana Sonnaltend and Ixaii
Karp iiii|iortant dealers

all Heniy Geldzahler the new .
associatecmaior for ivxentieth-centtirx art at the Metropoli-

tan Nhiseum and Richard Bellamy who was just then
.
organizing his Gieen Galleiy Stone offered Rosemini-t a .
txxo-person show with Robert hidiana [fig.*^'.2-+ w ho-e .
work dealt more explicitly with signage, but the two artists
discussed it and decided to decline. Neyertheless. Bellamy
started bringing collectors around who wanted to buy
Rosenqui-i - xxmk. While Rosenrp^tist needed the monex. he
9.22 James Rosenquist, White Cigarette, 1961 ^ Oil on canvas, did noi wam lo part with these painting- jii-i yet because he
60'2A353jin(153.7>.90.8cm). wa- -till working w ith the ideas set out in them. Kyen so. he
Collection, Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles. The Ponzo Collection, Photograph by
did sell -ome picinres. and in February X^Hvl he had hi- Hist
Squidds & Nunns. © Jomes Rosenquist/VAGA. New York, 1 994.
show at the (.11-1-11 (iaIIeiT. It sold out before il ex en opened.
In Tlw PniiiiriKii/c iifMerce Cunningham [fig. y. 25] he
toyed with opiical illii-ion bx using the same background in
the larger rectangle and in the iii-et while radicallx xaryiiii:
till- -kill. Ill' ifiiili-rcd the bliiw -u]i \ aiiiii- at rlii-i- laiiize like a the M-ale of the foreground elements in the txxo -eciioii-. In
billlioaifl. iiii|)l\ iiii: a Inigelv e.xpandctl >|)ace. "I wanted the addition, the real object-, which Rosenqui-l had iniermil-
space to l)e iiioie iiii|i()itaiit than the iiiiaiiery." he said.'' hi tently incorporated iiiio hi- paimings of l''l)I and l'*()2.
HItite Ciiiarettc the shaped cam a- aKn eniphasizes the took on greater iin|)oriance in comjtositions ol I'^D^^. such as
literal presence of the wofk a> an ulijici at the exj tense of the Xnniarl 'fig. •1.2(1 . xxliich includes a flitnsy. trans])arent
nanifai fefefence in the snhjei i iiiaiiir. •.Nature becomes funnel with paint drip- -ii-pended from the top of the can\ a-
increasjiifrlv modit'iefl hv man iiiiiil liie natural aiul ai-iif"iciai o\er a pile 111 paiiii--plaiiered wood on the floor. Ro-i-iii|iii-i
blend into each nihir. Roseiiqtii>t e.xiilained."" Tiiis in imii al-ii pu-hi-d hi- experiments with the found objeci- imo
precipitates a breakdown between the image-- and ihr independeiii -ciilpiiiral assemblages in 1963. and ahliniigh
ilieanin<is to w liicli thev refer. the object- did heighten the tlatness of the dejiicted image-.
The se.Mial metaphor of the liiiniiiii:. |ihalli(- ciiiarette they nexer held their ovxii against his self-assured rendering
thrust at the (i](eniiii.' of the boiile. w iiicli i- jioi-i-d jii-l abo\e and ciini|io-iliiiii.
265
James Rosenquist
9.23 (above) James Rosenquist, CapiKofy Acfion, 1962. Oil on

canvas, /ftS'iin x 1 lft4V'4m (2.35 x 3.46m).
Collection, Museum of Contemporary Art. Los Angeles. The Ponzo Collection. Photograph by
SquiddsS, Nunns, c James Rosenquist/VAGA, New York, 1994.
9.24 Robert Indiana, The Demuih American Dream #5, 963. 1 Oil
on canvas, five panels, 4 4ft (1 .22 1.22m) each, 12 ^ 12ft
(3.66 X 3.66m) overall.

Collection, Art Gallery of Onlcr.o, Toronto. Gift from ttie Women's Committee Fund.
©Robert Indiono.
266
9.25 James Rosenquist, The ?romst\a6s of Merce

Cunningham, 1963. Oil on convas, 5ft 5ft lOin -
(1.52 >^ 1.78m).

Collection, Mrs. Chnslophe Thurmon. Photograph by Rudolph Burckhordt,
courtesy Leo Costelli Gallery, New York. © Jomes Rosenquist/VAGA, New
York, 1994.
^'-'MV/^
Poiitifal. ;iiiil f^jti-i iaIK aiili-âr. iuKiLii'iN liecanif \ ifw IT in a gaud\ Day-Glo .-stream ot ciin~ciou?ne.^^: tiie
prominent in Rossmu juist s painting after the assassination of -liarp treads of a Firestone tire, a premixed cake staked-out
Jolon F. Kennedy in November 19b3. Lpidon .lohnson had like a minefield with little pennants listing the vitamins, a
taken over the Presidency and was elected the following light bulb, an enlarged field of spaghetti in artificial orange
year. Bv that time, pmblic debate about the war in \ ietnain a> if from a can. a nuclear e.xplosion under a multicolor
liad begun heating up and Roseiifpist found new impetus for l)each umbrella, and a picture-perfect little girl under a
his paiiuing in his moimting feelings against the war. The liairdiv er that looks like the nose cone of a missile.
military allusion^ in works like Silo and Pad of I9b-f Ihe imposing profile of tin- nrwK deployed F-111
anticipated the imageiy oiF-lll [fig. 9.271. Rosenquist fighter-bomber runs the entire length of the mural. It
ambitious masteipiece of 196.5. Designed to cover all four underlies eventhing. just as the public's concents over the
walls in the main room of the Castelli Galler\'. this 86-foot- war did in 190.5. when the United States began the bombing
loiig panopticon of .\merican ma~~ cidtnre inuiurêd tlie (if Nnith \ ietnam. The letlertivt- ahiminiim ])ane]^ follow Ity
267
James Rosenquist
^=?ygr'
assiiciaiiim from ilu" culd. mi'iallic |ilarie. '

I in inteiesterl in
9.26 James Rosenquist, Nomad, 1963. Oil on canvas, plastic,
(i)Mtfin|)<>i'ai\ \ i-.i(iii — till- Hick (ilCliroiiif. reflections. ra|)i(l
and wood, 7ft 6in ' 1ft 9in (2.29 a 3.58m).
1
a--s(>ciatioiis. quick flashes olliglit. Bing-hang! Bing-bang! I

Collection, Albnght-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York. Gift of Seymour H. Knox, 1 963.
lion t flo anecdotes: I accumulate experiences. Roseni|iii>i Photograph by Biff Henrich. ©James Rosenquisl/VAGA, New York, 1 994.
(•\|ilaini'(l.'
lins. -1111111^1 led a liiglily acli\e and -.ncci-,-,-lillrd lilr in
ilie early sixties. But on Feliruaiy 12, 1971 a car accifleni in

1 lorida left his son .John tmconscious for five weeks and his
wile MaiT Lou in a coma lor lour UKindi^. R(i--en(|ni--l
himself had a iiunclnird Inng and sdnic hicikcn iili>. ml die

I
9.27 James Rosenquist, F-IU, 1965. Oil on canvas with

woiNi of his agonv was the worry over hi^ taniilv. exacer- alunninum, 10 x 86ft (3.05 x 26.21m).
liaied li\ the mounting medical e.xpenses. Paprr Clip, a Private collection. © James Rosenquist/VAGA, New York, 1 994.
268
The landscape of Signs: American Pop Art 1960 to 1965
^^^ I i£A Kll
J2^*^^
momiiiirmMl niii-teiijiece of iiiarlv 2(1 Ifct in wiilili \\\l.

9.28 (top) James Rosenquist, Poper CUp, 1 973. Oil and acrylic on
9.28 >uiii> ii|i. a-- ii sav--. "Lmf In
. I'd: a rnll dlaililini;
canvas, 8ft 6in ^ 1 8ft 7' 2in (2.59 ^ 5.68m) on four panels.
marliine tape, a wurn l)illtolil. ami iiii--ialL'ii' ini/niories from Colieclion, Dallas Museum of Art. Gift of The 500, Inc., Mrs. Elizabeth B Bloke, Mr, ond Mrs.
the lalf tliinies of lii^ fallifi^ Moliil -lalion in Arwater. Jomes H. W. Jacks, Mr. ond Mrs. Robert M. Meltzer, Mr. Joshuo Muss, Mrs. John W. O'Boyle,
Mrs. R. T. Shalom, and Dr. Joonne Stroud in honor of Robert M. Murdock. c Jomes
Minni-oia. all teniiousK held together with a paper iliji.
Rosenquist/VAGA, New York, 1994.
in tile mid sexcnties Rosenqiii^t settled permanentiv in
Florida. nearTampa. and began a major (onimi----inn for ilie
9.29 James Rosenquist, Through the Eye of the Needle to the
state capitol in lallaha-'see. A new ~eH-coiiliileiire and Anvil, 1988. Oil on canvas, 17 x 46in (43.2 x 116.8cm).
renewed prodiictiv iiv Imrgeoned in lii- work, and an esca- Collection of the c James Rosenquisl/VAGA, New York, 994.
artist, 1
lated iexei of aggres.sioil also emerged as llie -lale o| --ome

works increased over the iie.xt decade to e.xtraordinaiT
dinieiisioiis. Thrniifih the Eye of the Xeedle to the Aiiril fig. êem- to lie >lioi thningh with charged field- that ojterate on
9.2^^ . a work of the late eighties, measures -K) feet in wiflth. miiltijtle le\ els of e.xpeinence simnltaiieously. The red lip-
An increasing mimher of high-tech allusions aj)peared in stick and flesh tones of a woman's face seem to slice across
Rosenqiiist s painting at this lime along with cosmic themes alternating waxelengths in and around the .\-ray like images
and a more exaggerated manipulation of the images into a of the brain in its cradle, portrayed as a kind of nexus of
nightmaie of the common oljject gone w ild. TliroiiLili the Kyc iidormatioii and at'encv.
269
H.C. Westermann, Peter Saul, and the Hairy Who
H. C. Westermann, Peter Saul, and the Hairy Who

H. C Westermann \i'iinl laiii:nai:i- iliiil
\\ r~ii-i iiKiiiii iliil Mill iic-llii'lici/r llic ii|i|c(l-

at liiiu--. ii\iillril ili.n nT .lulin^,
he a^îinihllcd:
Hnl
('.. "Cliir" W (-.IrnnaiiM iiiaiiiiiiialcil a IiMiilciicx in iii-lcad In- |

niniii led a ^cii^c ol ilicii' iiii;:iiial. olicri \ iilirar.
H ( liiia;:(i ill llic- mill liliii-- lo liini a\\a\ Iniiii llic cuiilrM lu -iii\i\r llirir iiiriir| loialimi iiKn hi- wnik. 1 hi-,
|i-\ I Iim1(ii;ii al iiilrii-|ii-(iiiiii ciT ilii' \|iiii-lrr Hii-lri liiw ai (I llir make- llir \ir\\rr aciilrU awair iil llic iiiiill i| iliiil \ cil
rnin|ilr\ -I Iiaiiciu nl |ii>|iiilar (iiiiinc. ( i iiili-iii| mi ai \ cuiiirxi- ami -niiamii' li'\rU llial iiir\i-l in W c-ln iiiann -
Willi l\an~ilii-iilirii: ami .julin- in \r\\ 'i dik ami w illi llir \\(ji k ami. 1 1\ mi| ilical inn. llic iilal i\ ii \ •! aii\ ii iini-\i w ii Inn
liiilc|icmli'iil (.|iiii|i in l.umldii. W c-iciinann n unliinci an I w liicli urn- iiHi-i| ircl- c\ cm-.
a---cnililai:c ac-lliclic w ilh an iiilnili\c -o|ilii-iicalinii alMiiil llic mciliuiUaml nialcriaU. imi |n~l ilic imaiic-.. arc
9.30 (below) H. C. Westermann, detail of

Memonol to the Idea of Man, If He Was an Idea,
1958. Pine, bottle cops, metal, glass, enamel, and
toys,75V4 X 39V2 x 20' 2in (191.1 x 100.3 x 52.1cm).
Collection, Museum of Contemporory Art, Chicago. Gift of Susan and
Lewis Monilow, PG86.2. Photograph courtesy Suson and Lewis
Monilow, Chicago. © Estote of H. C. Westermann/VAGA,
New York, 1994.
9.31 (above) H. C. Westermann, detail of Memonal to the Idea of

Man, If He Was an Idea, 958. Pine, bottle cops, metal, glass, enamel,
1
and toys, 75' 4 x 39' 2 x 20' iin (191.1 x 100.3 x 52.1cm). Center with
open door.
Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, Gift of Susan and Lewis Manilow,
Collection,
PG86-2 Photograph courtesy of Susan and Lewis Monilow. ici Estote of H. C.
Weslermann/VAGA, New York, 1 994.
w lial make a w mk -ncli a- W c-l en nam i- \lcni(inii/ la llir
l,lr,i nf \l,in. If llr lias an hlra li-.'!..'.!! -cmiincK

--iilix cr-i\c, l\i-.iii;: In II 1 1 llic cciilcidr llic licail i- a tiii\ . iliiiic-
>liii'c Liliilic alii|i a carxi'il. I'ci l-nailcil limicr. llic liii\-likc
head and die laiiici Imx-lnr-d -ccm an iim lelinalile li\ liiid nl
arcllileclnrc, caliinclix. and knick-knack -hell in a dream-

-lalc 111 I laii aniinaliiin. Meanwhile, die iiicl ii iilinis
270
carpenny. witli it> heaiititul bras? Iiaiflware and screws,

9.32 H. C. Westermann, Death Ship Run Over by a '66 Lincoln
assens yet another, completely >elf'-siifTiiient level on wliicli
Continental, 966. Pine, plote glass, ink, and currency,
1
the \"iewer encounters the work — as hand-crafted cabineti'\ .

15' 2 32 -Ol^jin (39.4 81.3 >- 29.9cm).
estermann lined the lower box with bottle caps fig.
\\ Edwin Jonss, Thousand Oaks, California. Photograph by Nathan Rabin, courtesy
Collection,
Frumkin/Adoms Gallery, New York. © Estate of H. C. WestermonnA/AGA, New York, 1994.
9.31 J. using shifts in context to redefine them on to five
separate semantic levels: writing his initials with them on the
intentions into the inexplicaltie realm of madne>s while also
inside of the door, using them as the backdrop for nanative
suggesting the idea of open-ended possibilitv.
scenes of a sinking ship in a bottle-cap sea. and above that as
hi \\ estermann's Death Ship Run Over by a "66 Lincoln
background for two athletes at play, while a po[)-top on this
Continental [fig. 9. .32 the menacing shark fin circles, end-
background also stands in \'isiiallv for the head of the batter.
lessly waiting, in a sea of dollar bills. The fin has a strong
\et neither the bottle caps nor the cheap little toys the
illusionistic presence on the giay-green w ater. desjjite one's
globe, the acrobat, the batter . nor the laisticallv simple
awareness of the money as money, same way. the fast hi the
wooden model of a ship, exerlose their identities as pop- tops.
cut from the narratixe of the death ship sunounded by
toys, or models. This continuing connection of the incoipor-
predators to the idea of inking the tires of the family car and
ated objects to their real origins effectivelv integrates the
literallv driving over the piece has a comic book absurdity.
rude realilv of popular cultin-e into the representation, thus
The extreme conceptual distance from the naiTatixe of tiie
compromising the usual boundaiy that sets high cidnne
boat and shark to the bills is simultaneously disturbing and
apart. \et \Wstermann approjjriated the ])0|) material- and
riciirulou-. A> in Memorial to the Idea of Man. If He II as an
images because he felt a geiniine s|)iiitual affinitv for tluiri.
Idea, part of the humor of the work derives from the almo.-.t
The title. Memorial to the Idea of Man. If He U us an
slapstick jumps from one mental conte.xt to another.
Idea, suggests the death of existential nieta|)hvsics about
\\ estermann made a number of lonely "Death Slii]is""
man in the >ame wav tliai ilie comjioneni- nl die
followed bv an ominous shark fin in dangerous waters and
assemblage — prefabricaied elements, such a> ti>\- and
ihi- "-nliject ha-, a specific autobiographical source. In VH'2.
bottle caps, lifted whole Inun popular culture — undermine
ilii- 1\\ i-ntv-vear-old \^ estennann enlisted in the marines and
the abstract expressioni-l idea nl the autograjihic ge-.tin"e.
went to >ea in fin' Pacific on the aircraft earner L SS
Meinori(d commemorates the (li--iiliiiioM nt ideniity ilself
Enterprise. On Man li Jll. l'*-f") he ex])erienced a terrifying
into the enigmatic relalivits' of i uliuial i niitixi. The sudden
kamikaze atiai k.
shift of the batter's head into a l)ottle ca|) and back again, or
the box itself which is now a cabinet, now a human torso, are ///v;.v One monuniieurlya lone
the inaiiicr thin- ot that lime.
both analogies for the in--tal>ilii\ of things. The wit comment Ja/xmese kanukaze attacked us I scar m\ tracers going . . . '
"k .\L\D C:ABINETM.\KER MIGHT" inscribed on the edge into the god-drnnned thing hat he kepi coming. Ucll it was . .
of die iinier >he]f >eems to conîiiu even the arlisr - a tern/ic e.iplosinn + ituan people up lorinu'd were kdled +
271
wounded -¥ there was n terrific fire up there. . . [ looked t/imn i'\ce|il for a Near ii SaiiFiancixdin 1964 in 166: itilh
on the funlail of the ship +

they had all the deiul people dr^nh 111 I'll'.l.
"*
sliieked there like eordirood. It i/-as a pretty uiiixodly scjiil. W r-iriniann - work of the sixties and êxeruie- iiail an
nil ii ii-iiii: indrliirdness to thespirit of comics, not oiiK in lii-
One can already see the first phase "I \\ i-îci iiiiinii ^ liilK cariiMindikc M-ll-cai'icatiu-es as Mr. Swanii. The Himian f ly.
dcveloperl nairative drawing sr\le in Kiiii- In- -cni Ihmiu- Champion of .lustice. and the aging Romeo with slicked-
from tlie war. Imi liis srulpture di(hi I iinii^;r iinlil ihe mifl iiaik hair in llidi Siran Dire: The Sea ofCortez [fig. 9.33].
filtie-. A- a indent at the Sclioiil nl i\\v \ri histitute ot Iinl aUn in llir coiiiic I k - mrihnd-. nf representation. In
tlliicago in 1''52 W'esteriTiann JMiian --indyini; cariientry ciiniii'-. a- in \\ i-iriniann - wiirk-. die images refer to
tVominannals. seeking a way til -iipi Mill himself. By f^)54his i(ini c |il-. iini 111 I 111- aiiiial appiaianrr nl ihings. This point
iiiiire-i in carpentiy had dr\rlii|icd iniu an ohsession that 111' II Irrriirr ill idea-, lallirr lliaii directly in the physical
fhcw Inni into senlptine and ^ hi- ciat'lsinanship became

i wiiild re-nh-. in a ir\ iiliiiiuiKii \ rmicept of figm'ation in
hill rxaiiin^' In lake on hnn-clinld liiiildiiiL' [irojects for wiiirli a recognizable abstract symbol— like Popeyes anchor
ilicnl- whii waiiird i|nirk and îni|ilr rr-nils. In 1958 tattiiii. which Westermann used for his signature — functions
\\eslermann began showini; al ilie \llaii iiinikin (Gallery in I nil the same level as an image with a direct reference in
Chicago, and the sale of his scnliiiiin- bmiiLihi in a ni(ide>t namre. This involved a radical rethinking of representation
income. In 1 ''")<) Allan Fnnnkin opened a gallery in New that profoundly influenced such artists as \X illiam \X iley and
York. uiNiiii.' \\ r-iermaiin leguiar exposure there, and the young Clhicagoans of the nascent Haiiy \\ ho. in the
W'esiermanii was finally able to stop hiring out to tlo and more or less directly) many im|)(irtant figmati\e
sixties, i
carpentiy. hi the fall of 1961 Westermann left Chicago for New York in the seventies and i-igliiie^. r-.|ii'riall\
artists in
his will'- r.iiniK kiMii ill Cwiinr.tii III wIi.t.' h.' -I;ivrd David Salle and Keith Haring.
Sp]lsH^swAi^
CORTEZ-
mm
THe Sra OF
9.33 H. C. Westermann, High Svjon Dive. The Sea

of Cortez, 973. Ink and watercolor on paper,
1
30 X 22V4in (76.2 x 56.5cm).
Private colleclion. New York, o Eslale of H. C, Westermann/VAGA, New

York, 1994,
272
lhoiii;hl ihai urn-- trom one idea In die mxi w iihniii liMikini;
Peter Saul
hack, iniidrlled nil ihr kind ol d He nn,' nii-hi Imd m die
iiiiii.in>ri'iinc'(l ( luirat III nl llir iiKili ri;iU llial W i---Iit- inarL'iiinl a liiL'li--eh(Mil m iirlioi ik. I in Liiianhiii: \r\\
Til.-
inaiiii ar>>iiiiilau' >(iil|iiiiif ul ilu- niiii'- i:i\l•^ tliai lan-liilK aizaiii-l aii\ In-- ul \ uLarilx . >aiil m-i-led.
work llif M'liiaciilar loiie of toli< an. .\llli(Hii.'li llif ritiiiic- >aiil \\a- linin in "-an 1 ranci-in m I'M-t. I mm l''>_' m
i)(H)k nilnirc tlial lie a|>|)ni])riatc(l inio iiis w nik ol' liie sixties l'l.")() III- -iiidird palming at \\ asiiiiii;inii I m\ir-ii\ in M.
si'ts a \<'r\ (iitliMent tuiif. it also retain'- il'- oiinin- in popnlar I.oiii-. where he- lieiian painliiiL' Imm picliiir- in \iilniiiiil
ciilliirt'. Ill liiis rciiaid. Peter SanI aUn hail a |iii>liMinil (iruixrapln,. While m -l. I. - In- .il-n di-rnxned die
inllnence on (liicaixo arti-l'- ol the --iMii--. wlm lnTaim- cnmpliA pnliiiral rniii| in-iiinli- nl Max Hrrkmaim ami
I'ainiliar with his work iliicniirli nuular -imw-- al llie \llan ilr\ rlnped all ad mil. limn |ni I la mi- Baenn - '
adiill- only'
Ffiiinkiii (iailerx e\en ilumiili >aul ihmm- aiiiialK li\eil |l-\ rllnlni:\ .
'
a- \\r dr-il lllrll il. '

I le I hell li\ nl ill I .lliope —
ill (^hicairo. ill Pari-. Hmne. and in a -mall -ea-ide Inw n in llnlland — Inr
Peter SanI'- |)aike(l (diniiu-iiion- ul ilie i-arl\ -i\iie> eiiriit \eai -. iiiilil I ''IH. Mai I a ili-cii\ end him in Pari- and
lia\e a |iii|i art knering oi ruinninn nnai'i-- lailiri ilian inl nil lui I'll hull in \llaii 1 rum kin. u Im -laili-d -Imw jng his
olijeel- ill arliiiraiT profusion. niani|iMlaleil in llie nianni-r ]iainiiiiu- ill l''()ll, llie\ear- l'i.')')-()| \\i-irpieil\ much
of .l/(«/.l/(/:ra:///(''s satirical, ailnle-rinl raiiia--ii-. In Mickey ii-ed in iriniiiiliiiL; -peiilie draw iiii:- Imm Mad < Hiiiirs [sicj
Mouse r.s. The ./(!/)'! [fig. 9.34 .âul -rml- a \ iriou>-iookiiii;

. willi m\ need In re-emlile lie Knnning. >aill wrote to
Miekev .Mouse with teetil to figlil .lapaiiese war niaehiiies in a Irumkiii -oiiie vear- later.' Indeed, such early work.s as
sequence of ili-coniiected actions. .Neither rational space nor Mieke\ Mni/se /a. The Jdj).'; have rich, ge-tural jiassaires with
pro|)ortiona] -cale ap[ilv. .V coinir -iii|i liiiiiiglil-l)iii)l)le an eirenliir pn|i iriiiini;iapll\ . Peiliap- the iim-i widely
saving "Baii/ai emanates from a .lapane-e lighler |ilane. a di-iil--ed wnrL in âill- P'()l! -how depicted >nperilian on
large Miekev .Mouse on thegrapii (ia])ergri(l leer-- in liir ligiil ihr Inilel.
while the left half of his lor-o nietanioiyiho-e-. inm a -nliil .-aid fiiialK returned to San Iranci-co in P>i)-+ and
ina>s with a hole through the middle. \ hauuiiei i:rii\\ -out of staved dieie dimnLih the ten stonniest years of protest
thi> left side of the liir-o and >niack> a war ])iani- mi the no-e again-i iliewai in \ ieinain. During this period he shifted his
and off the -ide of the hammer an arm and hand lome out aiieiiiion tn pnliiiral -iilijects like the \ ielnani \^ ar. iiicreas-
thrii-tiiiga kiiile inio a di-emliodii-d peni- thai lia]i|ien> to lie iiii;l\ rendered in a ria--. Dav-(do palette. Tiie war is "a
lloaliiii; ii\. I he-e |iermnialioii- lellerl a liee irain nl filllix penert game. "
he mid Mian 1 riimkin and imii-d dial
9.34 Peter Saul, Mickey Mouse

Vs. The Japs, 1961-2. Oil on canvas,
4ft 1 1in X 5ft 11 in (1.5x1. 8m).
Colleclion, Susan Wexler, Chicago. Photograph

by Mrchoel Trapeo, Highland Park.
273
Saul'-, work directly influenced R. Crumb [fig. 9.51] and

9.35 Peter Saul, Jyptcal Saigon, 1
'
Oil, enamel, acrylic on
Zap Comix, who saw
.
S. Clay \\ ilsoii. the originators o{ first

canvas,7ft9in x 12fl (2.36 x 3.66m).
Colleclion, Kronnert Art Museum ond Kinkead Pavilion, University of Illinois. Urbono his paintings inan exhibition at the Universir\- of Nebraska
Chompoign, Purchased out of the "Illinois Biennial" exhibition of 1969. in 1965. He also had a profound impact on William Wiley.
But Saul is more strongly associated with Chicago than with
San Francisco, because his work was shnwni principally by
"
hi.s "woik i> an accu.satirni. '"

.XdaiiiainU i(•(lll^(•la^li^ and Allan Frumkin and had an inipnriant influence nii ( ^licago
lianlciiii- in ii> flesrnption. a |iainiiiiL; like ilic nii>nuniental arti-l> of die sixties.
T\l>itiil Siiigon [fig. 9.35] imlici- iliccnifltyof tlie.Anieriran

-dldin^ a^ Wfll a> rlif entfr|)ii-i- llial liidnglir tlicni to
The Hairy Who
liiiliicliina.
Stall Pra\inii \(in

In an iniinlalized Miipl. SanI wrtilf 111
( dad\s iNil.i.snii's Lnterprize Encounterized By tiic Spy-
Ha^laiiU iliiwii the left >\(\v of Typical Stiigoii and letleifil i/iii- People [fig. 9.36]. the particular manner of the un-
ilif lillr (low die ridit. While die lurid Dax -( do palette and
II realistic distortion and the complex, energetic conqiosition
die ^li|i|iei\ pla^lie -inlace are hard In limk al. lliey pale seem indebted to Peter Saul. Neyertheless. the strange,
eniiipared In the \ inlenee widi whieh lie pniliayed the elongated appendages, intertwining with what Whitney
"'
Vineiican GIs sodomizing, assaulting, and crucifying \'iet- Halstead has called a "'madcap sense of abandon.' contri-
iiainese women, whom he depicteil wiili smrealistically bute to the uniqueness of the style. The title, inspired by the
diînrted se.xnal anatomy. The paiiiiiiiL; makes its political T\' series Star Trek, evokes a yiyid science-ficdon fantasy.
^laiement bv its deliberate attack mi i:nnd taste. "My As in the narratiyes of Saul and Westemiann. each vignette
piiiiires always give me a hard linie p^\ clinlngically. he in Nilsson's composition evolves as a complete thought in
-aid. '^They] are meant as a kind nf Cnld .-îinwer. itself, a sort of mini-adventure, before going on to the next
I nward ht> end of the sixties Saul began depicting recogniz-
I idea. They proceed along a ti'ain of association that builds
al)lc public figures in this shocking manner, explaining to the whole of the composition in a cumulative fashion, unlike
I I iiinkin ihat he hoped to read in the press: " Upper Classes a work of die |inp art mainsti-eam —a Warhol or a
nl ( hicagn Terrified by Mad-dog Sex Pen'ert at Art Galleiy. Rosenquist — in which the details are subsumed by the
Ihiiidiv,l-,|'aint.'""^" overall desiiiii.
274
^
.^..'M.J^^
9.36 (above) Gladys Nilsson, The
Enterprize Encountenzed By the Spydar
People, 1 969. Watercolor on paper,
22' ..x30in (56.5 ;^ 76.2cm).
Collection, the artist.Photogroph by Williom H. Bengslon,
courtesy the Phyllis Kind Gallery, Chicago and New York.
9.37 James Falconer, Art Green,

Gladys Nilsson, Jim Nutt, Suellen
Rocca, and Karl Wirsum, Hairy Who
icat-a-log), 1968. Exhibition catalog cover
in paper, printed in color, 1 1 ^ 14in
(27.9 X 35.6cm) (open).

275
Tlir âiiic î-i[iiential coiiiiMiîrinn clKiiailiTi/f" tlu' w mi. San Franei-^co \ii In-iiiiiir. and a liiial mii' in ]0(i9 at the
(il .Inn Null ami Karl W irsiini a- w rll a~ iiiiicli |i^\(liiiiir aii. ( I HI 111 an ( ialleiN nl \n ill \\ a^liiiiglnii. show the
In llir iliird
adoiesceiil d Iliiii^. aii<l iiaixi- m Mii-ilninlcd ail— llic x)- artists covered die \\all> w gaudv I'lowcred linoleum and
illi
called "tJiil-idir an wliicli ilir ( liiiaiin arli~l- lia\e loiiiz hung bright yellow tags oil each work with a bargain price in
adiiiiii-il. \il^-.(iii Null. \\ ii'iiiii, Janice I ah hut. i \ri ( lii-iii. dollarsand ndd cnil-.. The ~l\\i- of die exliibiiinii. like die
and >iii'llrn Rocca all liiii^lird -.el I al iIm- \i'I hwliliih' nl diri'erent style-, nlaiienlnaled llial wliiih
die î\ aili-i-,.
( liica^'ii ill die caiK or iniddli' -ixlii'^ and lianded roj;t*tiiiT iippel'-class "good ta^te" had left mil.
liir a ~c(|iiiMi(i' (it fixe i'\iiil)iti(iii> under the culleetive banner or each exhibition e.xcept lliinne in San Fr anci>co the
I
lit die liaiiv Willi. Wliili- no ideological [iiograni iiiiiled 1 laiiA \\ ho jHodiiced a collaborati\e catalog in the form of a
dieni. dir\ shared nriaiii |predoininani intere.sts. inelii<liim cnniic book. The sci-fi he-inan figures on the front and back
an allrai linn in tiinky |io|>nlar kilsrli. comic books and to\ ^ ciiMis of the (Corcoran catalog [fig. 9.37] are joined with
wliirli dii\ jire.sented alonj: widi dieir work), and a 'titclie-. at the >lioulder. playfullv responding to the wav
])ro[)enîly to play with language ( using puns or having fun figure^ are pulled ajiart when the covers are folded aroimd
with spelling as in "Encoiuiterized" and "Spvdar" people i. the booklet, hi the other direction the figures tear apart a
Perha[i-- iiio>t importantly. the\ tended In \ lew po|inlar [lair of boxer shorts with "Haiiy Wlio" written across the
cidtnif and outsider art not onK a> a souk e Iml a^ an in ii> front as the booklet is opened. The label on the waistband of
o\\ n riiilil. the jHttty-headed creattire on the back reads "Hain- but
I lie 1 laii\ \\ liii e\i>ted a> a group tor tour Near--. IheN true!" while the inscription from the tight lips of the weight
had diierdiii\\-.in I'lod. l«)(,-:-.aiid JOhli al the Hyde Park lifter on the front w ith the surrealistically deformed limbs
An ( rniri in ( liicai!!!. a finirlli in l"'()o a I die (iallerv of the >ay> "gi -me. one dollar using a plionetic spelling and
"
9.38 Karl Wirsum, Screamin'J- Hawkins, 1 968,

Acrylic on canvas, 48 36m (121.9 91,4cm).
Collecl.on, Art Institute o( Chicogo, Mr, ond Mrs, Frank G Logan Pn
and Logan Fund, 1969,248
276
diacrilical marivs. Above, to the riiihi. "cat -a -lop" is wfittcii

as a febiis with the visual symbols ol a ciii ;iiicl a lo<;. 'Ilit'si-
and other details make clear the iiileljeclua! -.i'n>ili\il\ n\

these an isl> to the way in w hirh laiijiuage liaim-^ Imih rcaliix
and art in th*' ininian niiiid.
I lie (^)icoian eataloj; coiisisls onl\ ol iinaixo — iherc i^
no text, thoiiuh niaiiv of the ('oin|i<»iii(iii-. iiinir|i(iiale
phrases or words. .\ version of Karl W irsimr> I'ldii jmiMiini;
Screamin' J. Ildirkins |fi!i.9..'?8 the lille n-frr^ lo a well-

known bines sinfjeri fills one [lajie wiili ii^ janiiii; rhi-h lA
patteni'- and brilliaiil eolor-. influrnrrd li\ llie lulk ,n\

W irsmn â\\ i<\\ a lri|i in \Ir\ii(i in !'*() 1 . 1 Ihwcmm- i(ini|ili\
the foriTi^. lliiN iii\enlieles^ lia\r a i nniic-bcMik c hirilx (il
definition and llatiiess a<;ainst llic îrn|ile liac kL'niniiil (oldi
Jim .\utt also uses notatiunal dexict^ from the comii >.
9.39 Jim Nutt, Miss Sue Port, 967-8. Acrylic on plexiglas and
1
enamel on wood, blue screws and red rubber, 61 ' 37in (154.9 ' 94cm)
Collection, the artist
9.40 H. C. Westermann, Angry Young Machine, 960. Painted 1
wood and metal on casters, 6ft5in x 3ft4in x 3ft4in (2.26 x .02 x .02m). 1 1
Collection, Art Institute of Chicago, Restricted gift of Mr, and Mrs Edwin A, Bergmon,
1 975.132. © Estote of H. C. Westermann/VAGA, New York, 1 994.
such as moliipii marks anil nanaiixf frames williiri Irames.

He indicates spatial relations through overlap]jing rather
than perspective, and completely eliminates all surface
texture by painting on the back of plexiglas and then
reversing it so that the \iewer looks at the iinages through it.
as in .V//.S-.S- Sue Port [fig. 9..'Wj . The glassv surface with bright
colors evokes j)iid)all machines, vet there is nothing mecha-
nical in the genesis of these paintings.
Despite the stvlistic individualitv of eaili of iln- I lairv
\\ ho artists, they all built their vocabularies from blends of
surrealism and expressionism. iNutt. in panicular. found
inspiration in Miro's metamoiphosis of anatomv [fig. 3. 27],
es[)eciallv his exaggeration of sexual parts, hi Miss Sue Port

a pun on siipjinil . for example. Null liisii-nileii ilie puliic
277
area ami aiiiiMi.iiril ii w iih ilif woiil^ '^liim liaii'. I lie hard
ware anil ilir luliln r ~i|uaii' in ilir rniiiT o| l//\\ Siir /'nil
driiM' Iriiiri \\ rîcriiKiiiii ~ a^îiril il,i::i- arîliciic. In ailililiiiii.
W r~iii iiKiiiri > ( .n liMiii-likc (liawiiiL;^. a- in lln- iiiccliario-
iiiMrpIn, hrail nn ili.- -idr ..I {nan )-./»/- \hi,liliu' [n'r.').4()|,
ari- a |irinKir\ inlliirncc Inc \iin

'
and dir ndiiT artists of the
llairx Who.
l.d I'a-rhkc and Ruiî-r Bmwn aii' ihr nid^l ini|inilaril
( liicaLjo iinajii-l^ aparl Inmi Inn cunli-niiPdrarx widi iln-
I laii"v \\1)(). aTid \\u\ ^haic niaii\ nl du- -arm- iiMcrr>i>.

ahhoiiL'h Pas<'hkc' and IJniwn ari' Ic-^ lani:iiai:r-(iil<nlfd.
I'a-rhke. a iialixc (
'hica;:(ian. allark^ dii- wIkiIi- ciimi-i)! (il
dii' rnain-lifani li\ injcclin;: dir most Jjenersi- inia!:ci\ ol

niaiiiinal ûlu nil nrc- inin ihi- laniiiiu'ie of ilit:h ( nil inc. I Ir
9.41 EdPaSchke, Ramrod, 1969. Oil on canvas, 44 - 26in

(11 1.8 -66cm).
Jones/Faulkner Collection, Chicogo.
tf [l:f1^
9.42 Roger Brown, Tropical Storm, 972. Oil on canvas,
1
6ft' sin - 4ft''8in (1.83 X 1.22m).

CollecMon, Marlene ond Gene Siskel, Chicago
jiortravs tiie mily popular cuitiire of pimps, side-show

freaks, hookers, transvestites, and wrestlers, all with a
liizarre sexual ambiguity. In Ramrod of 1969 [fig. 9. 41] he
i\en comliines this with the cartoon image of Mighty Mouse.
Roger BroiMi [fig. 9.42] came from Alabama and Nash-
\ ilir to the School of the Art bistitute of Chicago in 19b2 and
-.ludied there (at first intermittently) until 1968. His first
important show was widi a group of artists who called

themseKes False Image (modelled on the pattern of the
Hain \^lioi. He credits Ray Voshida, one of his ,\rt Institute
teachers, with helping him, as he said, to "put myself into my
""
art. .\lthough his work has more varietx- of paint surface
than that of Nutt or Wirsum. it nevertheless retains a comic-
book narrative (sometimes literally inscribed under the
images on the painting! with a cartoon-like description and
tlatness. Bro-wii tv'pically paints fantastic, anecdotal scenes
filled with amazing, dramatic details in luminous color,
olten locaU'd in familiar Chicaso landmarks.
278
West Coast Pop

Far Eastern ciilmrc — |ianiriilail\ Zfii liudillii-in •I I
Funk Art
Taoism
1 — lia> loiii; iiitliiciniil ilic iiitellicuial iliiiialc iil
Calit'oniia ami llic Parit'ir Norlliwest. The roiiteiiiplativf AlunaliuM \\,i- al ilir run- nl Immi riilniii- a~ iii .Lk k
spintualism()fNlarkTol)ey tig. 2.20 aiuHiisstU(ieiit\loni> Mk. roiiar - On lli,' UnnJ. Mian (.ni-l.rin- //,<///. .1.1)
Graves was reflected ill ilii'ir mi'(liiaii\i' rc>|)i>iiM' uniannf. Saliiiiicr - ( ulilicr in llic Hvf. ami William Hnnciuiih-- -
wliile ill the fifties liie famiiiaiitv witii Ka>teni [)liiloM)|)hy \(ikc(l I .nndi . I m ilii--i- lnai wiiui-, >amuil l]i( kiii , ,,n~e
coiitrihiited to tlie receptive climate for the meditative ul ilir ali-md li.id ri|ilai iil ."'ariie- - i\i~i(iniali-i ir^liniisi-
Dviiatoii painters in I.o^ ViiL'elc'- — W oifiiaiiii' Paalen wlio |iilii\ in I'arli n| ihi'ir rdii-inniiii; jiiinin-x - iiiw aid. W luTra-
began the journal l)\ii in M.aicu (ai\ in l'*-Hl. l.ee ihr \r\\ \ ml an w miIiI spiitlitrlits what i- in. ilir aiiiM- nl
NhiJlicaii. and (iordon )ii-lii\\ -I nnl, /m aUu hail a lornia-

( ."ân I ranci^cu lia\ r. îmr he I tiflie-'. ciihi\ ainl a n adiiiun nl
ti\-e impact on the l)eal~. w ho ~iiiii;lii ilicir i--iapr Iniin ihr- hrini; niii— 'lar lun \i> ii-r a phrase licini iiip ilir
mainstream bv rerreatiiit; into their o\\ n ciMix'ioii^ne-.-. language ul ja// and ihr heat- . 1 hf hear couniercnhine ol
9.43 Bruce Conner, THE CHILD, 1 959-60. Assemblage; wax 9.44 Bruce Conner, SENORHA, 1 962. Assemblage on wood,
figure with nylon, cloth, metal, and twine in a high chair, 34 21 5m (86.4 53.3 12.7cm).
345/8 X 17 X 16V2in (88 x 43.2 x 41.9cm). Collection, Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, Phofogroph by Squidds & Nunn
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of Philip Johnson. Photograph by Geoffrey
courtesy Museum of Contemporory Art, Los Angeles.
Clements, New York, courtesy the artist.
279
West Coast Pop
niiiscofenterecl on tlie coflVi r-- am ja// chil)- II roiiM'v iuL' dir |iiiniii\ iif ini|)ic i\ isaiioii will) whatever
C. ITrr (.allriA iiiaicrial wa- liamL lir iriliiiiixc |iinic-<- ol making the
\..,il, liiacli
— places willi iiamt'> hk.' Ih- al I
p
r \istfiice BafTt'l S!ii)|i. ami Ilir a//( rlkll' — W IliT iil>ji-ci lake- |)|-eccdt'ncc um-v an\ |iir((incc|il inn nl a Una!
|„M- nnîciaiis. and ailisl^ i;ailiiii 'dlnl il;-. (iI'li-M lo |iio<lu(I. (Conner shunned ((inxi'ininnal ai'l niauiial- and
(lund of cool jaz/. iiali~inan-hi|> |iic-.i-cl\ Ki cclrhrali- die lrinni|ph ol -|ioiila-
Br ncc il.ia,L"'>. 'I'lli:( llll.l).m,\>i:\l>l!-

(loinicr's as--fmlii ncdH- rii'alix il\ o\ er ilii- L;rnii\ ri-alil\ nl' tin- nianaial w oild.
1T\ •.(n-iluJiu ni;>. '>.->:; and ''.-H . Hndcrscoi-ini: die ciniiha-i- on lixini: Inr ihi- nionirnl.
Borrowinu; IVoni die |iarlan(c nl ln|i. llii- an canic m lit-
knovio a- funk, nieanint; soniethint; \i-<rral and carliiy.
nil en -n |inwerful aiifi [iriinitiveas to lliicalen die |ieri meters

,,r-;:n,.,lla-te."'"
(oiiner. who
arrixed in San Fianeix-o in ')"):. heionjis 1
lo a gidu]) of funk assemblagists and collage makers in

CaHfornia that also included Joan Brown. Wally Hedrick,
less Collins. Wallace Bennan. and Ed Kienholz. Funk
assemblages not only attacked the boundaries betrveen one
art form and another— Cônner. for example, also collaged
together undergrounfl films, such as .4 Morie of 19.58. from
discarded Hollwood film clips— but also the separation of

art from The humorously awkward, improvisational
life.
compositions and the bright polychromy that came to be

associated with Califomia sculptors stich as Robert Htidson
[fig. 9.45] in tlie sixties -^wns one major offslioot of this
assemblagi^t -txle. inlluenred liy siurealist abstraction and

pop color.
Jess Collins [fig.9,-K)\ one of die most gified nf the Bay
.\rea assemblagists. cut u\) and reassembled Dick Tracy
comic strips in seven "Tricky Cad" compositions, dating
from 1953 through 1959. By scrambling both words and
images, he subverted the clarin* of communication that
normally characterizes comics. Jess, who goes by his first
name only, trained as a scientist, worked on the Manhattan
and Hanford Projects, and then left the field in 1949 in
response to the hnrrifving implications of the atomic boml).
9.45 (above) Robert

Hudson, Doub/e Time. 1 963.
Painted steel and aluminum,
58% X 50 X 35in
(149.2 X 127 k 88.9cm).
Oakland Museum. Gift of the
Collection,
Women's Boord of the Oakland Museunr
Association. Photogroph by M. Lee
Fatherree.
9.46 Jess, The Foce in the

Abyss,1955.Paste-up,30 40in
(76.2- 101.6cm).
First Notional Bonk of Chicago.
280
Callers on (),iuIm-i i:;. I'*.',.-,. Nm r..ii-.ili.|,iir,l hi- -ixl.- ,.1
expressioiiislir pl.i-lri liuinr- |i\ l'i5~ rii:,'i.4'' .Wuikiriu

from drawiiii^s rallici lii.iii î li\ i- iin "Id lirl| nil Inni jirniin-
ate the gestural iii(le|"iiiliin i- nt ihr pla-hr -in l.n i- .iiiil iln-
~|ilM-lie- of biilliMllI < iijiii I III- L:i-liiir ami rulm lir Ncii -
wniL inio llir ir.iililinii III |ia\ \rca lii;iiiali\ r paiiil him. w liilr
111- iinroiix i-iiiidiial ii-c nl llir pla-iir a- a iiiial inali-rial
lev eal- hi- link w iili Iniik inipn i\ i-alinii.
9.48 Joan Brown, Se\i Portrait with Fish, 1 970. Enamel on

mosonite, 8 ^ 4ft (2.43 x 1 .21 m).
Phologroph courtesy Frumkin,'Adoms Gollery, New York.
9.47 Joan Brown, Portrait oi Bob for Smgo, 1960. ON on canvas,

29 X 29in (73.7 x 73.7cm).
Collection, Dr. Joy Cooper, Phoenix, Arizono.
'"'
He xm^'lit u> cieaie "an aiuirlott' lo tlie srientit'ic nii-ilniil.'
III iii> |)lii)t()-(()llage The Face in the Abyss the rniw n of the
Statue of I.il)eiTv rests on tup nt a menacing machine,
flanked In another enigmatic (le\ ice iliai >iioots out a jet of
steam. Tiiev r<eem to have harnessed tlie forces of tlie scenic
landscajie into a frightful science fiction.
Tlie fuiikv paint surfaces of .loan Brow n's expressionism
aiouiifl 1960 is another development out of the beat
assemblage aesthetic. Browii discovered the classes of Elmer
Bisclioff fig. 6.31 in the summer of 19-56. when she wa?
eighteen. His influence proved decisive. In 19.58 and 1959
Brown made crude, fetish-like figures often animals,
wrapped and tied in cnimpled fal>ric. cardhoaid. and wire.
Her lieavilv painted canvases of the early sixties, such as
Portrait of Bob for Bingo ^fig. 9.4? show more clearly the
.
influence of Bisclioff. as well as that of Francis Bacon and

\^ illem de Kooning, whose work she had seen in San
Francisco. Over the summer of 1965 .loan Brown left these

densely painted, e.xpressionistic surfaces and shifted her
attention to an increasingly eccentric and original subject
matter, including a magnificent series of self-|)oriiaiis on
imaginar\ vovages and another group of self-portraits in
fantastic settings fig.9.-t8 .
Manuei Neri returned in 1955 Iroin iwo year^ in tiie

Korean conllict and iminefliaiely -rtili-d iiitu tin- \orili
Beach scene. Ii was Neri aiifl another ani-i \\ Im in\ iied Allen
Ginslier<: to irive die hi--toric iirsi reailiiii; i\{ Ihnrl M the Six
281
West Coast Pop
in~|iiiril .l;i|iaTic--i' |iiiiir|- iiamt'd Slioji Haiti:iil:i liiii^lil liiiii
ali<iiil llii- ((iiiilinti dl' llir iirciileinal."'" Tlii- rncoiiraurd

\(iiilkii~ 111 inn\r iiw.iv li ill'- ~\ iiiiii(ir\ nl lln- |iiilli'|-^
wheel. I miller iii~|Hre(l li\ III- em oniiler willi ali-HiK't
e\|ire-.-iiini-.|ii in New ^ oik llie lullciw illi; \e:ir. lie ile\ elii|ie(l
an aii-traii e\|ire~~iiiiii-l ~i\le cil' e.Taiiiie -eiil|iliire I .el ween

1'!')-+ ami l''')i'. while he wa- leaehiiii; al llie On- \rl
hl-lilllle ill I .11- \llt;ele-.
Tin- -l\li-lie liieaLlhriMii;li in <-eiainie- hail a |iailieii-
lai'K iliieel elleel on \ (ill!l<()>'s sllldcnl- al Oli-. wliii
inehided ken I'me. Inlin Ma-oii. and Billy A! Bent.'Mcin. In
l')."><> XOnIko- Willi Mil hi lieikelev. wlicit' he l)nilt a roiiiidiy
die Cail.aii/.i Imn Wmk- and h\ I'XiO he had -liifled

lariêK III ii-ini; nielal. Hnlieil Ihld-iui and Manuel \eii
winked w nil I II III in die It nil id l\and he al-ii inrineiieed ihe

\ il: ei-iainii i-I- Umi Naiile and Me|iheii l)e Maeliler. wlni
hnill nil I la\ eiiiii| m i-il imi- nf niMiniinenlal -eale w illi ilide-
|ielldelllU JMi-il iiiin|iiillelll-.
Ill ila\. \niilkii- |iieieed and -lieed liirni- ill a lon.'-e.
iin|irii\ i-aliunal wax. Hi- iiri;aiiie re-]jiiii-e In die material

,iinM,.,|, III, ilTiniiv w iih die e\|ire--iuin-ni iil'.la|ianese Zen
|inllel\. Ill wulk-ullhe lal el li 1 1 le-. -lull :\> SerilllllKI.S ffjg.
'>..")() . he aelnexed die Ireedmn and i;e-liiral liiildiie-- of
ah-lrael e\]pre— iniii-l |iailll iiii:. \rl. exeii ihiiliLih \iinlkii-
liilliiwed Piia--ii and Mini in makini;- ceramic Mail| mire, he
,nll had ill ii\en nine llie riinxemional nuliim thai aii\ lliini:
made in eeramie i- iiece— aiiU iial't rallier lliaii ail.
9.49 Manuel Neri, Untt/ed, 1959. Plaster with enamel,

60 A 22 >. 13' 2in (152.4 x 55.9 x 34.3cm).
Collection, Son Fronclsco Museum of Modem Art, Will.om L. Gerslle Collection, Wil
Gerstle Fund Purchase.
Peter Voulkos
ila—e- Neri tonk in I'l")! al die :aliliiriiia
One 1.1 llie lii-l (
( iilli-e lit \rl- and (railin Oakland wa- laiiLihl li\
Piier \ iinlkii-. w lio made an indelilili- iin|>re>-iiin njniii him. ^^q peter Voulkos,
Indeed. \ iinlkii- excited a nuniix'i- of eniergiiiri; arri-l- nxer Sevillanas, 1959 Glazed
llieciiiir-e 111' die I'iflies. .\s early as 10.^0 m lO.'i'J. -^hile -lill stoneware, 56^4 27' 4 20in
a-ra.hiaie-imlem.Ximikosbeganiiii-hni^lhehmii-i.lelav (144.1 x 69.2 x 50.8cm).

.
"^
11 II (
in liulh -eale and Inlin. He worked III ajenler lor eeiannc
, , , , ,
Collection, Son Francisco Museum of
Modem An. Photogroph courtesy Son
alli-1- ill Monlana ii\er die -nmmeliil
'».')_*
and iheie a Zen- 1 Froncisco Museum of Modern An.
282
joiiii^ Iroiii rolli'Lic iloiin idoiii^ ami |iiiMic |iai k^ all acro^-.
The Politicized Cultural Climate of the Sixties
\niri.ia. \n ai:L:i •-îv c -i iiiiiii\ ol jiiililir |io|ii \ mi csriA
|r\cl. I 'Oil
I
lied w ilh an iin| nrcrilcnlrd o|iciim-.^ lo a rom|ilr\
llif mill -<i\ili'-. tlic I'lilniral < IiiikiIi' i'Ikiiii:i'(I ;il>ni|>il\ \aiicl\ of o|>inion. aUo rmi'iijcd in iIh- rank- ol ilii- mhiiIi
III
with 1 1 II' I'î'alalioii nl' llir \ iciiiaiii \\ ar. ami llic |inilr-i in riilliiii'. l'o--li'i making llonii-lird a- a nalnial coiollaiA lo
tllf Ha\ Vli'a M'l llli- pair Im' llir liallnii. I lie I ivc ^|himIi lln- liii:lil\ |ioliliri/i'd aliiio-.|iliriv. and mil ol ihc w idr-|ircad
Mi>\i'mi-m in BiMki-li\ -laiinl m l''()-t. nîm: ma~- iIiiikiii- inli-ir-i III
I
111- in - I a Ilir llir iimlrrLiionnd rmiin-. oi ii^ ma I rd
itralion- id ili>ni|il iiiiîm'^^ a~ n^nal ami makr ilir xuii li\ li. ( iiiinli li^.'l "il . ^. ( la\ W il-mi. I{i,k (.nlliii. and
ot \oillli: |)i'ii[ili' lli-aiil (111 iiiallci-^ 111 iialiiiiial |ioli(\. I nlk \ 1, lol \|o-, ,i-ool/,,/,ro,/,/,,. I .11 a lew I il irl \ rai - 11 -rrim'd
I1lli,-ii' ami till' Bi'atli'' ii-|ilarril runl ja//. ami llic iaii| iliaî^ in a- 1 1 1 III' I'oiinlri mil nil' w milil i i\ al i lir inain-l rrani.
eviTVlliin;; w a^ on \ milli. Kadical ir\ (iliilidiiai ii'> rnsc iiji mi
imi\«'i--il\ raiii|iii~r^ ami in iil\ cnli r^ ^nlr li\ -uli- wiili
(
William Wiley
hi]>|)ii'>. w ho inrm-il ilir /en miro\ I'lîon ol ilir lii|i licaiink-
illlo a |io|)iilai |ia'iiiiic ol ilir \ oihil: w illi lln- iliîo\ ri \ ilial ,./,///< A I IV William Wili'N iiiiMr,-2 riiii'i-,-dlroiii
[i-v rlii'ili'lir ( li iil;^ lii \ on i niic-in lo \ oiii^rll lln- |io|aii/i'd roiiir\l ol inlrllrrliial ai'li\i-in
T//,////,) on die '
Doiiil; \onr own iIiiiil: wa^ om- ol nian\ mw Im//- hand and an imira-iiiLl ii'liral iiilo iiiiii|ilr\. |ii'i-oiial
Woiil- liraiil al |o\r-iii'. 1

1~\ ilii'c li-lic lii:lil >lio\\^. iiia^^ irrni'iirc on i| ihci ,
amliiMiri' lock conirrl^. ami riîm; in llir îiiokr o| niaiijiiana

'I /)i(k(i/ ii/i llic hiilr III II iiiiiiinii[sr sii/r — il iriis iilmiih'
llii-ir. .<ii I fell (ih.si)/rc(/ofiiii\rrs/iiinsiliili/\fiir/{il/iiiii 'llic
animal . I lirii Brriiihi |

Rii hard-on. a riiia lor in Bi'i'kelev
'
9.51 R. Crumb, "Mr. Natural and Flakey Fooni in 'A Gurl in

iinrrinr \/r/r,.sr//r\' Br\ om K .ood and l,\il liirniil. Onr'iliiv
Hotpants,' front panel of comic
" strip from Mr Natural, No. 2, 1 971
nil lln I nil. I jlisl npriiri/ il In I lir iinilill,' iiiiil niiil n
p.l.93j x63.in (24.8 X 17.2cm).
Photograph courfesy Modernism, San Ftoncisco sliilriiiiiil . 1 1 nil I iiiiiiiiihii II /ml it irns. Iiiil il iiini/r iiir
lliiiik. mill I siiiil lliiiiik Mill" Iniiiysclf. linn I snir llir irnnls
I III mil nil llir linlr. Tlirlinlrsrriiirillikrn/irifrii nrl Jnrii
iilinir Int nj lliiinjs. in Iriiils nj llir liislnr\ iif n/i/rrls — linlnni
iirlilnrls. /nr r.iiniii>lr: / iisril In sifl llir isrnnnil jnr lliriii nlirii
I ini.s Liiniriinj II/I in \\ nshinislnii. llir hmkrii linlllr. n /ririii!

'''''
hrniiislil In niir ilm .
To ihr hiilr il-rll W ili'\ allai'lli'd a in-lril -|iikr. a lirokrn
lioillr. an arrow lirad. an iînana -kin Irom hi- -on - rollrr-

lioii. ami a |iir('i' III |irlritird w Odd -iirroum Ird li\ w a\ \ jiiir-.
I Ir in-cribed "Nomad is an i-land. |iiimiim: on die lamoii>

liiir |p\ llic M'\fntet:'nth-ri'iiliir\ |iori .John Doiinr. No man
i- an i-laml.'"" On lIu' -ln'IT -n alioxr he lioiili'-. lorki-d
hramlii-.. a jar lalirlird Irr-li Bail" and a (d|i\ of Mrl/-
-rlie s Beyninl (Joml ninl l.ril. \ li-iiin^ |iiili' arrlir- ii\i'i' llii-
-hi-lt'and around w ilh a linr lo a |iiika\r rr-liiii; on ilii' I'loor.
W ilr\ - ar-lhrlir illMiKr- all o|irniir-- lo r\ IT\ ojiji'i'l mil-
I'lirminlri - a- llir mil loi hnirlil o| an a--orialioii. in a Irrr.

i'\|irrii'iilial juxtajiii-ilion. Il i- liii;lil\ inlrilcrinal in die |pmii
and in llie di'liheralrnr-- willi wlmli lir -rlrri- and |ila('i"'
each olijrri. and IVri'K I'llrrlir lioih ni llir ii-r oT malri'ial-
aild in ihr irlrri'iirr- lo ollin arii-l-. I lir irolloi;ra|ill\ -rr ill

alino-l. lull iioi i|imi'. ilrri|ilii'ialili'. hillnrnrril li\ niirliaill|i
and .loll n-. W ili-\ - w oik ha- llir riiimnal ir anii-ral ionali-in
111 a /.I'll knnii
\\ ilr\ woikrd ill an ali-lrail r\|iri'^>ioiii-i -i\lr aroiind
I'Kid. B\ ihr iniddir of ihr drradr lir had lir-iin ini'ol'| loral
iiii: word- wiili iiiiai:!'- in liir|il\ riimi'|iiiial work- dial

lln III l\ romr.M loanotiier, as from
-hill I'll from mir M'inaiilii'
liln-imii-lir rrmlrrinr lo a diaiziam lo a \rrlial assertion. By

''"!(. W ili'\ - malrrial- had also iiotini iiiorr roiii|ilr\ and
1
roii(r|iinal. (>lirii lir would base a >eii>iliM' walncolor mi

llir rlriurnl- of an a--riillilarr of olijril-. and ihril rxlnliil
283
West Coast Pop
9.52 William T. Wiley, Thank You Hide, 970-1 1
Wood, leather, ink, charcool, cowhide, pickaxe,

and found objects, 6ft 2in x 1 3ft 4V2in (1.88 x 4.08nn).
Des Moines An Center. Purchosed with funds from Ihe CoHin Fine Arts
Nothon Emory Coffin Collection of tfie Des Moines Art Center,
Trust,
1977.9.
9.53 (below) William T. Wiley, Tankard's Avail

1976. Mixed media on canvas, 5ft l^jin 6ft 4in 1 '
(1.82- 1.84m).
Private collection.
tlie assemblage on tlie floor in front of the watercolor.

The title of Tankard's Avail ["Tankards of Ale"], a
characteristie work of \'-'>~!b [fig. 9.53]. makes no decipher-
able sense, though it seems on the verge of doing so. It
doubtless evolved through a private train of association that

occuned in the process of painting— indeed. \^ iley s work
lias the feeling of a diary written in incomplete phrases.
There are recurring autobiographical elements [like the
striped suneyor's range poles, based on the tools from his
father's brief career as a surêyorl while other images
reappear with sufficient frecpiency to be familiar, but never
in a conte.xt that makes their meaning clear: the triangle, a
figure-eight or tlie infinity symbol, a checkerboard, a tic-
tac-toe grid, kiiixi-.. haicheo. log-, skins, lightning bolt-,
and moons."*'
\\ ilev. inspired by Diichamp's alter egos and by W. C
W e.--tennann's puns and personas. has several invented
personas for himself in his paintings. Nh". Unnatural, with
the false nose and dunce cap as in Tankard's Arad .
usually appears in a kimono and high geta sandals. The

name is a take-off on R. Cmmb's short, balding, pop
guru, "Nh-. Natural." but Wiley's lanky character is also
a befuddled aiifl absent-minded version of himself in a
bonowed bathrobe.
284
'',"''' '"""[;" '"";'' '""'"' =:""",'"-

Ed Kienholi '"'"IT
rici klarc nl jiii^ îriiinicl lici mc k ^cciii-. m iiiiii.nii liikcii-- (il ]
ini'llliilir^, riic iilil l;i(l\ - killlllliL; ami --liawl lie al lici led
I Kiriihul/ \\a~ llii- \\u<-l xiîlil.' riiiiiiv on ilir I .n- \iii:cli- ami ,i mi-lalL;i( (li^|ila\ oldld |>li L:ia|ili^ ic-l- mi llir I a Me
E .rciii' ill till' la If lil'lic^. ami lii- 1 laii- ( .ailcrv \\a- I lie lic~iilc In r, llci- iiiiim il iilil\ i- -ci •! I |>\ a li\ ! ( aiiai \ i liii |iini:
(•|ci>f>l 1 .11-. \iii.'cli-.- um III lia\ iiii; a luru^ nl' arli-Iir arlix il\ . in a raLli- llial -lamU I ir -nlr.
Illf fil\ liaii IH) ct'lUiT. |>ll\îrall\ (ir iilrnliiLiiralK . I In-
(iiMiioiogicai al)slracti<m oC 1)\ iiaimi hail nniliiiii: lu iln w iili

L.A. POP
till' I'lmlv at'^liiclir of Kii'iilml/ — llir ^nnlliriii ( alirmiiia
strain i)t'ali>ira('l i'\|irr~-iiini-i rn aiim- liai I niurr Im In w iili IJn P'liJ, w lini W ai Iml Îmwril In-- -nii|i ran^ al llir I itiin
Bav Area liiriiraliM' |iainliiii; lliaii \\ illi aii\ lliini; i;iiiiii; nil in D(.allii\, lil Kii-rlia ami lii^ Imsl I lin-ml .jnr (, Ir
1.(1- Aiii:i'lr>. hail aliraiK |H(inrrrril imliLirmin- |iii|i -i\ Ir- m I .ii~ \nL:i-li-.
I'll Kii'iilml/ iiiuM-il IM 111- \iii:rlr- in I'T).'! IVnin hi- (. Ir- ihiin-rn milk Imlllr |iaiiiliii--. Im r\am|ilr. i-ach
lialixr W a-hin-Iiin "-lair, l)niiii:; llir nilir- lir iiiailr liink riin-i-I iil a -la— milk li.illlr. |iaiiilril willi llir lalirl Irll
a--rinlil.iL;r- ihal rxnknl ilir -i|na|iir ul llir nrlian rn\ iion- -Imw in". -illiiiL: a I I • 1 iiii lir- in Imiii nl a i' j-lm il --ipiarr
ilii'iil. -irr— iiii; il- |i-\ ihuliiriial am I -i uial i linirn-iiin-. I.ikr |iainlril ian\a-. In >iii(i!l S/mcf ilir Ini-hiK |iaiiilril huiilr
llir Ba\ \ira a--riiililaL;i-l-. lir liinml iii-| liral ii m in hral -lami- m i mr -ii Ir w illi a i li mlilr -ill -i ir i il ii mi i lir hra\ il\
|iiirir\ ami in -nnrali-I iii\la|Mi-ilimi- 111' iiiiaur- ami main- hamllnl in rlii umr ran\ a- lirhiml il lin.''.)). In llii-
ial-. I Ir hr-an lliakinr ihr lull -ralr. walk -in Ialilraii\ Inr r Iiiiial imi uT I lir a--rnilila;;r ar-1 lirl ir, rnlm lirli I [laiiil iiii:
whirh hr i- lir-l klinwii ill l'l()l. lie ii iii-l nii I ri I ihr ai^ril III llir I larki I ii i| i . ami llir I r| ii r-rii a I I im I nl a riiiniiiiiii
lail\ ill T/lc II ml l'ir.'*.")-f nil 1-1 1 \ mil nf ilr-in alnl aiimial nliim jn\Ia|H i-nl w illi hr rral lliiiii; l aiil ii i|ial iiiil a-|irrl- i il'
liiilir-. Ilrr lirail i- a |ila-lii-rnra-ril |iliiilii nl a mhiiil; llnr ri iliial ail nT llir lair -i\lir- w liilr al-n rrlrniiiL; I lark
wniiiaii- I'ai-r. a- il' ihr wmiiaii nl hrr \iinlli -lill li\r- mi in n i .la-|irr .lull n- .( aim Ir |iir— r- a i 111111 lari -mi liriwrni ihr
lirr iiiiml. >lir -ii- |ialiriiil\ wailini: in hrr liraw. ilaik. iralilx nl I liiii:;- ami I In- 1 rain \ nl -i-iinl i liiiiL;-.
Siiiliaiir i- a |
lai I irillai l\ iillllll| ilr-nil a-|irrl nl ihr
Ianil-ra|ir in I .n- Vniirlr-. I.il l?n-rlia - liailrmaik ami w mil
9.54 Edward Kienholz, The Wa,(, 1964-5. Tableau,
liainliii"- iiiakr an ri|iinalriirr hriwrni wmil-. -11:11-. ami
6ft Sin > 12ft 4in -6ft 4in (2.03x3.75 1.98m). >.
V
iiliirrl- Irrl 11 Mr irmlrrril Ihr
rmn-r. 11 ,1 /
1
^, ,,
'
,, llkr a 1
inallrr 1
111
1 I
/.a/i;r
Collection.WhilneyMuseumofAmenconArt, New York Gift of the Howordond Jean Lipmon
, ,
_' ; -
/ /
Foundoi.onlnc Photograph by Gerry L Thompson, New York. I'll lllt'lIK uk irilll l.lixllt Sjll )t llixll I S lir.''.-)l) . Inr r\alll|llr.
285
West Coast Pop
rirciih-.si.r (kisoUne Stations hciwcen Okialioma Cir\' and
I n^ \ngeles on Rouie (id [fig.*'.")" . I ikf lii^ -\\i\\ and word

liainlini:--. llii- hook concfin- (in- iiiliTchangeahilitv of
iinagi'- — die nnifornnix of ilif L:a~ ^lalion> transforms (lie
idad Irno a rooM'Xor lull of nia^--|iiiMliirfd and therefore

ii-pindniiMc nnagi-. Il i~ a- il die cxpriirncc related to the
iiiiai;!' i^ iioi lii'd lo a geographical icaliu Inn In die inoliile
icaliix 111 die reproduction. Hnx lia aKoinade pliniu IimuL^ uf

>iiiiic I. OS \i/'jc/cs \/iiuiiiiciils I '*().) . i.rcnihiildmu: on
>iitis(i Slii/i !'>()() . and Tliir/\-loiir l'<irkinii Lots in Los
[iiisc/i's !''()" . anlicipaling -onie 111 die i-.-.iie^ laiêil li\ die
iiineepliial arli^l^ in die later î.\lie-..
9.57 Ed Ruscha, Standard Station, Amanllo, Texas, from the book

Twenty-six Gasoline Stations, first edition 1 963.
Collection, tfie artist.
9.55 Joe Goode, Smalt Space, 1963. Oil on canvas with painted
glass bottle, 69' u 67' ' i6 x 2^410 (1 75.4 x 1 71 .9 x 7cm).
Colleclion, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York. Gift of Frederick R, Weismon Art
Foundation, Los Angeles, Californio. 90,28a-b. Pfiotogroph by Geoffrey Clements, New York.
witli till- c(iii\ iiiriiii; lliri-f-iliiiii-iiîiin;ilil\ nl ulijcrl^ in a

laii(l?ca])e. \t'l llie ohjt-tt.-^ aif llif IflliTs (il a >iiiii lni
Twentieth Centiin-Fo.x and the landscape ha.s the hanl

edges and sinijiliiiix nf a rartDoii. Tlie leaHty in the |ii(tini-
liovers uneaîK luiwffn ali^lraif imi and rf|iii-^cinaii(in.
inidemiiiiinv: ihc lunM-ntiunal disiiniiinn hetwi-cn dii-ni. ,V>

with Nrw ^l1lk pop art. Rfi-i lia - painting also attacks
aesthetii and ^rniiiitir hieiarchii^ li\ xlling ad\eitisinL; ami
cornnienial art devices in a high aii coine.xt.
In VHVA Rnxha published a Unnk of photograph^ ..I
9.56 Ed Ruscha, Large Trademark

with Eight Spotlights, ^967. Oil on
canvas, 5ft 63 4in llftl'4in
(1.69 X 3.38m).
Collection, Wfiitney Museum of Americon Art,
New York. Purchase, with funds from the Mrs.

Percy Uris Purchase Fund. Photograph by
Geoffrey Clements, New York.
286
Robert Arneson
Ri>l"il \iiii-~oM lii^l liiiil r\r~ (111 ;i Pclir \ unlkn- |ini in I ih- I MCI I Mil 1
1--, -area -.tic jab a I the liadilii>n nl'rlfMant
l''"*"" ami wa-. -iiinillanciui-.|\ iin|irr^-.c(l ami iiiliim- \a-i'- and al llir |Miiter\ esiablishmenl thai inainlaini'd the
(iatfd. '
\t thai liiiH'." Iir ii'ialli'il. "I m\ n iIiiiiim|ii I J Ik an ( nin]parlincniali/iiii: ol cla\ a- trail -.iL;nalrd \riic-oii"-
arli>l. .lu'-l ln'iiii: a ixood poitfr woiiM In- cmmLili \n(l iIh ii I iadi(al dc'|iailnir Inim dial kind iil work. In llir -iimniianr
>av\ \ oiilko>'s [lit'ce.""" Arneson had ai(|unril a ^dlnl l''li| 111' had aliradx Im-hiiii niakini: priiiiili\r. Mc-lnial
leclmical iiia>Ici'\ In ihrn Init he \\a- -lill iiMciiunai \ m hi- -rnlpiiirr-. Ill claN. diawini: in-piralion liniii \-iaii icianiif
idfa> about ceraniii^. Wnhin two \iai'^. ImwrMi In- wa^ work- on di-pla\ in the \\ri\ HriindaMc ( iillrci ion in âii
experiineiitiiiLr w nh iiin;^li. mm-himlional |iiii^ and li\ I
'Mill ianci-.co and lioni Mini s ceramic>.
I
lie had heiimi hicikni;: llnnni;!! in In- o\\ n m iiaiiic. alwl acl i
In the fall ol VHi'l Arneson was broniiln in lo e-tabli-h a
i-\|ui'-»icMn~iM ( eramic sciil|itme pro<;ram at the University of ( .alifornia at
DaN i-. W a\iie Thiebaud [fig. 6.34]. Anieson [figs. 9.58 and
Arneson's Break with Conventional ''..jy I. William Wiley. Manuel Neii. and Roy De Forest [fig.
9.60] all joined the Davis ait faculty around that time,
Ceramics
making it a singularly stiiiitilatiiig environment. The re-
>r|]|rnilii-i l''li I . w hilc niannini; a dfnion-liation hooih markable list of graduates from that [irograin included not
In
al ihf >tali- 1 ail. \iiir-nii tiiie\\ a |)ot on the wheel that only important clay artists such as David Gilliooly [fig. 9.61
leininded him ol a i|iiari hrer bottle, so lie jnit a ceramic caji and Ricbarfl Shaw [fig. 9.62] but sculptors such as Deborah
on ii and lettered it \o Deposit. No Rettini." Althougli be Bntterfield and Bruce Naiiman, both of whose experimental
bad no iboiii;lii ol malsini: a -^tatenieiit with this beer bottle, ajiproaches to natural materials and process owe something
it iie\erthelc-- liiiiniiht (dininefcial culture into a fine ai'l to the pbv-ical directness of .\rnesoii's example.
(iinirM. a-- the ]Mi|i arti-l- ill New ^ oik wi-re beiiinnim.' lo do.
and heralded a major transformation in Arneson s work.
The Toilets
Howe\er. like Ne\vnnan's first Onement or the initial sketch
for Motherwell's "Elefn '
series, the full implications of ilie -imiiiiei ol 1''0.^. Arneson received an invitation to
In
,\o Deposit. .\o Return for Arneson needed some time exhibit alongside ^ oiilkos and .John Mason in an important
to "eniiinate. show at the Kaiser Center in Oakland, called "California
9.58 Robert Arneson, John wif/i Art, 1964. Glazed ceramic with 9.59 Robert Arneson, detail of John wifh Art, 1964. Glazed
polychrome epoxy, 34' '2 ^ 1 8 ^ 25'/2in (87.6 x 45.7 x 64.8cm). ceramic with polychrome epoxy, 34 V2 x 1 8 x 25'/2in
SeattleArtMuseum.GiftofManuelNen Photograph by
Collection, Paul Mccopio. c Estate of (87.6 « 45.7 ^ 64.8cm).
Roben Arneson, 1994. Collection, Seottle Art Museum Gift of Monuel Nen Photogioph by Paul Macopio c Estate of
Robert Arneson, 1994.
"^k..
k
288
Sciil|)luic,
"
\\ illi lii-. iiw II -U Ic ^lill •iimcw IkiI Miirii|iii(ihiri(l ali-liîcl r\|ii(-îiiiii^l Imiili. nrsjiiic In, -.^lirical irrcMT-
li'i'lilii; ill a\\i' III llir^r ( rlcliialrd clax arli^l^. \nir>iiil ciiii', \ini'>iiii , oiil laLirdiiîii's, Îcili^ IVdin anil cM-n |ia\N
(•(ilU'llldi'd ilia I llic (ic.a~i(iii rallnl lur a |)ri ^mial niainlc-ld. liiiinaL;i' In llir icdiKM-lasin iil ali^liail cxi ii r,-,iiiin,iii il^cH.
"I ri'all\ lliuiiulil aliiiiii llii- nlliinair cciamii- in wrvicin
'"'"'" '^"" '

M'l "" I
' "" ' '
"1" I
A Technical Breakthrough
allrilinli'd -rxiial analiiin\ In llir lln^li liamlli' llii' ^lai. and
till' u|icnin^: ol die Ixiw I. |>iii liiiLii-iiiaiU (ni niic end 111 dir A I iii~Mii w III Lcil liii dir w liiilr 111 llir ^mnnirror 1 ''I).") (Ill an
lli)i>c>lioc ^ral and. a- in .hiliii inlli 1/7 nl l''(i-t lii:,. '»..');', rtarai li -11111 ^rll -| mm 1 rail In ^li a wax liniii dir -1 IK -111 IT. ^
and '*..l'l . Ill' r\ I'll in^lallrd a |iilc nl rrraniir cMirniciil a^ lie dr^ri 1 1 ud 1 1, and w a-- \ rr\ ii|i--i-| w lirii I In- 1 iii^l riaiLrd
ill-idi'. I lien llr in-i-lilird llir |iirir w illl î ainlniiiral jnkr-.. ill llir Lilll. ( )|| all illl|illUr. Ilr Lllllrd ^nlllr llial lilr^ illlii llir
I I II HI nil liiaiiv rii I ii , ,r I /rd nil l)iiihaiii|i ^ I <iiii//<iiii :\- :\ 1 lark In Innk a^ il llir\ w rir -.|iilliiiL: mil. Krlainin;: ri arkrd
|iirrri Inn. \i'ilr-.iin r\| ilainri 1 dial lir had iiii îiiTi ~iiiiicr in |iirrr, and a^^rinlilinr rlrnirnl, w idi ^[liir wrrr 1
11 iicri Inir^
iiiiiid. I)iirliaiii|> did //"/ iiiakr a Inilri. llr niailr an inilnilrl . dial rri'aniiri-|, iirxri 11, nl Imi jiniii ilii^ jininl Iniwaid
II- alinlll liail^lnrnialinll — 111- Innk a Inilrl and iiiadr a wnik \inr-iiii did -1 1 w illinin iiillll nl 11 in. In rlTrrl. llir arcidrni
nl an mil 111 il — I wa-iil I iaii~li nniiiir aii\ I Iiiiil:. I wa- lilinalrd liiiii IrrliniralU and lain \iiir-nii w mild iriliilarU
InnkillL; al a Inilri like -ninrmir wniild Innk al a litiinr. Mill iii-i-I dial hi- -liiilrni-- liiiild -1 iinrllniiL:. ilr-liii\ il, and llirii
klinw . a \rr\ I radii iniial kind nl ail. and dim I -la 1 1 rd In lalk rrw ni k il in nidn In Irrr llir in I mi 11 a -rii-r nl |irrrimi-lir:>^
alimil il. |iiiniiii: llir rrallili nii. '

alimil llir inalriial-.
Till' dirrilnr iiT llir Kai-rr ( rnlri in-i-lnl dial \l lir-nil
rrnii.M' T'.l/rl IVmil lllr r\llilill inn. rall-lllr lllr alll-l In

OBjeCtS Of the Mltl SlxtieS
rrali/r dial aldiiii|r|i il \\a- nllrii-i\r. -hnrkini:. and in liad
la-Ir. Iir had -ilcrrrdril in iiiakiiir -nnirlhinr nririnal. I hi- A rniiiid l''li.>, \iiir-iiii lirnaii wnikini; in llir Inw-lirrd
I
nndlirrd a I
irr-niir (if dir an i-l.' Iir r\|ilaillril. I mill ill llir rtliliLilll rnlni- nil w I li I r ra I lllr 1 1 w air dial .la I llr- Mrlchrn
Inilri linw and ill die lank \aliirall\
I had a lew Inn I- in . . . I and Rnii \ai;lr w err ii-iii" at llir âii I rami^rn \n In-lilnlr.
dirir wliirli wric licaiil iliilK rnidn'rd rnainic nnlilnn-. Xaulr had Iranird dir lr(Tiiiii|ii(' Irmii Krii Piicr. w lin -larird
llrrr - -(iinrdiinr alimiMiiid- and rla\ llial lia\ r In dn w idi
I wnlkilir willi il in I .n- \iii:rlr- aidiind l'l.>''. \i'iir-iiii
Inilri tiailiilin aii\ w a\ . . . I had lilialK airiM'd al a |iii'(r c nilralrd incrra-niLlK nil I he r\| irr--i\ r |i(i--il lililir- nl'
nl Wink dial -Innd liniiK mi il- liidiind. Il wa- \ii|rar. I r|a/iiiL; a- a kind nl |iaiiiliiiL; and -nmi had an r\iraiii(liiiai\
wa- \ iiliâr. " llia-Irl\ nl llir Irrliiiii|nr-. llii- inlrrr-I in |iaiiiliiir al-n
Willi '//(//(/ iciidrd /////A ./nA// aliniii iwn \rar- lairr lirlmii;- In \ni('-(iii- nnrninu dialnu with ali^lTacl e.\-
aiid Jo/m intli \rt \riir-nii aininl a liiiini: -aliic al die |iir--iiiiii-iii. a iccnni'iil llirinr in hi- carrrr Irmii die
ali-lrarl r\|iri'--iiiiii-l a-|iiialiiiii nllriiinr r\ rr\ ihinr w nihil -aica-in nl Idilii and llii- |iaiiil('il\ "la/inr diiiiiii;li hi-
ll ir an i-l -|iill mil IrrrK in die w mk I llr lirax \ . mminiTiin- r\|ilinl iii\ c-l iualimi- nl I'llilip ( .ii-Inli and .lack^nll Pnllnck
Ilia lie -I 111 lew arc 111 '/'(illcl I'r-rinlilrd die re al llir -rill|il llic nl I ill lllr I'li'KI-.
\ iiiilkii-. Ill addilinti. ArncMiii licalrd llir -iiilacr w illi an Toiisli-i: cicalrd in I'^hT). Iki- a •surrealist tone, with the
9.63 Robert Arneson,

Typewriter, 1 966. Glazed ceramic,
6'axll3/8xl2V2in
(15.6x28.9x31 .8cm).
Collection, University Art Museum. University
of California at Berkeley, Gilt of the artist.
(f. Estate of Robert Arneson, 1 994,

289
Robert Arneson
luii^K'fl fiiiirers rcacliiiiji om ol'tlic slot. Arneson delilnTaii-lv fired. with the red nail |Mili-li jiaiiiied on afterwards. Here
|pii-licrl tlie idea too far. seratcliinsr a sinali swastika mi ilir Xiiirsoii di-|ila\i(l lii- ina-iri\ of jilazes as well as his
-icli' Id liini llic |iircc iiihi a |jnii nii ilir Na/i (iM'n^. a jnkr in in\ (iK riiiiail w illi |iainlini:. In llir nii<l --ixties. the women s
~liMi kiiiLiK liail la-lr. ^.l ihal -lanliiii; utTi-ii-i\ i-iir-^ i^ iiiiix (iiirni wa- -iiddfiih niakini: rapid jirojiress in raisiiif;
|iieriselv what raise- everxune • emotions to inaxiiiiniii dii- \niriic an conscionsness ahont sexiMn in llir workplare.
poigiiancv. jjroiii]jiinl lia- e\er lieen >iniMltanc-nu-I\ -o oliji'clionalili- ami a-a wmnan and the wiiman a-an object, the .e\i--l -tereotV|(e
iiiili-ariiii; — lliai coTnliinalinn i~ \rni'-nn ~ -iLniaiiiir. I li- 111' llie -ecrriarx .
|ii'ciii-ctl])ation willi i uiiiiiiiiii (ilijrci- in ilir miil ~i\iii-~ lia-.
iiriilier the <-ool. ili\ cxniri^ni nl \r\\ \ n\i. jmiji imr ii~
The Self-Portraits
ta>tefiilness. Insteail. In- Mark, Bici liliari liiimnr n-i^ mi an
''""
oiitrasred morality t'onndcil <in a liiiidaiinnial waninli in- 1
I \rne~on emiiarked mi a conci-nlraled >eiie-- of >elf-
In
ward his fellow man. |Kirirait> with work- -inli as Snioriii-Bob. tin- Cook [fig.
ImniediateK alli-i' I iidshr. \nif-iin inade I \/ii'uTi/('r 9.0.5 . He tnrned to hi- nwn face [fi<r.9.()4 not tuit of an
\"\<j.MU'-i . Bolii ]iniliaM\ dan- frmn the wniirr ul |'l(i.") m intro-jiectix e iiii;r Inn. mi ihe contrarv. as an infinirelv
1 '*!)(). He covered /'i//(';/77/i7- w ilh diick. Iinikx i:ki/e~ and inallcalili-. neinral xrliicic ilirongh which to explore ideas.
iian^lVinned iln- kc-\- iiiio lini:iTn|i>. Ihi- pirre- \\a~ hii:li- In Siiidiyi-lloli. llii- (link he nsed the pictorial dexice of
9.64 Robert Arneson, The ortisf in his studio in
Benicia, California, 1978.

Photogroph c Estate of Robert Arneson, 1994.
9.65 Robert Arneson,

Smorgi.8ob, The Cook, 1971
White earthenware with glaze,
vinyl tablecloth, and wood
table, 6ft 1 in .^ 5ft 6in A 4ft 5in
(1.85 X 1.67 X 1,34m).
Collection, San Froncisco Museum of
Modern Arl. Purchase, c Estote of Robert
"cii!*5Î^J^^
290
one-point ])ers]jectivp to j;i\t> an illu-inn nl irnaliT (li-|plh.
He (It'lil)t'iaieiy made the sclieim- r\|ilii u |>\ InriiiiiiL' iIh-
elements into a perfect fecedinL' ltiaiii:le and ilun lininur-

ously put a poftfait of liimêlf at the a|pi\. 1 In- irnnic
inideiiiniiii: of the formal fievice to point to iiim-elf parodie>
all the talk alioiii natiie,-i>. ilhiîoitir<m. and the framing; edge
in the int-teiitiotis an jaigoii of the late ,-i.\tie^. It al>o
deinoii.strate^ tlie artist ongoing dialog with paintint;. "Mv
,-.
wnik." Ill- iiDteil in 1''"'4. "i~ not almnt ~inl|iinre in llie
iLidiiinnal ~c-n~i-. Mijuiiie- and planr-. I ;iin niakini:

di'a\\ing> ami [lainiingr- in spare." '
\lorei>\er. liie lini~li of
^luorici-Bob. the Cook looks like shiiiv porcelain fiinnet"« are.
which is what potters are e.xpecied to make anywav. and
since the potter cooks his an in a kiln, .\nieson sarcasricallv
celebrates his achievement as a tiiaster chef.
The monochrome self-pomait Classical Exposure of
1972 i^fig. Q.66 seems at first glance a rather austere
teiTHCotta in the tradition of Roman porrrainire. The bust of
the artist chotnping oti a fat cigar rests on a Tuscan column
with genitals lianging off the front inspired bv classical
hemis and toes jieeking out under tin- molding at the base.
The back view reveals a brick kihi a- ilu- core on which the
pomait is built.
Like plumbing fixtures and place settings, biicks also

belong to the historic concents of the ceramic craft that
beckoned .\nieson in the late sixties. He numbered
did a
edition of them, made siuTealist transfoniiations of them
with ears and wniigs. set one in ceramic flames, and even
finished one with a delicate celadon glaze as in classic
Chinese potterw The brick tableau Fragment of JVestern
Cwilization Tig. 9.6? resembles the antique ruins of a
colossal self-jiortrait wall, inspired by picmres in .\ntlonal
Geographic of ancient sites in Mexico \\ith monumental
"
heads hing about on the ground.
.\nieson described Fragment as a secfuel to Classical
Kvposure. in which he was "tearing dowii the piece, like
bringing in the heathens." He wanted to break away from

the singular pedestal and make a scatter work of the kind
that BaiT\" Le \ a or Robert Monns were doing in the late
sixties figs. 10. lb. although the idea tnay

15 and 10.
actuallv have been prompted by the experiments of his
sttidents with the latest "anti-form" stvle^. "ôu never have
to read anvthing." he joked, "just look at what your graduate
students are doing."
It was in pan to avoid offending anvone that -\nieson so
freqtientlv used hi> own face as a vehicle in the seventies, hi
Klown [fig. 9.58 he poked fun at himself in the best comic
tradition, and vet the lifelike mask also appears to naj) the
artist undenieath. In this work Aniesoti seems to have been
more focused on die disconcerting "second skin" than on the
internal character. The physical distonions of a self-portrait
-ketch bv the seventeenth-centuiy Flemish artist .\drian
Brouwer. in which he i> pulling faces in a niiiTor. and the
9.66 Rob ~^rt Arneson, Classical Exposure, 1 972. Terracotta,
|)>\cliologicallv impenetrable sculpnires of the eighteen th-
96 36 24, 243.8 91.4 x 61cm).
Aaams Gollery, New York.
centun psvchotic sculptor F.X.Messerschmidt both in-
Co..ecl.or., i.-,e Es!G. Î Dr. Za-,e, Fer.ar.ck. coortes, Frorr„<.r.,
© Estote of Robert Arc 'son, 1 994. formed the n-ain of association that led up to Kloirn. The
291
Robert Arneson
9.67 Robert Arneson, Fragment ol Western Civilization, 1972.

Terracotta, mortar on wood and wire f ranne, 3ft Sin x 1 Oft x Oft 1
(1.04 --a.OS 3.05m) overall.

Collection. Notional Gallery of Australia, Canberro. ici Estate of Robert Arneson, 1 994.
iiiaifiti scrawled all over the base are Aniesoii s rendition of

I he >afiii(al linnior of the ro.vpopuli. the anonymous voice of
"^
ilic |i('ople.
1975 Jack Lemon nt ilu- Landfall Press in Chicago

hi
persuaded Anieson to make some prints and that exercise
refocused his attention upon drawing. From that point until
the end of his career. Anieson continued to make large.
Iinished drawings in a loose. Pollock-like, color gestine that
reflects his ongoing preoccupation with action painting.
kloirn and other sculptures of the late seventies have some 9.68 Robert Arneson,
Pollock-like splashes of color on the base, but it was not until K/own, 1978. Glazed
ceramic, 37 x 19 x 19in
1983 that Arneson took up Jackson Pollock explicitly as a
(94 x 48.3 X 48.3cm).
subject. The juxtaposition of Pollock's extreme emotional Collection, Des Moines Art Center
anguish and the lush, sensual beaun- of his surfaces attracted Purchose, with funds from the
Gardner and Florence Coll Cowles
.\nieson in part because Anieson identified with this same Foundotion, Des Moines Art Center
juxtaposition, which also characterizes Arneson's art. The permanent collection, 1980.4.
Phologropfi courtesy Frumkin/Adoms
of the Beholder, for example both beautiful
F.yr
and cnit'l.
[fig. 9.69], is
Gallei7, New York. © Estate of Robert
Arneson, 1994.
|^5^;|^C(3wn;
292

293
Robert Arneson
caiiseil ihf W hile Nipht" riot ai (in Hall, whirh It-it 119
Discovering a Political Voice
illjlireil hall III lliein police nllin-r- . and ii\rr a iiiilliotl
III -I III III .1 in III h ~ii nlr HI III- w ink li\ imiK I''«H Inllai - III lamailf.
Ai 1, I
1 I II I I I
\\ Inn lir w a- :i-kril |i\ I In- --.iii T i ;iiiri-rii \i I ( i iiiiini--ii ni t )|| llir lia-r nf ihf Mn-rnnr |iii| nail \riir-iin piinia\i-d a
III iiiaki' a iiioiMiinriiL'il |iiiili;iil lui-l nl lln- hili- M;imii Iwiiikir .mil ti\f lilnniK lillllii llnlf- a- w fll a- mmiflnll-.
( .cor^p Mosroni' Im iln- m-w ( iiii\ ciiiinii ( niin-. II ir lirail in-iiiplinli- ii'lalfd 111 \hi-innr'- laicTi. inrliidini; ihf
rj|i|inril Mii-CMiir - liki'llr-- In rvci'VOlie ? sal i^larl ii il 1. lull hiadlinr .iiiil I I'iiisteiii Ijecomes ina\or.' \la\iii I rinsteiii
iliciii-i ri]iiiiiii- nil lln- |ii-ilr-ial — that sarcastic- \oii r nl iln- ,i-krd llir aiii-i to re[)hice the ])edeslal. Inn In- ift'iised
|M-n|ilr — raii-ril a iKiliinial -cainlal. hecaii-c il \\a- pail of lln- cniirfplinn nl iln- piece. .So the
Dan \\ liili-. a loniicT >an I lann-cn ril\ nlTicial. Iiail Iip-,i iliavor dia|pcd llie peili--ial Inr llir di-diralmn nrilie Imihhili;
lii~ |M<-iliiin III an ii|ii'iil\ Iniinn-i'Mial |
n ililirian nainril nil Drccmlifi J. alter which \iiie-iin felmned lln- mnni-\ and
llar\r\ Milk. On Nnxrilllirr I". I'l";'. W llllr walkr.l lllln W illldrrw llir -clllplinr.
\la\ 111 \|ii-rii||r'- nlTlrr .mil -lliil Illin liiin I llllr-. \\ llllr lllrll I III- lia-i- III llir Mn-rniif pull tail -iiipri-fd no one wlio
ivIiiailril.xM-ni iliixMiihrliall n i I lir i iHirri i| liaiM-N Milk anil knew \rni'-iin - umk. and ihr aili-l \\a- imi e\pectillf; the
-In It liiin li\r mill'-. î\ niiinlh- lalna |iir\ conx ictfil W liilr -forin of coiitroxersy tliat hiew up nor the -cale of national
111 \olniiiai'\ nian-laiiv:liiri' rai liri iliaii iirst-dfiiree iniiiilt-r news coverage il attracted. But the piililicii\ ii\fr the
nil llii' lia-is thai he had livpnjiivceiiiia and had rniisiiined a Moscone piece made him realize that he had a jilatlorni from
lar^'i' l[^âIltit^()l' Hostess Twinkles hetoie lln- -ImniinL' spree. which to take up a cause. " so toward the end of 1982 he
inakiiiL: him ii'inpnraiiK iii-anr. Ilii- iiniia;:enn- M-rihcl turned to a theme -o xilier it -hocked excn tho>e who knew
his work well.
In .4.S.V to A.f/i of late 1982 .\rneson used his own head as
till- iaiu;et of a nuclear holocaust. On the base of the chained
9.69 (opposite) Robert Arneson, The Eye of the Beholder, 1 982.
and defomied Hol\- War Head [fig. 9.70] he inscribed a
Acrylic, oil pastel, and alkyd on paper, 4ft 4in x 3ft 6in f 1 .32 1 .07m)
Colledion, Estote of the orlist c Estate of Robert Arneson, 1994
lengtliy passage from .(olm Mersey's Hiroshima, describing
the effects of radiation, in 1983 .\rneson began focusing on
nuclear weapons, radiation poisoning, and above all on the
9.70 Robert Arneson, Ho/y Wor Head, 1982. Glazed ceramic,
terrifviiiglv ili'taiiu'il attitude wirli which miclfar materials
72 - 28 V 28in (1 82.9 X 71 .1 X 71 .1 cm).
Collection, Ritoond liwin Blitt Pfiologroph by M Lee Falfierree, courtesy the Estate of ihe are hamlli-il and di-rii--ril.
ortist, c Estate of Robert Arneson, 1994
Introspection Via Pollock
l''o-tand I'lJl.') Vnif-nn tin iicd ixcn more directlv tm the

in
mihtary e^talilishnient. portia\ing it as a savage martial
Then he looked to
court presiding over total annihilation.
Jackson Pollock as a subject through which he could
investigate his own psyche. Donald Kuspit described Arne-
.son's gi'owing interest in Pollock during the eighties as an
identification with the artist as the brutalized and isolated
%ictim and sunixor."" But Pollock self-destiaicted. whereas
Arneson overcame the odds. Far from being a hapless victim.
Arneson externalized momentous rage and a corresponrling
terror in the anti-iuiclear works and faced them head on in
his works on .lackson Pollock.
This exploration of Pollock seems to have contiilmtcd to
the emergence of a late stvle of in Ameson's work, with the
loose gesture of his red conte cravon drawings of 1991 and a
series of sculptures in 1991 and 1992 the vear of his death
that transcend the epheiueral emotions of present situations.
Uliereas the eccentricity of ^\i-neson's wry humor had alwavs
represented rebellion against convention, these late works no
longer concent themselves with external standards at all.
Instead a work such as Head Eater oi 1991 la double self-
portrait mask of one self-image taking a bloody bite out of

the head of the other) foregrounds the unruly forces of the
unconscious mind as the nomis against which to measiu'e
experience and Iniin.
Back to First Principles —
Minimal Art
111
an iiii|"ii lam r~-.a\ I'K, nliilr,! \m \n.' Barl.ani
|{(i^r w idlr al I tin iiicii^criic III 'an art wlio.ic
lilaiik. iii'iilial haiiical iiii|Mi-.(inalii\ contrasts so vio-
IriiiK w lili ilii' roinaiitic. bioi;ra|)lii(al ali.--tiact expressionist
-lyii' wliicli preceded it that spertators are chilled by its
a|)|iaiint lack of feelins or content."' This new an asserted

an overt Iv nns\ nibolic phvsicalir\' as opposed to the abstract
expressionist idea of the object as a vehicle for dramatic,
10 emotional introspection. 'Nhnimal art. as this work came to

lie known. <rravitated toward reirnlar. geometric forms or
inodiiiar se(|iiences widi uninflected surfaces, especially in
s(iil]iiiii(' which was placed not on pedestals but directly on
I lie 111 II 11 or wall to stress its continiiitv with real space.
Donald ,kidd. whose clear prose snde made him an unofficial
IN THE NATURE OF spokesman for this new art. coined the term "sjiecific
object " in 19b.5 to refer to the literalness with which this
new scnl|)tiire and paintitig revealed itself to the obsener as
MATERIALS: preciselv what it was in the physical sense ratiier than as a

metaphor or representation.
The reductive a]i]iearance of minimal art >hocked
THE LATER SIXTIES \ifwt'r-'
painting. Indeed
aicu-.toiiif(i to the visual comjjlexity of gesture
Lucv Lippard another critic close to these i
artists felt compelled to argue in \9bb that the monotony of
minimal sculpture her choice of words was. in itself, an i
avant-garde gesture: "The exciting thing about the 'cool' . . .
artists." she said, "is their daring challenge of the concepts of

boredom, monotony and repetitition."' The antagonism to
minimal art. however, involved more dian a response to its
boredom: minimalism was also seen by some as aggressively
authoritarian, a "displaced will to power."^ and in panicular
w liiti" male power.
liis|)ired by the work of .Ad Rcinhardt [fig.b.l.'3 Frank .
Stella s schematic, monochrome ]jaintings of IQ.5'5 through

1961 [fig. 10.2 launched minimalism. During the mid
sixties. Donald ,hidd. Tonv Smith. Carl .\ndre. and Dan
Flavin gave definition to it as a movement, with Robert

Morris pushing out the perimeter in the direction of "process
an" so-called for its focus on jirocedures and materials .
and later in the decade Sol LeW'itt using ininimalist ideas as

the foundation for "conceptual art" — an art which stnick
out for independence from the physical object altogether.
These artists were united above all in their attempt to treat
works of an literally as objects instead of as vehicles for
abstract ideas or emotions, and yet. as we shall see. a hint of
romanticism see p. 33) perseveres in the works oi lioth
Flavin and .\ndre.
.Minimalism depended upon a prodigious amount of
10.1 (opposite) Eva Hesse, Several, November 1965. Acrylic paint, |)oIemic — wTitten largely by the artists themselves — to re-
papier mache over seven balloons v/ith rubber cord,
\ eal the motives behind these apparently simple works. .\s in
84 X 11 X 7in (213.4 x 27.9 x 17.8cm).
Saotchi Collection, London. ©Estate of Bvo Hesse, courtesy Robert Mtller Gallery, New Yorlc
(Hement Greenberg's fonnalism. the simplest object might
Phofogrophy courtesy of Timken Publishers generate the most complex, theoretical raison d'etre. Morris.
295
Back to First Principles— Minimal Art

296
In the Nature of Materials: The Later Sixties
iii-^rri|iliiiii- Im inm In nlîn willi urt-aUT liLinr lliaii iiinif

10.2 Frank SteHa, The Marriage of Reason and Squalor, 1959. Oil
iiiii|iliani riirniali-i- likf Lnnis. Greenberg di^n iniiln I iiiiiii-
on canvas, 7ft 6' 2in 10ftll'2in (2.3 > 3.34m).
Collection, Sainl Louis Art Museum Purchase and funds given by Mr and Mis Joseph naliîii a^ nmi 1 1\ nl, -innetliinii deducerl iiiîcail nl li-li m
Helmon, Mr. and Mrs Ronald K. Greenberg. c 1 994 Fronk Stello/ Artists Rights Society (ARS), li.^(l)^l'^tll. wliilf Mirliai'l I rinl allacki'il ilic iiiiiihiiali^l-.
New York.
n a \'iriilnii ami |inîinal lnin-. llireatniiiii; in "liifak ilif
iiiLiiT-. Ill llii'ii- i;ii|i. I lifd argued tliat 'the entire liisiinv nl
Ill) cxaiiiiili'. Willie lliiil wlii-if |i;iiiiliiiL; wmii|ilii;il. sciilji- lainling îme \laiiel nmld lie nnder-^tood . . . a>. CDiiî^linL; in
liiii' \\a^ Kirlilt'. Iili'ial. ;iiiil luiil ;i iiiiiiiiilillilc |ili\ îralil\ . lie inngir^îxr , , , rr\rlaliiiii iil' ils essential iilijerlliiiui I,
jllilil rniiriiiiril mi llic Ir^^rr |iuîliiiii iil |i;nillirii; :

'
-.illl|)- ml, e\ein|iliiii: Siella riniii ilie iniiM'inenl. lie adinniiislied
linr a- 'rill|iMiii'. iii ( .ifriilirri:^ lllm liTiii--l iim liirl ii ill liiu. niniinal arlisis liir Mnini; nm lar. niakiiiii ulijerls sn liieial
Iiail iiiaili- il llir mii~l riiiii-iil -.laiii- iil iniiilrilli-.l all. ^ li lie\ direiled die viewer In exlernal I'elal ini|s|ii| is, wllieli
MoiTiMVJf.lr.l.lMilir.ifli, rMul|,liin- liii. 10.:! : "lied railed llleal lieal," llielfliy detraiiine IVnin llieii
aesdielie |iiiril\ ,
Relict Cdlinol '"' (Kci'jilcd loihn' as IrisiliiiKilf. 11 ic

\liiniiial ail made die iedneli\f ênmelrx and llieni\ nl
(iiilonoinous (iiid litcnil iiiiliire o/ .stiil/iliiif ilcmciiids //ml il
Vd Keinliaiill new l\ ivle\aill in llie si.xlii-s. lie niie nlijeel
linrc Its oiiii. ci/iKilhlili-nils/Kiif — iial u xiitiucc s/nircd I
nl liliv \ears nlalisiraei art.

"
Reiiiliardt wnile in I'Mi.'l, Jski
irilll /)(illlllll!Z- t lirtlicnuoif. iiii oh/cii /iiiiiuon the ir(dl dues
]iiisi-iii ail-as-aiand as nothing else, to make inm ilie mie
I it
nnl CDiifroiit i^nivily: il liniidh resists il. One nj the

tiling il is (inl\, se|iaialing and defining it nmre and innre,
conditions oj ktian-iniidn oh/eel is sii/t/i/ie</ //r l/ie sensiiiii iij
inakin:; |iiirei and eni|ilier," He sotiglit an
it ait |iiiiinn-
t/ic ssnnitdlionid /oice (lelin^ N/)oii it in neliiul space . . . I lie
|iied with ils nw n |iin(ess and means, Reinhardi at ark ei '
I I
ground plane, not the null, is the neeessnry sn/t/tart Jar the
ail\ siiggestinii nl' eMeilial relelelices in all .ind he eliaill-
nidxinuini (nriircness of the oh/eel.''
|iiniied a |is\elin|ngiial elil|itiliess dial rivalled W ailml s. In
Ir.mi.-ally. Cliin.-m CiffiilM-ri; ili-lik.-.l ih,- wmk nl îflla his TweKe Rules hir a New Aeademv.' Reinhardi |iin-
'"
anil hi-- li'icii(l>. i-m-ii lliniiiili ilir\ |iiii-iifil In-, llii-infiiral elaiiiieil dial: The laviiii; hare nf mieself , , .
is nl iseeiie."
297
Back to First Principles -Minimal Art
lili- "Twrlxr Hill,--' \\,.|v: .hi Ii-muit. iim I iiu^jiw ,ik.,

m,
ilriiwiiii.'. 11(1 lurm-. iio .l,-.ii:n. (.jin-. iiijlit;lii. im .-luice. no
limr. no -.i/,(,i„ all-, nu movenicnt. and finallv no object.
Kiiiilundi. an ariii iilaie and airleni fornialist. remained
['line i|MlK coniniilted to the e.xplorarion of the
e])istenio-
I"i:m al |Miiiiitial of [laiiuinL'. He looted lii>
Myle in a fofinal
rradiiii^ Mlilir \x,,ii olMoiidriaii and \lal.-\iirli I'atlier than
dial ol MU-n-aliM- and i'lca-n. dioii-li
111 ill,-
lie wa^ of die
aii.Mract expressiuni.st ,i;en,-raiiMii. |,- umr
1 |i,,,| I,,-, iiiereas-
inirly intei-ested in Zen afn-r die war and trmii l'».')4 unrilhis
deaili ill Oh" he worked at version after version of
I
one
|iaiiiiiiii:. I ilaek paintings" fig.C).13' which comprise
he- I
ihi> final series prodnce the initial effect of a uniform black

tield until ones eyes acchmate to see the >ubtle
division into
iiiiir >(|iiar.-~ and ry,;) Mime trace ,4! ,ni-.||\M
irk.
Frank Stella
111
die IJai; |iainiings of Jasper Johns the objects tliemselves
are tlie image, and tliis made a powerful impact on Frank
Mella when, as a senior in college at Princeton, he saw the
19-58 Johns show at the Leo Castelli Gallery." hideed.
the
thickness of the stretcher made a Johns flag more objectdike
tiian a real flag. John> thus furthered a devel(>])ment —
inaugurated in symbolism
by Picasso's and enlarged
cnllage — toward transforming the painting from an
illusion
into an object. In addition, the flags provided an example
of
making a painting from clearly set out. preconceived ideas:
The thing that -truck me most." Stella later explained,
••was the way he John- Mink t.i liie iiioiif. ihe idea of . .
^tripes — rhytimi and the iiiteix al — the idea ol repetition. 1
began to think a lot aliotit repetition." '-
Stella singled out forinal ideas frum the painting-

of
Jasper Johns one by one. and then followed them to a logical
extreme in abstract terms. In this distillation he eliminated
ii"t only the sul)ject but the painterly touch both of which
.lohn> had letaineil |)recisely for their provocative ambi-
liiiity . Stella also enlarged
pictures to a greater scale than
iiis
tiiose of Johns, yet one nevertheless sees the Stellas

all at once
lather than lingering over details. The idea of
elimiiiatins
toreground and background liy painting a single motif,
identical with the form of the canva- as in the flags led .
directly to Stellas most celebrated innovation — the

shaped
canvas [figs. 10.4 and 10.5'.
•Such paintings by Stella as The Marriugc ofReusoii
and
Siiiuilor w iiich Dorothy Miller exhibited iii the
Museum of
Mudeni Art- -Sfxteen Americans" show in 19.59 and Z,«A-e
City married the influences of Reinhardt and Johns. Stella
asked Carl Andre to write his artist's statemeiu for the
Sixteen American.^ catalog, thus keeping Stella at an e.x-
pressive remove from this too. In it Andre e.xplained:
Art e.vr/iif/e.s the unnece.'isdrv. Frank .^te/hi has founil it
0.3 Donald Jodd, Untitled, 1 967. Galvanized nece-s-ian to /xnnt .stri/ie.s. There /.v nothing else in his
iron with green
3cquer on front and sides, twelve units 9 ^ 40 > 31 in fxantntg. Frank SteHa is not interested in e.ipression or
22.9 101.6 78.7cm), each with 9in (22.9cm) intervals.
•
sensita-itv. He is interested in the nece.-isities ofpain tins;
lelman Collection, New York. Photogroph courtesy Blum Helmon Gallery, New York. ... frank .^/r/A; '.v /laiiitiiig is nut symhnlie. His stripes are
298
10.4 Frank Stella, Lolce Gfy,

1962. Copper paint on canvas,
f^^ 1^
22">B.-
Allan
30in(57.5
Mewbourn. (c, 994 Frank

Rights Society (ARS),
1
76.2cm).
Menil Collection, Houston. Photograph by
New York.
Stello/Artisis
10.5 (below) Frank Stella,

Hafro 1 967. Acrylic on canvas,
/,
10 20ft (3.04 6.09m).

Collection, Art Institute of Chicago. Ma|or
Acquisitions Fund, 1 970.842, ^c Frank
Stella/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
299
the paths of brush on caiu-<is Thi'si- juilhs Iritil only s\-tem that asserted the work as an object. As studio
into /xiintintc.' a--i-iant- increasinglvditi the |iaintingfor liiiu. Stella's work
al-ii Im-i It- painterly edges.
a\o\\ril nruli;ilil\ (i|'.'\|iii---inii. Siclla iMiclnw nl
I)c-.|iilr llii-
Mrll.i - denial of pxpressi\ ! i onti-nt — "\\ hat you see is
maii\ uI'liir-farK |>i<Hiri-> w illi rmiviimialK iliaiiii-d liilc--. \-
what Mill -ee— echoes Warhols famous maxim: "If you
Breiifla Riclianisoii observed, -ili-aili ami r~|i(( iaIK -iiirnlc
w.iiit to know allaboiii \iiiK Warhol, just look at the surface
are |ire\aleiit i-et'ereme-." aloiij: willi alluînii-- In \a/i
of m\ paiiiiiiigs and my films and me. and there 1 ain.
( .11 iiiaiiN . a- ill Die /ahnc Uoch "raise tlie I'lai.' liigli
"
I'loiii
arhol's language, there
There's nothing behind it."'" .\s in \^
llii- Na/i iiianliiiii; -on;: ol llorst \\ essel and Arbeit Mmltl
w a- a |iri-(iriit In illiaiii e in Stella's invention of a vocabul-
Frci Iroiii [\\i- in-rii|iiiuii (Aer tiic gates of the Aiischwit/
ai\ -nitalilc to ilir p-\ilii( detachment of the si.xties. But
coiK rnliation iani|).'^ It ainio-t seems as i('S(ella seirrpgared
Stella - prr-i-iint irconr-c to l hi' logic of formal -t met lire for
ilir expressive as])ecls ol ln~ work inio di-ncicl\ (oiilained
(di itci It. rail iiT than a- a \ ell iilc (</(< intent, made i I ileal- that
and eoiilrollahle area-, jn-1 a- lir -e|iaialril oin die toinial
"what Mill -ec i- not ill fact "what y(Hi see' but rather an
l-.>llr- one .11 a liinr.
illustration of all that dieoiy about flatness and objecthood,
In 'îclla- Mack |painnnL;- llierr wa- -nil a di-cerniiile
and after a while, thai began o seem less and less tit i-ri'sting.
I i
lini-liwork— \i-iMc |ialli- ol llie lini-li — lo make every

a-|M( I ol die |iriii f-- enlirelv clear. L nlike Reinliardt's black
on hlai k -i|uare-. Stella made the stripes completely visible Donald Judd
loo. I Ir al-o ciii iioich(>> in the edges, holes into the centers.
or alicrrd die -liapr of lii- canvases ias in Lake City) to Meanwhile. Donald .ludd's antipathy toward illiisioni-in
ciinrorni lo die iirojeciion- of his geometric designs. In this led him to abaiiflon painting in I9b\ in lav or ot
\\a\. Mella avoided an illusion of spatial recession and sculpture. He attempted to fulfill Tatlin's machine-age
iiiliani cd the object's presence as an object, making a flatter prescription hir "real materials in real space." but unlike
.11 id less referential canvas than anybody had painted up to Tatlin. .Iiidd had no -oi iai message, no I to|iiati aspiration
dial nme. The new flatness of Stella's black. co])per. and ex|»ressed in the work, .hidd insisted that his objects lacked
aliiininum paintings made even the shallow space of abstract any significance bexond what was literally there. If an image
e\|Pie>>ioni..im seem old-fashioned. Michael Fried claimed su'Tgested tlini' diiiieiisiniis. the three dimensions existed:
iliai in doiiiu ilii- Siella had posed and solved the central the\ w ere not illusions or representations.
joiinal problem in modern art sii'ice impressionism — Barbara Haskell pointed out that .ludds training in
iiamelv, asserting the painting's presence a- an oliject (its |ihiloso])hv as an undergraduate at Columbia and in particu-
objecthood" 1."' lar his affinitv with the writings of the eighteeuth-centmy
Stella delineated a radical posture by systematically Scottish empiricist David Hume confirmed an intuitive
iinerting the assinnptions of abstract e.xpressionism. H\> disposition toward concrete experience.'" Judd's rejection of
Iricnd W aller l)arb\ Bannard ex])lained; abstract expressionism derived in jiart from his belief in the
dialectical progress of ideas in art making abstract expres-

Mist met exfiressionism was repiithiiteil point by pomt:
sionism outmoded and from his insistence on experientially
pinntinii u-ithin the drawing replaced dratring with panit:
verifiable truth which excluded existential introspection).
orerl rc'j:itl<irit\ replaced apparent randomness: symmetry
In a 1Q02 re\iew for Ir/.v Magazine. .Indd wrote:
rc/tlacrd lls^mmetric balancini;: flat, depersonalized
hnishinu: or open, stained color replaced the smiidi>e. smear Frank SteUa's ncu- p(nntings are one of the recent facts. They
(uiii spatter . . . The entire risible cstlictic of distract i show the e.rtent of what can be dune nine. The further
'"
c.iprcssiiinism iras brutally rensed. coherence supersedes older forms. It is not only neu- but
better, not necessarily on an onlooker's scale of profundity
\lio\c all. Sn-lla attacked the iiitro-pectix c iiioii\i' in ab-
irliicli can measure Pollock against Stella, but on the scale
-iraci "Mv j)aiming is based on the fact that
rxpiessionism:
. ofderelopnient. The absence ofillusionistic space in
. .
onl\ w hat can be seen there is there, he said. "It really is an "
makes abstract expressionism seem now

Stella, fore.vample.
object vou can see the whole idea without any confusion
. . .
makes it appear a compromise irith

an inadequate style,
what vou see is what you see. "' Like Greenberg s Post
. . .
representational art and its meaning.'

Painterly painting. Stella's work is an attack on transcend-
ence.Thus even though Stella's large scale, lack of gesture, Judd's red sculptures of l'»().'i consist of enclosed volumes
and definition of the surface as an overall field are all with visible interiors: ojien frames, boxes, and constructions
indebted to Barnett Newnnan. he coulfln't have been less of wood and He was interested in clarifying all aspects
pi]ie.
interested in Newman's subject matter. of the structure and materials. In the works of the mid sixties
Stella went from single colors to indii-trial Day-Glo in [fig. 10..? '
he began exploring fonns with patterned varia-
the mid probably under the influence of
sixties [fig. 10. .5]. tions or modularimits. spaced ec[uidistantly. symmetrically,
W arhol. Shape, configui'ation. and pattern all contimied to or in mathematically determined intenals. which the viewer
refer to one another in a closed — if increasingly complex- wdiild iinmediatelv recognize as a iiattern instead of as
300
10.6 Donald Judd, Untifled, 1969

Anodized aluminum and blue
plexiglass, four units 4 5 5ft (1.22 -
1 .52 ^ 1 .52m), each with 1 2in (30.5cm)

intervals.
Coileclion, Soint Louis Art Museum. Gih of the
Sctioenberg Foundation, Inc.
iiiiii[iii>itiiiiial elfiiifiit- in lialaiicr-. Iiidei-il. tlif-f airaili:f-

10.7 Tony Smith, Die, 962. Steel, edition of three, 6 x 6 x 6ft
iiii-iii- i-liiiiiiiale-il (111- idea ot coiuiiii-itinii w liili' a I iln- -aiiir
(1.83 -1.83 1.83m).
tiiiii' aliiiwiiiL' a mure complex form. Hnwr-M-r. .IihIiI --aid.
"The series doesn t mean anytliing to me as mailuiiiaiir^. -'
For Judd. even the use of pine ireometn iiii|iliiil ii-
nppo-ite- in die v\ ildness of natm'e and it \\a~ dial idea —

whirli 111- liniiid in tht- work of Stella — llial riiiii|irllr(l liiin.
"(jeometrv. .Iiidd ~aid. iinild hr ii^nl in a noii-\eii-Plastic

wav. an imjune wa\. wirhoin die jnniiv that i:eoiiietrir art
seemed to have. Mondrian. thoii<r|i reallv great, i- mo iijeal
and clean, hi another wav. Reinharrlt is too. That \\ a- not a
believahle rpialirv for me. Stella s painting had a po>>iliilit\
thatbecame evident of an impure geometric art. "'

Bv the mifl <i.\tie> Judd had begun making enough
nionev to have his work fabricated commerciallv instead of
handcrafting it himself. \Xlieita~ lie made the reil bo.xes of
the early sixties out of wood. b\ \^>M lie wa> working
regtilarlv in metal and plexiglass. Judd s reliefs of galvanized
metal boxes caiuilevered from the wall and given automobile
lacquer finishes exjjress an aesthetic affinit)- for the detach-
ment of indttstrial materials and processes, .\lthough David
Smith anticipated their geometric modidaritv and Jasper
Johns their semantic fundamentali>m. Judd'-. floor boxe-^
I^fig. 10. t) and box reliefs achieved a -iiiLdciii--- <A Incii-. on
the literal object that was genuineh iirw .
Tony Smith
Tony Smith, born in 1*^*12. wa^ of the al>>tiact exprosionist

generation and taught either foniiallv or iiifiimiallv
several of the minimalists. Smith's greate-^t crMitribution
in\o!\erI the delicacv with which he calibrated the -cale of ^::^^î•:nS.3£--;^•«."^^^^.'^V. --•!* .^>>f:;;^£-S^'i|ri?
301
1 0.8 Tony Smith, Amaryllis, 1 965:

Steel, edition of three,
llft6in 7ft 6in ^ llft6in
(3.51 - 2.29 X 3.51m).
Private collection. Photograph by Ivan Dollo Tana,
courtesy Paulo Cooper Gallery, New York.
hi* works in relation to their site.s. iindercuttini: tlic ((iincn-

1 0.9 Carl Andre, Pyre (Element Series), constructed 1 971
tiiin:il notion of nionumentaUty and makini: In- -iiil|iiiirt-
Minneapolis, from a 1960 plan. Wood, eight units, 12 > 12 36in
iiinarkabiv respon»i\c m tlicir arciiitectmal nr iiaiiiial (30.5 X 30.5 > 91 .4cm) each, 48 x 36 x 36in (1 21 .9 x 91 .4 x91 .4cm)overall
-.liting. "Why didn't mhi iii;iLf ii larger so thai ii w mild luiiiii Oilman Collection, Texas, Photograph courtesy Poulo Cooper Gallery, New York 'cCorl
Andre/VAGA, New York, 994.
1
ci\ i-r the observer? "

.Miiiifniic a-kfd Smith almni I )ir. iIh- ()-
i,.oi-high black steel .pI..- ..I \'Ur2 li^. 10." . I wa- n..i
making a inonnnient. he replied. '

llifii \\li\ diilii I mhi
make it smaller so that the obsener cdiild -cf ii\ cr ilif i(i|i?
1 \\ as not making an objert.

"" ^--J&A^,
Smith took from Barnett Ne-n man. w Im hail lifin
his cue
i'\|iliiriiig the idea iif die hnli-'tic image a- a -[lalial ((incfiil.
111- liiili-lii- imai;!- i- an iiiiagi- -fcn all al cmcr a- a -iiiglf

I
Inrin. lallnr lliaii a- |iari- making n|i a wliiile. Smilli

idiici'ixfil liis liirm-. a-, wlmlc. unified holistici images and
sii|i]ire»ed the intimacx of deiails and relations among part-
dial might promote a detachment from the central concept.
1 If even eliminated all signs of the fabrication process so as
111 It lo detract from the unitary gestalt: ior Die he merely gave
ilif specifications to a fabricator over the telephone, thu-
-rparating himself completely from the physical ohjeri. 1 lir
more complex Anian/lis of 19b5 [fig. 10.8] chart- ilir
li\ pothetical path of a regnlar geoinetric solid moving in
-pace: it is a three-dimen-iunal ma]), so to speak, of an

accrfiiun nl iiindiilar iinil-. a- in llir liirnuilinii nl a ri\ -lal.
Carl Andre
llir mid -i\lir-. (Iir ininiinal aili-l- prrdilrri inn fiii-
B ilaiii l\pf- 111 maleiial- aiid gciirrali\i- -\-lriii- —

wliiilirr the topological maps of Smiili nr (ail \iiilrr-
-lark- of timber [fig. 10.9]— began to look a- imlix idiial a-

ilir ali-lract expressioni-l -pla-li ol paim. (!arl Viidrr imi
302
leniiiiKil. Hiliiic. llial \ 11 liialiu \\a>al\\a\> Icriiiinal: the
lop of ilif 111 ail and 1 In I II till II II of the feet were the limits of
-ciil|iiiirf. Hraiini-i - -riil|iiiirc continiietl beMnid it~ M-rtical
limit anil be\oiiil il- earlhlioiiiiil liinii.
'^
Braiiiii-i aUo
priixided a plfcedenl lor the iiiiiiiiiiali~l- iiileif-l in llie
iiilicn-iii i|iKililie- of the material-.

Ill ri()") ,111(1 10()() Andre shifted from -tackeil wood —
wIikIi had an iilijiii -like |pre-fiicf — to commerciallv pre-
l.ilii ic aied inaifiiaU. cli-pu-ed in a particular space. The

-|(i riliriix 111 I lie w ink Inr il- -ite caused it to blend into th€
ierer was .Andre's
-|iacf. (li--i|iaiiiig it- ulijeii-like ipîalirx".
lii-i -iii--.pecific 137 fire bricks laid side

piece, consisting of
li\ -iile in a line on the floor at the "Primary Stnictures"
exliibiiioii of lOdd. Then he went on to squares of metal —
10.10 Carl Andre, Steel Magnesium Phm, 969. Steel and 1 alumiiiiiin. -leel. zinc, magnesium, copper, lead, iron —
magnesium, thirty-six units, 12 ^ 12in (30.5 30.5cm) each unit, 6 x 6ft
w liicli he placeil directiv on the floor for xiewers to walk on
(1.82 X 1.82m) overall.
and exjierieiice in a directiv tactile wav. Site specificity in the
Pf ivote collection, Switzerlond. Photogroph courtesy Poulo Cooper Gollerv, New York c Carl
Atldre/VAGA, New York, 1994. sense of Lerer was not the central concent in these works
— rather the focus was on their physicaliU".
"I >e\ered matter from depiction, in the way Turner
1 rank Milla in I'loo and wtirkcil in .>iella^ îmlio while >e\ered light and color from depiction, .\ndre explained.
Sit'lia wa> making the black ]iaintiiigs of l'>39. It was under "Mv work is about critical mass. The flat scfuares let you see
this influence that .\iidre arrived at the l>a>ic |)rinciple of the mass and form rather than the same mass in a cube where
anaxial -.xnimetn in which anv pari of a \\ oik tail rejiiace vou would see onlv a little. "^ This underscores the literal
an\ othei- jiarl. as in Pr/f A/fV/^c/?/ .S(v7('.v 10.'' .Over
fig. presence of the material, its hardness, color, and weight. On
the ne.xt three vears -\iidre grailualiy abandoned caning and the one hand the raw presence of the materials evokes a sense
the assemblage of found material> in fa\ i>r of aiTanging his of nature — the artists idea of positioning himself in a lineage
>ciil|)iiiri> from modular unit-.. The ligiilK arranged scheme from Turner is On the other hand the
quite to the jioint here.
of I'yrr or Sti-el Magnr.siitin f'/iiin tig. 11). 10 sets off the plates are also materials in and of the industrial world,
natural eccentricities of the material-. I lie clear geometn fa-hioned into regular squares and patterns.
relates to Frank Stella's early shaiied caii\a>e>. while the Andre exjterimented with the subversion of reasoned
overall structure implies infinite continuation a^ in Bran- (irder bv chaos in several works of the mid si.xties and later.
ciisi's modular series of "Endless Côlumn>.
.\ndre explained: "Brancusi to me is the great link into
the earth and the Endless Column is. of course, tiie absolute
10.11 Carl Andre, Stone Field Sculpture, 1977. Thirty-six glacial
culmination of that e.xperience. They reach iij) and they drive boulders, Hartford, Connecticut.
dowii into the earth Rith a kind of verticalitv wiiich is not Photograph courtesy Poulo Cooper Gollery, New York, E Corl AndreAÂGA, New York, 1 994.
303
li- rnarleWcUT lines of nails and laid j)ieces<if [(i|M' iiid idiml
I
n\ n
Dan Flavin
nil die f'kn)r: diese materials resisted the lefiidiii ii\ ili<
|)lai-eiiient bv the sheer a\vk\vafdties> of theii- lunii. In die 1 1. i\iii bii;aii winkiiifi e.vchisively with new. indus-
D
1
iVmidess Sf)iiliA' 1%0. the artist scattered 800 -iikiII |ila-iii lallv lirelabi ican-d and fixtures in
thiorescent tubes
blocks i.iiiddinU across a galleiy floor. Andre aUo took hi- 1 '»(.;;. lie tni-rcK and any hardware store
arranged the [larts
svstein- oiii (ildoors. aiTaiitring units In nature, as mjoiiil ol paliKn conld eprodnce them indistinguishablv from the
I'ld,",. wliiiv h,- iirraUL'c'tl bale- (if liav; in dii' Sfiiiic Held 111 ii;iiial^. Tlin-. JlaNin'-- works tease the îe^\er's definition
>( lll/illin- n\ l'l~~ lit;. 10.11 lir cniircixc-d ;i 11 -lilal 111 ail a^ ilc|ii'ii(lriii nil an original object. P"or Flavin they
Wdik lliat e.\ists at the interface bciwrni iiaiiii;il i nailer and a^îii die ciiniiiiiiiix w ith the real world of everyday things.
die rational orderiiiir svsleni-- nf ihe hiiiiiaii iiiiiid. ( liiiic(igia])liing tlie light from the tubes. Kla\in investi-
gated the idea of scul])ture as space rather than fonn. The
light articulates the space in a way that makes each piece
jiarlicnlaiK iiiierdcpiiideiil with its site. Lnlitled of 1963
fie. 10. II! . Iiii i\aiii|ilc. Tills a confined alcove witli green
light, marking off an area as it was originally displayed at
die Castelli Gallery) even when the tubes theinselves re-
mained hidden around the comer. The series of '"Monuments
for V. Tatlin" [fig. 10.13]. in homage to the Russian
coii-.tnicti\ist who embraced industiy and iiisi-^ted mi the
riiiiiiniiiiiii iiT ail and life, involves multiple peniiiilalniii^ in
10.13 Dan Flavin, A/lonumenf for V. Tatlin, 1968. Cool white

fluorescent light, 8ft (2.44m) high.
Pnvale colleclion. Photograph courlesy Leo Coslelh Gollery, New York, ic, 1 994 Don
Flovin/Artisls Rights Society (ARS), New Yorl<
10.12 Dan Flavin, Untitled, 1963. Green fluorescent light, edition

of five, 8ft (2.44m) high.
Private colleclion. Phologroph courtesy Leo Caslelli Gollery, New Yorl<. >c. 1994 Dan
Flovin/Artisls Rights Society (ARS), New York,
304
ilif arr;iiii.'''iiu'nt dI tin- âmc >fl ol plain wliiii- nil"-. Ihf dii-n ii-a--i-inhlinL' il in a \ariei\ ii| \\a\- m -rr wlial
lmuii(lle~»iifi-i of rhe iirrht im|ilierl tlii' -.iihliiiii- Imi I lax in — liappcnrd III n- Lir-iall ilii lenlilx iiil iiH'iilal iniiii;i- .
"" Aiilr- /ed

he called il "a morlern teclmoiogical teiish. 1 hi- rmnaniii Ill ( )|| ~~rlll|illirr. \liin iiiilliiiclicalK aiialx
a>|>e«-i >e|iaiaies I'laviii Andre hum Siella. judil. and

aiifi llii- rliararlrrl-lii- I il Imw \\i-\i-nal 1- Inllll-: "( )||r need mil
Mt)iTis. althonixh thev siiare an athnity h)r iiidu-iriai niatei- rnoM- aiiiiind llir ii|i|i-i I lor ilir -rii-i i| lllr W llolr. llle L'r-Iall.
ials. sini|ilihed I'onns. system?. |)ernHiiaiiiin-. and a cuncern lo occur. -aid. "( ledialfK
'
lir )i liellrM--' dial
with t.i. ii-inL; "n real materials and s])ace. liie palli'in \\ ilhin on>I- - niiiiil rorri--piiiid- in llir r\i-liiilial
fail iif ihe obl-Tl .. \ -i\l\-luiir -nliil liLiiiir i- difliruh lo

\i-iiali/e. \el lieiail •
ot il- iTLiiilariu mil' -rii-r- ilii' whole
Robert Morris
c\ rii il -cell Inim a ingle viewpiiiiii . , . llir lai i iliat some
Mi.rn- Inlluwed a le-- -]p.Tiali/.-d ((mh-i' llian Jmld |"il\ liedion- are le>.- familiar iliaii llie regular i;riiinetric
R'>\>rv\
ur lla\in liul hiai)jiriia<li \\a- nn Ir-- jini-ilhi-ionistic. h)rms does not affect tlie formation of a gestalt. Rather, the
""'
He consislenllv worked
an experitnenla! objertivity in
willi irregnlaritv become- a |)articularizin<; quality.
his investiirations ot process, materials, and actions. In 1*^*()1 .\ntici|(ated b\ (ail Xmlir - \^Hth Sjiill i\\u\ tin- -caller
he made Bd.v II illi the Soniiil nj lis Oini Mdkiiiu: eTicli i-in<; a piece? bv Richard Sena and Baiiv i.e \ a who worked with
three-lunn- tape loop pla\ intr a recordintr ol himself in the felt sfpiares. shattered glass, powder, and ball bearings
process of con-iruciing the l)o.\. In 19().'^ he com[)leted fig. 10. 1.5 . Morris began ex]iloring the idea of sculpture
Cardflh' 1>\ alphaheticallv indexing all decisions related to wnthoiii fixed rmin. In I'^'bS. he randomly spread industiial
transforming the fonnd object into a work of art. including threadwaste die extra thread- clipjied off in garment
how long it took to find the thing, all the different kinds of manufacturing . along with oiIhi raiidnin materials, across
files he looked at. intenaiptions. and so on. He also had an the galler\ floor fig. Ib.lf) . In inn\e the piece. Monis
electroencephalogram taken w hile he thought aboiu himself simpiv ordered another bale sent directly to the museum or
for the time it t(K)k to make a tape a- long a> he wa- tall and collector them dump it on the floor. In soirie he added
and let
designated ii a -elf-ponrait. double-sided minors that undermined the perce|)tion of

Morri> invented a task and then canied it onr in a hnite form still more.
routine manner, leaving the details to chance as in tin- The threadwaste pieces extended Duchamp's attack on
refhictive dance [)ieces of the C4mningham-in>piretl .ludson the concept of the aesthetic object and his assertion of the
Dance Theater and the Flu.xiis actions to which the choreo- dominance of the idea in art. It also drew on the inspiration
graphv of his perfonnances seemed panicularly indebted. of Cage and Cunningham in the use of chance. In addition,
The influence of Duchamj) al-o e\ident." The idea of the
i:- these pieces prompted a fresh look at the boundaiy of order
"L " beams fig. 0. 1 H
was to take a given form and see how and chaos, emphasized the role of sculpture in defining space
manv different wavs he coidd dispose it in the space. Other rather than form, and directed the xiewer to the literal
works of the mid si.xties had to (\o with cutting up a form and specificitx' of the conte.xt. "^lieii you build something rigid
10.14 (left) Robert Morris, Unfitled f"L"

beams), 1 965 and 1 967. Three pieces, painted
plywood, 96 x 96 x 24in (243.8 - 243.8 61cm) >•
Onginol destroyed
10.15 (opposite, top) Barry Le Va,

Continuous and Related Activities:
Discontinued by the Act of Dropping, 1 967
(reconstructed in 1990). Gloss and maroon felt,
1 5 X 25ft (4.57 A 7.62m) in this view, but
dimensions vary.
Collection, Whitney Museum of American An, New York.
Purchased with funds from the Pointing ond Sculpture
Committee. Photogroph courtesy Sonnabend Gallery,
New York
10.16 (opposite) Robert Morris, Untitled,

1968. Threadwaste, mirrors, asphalt,
aluminum, lead, felt, copper, and steel,
30 X SOin (76.2 x 76.2cm).

Private collection. Photograph by Rudolph Burckhardt,
courtesy Leo Costelli Gallery. New York.
305
306
theiin-liciil or il/iislralirc iif theories: it is inliiitire: il is
iiiridred inlii all l\ pes nl iiiciilal pim esses, and il is
pnrpdselrss. Il IS iisiiiill\- Iree Iniiii the dejiriidciK r mi the

'"
skill (>t the iirlisl IIS ii crdftsiiKiii.
In 1 '!().")
I .I'W ill beiân cnn-l mil ini; Inlr^ nl ii|m'|i rnlir~.
I'll^l III Mark ami llieil |i\ llie ilid ul llie \i,il ill while
lIi-.HI.I;; . lie arlmiariK ileinlcil on a ralm ol ."...'i; 1
belween lllr lliirknrNs uj ihc înirnnal niemliei^ and llie
>]iaie~ lirlween lliiiii. Ilir^r \iîiall\ i |iliralril wiiik^

em III II U îin|ilr -II iniin al idea- ilia l die \ irw n can r\l ra|iii-
laie iKiin llieir lurin. LeWitt referred in ilie iimlerU iiil;
i(iiirt|ii 111 ilie-c will k- a- a "grammar. "
LeW itt > allusion to language tlerived from >ii ik nnal-

ism. which jiosited meaning as a decipherable. iiiii\ei-al
structure underlying the form. MmeoM LeWitt recognized
r.
that while the underlying logic in a wmk may be a sim|)le

scheme -et on a predictable eiuii-ê. the object itself is
experientialK impfedictable. Tlii> e--ialili>hes a dissonance

lieiwi-eii sensation and system that suggests the arbitrariness
with w liieli according to structuralist theoiy signifiers and
>igriifie(L or wmiL and the (ilijeri- in which they reler
"
are linkerl.
LeWitt made lii> fii^t wall drawings in 1908 in the Faula
( Gallen [fig. 10. 19 They involved a set of predeter-
:ii(i|ier ,.
mined procedures carried out direedy on the wall l)y

assistants. His most radical formal iminvation. these wall
drawings fuither eroded convetitional notions of the art
10.17 Robert Morris, UnW/ed, 1967-8. Felt, êm (0.9cm) thick,
object because they could be removed and re-ereaterl
dimensions variable.
Collection, Philip Johnson. Photograph by Rudolph Burckhordl, courtesy Leo Coslelli Golli according to instruction without benefit of the artist s liaiiiL
New York. In several of the wall drawings, the instruction that gener-
ated each line is w ritten directK on the wall next toil.
Mill kiiiiw \\ lial it s iioing tii liiok like ... 1 ânlctl a material
that I could prerlirt even le^s about. " Moms explained. "The
10.18 Sol LeWitt, Walt/ Floor Piece #4, 1976.
particular concrete situation in a given time. That s where Private collection. Courtesy John Weber Gollery, New York, c 1994 Sol LeWitt/Artists Rights
""''
the fascination is. Morris's well-know-n industrial felt Society (ARSI. New York.
pieces [fig. 10.17] also arise from these concerns, exploring
space and gravitational mass like sculpture i, as well as the
idea of mutable form — the soft felt can be disposed in the
space in an iiitinitf number of \\ avs.
'
'JJJjJili
Sol LeWitt
-
-JJJJ|.J[? I
Sol LeW ill ai)j)lied the minimalists' systemic loiiir atid
literalness to the generative procedures in lii^ work

without sharing their interest in the literal object. Indeed, by
the late sixties he had reasoned his way beyond the object
into conce[)tuai an. consciously se])arating the abstract idea
system that produces an object from the object itself. "The
idea or the concept is the mo--t important asjtect of the
work." he wrote in a seminal article for Arljoriirn in 1967
entitled "Paragraphs on ( (niceptiial .\rt. hi it. lie asserted:
H lien (in artist uses a coii<c/>lii(i/ Jorni uj url. il mcun.s tluit
allof the planning and decisions arc made hcjorcliaiid and

the execiitinn is a perfunctory affair. The idea becomes a
rnachuie that makes the art. This kind of art is nut
307
chieflv with liglit anri sjiace. By the mid sixties Irwin was
10.19 Sol LeWitt, Wad Drawing*?, Drawing Series;; 18A&B,
using principles of Gestalt psychology-, manipulating differ-
1968. Black pencil, drown directly on the wall of the Paula Cooper
ent kinds of light, shadows, scrims and controlled emnrori-
Gallery, New York.
Private collection. Son Froncisco. Phologroph by Waller Russell, courtesy Ihe orlisl. c 1 994 Sol ments to fool the eye into seeing something other than what
LeWin/Artists Rights Society (ARS|, New York. was actuallv there. Neveitheless. h-win conceived such
experiments in the broader context of "a construction and
."^^ he said, "the placing
ordering of indi\-idual realin .\rt. is
of vour attention on the peripheiy of knowing. It is ... a state

The Los Angeles Light and Space Movement
of mind.""'"'
Mcaiiwlulf. ill Lor. Aiijiflf.-^. Kohfil irwiii ami .lanie? Timell iiad a more spirinial cast of mind, influenced by
runell fornied the nexus of a Light and Spare move- Eastern philosophy, hi a work of 1967 entitled A/rum he
meat in the late sixties that had a literainess and an created a \-isually "solid" cube in the comer of a room with
experimental tone resembhng that ot Roiieit Morris. The projections of white light: thisis a characteristic example of
Light and Space movemein centered on the exploration of his work of the mid which he boldly coiii'ronts the
sixties, in
visual perception itself in works so subtle in their ^^sual \newer wHth a contradiction between what is there and w4iat
calibration as to be near meaningless in reproduction. Irwin seems to be there. He w ent on to create other triit forms and '
ilematerialized objects, then space, while Tunell worked then rooms in which the viewer sees wall iiere there are
308
none If'is:. 10.l2() . '"Tliis is not iiiiiiirnalism ;iiiil it i> tun imi ih nl I lai;-iaH. \ri/im;i. \h liiicliilU -lia|piiii; llic ii:iic-i-
foncfpliial work." Tiifffll cxidaiin-d. "it i- /icni'/iliidl liriK I ni icll iiiiriii|ii(il 1(m uiiiml ilic \ i.w . r - pcK r|iii(iri ol
worii."'' Bui il i> aKo a kind olwufk that ti-a^c- tlir \ ic\\ ci'- ilic opni -|iaif al"i\ c a- -crii limn iIm- Iioiimhi nl ilic ciairr -
perce]ition> iiilo an iiii>Ii'a<l\ icalilN .

" 1 ln' ila\ dn-ani.
"
In- ImiwI. IiiiicII aUi> i alriilai.-d im i\ iiin-iil- ul dn- rili-îial
ex[)lainf(l.
'•
. . . i^. 1 lllillk. tllf --liacc thai w i- iiiliaMl iim^l dl ImmIu- m ivIalKHi id tin- \ nw in;: |>onil and niailc |p|an- In
tlie time, iniicli tiiore tliati llii- ((Hi'iidM^ awakf -paic- dial i~ -lia| ic dil liiciil |iari- ul ilir -ii.' hi cxi ilml linn r| Irci-.
called realiu. It > liii> davdicain -|>aii- nxcilaiil nn ilu- \!aii\ "I Iniirll^ wmk- ol die -ixiailic- and ciLllitii--.
conscious awake reality lliai 1 like to wmk with .Jin inxnUrd idra- ivlatrd m ihi- hiii:c wnik in |iriii;iv~,. hi
interested in lia\iii':a work roiitVotit \(iii w hm- \ mi w (Uildii t lAr/znu .

i| l'l,"i.'> n. I'N'.d lur r\ain|ilc a i ii Ini l'>, 1 an
ordinarily see it. W lien \iui ha\e an r\|iriii-ii( r hki- that in ahniial i\ r ai i -|iarr in \i-\\ ^ (n k in w hi( h ilu- i n. .1 (i|ii-ii^ to
Otherwise noniial -iin-oiiiidini;--. it lakr- (in dir hiriiHlx nl die ^k\ . dir \ irwci îi- nn linn hr- iliai i ini; llir Irannrlr^^.
a dream."'" î|nan' Kmin and limk^ ii|i in a |inrr |ialili nl ~k\ . I In- ^k\
in 1*'7l2 Tiiffi-ll iifnati thitikiiii: alionl iiinîiiirtini: a takr- mi a la^rinalini: |iann|iK ul |

mi r.|ii iial xanaiinn- in
monmnental earthwnrk that wmild |irii\ iili- a cniiicin|ilaii\i- i nlm and -|iarc a- the interim hi: hi -hill- and r\ rntnalK
e.xperieneeot'liiiiil and -|iarc mi a L'raiid -cale and in l''~-l he ladi--. i.'radiiall\ liriii;:iii;: mil ihr aiiilirial lii;lil-. armiiid tin'
.-.elertod a Nit.- — an lAtiiict xcilcaim ralli'il the Rmliai ( ralia-. |)rrimeter oi the ii|M-iiiiii;. ( )iir -cciii- in -er w hat i- ihrn- w itii
a [ireternatiiral aiiiiu Imt al-n in ciirniintcT ihr |iir-rn(i- nl

niii' - nw II I nil id. "rill- -iti-- I hkc in ii-.t> are ones that . . . are
n-alK inhaliilcd li\ (nii-iimi-nc-^ . . . r;eiieraled iint ii\
10.20 James Turrell, Doygo, 1990. Light into space, dimensions
ihr airhilrriiiri' nl Innii lint h\ tin- nNialax nl ihniiiihl.
variable.
Phoiog-cc • Go ler, Ne« Yort I liric-|l -aid.
309
Object/Concept/Illusion in Painting
llif fiitl 111 llic si.xlie? a imiiilti-r ul ailir-lr- liad I" :.Min
B\iiietliodicallv sc-paratin;: the work of art into ovfil;i\- ul
(Jiîiiict systems, like medical sperialisis isolating the vaMH-

lar system or the network of cndorrine glands for a focused
i\aliiaiioii. Mil Bochner hegaii using inathenuuiial formn-
la- ici diiiM- llif fonns in hi> paintings, while Robert
\laiii;ol(l played off |)ln>iial iiiialiiii-- of the object against
piriiirial conce]it> or illn>i(in-.Mangold s Four (n/or hi
I rami' Painting #/ example lii:. in._>l

198.S . for he .
juxtaposed the framing edges and seam- ot tin- cama-es

with drawn line-- that allude to a ciiniiiinnn- geometiy. hi
-iinic ra-.-- lie delilieraiely created jmti rpmal contradictions
to iiiidcivcore the incom|)atiiile n-alilir- oj ilic ilitti-reni
-\ -lcni>.
1 or KUsworth KelK. the whole jiicinre had become the

niiii in a hard-edge stxle of painting as early as f^-DS. L nlike
Maiiiiold and Bochner. Kelly arrived at this in the more
iiiiuiiive manner characteristic of the late fifties. .\t the
beginning of the Hfries Kelly had already evolved a snle of
painting in large, flat, hard-edged fonns jii.xtaposed rather
than interacting on big rectilinear caiixases. Nevertheless.
hion dixiding the entire space of a painting,
stress
jiixiaposing flat fomis on a plane rather than arranging them
10.21 Robert Mangold, Four Co/or Frame Painting #1, 1983.
within a composition, resulted in an articulation of the Acrylic and black pencil on four canvas panels, 9ft 3in x 12ft 6in
-iirlace as a single field of color which in turn became the (2.82 X 3.81m) overall.
lurm [fig. 10.22^ "Bv remoxnng the cunieiu brush marks, Phologroph by eeva-mken, courtesy Pace Gallery, New York. ,c' 1 994 Robert Mongold/Artisfs
Rights Society (ARSl, New York
-iibject matter, etc. i
from my work. Kelly remarked. "I

-hifted the \isual reality of painting to include the space
on a 10.22 Ellsworth Kelly, Three Panels: Orange, Dor/c Gray, Green,
around ii."^' In avoiding the effect of figures field.
1986. Oil on canvas, A: 8ft 81 2in 7ft lOin (2.65 •
2.38m),
KelK - reiliirticpu asserted the painting as an object and that
B: 7ft 4in X 8ft 2in (2.23 > 2.48m), C: 8ft P 2in x 9ft 1 T 2ln (2.47 x 3.03m).
in turn undeniiined the convenrion of the rectaugular format Collection, Douglas S. Cromer Foundation, Los Angeles. Photograph courtesy Blum Helmon
fur Kelly, as it did for Stella. Gallery, New York.
310
A Focus on Surface Handling in Painting
,1 -llllll.ll W ,l\ . HmL.'I I l\\ IIKIII ~ rnlli .llll.ilril I.I, 11- .111 llu-
III
iiiMiici-- III ilir .ili-irail iiiaik -i'imiiimI in o|irii a w Imli- m-w
1>S iiaimiui.' tur 1().2^> Ali-
^ '^tx^bJEklF *'ri '^>' ,;., ,zifr~ liuii,'!' I'l |)()---.iliiliiii- ill liiiii lii;.
'- .
•
>tra(t ])aiiiiiiiL' i~ pi-i l»'Lniiiiin<i. lir said in l*'o(). "All

"
]ii)»il)iliiies aii' ii|ifii in ii. " Rc-tiiriiiiL; liirnsfif lu an all-
wliitf |)aU'tte since tlie heginnini; nt ilir -ixiies. Rynian lias
lifiL'hti'iied the piii'r vi-iliilii\ dI i-aili ininpiiticni "I llii'
.•»u<;,i-i*t-s^.s^'_ji^^si:isi<v^'**«»»'^'' ^B [lainliiii; — thesestmal iiiaiL. lln- -iirlari'. i-\i-ii llir iin-rlKiiii-
I ai --uiiiKHI and tlit- wax it i-- la-liin-d lo iht- wall. 1 lit-se
iiivestigaiions have liiglilighted the >iil)ileties of seeini: what

is tliefe rather than a-jiiring to a transcendental exjierieiice.
The same is inn- Imi Brice Maiden fig. 10.24 . whose
't-'^^ exquisitely refined -rii-e ot lonch and --nrtace cimcerns the
literal lint -enûun-- exjierieiiie nf the |iaiiil it -elf.
1 0.23 Robert Ryman, Unhtled #2, 965. 1 Oil on linen, 1 1 Vj x 1 1 Viin
(28.6 ^ 28.6cm).
J Pi'otog-cph oy BiC Jcccbsor, courtesy Pace Gollery, New York
10.24 Brice Marden, D'opres la marquise de la Solanc [AHeribe

Marchioness ofSolana], 1969. Oil and wax on canvas, 3 panels,
6ft5inx9ft9ln (1.95 X 2.97m).
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York. Panzo Collection. Phologroph by Cathy Corver,
91 .3784 o-c. © 994 Brice Marden /Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
1
311
Eva Hesse and Investigations of Materials and Process

II ihr iiikI -iMic-. llii- .(illllii-r. ili-laclicil nlijciiix il\ ul' Naiimaii ami Hicliaid >eiia ditteicm and i-\cepliiiiiall\
I uiiirimiili>m and tlic fiiuilioiial (lisciiiiaiieiiifiit dl |iii]i an imporiani \\a-> mil oiiK dial die\ in paiiicular Hesse)
ami rdrmalisiii ])r()in]ilt'(l some yitiiim Amcncaii aiii^l^ ici >iii-Cfe(led again>l the |ir(\ aiiiiii; liriid of die art world
-ii-k a way back to the iiiilix idiial [isvflif. ('orporaie cultiin'. which fayored reduction and imper.ioiuility but that they .
liki- llie cool aesrlierir tliat liad lome out of tile early sixties. created this personally engaged sr\ le in a manner that took
\\a~ aliiMKiliiii:. and tliese arii-l~ waiili-d In ii-i'siaiili-li a ilic anti-illusionist preoccupation of minimalism as a foiind-
<iiiiliiuiil\ with >iil)jective cxiiriiriirc l.xiida I5iiii;li^ ici ul- aiinii while at the same time remaining so |)alj)ably inyohed
Ifiiiil tliat wiieii site caim- lo \i\\ ^ oik in l''b-i slie till lln' w iiii their own intimate body experience.
Mii-d for sometliiiig mtn lanili-. •.oinetliiiig that relati-d lu in jjart it was die connection witii tiie aiiii-iliiir-ioiiisi
ilii- l)odv."'"' So Beii<;lis sougiit out tlie most visceral. aspect of minimalism that caused this new expressionist
|ili\îcallv engaging materials anfl proredtires she could tendency to emerge in sculpture rather than in painting.
df\ i^r. i 1 1- r solidified >|)ilK nl lnilliaiilK |iii:niented lalrx and \loieo\i 1. die need In make something that felt real and
lirr ainur|ilious. poiu'cd iiioniid> >•[ Inaiii nr ca-I niiial nl pnîiii ill die iiiiisi personal tenns called for the tactile
l'»(i'» III 1«»~(> had a counterculture tone thai
fig. 10.25 exjierience that a sculpture of new materials proxided. The
erli.Mij dir rrliillious social and political atmosphere. \lo>t remarkable freedom from convention in theworks of Hesse,
iiiipoiiantK her work eni]iloved materials and processes in
. Nauman. and Seira made it ])ossible for them to animate the
wax-- that centered mi a -ênse of the artist's physical uiiii|ue materials and procedures they used with a con-
ideiiiilicalioii wiiii ilieiii. T\ii-\ pni\ided an innnediaie. vincing projection ot tiieir ow n pei-,oiialilies.
laiille- e\leii-iiill lA ihi- liiiiK .
Louise Bourgeois tig. 1().2(> and Lucas Samara^ Eva Hesse

fig. "7.24 pioneered an ex|)ressionisni of organic fomis and
iiMii>ual materials at the beginning of the decade. Comini;
III
I iis-,c > caê. the sheer force of her drive to find form in
dill of more than a decade of sunealist-inspired construction whatever material seemed most evocative' for her pro-
ill ihe case of Bourgeois : and out of the assemblage aesthetic found emotional sntiggles presses the viewer iiresistibly into
and ha])penings of the late fifties Samaras thev made . identifying with her discoveiT of herself in the objects she
-( iill)ture with an especially \nvid sensation of touch. V( hat created. Eva Hesse [fig. 10.27j. a German-born Jew, nar-
made the new. radically e.xpressionistic sculpture of Eya rowly escaped the concentration cani])s in 1939. when she
Hesse and the inlenêK pergonal rxploralion- of Bruce fled w illi her >ister to Aiii>Ierdain at the aize of twd. After two
10.25 (below) Lynda Benglis, Untif/ed, 1969-70. Pigmented

polyurethane foam, 1 5 ^ 48 x 36in (38.1 x 1 21 .9 x 91 .4cm).
Collection of the orlist. Photogfoph courlesy Paulo Cooper Gallery, New York, (c: Lynda
Benglis/VAGA, New York, 1994,
10.26 (above) Louise Bourgeois, Double

Negative, c. 1 963, Latex over plaster,
1 9% X 37V2 X 31 3 sin (49.2 x 95.3 x 79.7cm).
Colleclion, Riiksmuseum Krbller-Muller, Ihe Netherlands. Photograph

courtesy of Robert Miller Gallery, New York, © Louise Bourgeois/VAG.
New York, 1994.
312
Knii--I\fieill. i)ii\ le anil I ie^-r li\ id nr.ir |)ri--rliliirl. w lieie
die inl'liii-mi-- of die ril\'- Iwn liadiii:: ai li-l-. ( .iiiilri I rker

iii:. 111.1^;; aiiil.|ii-.e|.li l?eii\-. -niii n , I ia\ r liai 1 a Iminaine
''
rlli-rl nil ihr I liararlri 111 liiT -l\ li-IH 1 1 aii-li iniial ii m
lli'--.r rii-alrd llir IwrllU I il ra--l llkr lli-|lll-| iliri r- her
a-orialinn \\\lslil,ii iA D.rmiliri I'Ki.") lii;. |l).2"l li\
pain--lakiiiL;l\ w imlniL; and iiliniii: -| m aU nl mi d aii niiid die

lonn^. iiainliiiL: iIh-iii. and Iimii:^ llinii m llir i\iirali\r|\
handlrd ^r,.ii\inla,i-. Iln- Mark plaMli .liini:-. Inii-,rly
i->iiiiil: lioiii llir rrillrr- nl ra< li iiiniiml. |ilii\iile a srn-lial.
Iiaiiilr rniim-riinn In ihi- rilnali-l iralK n-ilei alril inali-ina!

iiiiaL:r. The flni n- m liin l.-ihlm . llir ilaiii;liiii; |
ilia llir -liapf-
in ^rrrnil nl \iiM-inli,r l'»(i.', Iil;. Kt.l . and llir mhrr
n\illl\ ^lAlial Innil- dial |irrinralr lir^^r'- -ill l| i| i nr liiini
I'M).') ihiniirh imi-i nl I'll)"" lia\r a liii-hi-lir rhaiarlrr nut

iinK III llir nli-rN-l\r |iriirr-- nl lllrll I nai I II lail 1 1 1 r linl ill
dirn l'r|irlll|iill. Inilrrd linlll llir llllr and ml 1

1|
iii-l I nil I nf
Islihti I'Mikr ihr iniillidiif a-Ird aiirirlll Irli-h Dninii (ij
whirh i- a iiiL;naIr
lljilicsiis. nl dir >riimir i;iiilile-- n| lii\f.
hTliliu and war lni w hum

. I lr--r nan led lin w m k.^
11 ir serial -.liiirliirr of die lura-dikr Innii- in lslit<irn\>0
allmlrs directiv lo die svstemir rharaiirr nf niiiiinial sciiip-

liiir whicii ilesse >ncces-.tiill\ apprii|irialril and |)ersoil-
ali/rd in wnrk- -iirli a- dii--. Slir -aw riuht ihrniiLlh In the
LirnrialK iniaiknnw Irdiird. r\pif--i\ r mnlriit nf iiiiniinai-

i-ni and w a- liiii\ rd li\ il. a- i- r\ idrlil i4l lirr ir-pnii-r lo die
work nf (.ail .\lliliv. -I lerl \vv\ ilo-r In ( arl .Vlldlf/' -he
10.28 Gunter Ucker, Table, 1963. Oak, noils, white spray point,
31' 2 25' 2 25' 2in (80 - 64.8 x 64.8cm).
Collection, Kunslsommlung Nordrhein-Westfolen, Dusseldort.
10.27 Eva Hesse in her New York studio, c. 1967.

Photogâp^ c The Estote of Eva Hesse, courtesy Robert Miller Gollerv, New York.
I IK INI 1-
1 ill an iir[iliiiiiaL:i' 1 Ic^^f ami Iht -i^d-r wiTi- ifihiinii-i|
l)\ llieir pai'fiilM. who \intk lln-in in \i'\\ NoiL Bin ÎkhiK
tlit'rt'at'lt'r tin- |iarfiit- ilixmcfil and in I'Ho I lc--f In-i litr
niotiier to --nit iilf. I lii> earlv iiisiorv Ich --i\ iif aiixii'ty and
depression n-lalcil lo i^sês ot intiinac\. aliaiiiloniiifiit. and
self'-imatre that He.sse conliiiiiallx i\|iliiiiil in Ini ai i.
He.s.se graduated Iroiii iln- ( iiii|i(r I iiioii ami linn in

195') IVoin llie Vale Srhool ol \rl. In l''()l -In- imi and
married a sculptor named I oni l)ii\amili- in liiiif 1 ''(i-t ilii\
went off touetliei- 111 \M Ilk in (.iTiiiaii\ Im rnnriiiii month--.
W iieti siie arrived, die iweiiu -iiL:lii-\iai -old I li-.-.r ^lill -.axx
herself as a painter. was a yearIt lillrd w iili iiii-iniiv and -i-ll-
(loiil)t: "1 cannot i)e so man\ lliiii:.'^. -lie iniilidrd lu a

noleixiok in l''()4. ...Woman. Iiraiililiil. arli-i. wilr.
iiousekeeper. cook. -.alf-lad\. all die-c iliiiiL:--. I ranmii f\fii

lie mysell.'-"
Neverilieless. Illi^ vear in (.iiinanx \\a- ihc iiniiiiii:
jioint in Hesse's developmenl a> an aili-i. 'Îir -liilied inlo
ihree-ihmeiis'onal work and ai die nid nl ilii'ii -ia\ >hr had

iier first one-|ierson .-.how al die |irf-ii;:inii- l)ii-.-.eldiiil
313
The Direct Sensuality of Fiberglass and Latex
Durin;; l'>()~. Ilf--c'> work -.[lifted away from oxtMlly

t-roiic imagerx inward a more direct sensuality that «as
immediaIeK pre-i-ni in tin- materials themselves — "not

-\ iiiiinl- fill -niiiilhing t-Le." as ?lie WTote in a note to herself
111 l''~il.^ I 111 dfiision to begin working in fiberglass and
lair\ I iiMirr i-ai l\ ill l<>()."i had in dn w idi liifir translucence
and liiniinr-ci-nii-. iln' liand--nii pli\ -icaliu nl' itiliiding up
ilir liniK nf ilir wnrk III la\i r- likr a -kin. and the sensitivity
III liiiili niairiKil- In ilir imiili. I hi- 1 liain-like sequences of

-iniplr imii- dial -iT\r a- lilt- rniiipn-ii iniial princi|)le of
niaii\ n| ilie-r late work- dflilicialelx i-ilm liie underlying

-tfiiclinr 111 dn- pnKiiii-i- tlieni-i-l\i He.-.se sought to
relate, in a Inndaniriilal wa\. with tli.- invisible natiu'e of
her material-.^'
In liie late spring nl' \'U)V,. 1 li---e iiad jiegnii wniking
with a plastic- laiiiiraiingcoin])any on Staten Liand. Likeô
many artist- in ilif -ixiie-. she found that the help of outside
fabricator- and -iiidin assistants could quicken the pace of
prodiictiniiand dn- ilr\ clopment of ideas as well as letting
her increase the xale of her wmk. Doug .loiin-. one nf the
owners of the plastics cninpanv. becanif -n aii-orbed in
working with lli--f that li\ September he had closed his
business in nrdn m drMiir liimself full-time to her. Having
.Johns rigiit theie rooking tiie stitictural problem^ a- -lir w ciil
along allowed Hesse much greater spontaneitx and die

abilin- to generate and realize ideas rapidly.
works of \9(t'-) such as Expanded Exixmsimi. ( initiit-
In
sent. and tiie I iitlllcil Ice Piece;. Hesse exploretl the idea ol
10.29 Eva Hesse, Ishtar, December 1965. Twenty cord-bound and infinite ex|)aii-inii Ins "lake a stand on absurdity.
I as "*
painted hemispheres, with blaci< cords mounted on heavy paper -he put it. In coiuiing the incomprehensibility of infinite
stapled and nailed on wood; paper gessoed and painted with acrylic, nl n piil-
extension in space, the improbable transfonnatinn
36 X 71 2 • 2' 2in (91 .4 N 1 9 6.3cm), height with cords 3ft 6' 2in (1 .07m).
New Jersey, Evo Hesse, courtesy Robert sive surfaces into beautiful effects of light and form, ami the
Collection of Florette and Ronold B. Lynn, c Estate of
Miller Gollery, New York. contradiction between the strength of the fiberglass and the
fragilitx- of the latex. She even chose to build impermancnce
-aid. "I Iff]. Ifl- -av. eniotiiiiialK cdiiiifiii-il in lii~ \\"ik. li into the work giving it a morbid evanescence ii\ n-iiida-
iliif-. jometliing to mv iIlîfles. Hi- iiiilal |ilaii-- w i-re llie latex in wa\- that di-rn|iied its proper curing.*
1 iiiiceiitraiion camp forme.
"*''
"An and w ni k and an and life are veiT conm-iici and I
Soon after He.sse rfinnifd in \c\\ ^ll|k ai ilic fiiil of mv wliole life iia> been absurd." Hesse told Cindy Nenisci'.
I''(i3 lier liusband left Iut. and a vfai lain Ihi lailici diid. "There isn't a thing in my life that has happened that hasn't
I li--«- wa-- |ianic-strickeii with a >eii-f nf altainlniiineiit. \f{ been extreme— personal iiealth. family, economic sittiatioirs
ai die -ami- time iiifluemial e.xliiltitioii- like "Eccentric . absurditx" is the key w ord ... It has to do with connadic-
. .
,\l)-iia( linn organized by Lucy Li])|iai'd in thp fall i>f tions and oppositions. In the forms I use in my work the
19()() . Kniifii Mon-is's "Nineal LeoCa-iflli
'
dii- -n-callfd ronnadictions are certainly tiiere. was always aware that I 1
"W areiimi-i- >liow" of December l')t)8 . ami iIh- W liiliUN should take nrder \er-us ciiao.s. string)- versus mass, huge
\iii-i-iim - .Vnii-Illusion: ProcedureAIaterial- wliitli verstis small, and would XYX to find die most absurd
I
•'-i<)
Mania Tucker and .James Monte put on in tiie -iinimti (it opposites or exiriinc o|)posites.
I '>(iQ '
created an escalating trajectory foi' Hesse's reputation This attraction between polarities underlies both the
a- central to the emergence of a Tie\\ kind of abstract eroticism and the conscious humor of Hesse s work. In the
-cul]inn('. llif increasingly positixf |iiilili( n-ception ot her Untitled "\Xall Piece" of 1970 [figs. 10.30 and 10.31] the
wiiik and a group of exceptionalK -iip|i(inive friends — four fibergla-- boxes with tenuous strings dangling out
ainniit; ihem Mel Bochner. Lin l.i|iparil. Robert Smithson. \ clearlv set an nxnali nidn. Vet the endearingly anthropo-
and alin\e ail So! LeX^'itt — fn-lcifd a Liiowing arti.stic ,self- morjihic ecceniricii) of each unit mocks the rigor of a serial
ciinridfiice that ke].)t Hesse emotinnalK allnal. reirularitv.
314
10.30 Eva Hesse, Untitled, 1970. Fiberglass over wire mesh, latex
overcloth and wire (four units), 7ft 6''8in ^ 12ft358in 3ft6'2in
(2.31 -.3.75 - 1.08m) overall.
Des Momes Art Center. Purchosed with funds from the Coffin Fine Arts Trust,
Colleclion,
Nathan Emory CoHm Collection of the Des Moines Art Center, 988.6. ©The Estote of Evo 1
10.31 Eva Hesse, detail of Unf/t/ed, 1 970.

Collection, Des Moines Art Center, icThe Estate of Eva Hesst
III i\irl\ \|ii il l'l(i') I If^î- i(ill;i|iM-(l trtiiH a Itraiii tiimiir
anil iliiii iiiiiji-iwfiii liiii'i- ii|ii-rati()n,s before slie f'inallv (lied
III \la\ i''~(l al ihr a-c nl iliirlv-tV.nr. The fad thai slie harl
alfeaiK (lr\fl(i|)fil a ^\îfiii iil wiirkiiii: willi a^î^lanls in
I'Mtl'i iiiailf il |iii^îMi- III!' Iifi lo ronliiiue wriikinii rijilit to

1 1 If em I. anil inilfid ^lic |iiiiilniecl her greatest work in that
liiial \far. Ihr ( tilillvd Jln/x- PIpcpi of I0''0. for example
[tiij:. l(l..'^2j. iiiulerinines the noiinn^ ol liMcl rmin ami >cale.
.\^ with ihe ae-Îiiral field of a Pollmk. (he ilelail in ihi- work
|inll- ilif \if\\rr in. \ri ili^diienl-. Iiiiii (ir her with it-.
nnlaniiliarilN nl material and Inrin. "I warned m inialK

tliniw in\ î-ll intii a \ iîiin that I w mild lia\ e iu adjust tn anil
learn tti nnder^land. ^he âid. ... I wain lo e.xtend my art
"'"
|ifilia|i^ inio îiinelhiiii; that doesn't exist \et.
315
Bruce Nauman and Richard Serro
1 0.32 Eva Hesse, Untitled (Rope Piece), 970. Latex over rope, 1
string and wire, two strands, dimensions variable.

Collection, Wh.tney Museum of Amencon Art, New York, Purchase, with funds from Eli and
Edyihe L. Broad, the Mrs. Percy Uris Purchase Fund, and the Painting ond Sculpture CorrmiHee.
Photogioph by Geoffrey Clements, New York, 'C The Eslole of Eva Hesse
Bruce Nauman and Richard Serra
Bruce Nauman involves making something, and sometimes the aciix it\ itself
''
is tlie piece."
II- Naiirriari - ail i^ iiuiii\ i-i h-il wiilidtii lii-irii; |i-\(li Nauman s earliest siir\i\ing s( iilpiuies ilale bom I'Mio
B; i\ca\ ill die .-.eiine ol 1 lt-?se .-i. and aldi(iui;li hi- It lit;. ID. made duiiiii; Ills two vears as a graduate student
.').')
.
focused on the literal piesence ul imcIi wmk il iiia\ nui in art at the Lni\eisii\ of (California at Davis. I lie elcM-n
iiectsâiily yield an object at all. .\amiiau n ciiiiiîtv alxml ciiiilelv bnished libeigla>,s abstractions ol 19(j5 aniioiim e
ilii iiaiiire (il immediate e.\|ieiience — embodied in a unique .Nauman s fullv develo]ied artistic character. Their forms
-ulc- ol (jiie-iiidning — is what unifies his work and compels relate to the body positions and gestures of the nidiinentaiy
I lie viewer's interest. Bv l'^()5 it was already clear to Nauman perfonnances that Nauman inaugurated that year, while at
liiat whereas ininimali-'t-- like .hnlrl wanterl to he in control. the same time they emphasize the literal process of their
-Nauman wanted preciêK not ti> be — he wa-. Iieiii on ilie fabrication, thus attacking any notion of transcendence.
f.\|)erience of discover)', .\aiiman .-.aiil that as olicii a^ noi "I These fiberglass pieces involved making a cast, then
was using my body and manipulating
as a piece of material throwing away the object and constructing the sculpture
it. think of it as going into the studio and being invoKed in
1 from the hollowed halves of the mold. The lack of finish
some activitv. Sometimes it works om that the acti\ii\ axiiids a sense of preciousness or finality to the object.
316
em|)liasiziii<r iii>li';iil ;iii Diiîniiiii iiiM'^liuaiiv > y\nrr^^_ \aii-

10.33 (left) Bruce Nauman,
man scI ii|i la--k-- loi- liimî'll '111^1 id ~<-i- wIkii wduM Unfif/ed, 1965. Fiberglass
lia|i|ii'ii.
'"
111 nriliT til liiiil lliiii;:- (iiil. In- âiil. Iir w mlil
1 ili 1 96x5 lOin
. . . iliiiiD^ iliai \ nil linn I |pariii'iilail\ waiii in iln, . . .
|
mi Mini: (243.8 12.7 25.4cm).
Phofogroph by Rudolph Buickhardt, courtesy
\niir>r|l in iinlainiliar ^hnalinli-. InllnwiiiL: irî^lanrr-' In
Leo Coslelli Gallery, New York, ic 994 Bruce
1
mil \\ll\ Mill irî-liiiLi. like llirra|i\. " Mr anil-

llliil II- iliil Noumon/Arlisls Righls Society (ARS), New
1 1 in 11 |iii'ri'~ ni inlilirr lalr\ ami licL;aii niakini; wmk^ in iii-nii
York.
(llirini; !''().") ami l''(ih. llic iiinr^ rrlallllL: in -[irririr \\a\>

I'illuT to ill-- 1)0(1\ Ol- In ihr ~|iarr-, llial il iMril|iiril. \iijn 10.35 (opposite) Bruce
Tem/)l(ile.i oflhel.efl Hall nf \h IU„I\. r,ik,n at Im hnl, Nauman, Neon Templates ol
the LeH Half o! My Body, Taken at
InteiTdls Hi;. |l)..'i.~) |iri'ri~rl\ riiii\r\- llic ]iinir^~ nl il-.
Ten Inch Intervals, 1966. Neon
origin in il- llllr. \>\ a- Hirmla [{irlianl-nli I
mil 1 1 II I nil I. r\ rll
tubing on clear glass tubing
I 111' tnliillL'. rnnl-. ami 1 1 aii-li hiiht lia\ r llir rlriianrr n{ an frame, 70 x9 - 6in
^ (177.8 X 22.9 X 15.2cm).
al)>tracl t\\|in'^'-ininî iliaw 1111;.
Collection, Philip Johnson Photograph

In llic fall 111 l''l)l). allrr \aiiiiiaii liin^liril lii- ina^n-i^ al
courtesy Leo Coslelli Goltery, New York,
l)a\i~. Ill- innk a -Inl'i-llnnl -lllilin in âii I lami^cn. Mr c 1994 Bruce Naumon/Artists Righls Society
(ARS), New York.
(IfxTJlicil liiin~i-ll a~ lia\ iiii: I lir nnrnial an i^l - |
lai aimia . . .
kind ol cm nil. |n~l I ml kimw iiii; Imw In |irn(rril a I lirini; an

'
aiti^l . ' I \v iiiaili' a in mil hi nl prili n inami- |

lirn-^ anil lilm^
anil lliiiL III llir lair lall. â\\ a Man l\a\ in n i--|iri 1 i\ r in I .n^
\iii:rlr- iliai |irnin|j|ril .1 -.rnr^ III iilmlniirajiliir -rll-
|iaioilir-. inrlnilinu >fll hirlidil as a tainitani li-. Kl.l-f .
Mllmiiilli \iiir>nii lia^ -aiil llial \aiiiiiaii \\a^ aliraiK an

ani~l w lirii 111- ai ri\ril al i)a\ i>.
'
flir imllimliint;. rll lira I
-rll-~irmiii\ 111 Anir^nn ^ w mk lia> an nlm in ilir inirni ii\ nl
\amiiaii > ^rlt-r\ainiiial inn ami \aiiiiiaii aUn ^liarr^ willi

linlll \nir-nll allll W ilr\ a |ia^înll Inr llir killll nl |iril\nra-
li\ rl\ w ill\ riiiriiia~ ami w nril-|ila\ ^ iran^lnrmril mill \ i^nal
|uiii-' llial nmlrilir .^r// I'aiiidil (IS a I iiiiiilani.
Naunian irail W illurii^triii'-, I'liiliinajiliiiiil liiri'sliisa-
tlOlhS ill !''()( I ami lllr |llliln--n|lllrl'^ rxamilialinn nl' rnnlla-

illilnlA ami ilnii^rn-iial ari:iimriil^ llial |iii^liril Inrjr in
irrational cMrrmr- intriirnrd liini. In lii^ iirnii^ nl )'•()"".

1 0.34 Bruce Nauman, Self Portrait as a Fountain, 1 966-7. Color
.\aiimaii lirraii r\|ilniiiiL; -nniniir- ami \rrlial |iin|mîiinii-
photograph, 19- j 23^4in (50.2 60.3cm) (from eleven color
like "Tllr inir arli-l lirl|i-. llir wmlil li\ irxralini; lll\^lir photographs of 1 970, edition of eight).
tnilli-. a -rniriirr that ^|iiiak niil in nrnii Inirr^ Irnin llir Photograph by Eric Pollitzer courtesy Leo Coslelli Gollery, New York.
'C: 994 Bruce
1
Noumon/Arlists Rights Society (ARS), New York

criiirr in llinilair ar Hall Siuii of l''()~. -il \\a- a kiml nl
tr-.t — likr wllrll Mill â\ ^nmrlllilm nut liillil In ^rr if Mill
lirlirM- It. \aillliail r\|ilailiril. '

It \\a^ mi llir iiiir liailil a
.'
InlalK -ill\ iilra ami \rl. mi till- ntlirr liaml. I lirlir\ril it
I )iiniii: till- Inllnw mi; \ rai- Nam nan nirl llir |irilnniianir
arti~t Mririlitli \imik in >aii I ram i-rn. I lir\ lalknl almiii

lllr w nrk 11 1 ( arr ami ( iiiimiii;liain. ami Nam nan liri;aii In
iliiiik 111 llir îiii|ilr la-k-nnriilril arlinii^ in lii^ |

in Inrmamr
|iirir~ a^ irlatril In ilaiur. Mr \\a~ aUii im]ilr^^ril willl tllr
lirw mil~ir 111 La Mnlllr ^ nim^. Slr\r Krirli. I'llili|i (.la^^.
ami rrriN Kilrv. ami ilini wnik a^ wril a^ Mmik ^ iii^|iiiril
liim to wnrk iiinir willl minimi. In In^ Scjiara/i Tunr/i anil

Suiiiifl l''0'> . Naiiman liiil a iiiirrii|iliniir lirlniiil a wall In
pick up llic Irirlinn nl llir \ irwi-r Imicliinu; llir îirlarr.
Speakers liidden in anmlirr wall, ^miir 4lt Irrt awa\.

broadcast the xiiiml. nraliiii: a liiiir Ian. llir idea \\a~ in
[in.-'ll the viewer iiitn rmilrnnlilli; liim-rH m lin-rll in tin-
-•]iair hi the various video corridnis iliai Naninan mi- i
-inirtrd lietwren 1 <)()8 and V^'70. In- iiiMiKnl tin- \ irwn

more activrU in thr work. entiriiiLi In i lin in miri
317
Bruce Nauman and Richard Serra
318
the spare aiul then pliixiiiL' lii- "i ln'i own iinaue hack on a wiirk. w liirli ecliiie> (he a>r-erliiin of Bi-in - dial cxcrMHie i>a
video monitor. ai li-t in 1 1
11' crealiv e act ot li\ iiig and thai (HiK in the ( rrati\
Ill ill*" ievPTitte* ntnl i'i;:lnie». \aiiman <hitteri to nioti- ait i' mir liilK ali\e.
M\ ri il\ ^(11 uil and poiitiial i-oncerns, in a Hi<i]niefin<; iti-tal-
lalioii ol l'r-2 cniid.d Gel Out nt Wv Mitui Get (hi/ nll'hix

Richard Serra
lltioiii a iMpe with thi< me^â'je penneati'd du' -|paii
. _!> Iioin all din-rtion-- ai oticc. .Iaci>j((i 1 iniiTinaii ^

LiLi' \aiiiiiaii Riiliaid SeiTa reconceived the anti-
' 'I- [iîliih.il iiii|.i i-Miiriinii and torture as a illiiîniiiîii III iiiiiiiinal ail a- an ar-tlu-tir ul direct
jiiMiiK ai di--iilirii in Viui-niina iii>|iiifd a |)owertul series ot |ili\ >iral i\|ii ririire. I le ( l)ncentraIe^ on pal])alile qualities of
sculptures huih around empty chairs sus|)ended hy w ire> in till- inaiiiiah and im the improvisational process of making
a timeless isolation, cordoned off hv raw steel girder-. The -rnl|ittirr. I 111- -iunilicance oi the work, he said, "i- in its
theme of .l/pf//i Clown is ()f malevolence and liiiidn uihIii the effort mil in it- intentions. .\nd that effort is a >iati- of niiiid.
"^'
sexlessclowns traditionally hajipy fa(;ade. êl on one level an an interaction with the world.
acii\ ii\ .
the anjier. the frustration, ihe repetitive reworking, even the Sena derived the form ior Belts [fig. 10.36 from, on tlie
sense of entrapment and then exhilaratins; freedom in one hand, the intiin~ic character of the Mîlcanized rubber
Naiimans works of the seventies and eighties are all aspects
of the creative act itself. As Jern' Saltz phrased it. in hi> e>say
on Nanman • installation Rats and Buta Learned Helpless- 1 0.36 Richard Serra, Belts, 1 966-7. Eleven vulcanized rubber
ness in Rats -.
"Creativitv is not just some isolated and casual belts and neon tubing, 84 288 x 20in (213.4 x 731 .5 x 50.8cm).
x
Solomon R Guggenheim Museum, New York. Ponza Colleclion, 1991 Phologroph by Peter .
acti\Htv. hut rather a priniarv and essential characteristic of Moore, courtesy Leo Costelli Gallery, New York. © 1994 Richord Serro/Arlists Rights Society
'*
being alive." Here Saltz points to the essence of Naimian's (ARS), New York.
319
10.37 Richard Serra, Sp/oshing,

1968. Lead, 18-31 2in
(45.7 X 792.5cm).
Installed Coslelli Warehouse, New York, 1 968,
destroyed. Photograph courtesy Leo Costelli
Gallery, New York. © 1994 Richard Serro/Arlists
10.39 (below) Richard Serra

throwing lead, Castelli warehouse,
New York, 1969.
Phologroph ©Gionfronco Gorgoni.
10.38 (below) Keith Sonnier, MM (Neon Wrapping Ughi Bulbs),

1968. Incandescent bulbs with porcelain fixtures wrapped in neon
tubing, 45 x 40 x 12in (114.3 x 101.6 x 30.5cm).
Photograph by Brion Albert, courtesy Leo Castelli Gallery. New York. <t 1994 Keilh
Sonnier/Artisis Rights Society |ARS1, New York.
^ti'i|)> |iarliiiihii'K i,|irc^si-(l in llu'ir iv.-.|i(in,--f in uia\ ity
and. on tlic oili in 11 II miiiiinalist ideas of serial rp|)etitio!i.

indetenninair liirin. ami nl creating a rontinuum with the
II al wdilil III indii-nial m i mnmeiTial materials. The neon
niiiiraî^ ^11 îiikiiiLiK with the flaccid strips of rubber that
(in- t\\ II iiiali-iiaK each hel]) 10 bring out a vivid sense of the
|ili\-.iial naiiMc ol As in Hesse's work. Serra's
die other.
niMiii and iicuii |)ieces moving personal presence.
project a
lliiiiigli llir arli^l has alwavs been reticent about this aspect
of hi. work.
Sena did .r\rral iiroii anil nililier wiirk-^ late in V)hU
and raiK l''(i~. |Milia|is ins])ired by Nauman. whom he met
almiL; wiili lice \ndre. .Tohns. and Smithson) •^^ lien he
inn\cd 111 New ^ ink lale in I'XX). Wiiliin trô vears,
320
Naimum > in-oii> luul lucoiiif oiilin-K loinii m-d wiili wrii-
ini: and signage, and Si-na liad aliaiiddiu'd llu- iiu'iliimi

alldiietlier for nnnf ilireci piucesst'-. low i-\ -ix i-ial ani-i-. I i-i
coiiliiiued to work w iili moii. iiolaliK die lialiaii Mario Merz

and Keiili Sonnier. a Ni'w \ oikiT w lio-c |ioriir aliîiaction--
in a niixtnre of niareiial- tliai ciMUfri'il mi iiu aiidi-( ciii
fixture> and freelv bt-nl m-on lulic- ci'lrlnaliil ihr mw

formal freedom of dii' laii' î\til- lii;. III!!! .
At al)inil llii> time. Sena made hiiiiî'lt a now -reliinated

li-t of \erli-. denolinu aclixilie- one could iindrrlaki' in
ivlalion to -culimire."" To -iila-ii" i^ alinin a i|iiarirr of ilie
wav down liir coliiiini ami i~ du- nmiiM' lui lii- 1"()!1 iiircr
Splashing fiu~. l(l.-i~ and 1(1.!" . in wliicli >rna diicw

molten lead atiaiiist tlie wall in ( a-irlli - ii|i|Hr W r~i îde
warehou?e. Splashing liieialK -iilalliTrii up and nni Irniii
the angle where tin- flour and wall iiiei. adlirnii- la-i m hmli
?in'fare>: it coidd imi lir ino\rd wiilmin c pIcirK il.---
tfoviu;; it. Oiln-r M-i-ion- wi-re made, iiiclndini: our in die

studio of .la-piT .lolin-. and occa-ionalK ilie aniî lia-.
fejieated the jirocess fof ielio-|ierti\e exiiihilion-.

Serra also created ('<lstin^^)^' l'*(i'> li\ similar ine-an-.
altlumgh a greater iniild-iiii of die lead allowiil liim m
remove cooled foniis. re|)eai die procedure, and la\ uiii a
collection of cooled lead forms on the floor. Both Sj/lashing

and Casting focus imcom|>romisingly on the |)hysical pro-
cess bv which thev are- made, riiev take their fonii from the
procedure and the specific -hape of the space, enhancing the
\iewer's experience of the n-alitv of the rime, place, and
materials. The work i~ in-e|iaralile from the ^jiace in which it
existsand discourage? an\ kind of meiaphoriial reading. \et
the bums onthe wall and ilie \ioleiii aciion implied in the
form evoke a sense of danger and \ iiliieiabilit\ .
In other works of l')O^X thearli-t -iinph di-.tribnleil die

materials on the floor, emphasizing their literal weight and
character. Similarlv. SeiTa s drawing snle— densely applied
bnild-tips of thick oil cra\ on— highlights the process of
making the w m k. prn\ iding a ]jalpably phy?ical experience
for both artistand viewer. Serra's propped lead pieces from
19(:)8and 1969 rivet the \newer's attention on the physical
weight of the material and its manner of disposition in the
space even more compellingK In (hie Ton Prop House ul .
Cards 1969 he leaned four 50()-pound lead ^lieei- iniM

one another like a house of cards. In Corner Prop tii:. Id 4ii
he leaned a 2-foot cube of lead, balanced bVi feet ii|] in the
air.between the wall and a -ofi lead ])ipe which ImlU die
weight from below. The work i- not fa>lened in any way.
despite its weight.
"There is a differen<-e |)ei\\een definile lileral lived
relationships, i.e.. joints, clip-, gluing, welilini:. etc.. he
noted in 1970. "and those which are prtn i-imial. non-ti\ed.
clastic' The fonner seem imnecessaiy and irrele\ant and

tend to function as inteiposed elemeiu>. So in work- -luli a-
these propped lead pieces he ha? eliminated aii\ -iicli
10.40 Richard Serra, Corner Prop, 1969. Lead antimony, box
imposirion that might falsif\ the impre--ion of ilie real
25 X 25 X 25in (63.5 x 63.5 x 63.5cm), pole 6ft Sin (2.03m).
balance and weight of the material-. B\ \\ a\ ol analii;:\ widi Gilmon Paper Company Collection, New York. Photogroph by Peler Moore, courtesy Leo
the same principle, he went on to remark thai: "A -hilt in Costelli Gollery, New York, 1994 RIchord Serro/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
ic.i
321
i! I 3 ay
- ZR " .S n!
inlciv^l III rc('fUI I'iliiL-. i.-i triiiii îilijcci iiKilIrr, ({iia lilrialiiir
1 0.41 Richard Serra, Tilted Arc, 1 981 Cor-ten steel,
m iliai
.
whicli iiiilizesanan-ativetinir. olilm^c riliii- in w lii<li

12ft >^
120ft ^ 2' 2in (3 66 36.58 - 0.06m).
(iiiir can l>r fipiaterl wirll lixr liinr' or w illi |
iioi ci Inial lime; Installed Federol Ploza, New York, General Services Admmislralion, Wasbinglon, DC,
I 111- linn- 1 iT I lie film in its iiiakiiiu.
"' Photogroph by Glenn Sleigelman, Inc., courtesy Leo Costell. Gallery, New York, ic' 1 994
Richard Serro/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
I iliii^ III (he late sixties. >ii(li a-. W arlicr^ Ijii/iirc w liicli
liMiisr^ lixedly on a still object, llic I iii|iirc Sialc Biiildint;.

lorciLiiil iioiirs or Yvonne Rainer'^ //(///'/ Mnrir. wliicli merely allowed him lo increase the scale. The work i- toiiLih: lliere is
Îkiw^ licr lianil a- ^lie (liie- l'iiii;ci- cxcrciê^. iii-.|iire(l SeiTa S a brutalitv— one might even say a defensivenes.s — to the
own lorax into lilm. \\\- I laiii/ ('iiIcIiiiils Lciiil I'KiO' sliow>. rednction. Serra's best ontdoor pieces also force themselves
a liliM k of lead dropjiing tiironi;ii die liainc a^ lii^ iiand imcomloiialiU on ihe viewer. They dictate the paths of
allcin|)t-, to catch it. Here too liie ein|ilia--i- i- on an ad ion in nio\emenl aronnil diem, and their monolithic massiveness
i-eal time. SeiTa has di-nird die c\i-ieiicc of aii\ kind ol' feel- frightening, even dangerous, with the unforgiving wails
e.\|ii'e>>.ionism in hi> wmk: \]\ work^ do imi -.iiiiiih any of steel o\erpo\\ering anyone in range. It is a paiidnIK
cûiriic -rif-ielerentiality. Theircoii-lnicli<iii lead- \ on inio backhanded complimenl lliat in the notorious case of Tilled
dieii -Inicline and does not refer hi dir aili-l - |ier-.ona. Arc ifig. 10. -fl tlii- disiurbingqualirN- ultimately caused tiie
.And yet in hi.s best woi'k. like llir |iim|i |iie(c- and S/ilnslniio: Federal ( ,o\ ei nineiil. which had commissioner! die piece, lo
Serra acliieves a teiTifyinfik iliicaienini: |irc--riicr. liaxe ii reiii(i\i-d Inini federal Plaza inNew\ork. .\- il wa.- a
In the seventies Serra bei;an iisinii lioi rolled -leel. w liicli si I e --pel i lie work. I 111- reiiio\al effectively destroyed il.
322
Artists Working in the Landscape
Willi lii^ ino|oii\ rlr Iraik^. and di>|iiTâU ol |iii;iiii-nl and

Michael Heizer -oil. In \'H,~ \\f al-o rinhaik.'d on a |ilaiin.'d roiir-|ian work
îlr ^]ircit'icil\ |-iNlihc-i| lim^l cMlrllli' ,allrd \/,>7/. aln-r ihr |,oinl- of lir ,oni| ki-. Tlir In
Till i^~llr .il II- I -I |Kirl
expression in I lie w ni k <il Mirharl I lii/<r w ho inoriccrnl roll -i -led ol a N|llL:li'--lr] i| icd. ici I ihiNMI' dr| iri'--loil dili: III In
tlic new <rein'e ol -ili---.|ir(ilir an ail llial drlinc^ il^dl in il^ llir ground a I ( ar-oii >nik in \i-\ ada.
|ii(H i>e inli-iaclion w iili I he |iarticnlar j)lari- Im w Inclui w a~ Ill l)is/,l,,<;',/-llr/,l,i,r,/ Mas.s ol l't|,<l |in,. 1 ().-f2-
ciHHeived . 1 lei/cr h.nl ( unir Ironi a laniiK ol m,-, ih i^j,|, and 10.4-+ . 1 li'izertransiiorn'd three solid granilciioiild. -IS — ;^().
ai rliai'oloiii^l-. and iiirw n|i in Norrlicin ( aliloinia and s2. and b8 tons respectively — a distance of ()0 miles from the
Nr\ ada w lii-if lie di\ i-|o|icd a L'lral alllniu lor I lie land-capr
ol llic W r-i. In I ''(!(). a I I lie ai;r of t\M-nl\ -oiir. In- cainr to
New ^ oik lor a vear and a halt and dicn went out to the
"'"' 10.43 (opposite) Michael Heizer, Displaced-Replaced Mass,
Nexada desert to begin doing "dirrRork ])rojects in 19b^.
#2/3, 1969. Groniteandconcretemplayasurface, 100ft 800ftA9ft6in •
He began with tem]joraiT works sucli as trenches, "drawing (30.48 243.84 2.89m). Silver Springs, Nevada (dismantled).
Commissioned by Robert SculL
1 0.42 Michael Heizer, Disp/oced-Rep/oced Mass, # 1 /3, 1 969. 10.44 (opposite, bottom) Michael Heizer, Displaced-Replaced
Granite and concrete in ployo surface, 1 00ft x 800ft x 9ft 6in Mass, #3/3, 1 969. Granite and concrete in ploya surface,
(30.48 243.84 2.89m). Silver Springs, Nevada (dismantled). 100ft 800ft 9ft 6in (30.48 243.84 2.89m). Silver Springs, Nevada
Commissioned by Robert Scull. (dismantled). Commissioned by Robert Scull.
323
J^
ai^
324
.'*^.
*'-**
«-:-^5^
•Wit '-"
tons of rhvnlile and sandstone <int of the landscape of the
10.45 Michael Heizer, Double NegofiVe, 1 969-70. 240,000-ton
\ irgin River .Mesa in Nevaila to create a huge excavation 30
displacement in rhyollte and sandstone, ,500 50 30ft 1
•
(457.2 15.24 9.14m). Mormon Mesa, Overton, Nevada. feet wide. -50 feet loj) to bottom, and 1.500 feet long. A small
caiivon intersects this cut in the landscape, splitting it into
two sections of a siraighl line facing each other across
High Sierra-' dnw ii lo ilic Nevada deserl and |ilaird iliciii in the gap.
ceiiient-wallrd dr|iic^-.i()ns that lie had cut inin the uronnd. Heizer s lini- in the desert recalls .Newman s genetic
liir wiirk had In iln with exploring die large forces of inomcnt seep. 11)1 —an existential assertion of man's place
i
nainre — III iiiLnni; nick^ irdni the SieiTas back down to their III the I liao^. Ill the desert," Heizer explained. "I can find
original eievatidu in the di-scrl reNcr-.ed the moimtain that kind ol iiniapcd peaceful religion-- ^pncc artists ha\e
"^
hnilding prm i-^--r^ nl grcilngical cxdiiiliiin. I lie wiirk al'-o alwa\^ tried to jiiit works in the
in their work. Heizer s
rejected iliu.->ioni~ni li\ Im iiîiiL; cm the actual uia^s and desert attack the idea of art as a portable object, dominated
weight. Accordin- k. .Ii.lin Hcarddrx. i ),s/,l,i(<'i/-llr/t/,i<i-</ bv histf)rical necessit)'. insteatl, thev are about space and an
Mriss also relers lo ancient culture^: ilic niii\ ing nl the L;icat ixperience of the landscape, of geologic time and of the
moiiolith.s that foi-ni tin- c(ilii-.-.i <if Meniiinn in the \ allc\ nl ancient paî. 11 in this sense they echoefl the radical political
the Kings in Eg\'(it. w Inch I Ici/i'r ^ lalhn had îiidied and cliinate of die late -sixtiesbv rejecting the established
tiie well-known 'tirrd inck^ that wcic nicixrd hundicd^ institutions nf iniiscinn and gallen, which conhl neither
of mile.-, into the de-,ert in Hnjivia -nnic tinn' liclnic the exhibit nor leailiK êll his major works, this too was a l)\
Inca civilization. product rather than the central Inciis of the works, hi 196'*
I ater in 1 ')()'* I Ici/cr di-a|i|icared into the desert again, Heizer wrote in a rough-edged, telegraphic prose: ''the
procured aiuither equipment and a crew,

--iie. i mi diinnx ing |)osition art as malleable barter-exchange item falters as the
and at the enil ol ilir \eai returned to New York with cumulative economic sdaicture gluts. The museums and
])lio(ogra|)hs of an c\cn ninre massive site-specific work collections are stuffed, the floors are sagging, but the real
called7>w,/;/c.Vrov///Vr fig. 10.43 He had goUL'i'.l ^-fO.OOO
;
. -pace still exist-,."'"
325
Di- Maria had come to New York in 19()(). gotten

Walter De Maria iii\iil\ id \\ iili die .ludson dancers and Flu-\us. ])layed dnmis
W.ill.i I).- Mana ami I h-i/n ^liaird an iiili-ii-.| in llii- Willi die rock grou[) N'elvet I'nderground in 19(i4. and in
\\i~i('ni laiKls(a|pi'. Iml Dt- Maria - wnik \\a> ciin- I'M),'; began working with specific sites using real landscape
•.i.-.u-iill\ inoif conreiliecl with •iysfciris ot urdi-iniL; and a- an artistic material. In deiiberare contrast to the h\-per-
MifaîiicnitMil rather tiiaii with ireoiogiral liinc and die accessibie New
ork pop art that was so yiopular in the later
^
(•\|ii-iiriicf (i| ilie laiKisfa|>e itself, as in i ii-i/ii- -. wmk. In si.Mies. lleizer. De Maria, and in his last works, his large-
l"i(i!!. ]i(i lia|i^ -lirred in Heizef's woik in dieii|pin land. !)» scale rarlhwdrks Smilhson all made their art conceptually
Maria lilli-il ilic Heiner I'niMJricii (iailrix in Mnnirli wiili '>
iipinplrx and. bv siting most of it in remote areas of the
{,-<[ nldnl. Eventually. Maria re-cn-aU'd
I)i; lii- IjiiI/i Itooni s(pinliwisii in disi-rt. literally inaccessible as well.
a- a |irirnanrnl inslallaliim i>n llic -rcimd llnin nl a \c\\ In niiisi III llir major examples of land art. as ilii-si- large
^,.^k loll Mwnril liy tlie Dia \il r..nndali<.n. /7/r \,ir ]<,rk prii|iMls ill dir wilderness |ia\e cmiie to known, llie
lie
Ijirlli l,'nn,u,,\ lO""" liu. 111.4(1 .on^-l- or _'.')() cnl.i,- vanls pili:iiniagr iliiiini:li die lost landscape to the sile was an
,.ri,la.k M,il. -22 uhIh- dr,-|,, li ,oN,T. dir n.M.r,,ra .-^dOO- impiiiiani aspiri nl die eN])erience of the work itself. .lohn
-.i|naic-lo(ii lull and \\rii:liv :^,",( I.IKII I |i(iniiiK. I lir |iri--,en<-e Weber, dun die direcior of the Dwan Galleiy. once took a
111 ihr wmk i- I riliial — iinr laniidl ^m ri--.^rnll\ ii-|iiiidnce it colleiiipi De Maria's 1969 Las legas piece and
cpiii In see
III |pi(liil'es ur Ijv di-Mii| ilii hi. \^ \i-il(ii^ a-cciid liie stairs could mil e\en find it. In addition, by setting the work so far
iliiv slowly begin to lid iIh- inoi^nnr and --niell the ficli out in the middle of now here, these aitists made visitors feel
liiinuis. The soil also ha- a di-liiirii\r niiiliiii; etleci on the ai-utelv Milnerable to the elements. If your car liroke down.
-hiiikIs ill the space. Weber |-eiiiaiked. \ ml inighl die nt dehvdialion beiore
The Earth Room exoke^ a loinaiiiii- a]l|llelltllîon ot auNone could find \ou."''
an enclosed ufban space — which
'
landscape in is antithetical De Marias Liglitning Field [fig. 10.47] sits in a flai.
In die experience ot nature. In ihi-- scn-.e it relates to Sena s semi-arid basin of suuihern New Me.xico with awc-iuspiring
di-pii-iliiHi 111 lii- iiiairiiaK in \\a\~ dial lest their natural xistas of disiani innnnlains all aroiuid. Here the artist has
wriiiiu oi' strength, apraclicr llial rrlir- mi and brings out in constructed a 1 mile b\ 1 kilometer (^s milej grid of -lOO
die \ieweri an acute sensiti%ii\ in die naiiiie i if tiie materials. stainless steel poles, ananged in sixteen rows of tw-enty-five,
Bill die E(irtl) Room also ret'leci.- die inllnince of .lolin fâge 220 feet apart. The 2-inch diameter poles have an average
in die \\a\ ii emphasizes the amiiirni r\priienie u\er the height of 20 feet IV2 inches and they are set so that the tops
r\pre.ision of the artist's personalily. all terminate on a miified, level plane despite the variations
10.46 Walter De Maria,

The New York Earth Room,
1977.250cu.yd(191.25cu. m)
of black soil in a 3,600sq. ft
(334.44sq. m) loft.
Ail reproduction riglits reserved-

Photograph by John Cliett, ic: Dia Center
for the Arts.
326
Iini -.cience firiidii and geuloiiA iiid\ided the voiahnlaiy f'of

10.47 Walter De Maria, The Lightning Field, 977. Stainless 1 steel
him to mo\i- hex ond those issues hy \^>M. A- Roliert Ilohl)-
poles, average height 20ft 7''2in (6.29nn), overall 5,280 3,300ft >=
,005.84m). Near Quemodo, New Mexico. has pointed oui. Smithson's intere-i in cix -lal~ in parliciilar
(1 ,609.34 X 1
All reproduction rights reserved. Photogroph by John Cliett, icj Dto Center for the Arts. allowed liim to lieuin dealini; willi iiainn' wiiliuin die
liioloLlical metaphor."
In e^-a\
a caiied
]''()•) •Kiuropv and the New-
"""
in the lerraiii. W lii'ii llic\ .iif \ic\\fil fnnii ;i ili-îMiiee llie Monuments. Smithson exjnmded u|>on the Second Law of
l)lt';i<-|iiiii.' îiii iiiiikf- llii- mill iicailv iii\ i-.ilili- i-\ri-|it in the Theiinod\iianiics — the idea that enei<:y dissipates toward a
ii-riei!i'il liiihl ol'ilawii anil dusk. The ile.solale Iteaiity oftlie disinteorated homogeneirs' of matter. Entropy negates die
-ill' îiiii~ to exist iievoiid lime, willi the power of nature (once])t of progiess on the scale of geological time. Conse-
l)ii)iif;hl home most <hamali(all\ liv the |)la\ ol htihliiiiii; in (|iieiul\Smithson regarded monuments to disintegration' as
.
the >kv liehiml the L'lifl. the most valid lonii of art and he attacked the idea of an art
ceniered on human lieings. 'The invth of the Renaissance
^lill iiindilioii- and infects much criticism with a mushy
Robert Smithson
hiiinani-.tic ( nnlenl." he wrote in l''!)"."'
Wlirir i lei/iT i^ in romaiiiic ((imiiiiininn w illi iiamii' ami \ii infer\ iew with IHnv Smilli. |inl ili-lieil liy \rtj<iniiii in
l)i- \hiria eiiLraiied in a eerehral eniipimliT willi it. !'•()(). acted as a catalvst for Smithson's idea of the enti-o])ic
Hiiliiii >niithson explored tlie ^nl)hmil\ ol nature with a momiment as realized in man-made sites. Smith descrihed
liarkei-. more melocb'aniatii- lone. (,)ne-.ii()ii~ ol |)er-onal an experience of driving at night on an unfinished section of
iileiiliu . -ti'Uililles of rrood and evil, and ( liii-lianil\ liiiureil die \ew Jersey funipike. He said it opened his eyes to the
iin])oilanll\ in STiiitli~on s iihsttact e\|)re-.-.ionisi heLnnniiiL'-. ae'lhelic [lossihililies of an "artificial lan(Lcape without
327
i-tilliii:il |irr(i'il('iit." For Smith "tlii-- ilri\ i- . , . (nuldn I lif photographs of a particular site mounted on the wall with
rallcil a Will k iiT ;ii I, ( )ii llic dllicr IkiihI. il dill -.iiiiii-lliint: In] c'arlh. rocks, or gravel from the actual placr in liapi'/oi(Jal
lllf llial an hail iir\rr iliiiii- . . . Il -riiiinl i hal I InTr hail lirrri bills on the lloor. I lir bills lnokcd like mini nial srulpliur and
a ri-alil\ ihrn- iliai hail iml hail an\ r\|irr^îi m in an . . . Mn-l l\|iirall\ rrhuril llir shapr ol die map or ihc plol of land,
|iaililili;: |iMik~ |uiil\ |iirliii iai alln llial. Ihrlr i^ in i w a\ Mill sniilhsuii di-sii ibeil the .Noiisiles '
as a "dialog . . . bi-lw n-ii
can liailli- il. mhi |ii-1 lia\r li i r\| mth-ih r il. ind and outdoors...
s He explained. "The siir. in a
"
Siiiilli'iiii liciiaii iiiukiliu rctiiilar lii|i^ In al laiiili iiin I sriisr. is die pliNsical. raw realitx — the earth or the gioimd
iiKJiislrial --itesand quarrio in \c\\ .Irr^rx diiiiiiL: I'lhl). and dial we an- rralK not awarr of when we are in an in-
die followiii;.' year hi- wmlr alHiiil diriii in an arlii Ir fur Irrior room ... whereas the Noiisite
I
an abstract . . . i.s
\r/Joriir>i caili-d lnni- ul dir \l iniiiii^ nl l'a-.-,air. container. '
.^'inilii •- irmark-. rnc()iira>Zfd înidi^nn in dunk alpunl dir ( )ii the most Smithson s "Nonsites concern
direct level. "
iiian-iiiadr rii\ inimnerit as part of riatiirr. and lir dc\ rlii|ird and map|)iiig. Standing in a site,
space, ineiital [projection,
a iiinihid ar-ihrlir lia'êd on an a|i|>rt'cialioii of ^liidi;r lira|i^. one recognizes the material from the "Nonsite" but one
taiiiiiu^ |iond--. and tlir iiliii|iiili iii^ n uniin-i rial ^lri|i^ of 1aimot see whence it was extracted, hi this way it subverts
Anifiican .îilnirliia. Ihi-^ a|)ollR'o>i^ ol llu- oriliiiar\ had one s sense of boundaries and definition. Smithson tised the
.something in common with the assimilationist aesthetir of iiieta|)hor of the enantiomoiph — a pair of cnstals that are
Oldenbm-g and Rauscheiiberg except for its profoimdK similar in form but cannot be superimposed because thev are
jiessimistic emphasis on the iireversible destruction of iIh' mirror images of one another — to describe the relation of his
universe anrl the decline of distinctness in all matter. John -Nonsites to the actual sites. The "Dialectic of Site and
'
Cage's siip[iression of self-expression and his abrogation of Nonsite," as he elaborated it. consists of a series of inversions
control came full circle with Smithson. who determined that
man's willful acts were minor events in this larger tiiiid
10.48 RobertSmithson, Spiral Jetty, April 1970. Black basalt and
tow ard cosmic disintegration.
limestone rocks ancJ earth, length 1 ,500ft (457.2m). Great Salt Lake,
Smithson conceived the idea of his "Nonsites" in l''!)"" Utah,
[fig. 10.49 These consisted of topographical inajis or
. aerial Photograph by Gianfranco Gofgoni, courtesy John Weber Gallery, New York,
328

329
•iicli a.s: oj)eii liiiiii> xci'-ii-' iln^cil limits. siil)ir;icti()ii IVoin minors invoKc ;i iniiiiinalist ronceni with measiiremeiit. in
llic site versus luldilinii m ilic Amiîle" . iiulelermiiiale elTecl ina|i|>iiii; the iortus l>y reproiiiicins; llieiii in reriectioii.
leilaiiitv versus the (leterniiiKiir INK II iaini\ nl' ihe 'Ndii- in mliliiinn in ihe s|)alial (iisphiceineiit of imafies in liii-
îte
"
. some ])la(e piivsical \ ii -iiim |j|ai i- ajp-iiaii .
"
nnrnpi-. ilii~i' woiks iii\ohe the (hsplacement of liic ~all
in tlie mirror ami salt |>iei-e^. ~inii a^ l\iiil< Sail iiml frdiii ilii- imiiIi lo ilic uailery. and a metajiiiorieai (lis|>la(e-
Mirmr Sijiutre (if;, lO.oO i'rom lin- '( aviiiia >ali Mine incin ul >iiiilli-.iin - lurmal concept for file "Nonsite" iiy
lîiji-ct.
"
(lie âit iiradiiaiiv dissipates willi exposuic in lii.- •.nirnimdim: die iieumetricaily fixed fonn of tiie mirror- w ilh
ail. cciiiNeviiii: the hopelosness of ordering; somelhin;: dial die- aiMorpliou> piles of sail instead of conlaiiiinir die -all
will nlliniali-l\ di-ori;aiii/<' il-ell inln randonnii---. I lie nL;iil liiii-. ^ iM nil a ninlfcniar le\fi tiie salt, vviiicii appi-ars
lanilnin. Iia- a rli-ail\ dc-fini-d crv-lailine strnettire while die
n\c]ll\ ii'iîilai lila-- iniiini- aii' aiinalK in a lii]niii -lale.
10.49 (opposite) Robert Smithson, A Nonsite (Franklm, N.J.), crraliiiL: niir innir ( ni ii ii in lal di-plan-nuMil williiii liie
1968. Two ports: five pointed wooden bins and limestone; W nrk. MnlroMT. ll n- I'nl llpnl I III I i 111: -rric- nl ili-plaiCMlrnls
photographs and typescript on paper with pencil and transfer letters, williin llir pine krcp- rpc.il iiiLl 1 llir -:inir -I iiiil iiral prin-
mounted on mat board. Bins installed: 16' 2 ^ 82' 4 x 103in
riplr. a- III llli- ;:in\\ ill nl a ri\ -lal.
(41.9 X 208.9 X 261.6cm), board: 40"i6 x 30"i6in (101.8 x 76.36cm).
Colleclion, Museum of Contemporory Art, Ctiicogo. Gift of Susan and Lewis Manilow, in :inni|ir|- -i-rif- nl !'•()'*. >iiiiili-nii |iniircd nr dnniprd
llnw - nf \ 1-1 nil- ma I rria I. -iicl I a- iihie. cemeiil. and a-|iliall.
W niL- like \s/ili(i// lliinildiin e.xtended the arti^^- e.\|ilnra-

10.50 (below) Robert Smithson, Rock Salf and Mirror Square,
1969.Rocl<saltand mirrors, 10x78 X 78in (25.4 198.1 198.1cm) linii nl i;i-npli\ -11-. pa--i\i-l\ ackiinwledniiii: die nalnral
Courtesy Jotin Weber Gollery, New York, Inrrc nl i;ra\il\. Illi'\ Innk plair ill Inialinii- wliiili liw
330
\ii'\\<'i> woiilii \\inii» tii^lliaiid and. ii'c niiiii/iiii; llial lii- -111-- a- riilnipic- niiiininii-ril 1
laik- -nininii-d acr.iiilinL' li i
work would largelv lie m'i-ii in |(lioioixia|ili~ ni i\|iri hik rd In- ai--dirlir ol di-iiilciir al h m . In l''~l. Iir I laii-ti iriiiril an
tliroiii:li lli> iiurcasiii'rK iiitliifiilial r>>a\ > wiiiiiii luiwiiu c\lian-lrd -and i|iian\ in I i-ii, llnlhind. Iiiiildini; a
l*^'!))) and l''~3. Sniiiliôn souijiit to exajziipratf ilii- illcii nl Mac k. 1 oiir--ha|pi-d hill widi a wliilc -and palli -|iiialui:: up
lii^ldacini: liii- nni>t'nm or iialliTv with llip art journal- II and df-ciiliiii;; a lirnkrii i in li\ HI I Irri in ihaiiinci . w illi a
In \|pril !''"'(). Smitli-on hprran con-lnK'tiiiL' lii- l"-i i Ll-t(iii|-w idc. -c-niiiirciilai canal and a liall-i iirjf jiiu Ihi-
known work, the Spirtil Jetty
ti^'. 10. 4f') in an altaiid -d . wiiik. called .S/iinil Hill ami lirnkcii (ir(h\ -iiL'L'e-i- a
industrial site on a remote corni'r ot ihr (,rtai >ali l.aki- in rniiianlii' exallalinii in iIh' iii<>l'liiilil\ ol man- iiidii-inal
L tall. \ irntalK no one ever >a\\ if work in ai nialiiv liiluii-

1 1 pliMe--r- laxilii; wa-le lo die eailll. I.Nell die illiderK ini;
it was destroyed bv tlie natural tliiit nation- in dii- lakr. I mi ii ei mil adieu i| '-milli-i iii - anem|ii id mdei die w i.rld w liile
wa.- \\ viewed in the art |(ie-- and in >nnili-iiri - liirn

idelv nl -illlllllanec m-l\ aikm i\\ leiliîll:^ il- ille\ila|i|e lelldeliex lii-
it. in which the aili-l cIim-iU ii-id die |io--iliiliiii'- nt wanl i-|llni|ih dl-unler e\|ire--e- hi- ae-lllelu nj e\i-lelilial
eineiiiatic time ami -pai i- li> -i-i tin- >/<//v;/./(7/r in llif i i>nii\i linpele--iie--, "V hleaelieil and liaeiiired wmid -innmnd-
ot it> niiderlviim ideas. die arti-t. he w rote. "1 o organize tin- me-- nl i urid-icm imo
Tlie.'Y>m(/yp//rfilin o|icn- li\ jii\la|io-iiii.' die -iir w iili a pattern-, irrid-. and -nlidix isious is an e-ilieiic proce-- that
'
map ot the "(Jeograpliy ol the .liira»ic Period, i in- 1 anui a ha- -carcelv lieen loiiciied.
pails the continent- ot .Australia. Ti'tlivs. .Aniiora. (>(iiid-
wanaland. and Ailanti- lo the jplace now ocrii]ii<il di'
|]\
An Accidental Rubric
Great Salt Lake and di— nl\i— into a L .S. (êoloLncal >in\i-\
map of L tall. The iiia|i marks the -ite with precise specitira-
The wmk- 111 llei/er anil die large outdoor jjiojects of De
tioiis. and yet the calculation- -eein int*aniiigie-s in terms of \lana ami .^milli-on liaxe in common their allu-ion to
geologic time, during which wlmlc coininems appear, dis- geologic time and |ii'elii-iiir\ . In adiliiiim. llie-e ani-l- all
appear, aiifl shift around. The -onnd track su])erimposes relate to minimali-m in their eoneern wiili flu- literal
rn\Tholog)'. geiger counter sounds, and repetitious refrains of presence nf die materials and in the extent to which the\
siii"vevors' descriptions: bv North — mud. saltcnstals.
"W est derived their works from preconceiêd svstemic idea-. .All
rocks, water. Northwest hv \^ est — mud. salt cr\stals. rocks, saw associations with the -iiMime in the frightening vastness-
water ..." -\s the camera enters the approach to the spiral, and desolation of the .\nierii an \\ e-t. Thev even played up
overlays of the eanh-moving machines as prehistoric dino- the ethos of ^^rility celebrated in myths of the Viest— De
saurs and then as futuristic robots create a strange waip in Maria's movie Hardeore filmed in the desert with Heizer in
rime like an old science-fiction movie. lQt)Q tellinglv ojiens with cowbov music, horses, and the
The an historian Eugenie Tsai ha- ])ointiMi out that imagen" of the range hand. The camera comes in on a close-
Smithson's enn'opic landscapes relied heavily not only on up an old western gun and then pans around 360 degi'ees
of
science xvTitiiig but on the inspiration of the desolate on the nigged tenain with the harsh roar of the wind in
*
landscapes of the science-fiction writers. In the case of tlie liackgrimnd.
Spiral Jetty, the site atti-acted Smithson preciselv because it In 1"'()M 1 lei/er tiiiik >miili-im mn tu the western deseit
seenied like a strange, fimirisric wasteland. The inicin- to work on iornwY\ Isolated Mass/Circumflex, hispired
the
organisms in the water colored it an eerie red and iht- liv the e-X]ierience of the desert landscape. Smithson orga-
shoreline was littered with abandoned machinen' and vehi- nized an exhibition at the Dwaii Gallery in New \ork in
cles from the time when jirospectors had attempted to mine October lf)(i8 called "Eariiiw-orks." a title that has ever since
it for oil and tar. Sniithson noted that "a great pleasure arose linked these fundamentallv ditferent artists. \^ alter De
from seeing all those incoherent structures. This site gave .\hnia's contribution to the exhibition was an expansive 20-
e\idence of a succession ol niaii-madc -v-tem- mired in foot-wifle chrome vellow painting with a brass plate
.
'
abandoned hopes." embedded in the center, bearing the inscription "the color
Here, the artist liulhlozed 0.h.~>() tons of material into a men choose when iliev attack die land. The show" also
coil of rocks and earth 1..o()() feet long and 15 feet wide, includedSniitli-im - \i///.s//( . fniiiklin. .\etrjer.sey. aO-foot-
swirling out into the water. Salt crystals precijiitated all high. back lit trans|iarencv of a vast tract of the Nevada
around the edges of the jett\' and. Smithson obsened. "each where Heizer had dug a series of trenches in the earth,
desert
cubic salt cnstal echoes the Spiral Jetty in tenns of the and works bv several friends experimenting with site-
crystal s molecular lattice."" The "matter collapsing into specific ideas, including Cârl .\ndre. Herbert Beyer. Steven
the lake was also "miiTored in the shape of a spiral." Kaltenbach. Sol LeWitt. Robert Morri-. Clae- Oldenburg,
according to the artist, as was tlie giant mydiological and Dennis Ojjpenheim.
whirlpool in the middle of the lake niidir which. ie<:eiid hail Yet w hatever Smithson. De Maria, and Heizer may have
it. a channel e.xisted to the ocean. had in common, the earthworks of Smithson are largely
Smithson died in l')73 in a plane crash while making an minimalist sculpture in form and only in the case of the late
aerial -urvev of a site in Te.xas. His last works centered on Spiral Jetty (Wd he make a w ork that interacts in a significant
unrealized pro|Misals for reclaiming aliandoned indu-trial wa\ with the iinii[iie geolo(r\- of the -ite — lii- reclamation
331
Arte Povera, and a Persevering Rapport with Nature in Europe
park- conic I In- Kiiili in an\ nf ,i nnnili.r of indn-liial wa-lr !» sccii al onci' like a scul|itun'. wlit-rcas l\w Spiraljpttv and
sito. Iiii cxaniiilf. Ihr cmiv "I In- nlca i- l.a-iil im laii;c YV/r A;<j7////;/;<i- /7<7r/ (liWia\ i; (h-liriinii gestalts. Ill £>w/j/««'(/-
|iliilo-.o|)iiical i(l<-a> and on niylli D-' Maria- iwn land /I'r/i/r/rrJ lA/.v.s. Inrcxamplr. liie viewer perceived liie work
|,i,,j,.,.|s — notablv TAp Lighlninii: I n/,/ and /.r///// Honni— in di-joiincd iin|iic--iMn- w liile traversing it a little at a time,
n-c llie siililiinilv of natiire lo -ci (ill Innnan principle- of indeed I lei/, i - wuik ( eiiier- on the idea of sculpture as
ini-n-iiiation and ordering and. aâin. I)e Maria - projc, i- place lailiei ilian (ilijeri iii\ okiiig the precedents not only of
don'l realK dejieiid n|i(in a parliciilai -inv ( )iil\ 1 lei/cr \\a- Bameli \e\\ man Inn nl -m preiii-lmic -ilr- a- llie colossal li
i-.-nlialK concerned willi llie e\perieiice iil die -lie and il- line iliawini:- on die \a/ca plain in Pel n and llie (Ireat
real eeoioeical mallei .

"
\ll\ diini: l- onK pail olwlleic il i-
"
Seipenl M d eon-l ncled l 1 1\ die ilopew ell i lllllll e of I lie
he in-i-led. '
Moreoxei. I lel/er - eal lliuol k- Were loo \\\'j, lo alicielll ( Mno \ allcV

III llie ie-1 of lanopi- and \oi ill Viiicik a. die late sixties
A-\\a- a period of llpliea\al lie imliioken power ol

in llal\ . I
the C:liristiaii Democrats o\er die iweiii\-li\e \ear- -ince

\\ Olid War 1! had led m ma — i\e iiriiiplion and inefficiency
i
4?»
a- well a- llle mipo-illon of ivpie--i\e piiMic policies that
were tailored lo -nil liiii Ini-ine-- iniiae-i- and coiisenative
( aiholic more- iaili<-r diaii lo iM-nelii die |)o|nilace. The
workiT- rexolntiiin of I'Mhl lieeaii in die iiiiiv er-ilie-. Inil the
i;o\ ermni'llt - ill-eil-iti\ it\ to die wiile-preail |io\en\ —

e-peciall\ ill die le— iiidn-1 riali/ed South — re-nlteil in
iiia--i\e migrations iioitliw anl and a climate ol iii-taliility
and di-affection. This la-led to the I'lid ol the -evi'tilie-.

iiilmmaiin^ in the abduction and miinliadl Prime Mini-ler
\ldo\loi,,lA the leftist Red Brigad,- III I'l"').
Vili-i- took it|i a radical stance ai the laid of the sixties

attackini; the values of e-lahli-hecl iii-til iition- of
lioNernnieiii. and culture and e\eii i|iie-iioning
industiT.
wheihei ail a- the private expre— ion ol the iiidi\idual still
had an eihical reason to exist. The critic Gerinano Cêlant
oii:aiii/eil two exhibitions in lOb" and I'HiM. followed by an
inflneniial I k called .4rre Porpn/. pionioiing the notion of

a re\o|iiiioiiar\ art. free of com eni ion ihe power -tructiire.
and the market place. .Xlthoiigh < elaiii atn-mpled to eiudin-

pa-- die radical elements of tin' laiiire inteniaiional -ceni-.
I lie term properlv centered on a iironp o| lialian arti-l-
"
w ho
aiiackeil die cor]3orate mentalit) with an an ol nnconNcn-
lioiial materials and style. Building on da' work of Biiiii.
oniana. and Manzoni. arli-t- -iicli a- .laiiiii- Konnelli- and

I
Mario Merz attempted to make die e\perieiice ol art more

iinmedialelv real while al-o more <lo-eK conni-ctin:; the
illdi\ idiial to natni'e.
In P'lr Konnelli- e\liiliili-d a parnn -illiiig on a perch

that i-xn-nded Irom a monochrome plane of paintefl steel.
I he painting' i.e. die ]iaiiited -leil plaie looked pale by
Kimpaii-on with the vitality and hiillianl plumage of the
lard, in 'l(iQ he tethered eleven li\e Inn-e- lo die walls of the
1
( .alleria LWttico in Rome lined u]i eipiidi^taiitly like paint-

iiiL'- fiu:. 10.52 . Kounellis iin]jlied in thi- exhibition that a
10.51 Gilberto Zorio, Serpentine, 1989. Copper, glass, wax,
work ol art i- not transcendent but lalliei jn-i like aii\ other
alcohol, 63 32 48in (160 81.3 ' 121.9cm).
form of an identitv that contain- an idea.
life:
Collecl.on of Anne ond Will.om J. Hokm, Chicago. Photograph by More Rapilliard, Fro
Koniiilh- olien incorporated lire iiilo In- works, along courtesy Morgo Leovm Gallery, Los Angeles.
332
333
liki' 11 iiciinacl ii-iiiL' lliiiiilili- iiiiili-i iîU Iriiiii f\ri\(l:i\ lilc nil mad. 1 1 i- a -.kin llial i iiiIh idir^ die i'c( I'liliv il\ cif die aili-^l
liuth Iruiii riilliiir ami Iimiii iIm- (MLiaMh wniid. iih'iliaiin III iial ni r and In iiillmr.
liiiwrcii ilic luo \lci/ lii'iian makiiiL; lii^ li:li

- in I'lo;;. \li 1/ dr^rrilii'd lii^ Winking; inrdind in an arrjinnl nt
coxciin:; -ri;iii(iii(i| metal armaliii c- in iifi- \\a\. Mind, lii~ ill aw 1 1 111:
glass. and IhiikIIo of twifis. These îiiall li in^l iliri Hal

/ IiikI •i/iin/ (ill ilii\' (Inaniiii that ciKlicssh- (oiinilulcd liiir.
dwelliiii;^ ii>e ilie materials indigenous In ilir -iie^ ai whid
. . . lolloii-iiiii Illy lliiiiiiihts and crrrvtliins iHippeiiiiiix (iroitiid
llic rxliiliilions take jilace. and Mci/ diu^ icaii-^ a li\|"i
i
nic — fiir ('.rdiii/ilc. /lie liriltcritig birds, the faUiiiu: Icarvs. the
iliiiical aitist wlio is al linnic i\ cr \ w licir. I lie lt;lcMi i> anlii
I list 1 1 III II I III I lie III II run. \ll these thlniix entered the drniri/iu:.
Iccliiif. ^liclliT. and an ali-lraci idi'a a-'-orialrd widi \\\i
mil III II iiiiliinil inn: ol iniirsc. Inil us lime, us ii rerurdmii.
10.54 Mario Merz, Giap /g/oo,

1 968. Metal tubes, wire mesh, neon
tubes, dirt, 9ft 10' 8 in (3m) diameter.
Photograph by P. Bressono, Torino, courtesy
Archivio Mario Merz, Torino.
1 0.55 Mario Merz, Double \g\oo,

1 979 (showing Alligator wit/i Fibonacci
Numbers to 377 on the ceiling). Outer
structure; metal tubes, clamps, glass,
and hat; inner structure: metal tubes,
wire mesh, dried mud, neon tubes;
9ftl0in(3m)high 19ft 8' 4in (6m)
diameter overall.
installation at Sperone Weslwoter Gollery, New
York, Photograph courlesy Sperone, Westwoter
Gallery, New York.
334
cm if llic /wricil lead irriv the poiiil oj ccrlaiii ins/iiniicn/s irilir|iir,rdiiii:l\M. I. I

.
'J. .!.:.. J 1. jM. _' I . : U ai id -i i oil -

iviiistcriiiis on a xlwvt oJ paper.' 111 1 1'-| Mind- |o ihr rair ol -iiii|ili- i^rowih in iialinr. \- dii
iinnliri III llir -i-iir- iiirica-c-. du- lalm o| rarli nnnilirr n
Merz i>flcii iiî-d rii-on in iii^cnlir |iiilili(:il and lilriiir\
he la-l one a|i|i|oarlii- dir di\ iiir |iio|ioi I ion a -o
I know I
rflVri'ilCf-- in In- in-lalhiliiin>. a- in /im/i In:! mi. rianiri I allrr a

I- dli- lallo o| llir Lioldrn -n lion I In- I- die I alio liclwrrl
Nnilli \ iclnainc-r i:cnrial and iM-ainii; In- Mia\ini: II die
wo -idr- of a irrlailL;lr Ol iwo hakr- ol a lil-ci led line -nil
i-ni-ni\ TMa---('> hi- lorci--. Iii' In-c- L:ri>nnd: d lie -( ailrr-. Iir
liallhr -inallrl -idr I- lo die lai L:rl a- ihr lai t;cl I- In die -nil
lust's stinmtll. 1 III- irciiiiin;: -inlli'd muana- and alli::al(ir -
i| lln- iw o I ilionarri ha-ril III- di-rii\ rr\ on llir ii-|irodii(ii\i
in Merz's iiistallalion- r\iiki' dir |iiiiniii\ r. |iii'hi-nii\ and .
air 111 lalihll-. Inn llirir air ronnllr-- i:iiiwlll |iallrill- II
geoloj;ii- linn- lialanccd li\ lln- i

I'l n i idm i i(iri ol word- and
lalllir dial rorir-|iond ii III arnloii-K lo ihr I ilionarri -rrir
thoililllls '
in dii' -larknl new -|ia| iri - dial al-u iciin in

mil dir riildrn lalio- inrlndini! ihr lair ol inrira-r in ill
Mciv - work. In aildiliiin. iiiaiix wuiL- iiiclinh' -ciinmci'- (il
ad in- of ihr -|iii al i in--- -rr ion ol a iianliln-
I -lirll. and di
nninliiT- illiniiiiian'd in iirdii. I lic-r rrln ni dir aiidiiin-tic
;riiw di ol lire- and lra\r-. ihr -calr- mi an ii;naiia - -km
|iioL;ri---i(iii di-((i\i-iril |i\ a llni Ircnl li-( riiiin \ nimik known
drrr ailllrl-. and |iilir(i illr-. or dli- rra-oll. dir 1 lôldrl
a- Leonardo otPi-a. or iliona.n. I
-ritioii ha- la-rinalrd aili-l- -inrr anrirnl Imir-. \lri/

lir
I ion a 1(1 -n ic- — in w hull
I i I rarli niiinhi-r i- dir -iiin
1 0.56 Mario Merz, AKgaior with Fibonacci
Numbers to 377, 1979. Stuffed alligator and neon;

alligator 27 10 - 3in (68.6 -25.4 ' 7.6cm),
dimensions of numbers vary.
Sperone Weslwaler Gallery, New York. Photograph
Installation ot
courtesy Sperone, Westwoter Gallery, New York.
335
iialiiir \\i>- Iriiilril In In' iiiiiii' 1

11 1
ill ii I r II 1 1\ ~| lii'i 1 1 la I . iîrlianl
1 0.57 Richard Long, Red Slate Circle, 1
^.
Red slate, 28ft (8.53m)
Lonj.'. wlm îmliril al >l. Martin .> ^^|lool iii 1 .1 iiiilnii.
diameter.
Guggentieim Museum, New York, Photograph courtesy Spe
intTodiiceii walkiiiL: in naiiire as iiis principal iniilinin. In
Collection, Solomon R.
Westwoter Gallery, New York. 1967. while ^lill a înilrnl. Long began treadini: paili- in
gl-as> anil ariaiiLiiiiL; îmir^ on a Somerset beach. In 1 ''li'' lie
walknl liiiir riinirnliic î|iiare> in the Wiltshire riiiiiiii\ -îilc
inciii|i(iialiMl iiianv iil llicsi- riiKiii.il iiliji-cls. n, well a^ a-^ accnraIcK a^ lir iniilil Willi llir liiiir imlril ami llir palli
iiiili\ iiliial iiuinbt'r.-. trt.iiii ilif l ilnnKirii ^t-ric^ it^flf. iiitu liis iliaw n nil I III' iiia|i. In îmii' |iirii'.->. Ijing ^lii|ipril In aiiange
work to refer to this aritiinifiir iliî ii\ ii y. To Merz. the herio >lnnr^nr l\\ and then photniiraplinl the site.
iu- iiiln a |ialli'rii
s\inh(iHzes constant, open-eii(lc(l i liaiii;i'. infinity, aiirl inte- Long aLn anangi'il inatcrials he encniinlriril on walks
îialiiiii with nature. "Tlii^ |i,iialiiilir. ili-f|i lui-alhing into geometrically composed collectinii-. nil ilir llnni nl an ait
whnlr.' he âi(i. "is tlie real îilijfd nl ail.'"' galleiT or museum [fig. 10.57]. The-.i- max innî^t nl pirio
I il w tod or stone quarried from a particular local im
1 1 i n w 1 1
ii li
r/ic iifi/iciiniiicc (iffruil hrcniiir iiii/Kirhiii/ Jar iin-. jniiii an

Long walked, and sometimes he has splashed mini Imiii the
i\iis/c!ili(i/ fxiiiil iifni'ir: I mil iiiijirfsxcil li}- llic lrciiiiii<l(iiis
-ill' 111! thr galli'ix wall ni made handprints in it. From low
rc/inif/iii/irc iii/iiicitî)/ iiii/iir<' . . . I mi-d inlli l/if
dnw ilic \ ii'w ai'iii--- till' circles or lines of stone even in the
11
iiiDrnionsncss of n tiling, siicli us <i In-nji n/ fi ml. yati nrr

controlled s])ace of the galleiy evokes the vastness and
liinaid to discover soniethin'j: siiinliii In niiiinriiii-. ] mi linrc
sublime ii-regularii\ of die landscape itself. The precision of
III ipdiscover an elementary iiiKiaiiiiilKiii mid u kind nj
these installation- in rinlr- and lines laid down within a
innocence inside yourself . . . II lien llic /imiilrr's limid
pencilled ('ircumlrirnir mi the floor brings honif the iti-
licioiiii's niiliiri'. it ri'/iri'senls llie iniaginiiliiiii.'
teracticin of reaMtn in ilir l.nliglitenment sense, with raw
I 111- niiiiaiilir Iraililioii iiiii-- ili-e|ier in Eiiro|ir ilian in llie nature and recall- ilir planned "randomness'' of the
1 iiili'd Slali-N. and thr iflaliiiii>hi|i of lainiiiraii arli^l^ lo I'iulitrcntli-i rnliiiA f,ni;li-li maiden.
Re-Radicalizing the Avant-Garde
The Critical Atmosphere of the Late Sixties
\lilil lr;i l( ll llli- lllir.i|ll|ilh .llril 1 1 1 1 li m .1 1, i- 1 1| îm k-llii|)S
A-jiMlHi'\l('rv,m I.M nMUDvlaiwuhl I lit' 1 .111 niii- ol I )ri 1 <ii|.
all 1(111 a^îiiiird an iiiricaîiiiiK ii li-i iloi^K al ami ciiliial Iniir
ill ihr lallci hall (il llii- -i\lii--. jlii- c^ralal Iiil: iihi\ riiiriil
aiiaiii^l llic riiiilidx riîal \ iriiiam W ar ill |

tail iiiilai laii^fii
jii-alnl ili-liair liial L:a\i' I i-i' l(ia liruail laniir .ll radical liinr^
liH cliaii:;r in \illiiall\ r\ri\ a^|ir( I (il Wc^lcin riillnic. Ill
ami
11
all. llii- ^rll-riiii^(i.in^l\ ^| iriiali/cil liicii^ in niiiniiial
|ir. ici'^^ an nil llir lili'i al |

nc-i'mr nf 1 lir iiialcriaK am mi I I hr
L:rllciali\ r liaî- nl a wiiik. llli' r\ci-^~l\r 1 1 Ifi iri/int: (ll
Ininiali^l crilic^ w lidlirr mi licliali dl c.iliir li.-ld |iaiiiliiiL; nr

III ilic cmiicM (if die ciiifruiiig delialc (ui ciiiical dicdi \ I nun
and die (ml (ii'tai'limt'iit nl die nl .la-|iiT
AND
r.iir(i|ic .
( |iaiiiliiiL;
POLITICS JdliM- and (ll |i(i|i ail |i(iiiilt'(l niaii\ \(iiiii^;cr aili^l- Inward
die idea (il .1 |Mll(l\ ( 1 in(c| il lial all.
Ill addiliiin. ci iiiNiiiiHTiîn had caiccm-d mil dl cdnlKiJ in
POSTMODERNISM: die
iiiaii\
caih >i.\tif.s. v\\ alldw
artists reactiMJ at;aiiiî dial idd. In the catalog for
iiiL; ii|i cnciv diiiii: in îiilil. and
an
(xhiliitioii inatti'i-dl-la( d\ cnliilcd .laiinai\ .")-31. 106').
The wdild
THE TRANSITION TO die cdncf|iiual arli-i l)diigla>
lull (if dlijc(i>. indi-c (ir li-.> inlcic-tini::
i Inclilcr iimcd:
I dd mil w i-h to add

i-
aii\ nidic.
"'
1 he >li(i\\ . drganizcil li\ Si-ih Sieglaiib in New
^dlk. had a calaldg. Imi mi oliji-cl^. \l roughly the same
THE SEVENTIES lime. .Ian Dil)lift>. a Dnicli arii-i. "di -covered
Ircling Id jiick dill a |idini dii die nia|. ami to search for the
it's a great
place for three da\ -. and dicii id find llieic aic (iiil\ Iwd Irec^
>IaMiling there, and a ddi: |ii--ini: a-ain-i die nee. Bin

-dincdiic wild liicd Id liii\ dial lidiii \(in wmild lie ivalK
-III] lid. Iiecan-c die w di k dl arl i- die Icchiig. and he cdiildii I
buy that frmn inc. " In I''!)"" rerrx Alkiiisoii and Michael
Baldwin. tw(i arii-i- Iniiii die l'.iii:li-.h \ri + I.anguage grdii|>.
iielil an ".Mr >li(iw li\ making a -eiie- dl a---crtiiiii- iilidul
a ihcdretical cdlnii lair w illi a lia-c dl I -1 pi are mile and

an iiii-|ic( ilicd \crlical dinieii-idii. Nd |
larliciilai- Incalidii
w a^ iiiciili(iiic(l.
\\ hai -iddd dill wa- die -hccr cacd|ihdn\ nf all ihe

dillcicni. (iflcii cdiillicliiiLi. \(iicc- in die an wdild. Bniadly
-|icakiiii; ihcre wa- a gniwing lendcncx idward wlial l.iicy

l.i|i|iai(l calle(l die "dcnialeriali/ali I llic an dlijcci. '.Vs
Sol LeWitt had (Villained in I'Ni". cdia ci n iial an i- made

to engage the mind dl' die \icwcr lallicr iliaii hi- e\e or
""*
eimilidii-. ll -((mc(l a- ihdiigh ex civ I kkIn wanleil lo
lilieraledilic lilicialcd lidni -( u led iiig:

1 1 -dine ail i-l- wauled
Id lilierale ilicni-el\ c- Ikhii |iriidiiciiii; cdinmodities. while
ddiei- wanied Id he lice dl die cdiiNdlnicd language of
c.iiilem|idrai\ all llicdi\. In l"'l)(i die l.iii;li-li arti-l .Idliii
l.alhain chewed up and -|ial mil |iaiie- liom CleinenI

,, , >_. .^ ^ TL Umbrellas,
Chnsto and.,Jeanne-Claude, The
,., M n (.icenherL;- I k I// iiml ( iil/iirr. lidiKiwed fniiii die
11
,
, 1-
n.l (opposite) 1 1 , , 1
1
Japan-USA )984-9Mbarak,, Jopan site, October 1991. lil'i'"^ "I "'I- ^'•""" ^ ^'l"'"! "' ^" '" '
'" "• l-'ill'^"" ''
Photograph by Wolfgang Volz. C'Ctirislo, 1991. | liece W a- a \ l-( cla |illlgedl I loniUlli-l cllli( i-lll.
337
338
Politics and Postmodernism: The Transition to the Seventies
Join I lijMi'-.s.'in wiiiili'il liM'iil liiiii-<<'ir<>l llir I'lnlli'r'olOld
wnik III lii~ ^liiilici ~ii III- liniiii'il II. jiiil llic ;i~lii-^ lii'liinil :i
w.iil III ;i Îkiw ;iI iIii- .IcwiÎi Mii^ciiiii in \c\\ \inL \\v
rvllllMIr,! ;i hihrl (lr.,'l ll >l l|n ,|„. ,|,.,.,| ^|,|,| |||,-,| |>,.
.illliiMiiiccil III ;i >ail l)li'i;ii new >|i;i|)ri : Niilicc i^ liiTcli\
'jwru iImI ;iII w mi k^ i if all iloiii- li\ I lie niii IcTNi^nri I I iil u ecu
\1j\. I'l'..!, aihl \huvli, I'Kid, III lii>|i(,-,M-,-.i(ilia.i.l.lllK J-(.
ITO. weir ciciikiIimI on .|iil\ l^-t. I'l~(). in >>ili l)iri;o.
( aliliiniiii. I inalK. llii'ii' wi'ir iliiill in |iiili in^ lilirraUiin^

rniin inliiliii lull. lanLiini: Irum ilic WiKHUidck ic^lixal hi
|iri liirinancc |iicri--. îiili a-- â\M| Knânia^ \tikcil i.i-iiil.
^laL;i'il al \ aridii^ îlc^ aidiini I Manliallan in l'l(i<". ,

lit;. I I .J .
Language and Measure

Miiir and niiirc arli^l^ w mn- ail ilinnv in ilir iliiru \t;l^^
alliT I ''0(1. inn, liol will, h \\a-ii,il ,lc\ el, ,|

„, I in ik-lrnM'
III (li,'ii' liiinial iiiiii>\ali,iii^ a~ il lia,l ln'i'ii in llir ,'la»ii'
inaniic^toi-.-' iil llic curK ummiiIcUi icntur\ Inil us an
1 1 .2 Yayoi Kusama, Naked Event, af the New York Stock

Exchange (one of several sites around Manhattan), July 1 4, 1 9^
11.3 (below) Joseph Kosuth, One and Three Hammers (Eng/ish i
1 965. Hammer, photograph of a hammer, photostat of the

Version),
definition of hammer, 24 X 53^ sin (61 135.6cm).
j
Photograph courtesy Leo CosteNi Gollery, New York, c: 1994 Joseph Kosuth/Arlists Righls I
Society lARSI, New York |
Hammer (hae-msi), s6. [Com. Teut. : OE

hainorf -«r, hgmtr = ON. hamarr, etc. The
Norse sense crag ', and possible relationship
'
to Slav, kamy, Russ. kamen^ stone, point to an

orijj. meaning 'stone hammer'.] i. An in-
strument having a h.ud solid head, usu. of
metal, set transversely to the handle, used for
beating, breaking, driving nails, etc. Hence,
a machine in which a heavy block of metal is
used for the same purpose (see Steam-ham-
mer, etc.). b. _/ff. A person or agency that
smites, beats down, or crushes, as with blows
of a hammer. Cf. L. tnalleus. ME.
339
11.4 Walter De Maria, The

Broken Kilometer, 1 979. 500
brass rods, 6ft 6^410 (2m) each,
45 >^ 125ft (13.71 X 38,1m)
overall.
All reproduction rights reserved.
Phologroph by John Cliett, © Dio Center
for the Arts.
all I'll Kit i\f 1 lied ill in in w liicli hi w (uL :i- in 1 1 if w lilini;^ nl l\ HI I \ 1 II )\ II I \\ lN(;Rt.\SE IN Ql .\>TITY
.|ii^c|ili kii>inii anil Hiilicn >niilii>(in in llif lair î\lir-> and Kl (. \Hlll 1 s>oi OfAI.lTV:
carK Î'M'iilii--- and of Barliara Kniiirr in die lair ciniiiii's ."
iiu i\i. i!i I \ ri M I.I) I I'oN \pi..\m;
'I"iii> aiiix ii\ -ultu-ientlv clouded llic |ii-iiini-ii-i- uiari in du* I PON \ FLA>E
M-xfiilif- let |icrniir Donald Kii>]iil m a^~iii wliat -fM-ral IIW IM.lillMM \( 1,1) )
ciiliiN ol ilif [lostmodern eighties -ii-im'il lo lirlii\f. dial:
'//if critic i> artist" too my italir> .

"As 1 -re II. he
lie e\plailiecl, "11 s ail imposilloll to impiise my
Ilic fITfct on artists of liv])t'rinli-llii inal dfl»alf> altoul ]iersonal life on die an w liicli attempts to present something
lliiiiiN had alreadv l)eromesi<;iiiti(aiil li\ du' mitl sixties. For to |ieople thai is lun Just about me. It is about materials, and
i\aiii|ilf. \^ ittgenstein s iêiief tliai t\|ilanalioii obstructs about tlie wmld tlii'v live in. perbaps. but it is not about
oni- -.|)ercei)tioiiof an object fed tlie ininiiiiali^t>' concern for themselves, their nw n peisunal e\ ervdav Hm-s. w liirli is w hat
"
die dirccl. literal exjierience of the material fact atid I tiT to take out oi iii\ an.
nnnnii-d die |iei~(inal deiaclinient in ilie |iainiinL;~ ot .he-iier Detached anal\ sis as an approach to art also losiered an
.liilin- alier I'^dO. >cinie ciiiice|ilnal arii^l~ fur wlioin there interest in measureineiit. Mel Bochner. for example, used
w a^ lrei|iieiiil\ nil olijeci an\ w a\ made e\|ilanalion a work mathematical svstenis as a foundation for painting and
in iiiiw n riiilii. a> w idi .|ii~e|ili Koîiih ~ '
\ri a^ Idea as Idea Walter De Maria's The Broken Kilometer of 1979 [fig.' 1 1 A^
a lide ii-ed li\ Kn-iiih Inr ~e\eral wiirk- III die late sixties. was an nrLix ol ineasiirement. consisting of 500 highly
inrhidini: line iiin-iîiiiL' 111 a blow -n|i I nun die dictionaiy of polished, round, snlid brass rods, each measuring precisely "2
die deriiiiiinii III' die w mil "idea . Koîiih e\amiiied verbal meters (I'j Ii in length and 5 centimeters 2 in in
a~îiin|iniiii-. anil definitions with diMonieniiii: literalne>^. diameter. Ilie .")()( I mils were placed in five parallel rows of
In One iinil Three Haiitniers 'EitgHxli Icrsmn . Im exam|ile 100 rods caih. siulpiiire weighs I'.OOO kilograms
Ill,,
lii:. ll.î . he jiixtapo.sed tbree di^timi Inn ii\ erla|i]iinL; 1o'4 and would measure 1 kilometer '/s mile if all
lolls '
realities, w iili a hammer mounted on die wall, a |iliiilui:ia]ili the elements were laiti end-to-eud. Each rod is placed so that
111 die liaininer. anil a blow-up of a diclionaiv clelinilion of a the spaces between the rods increase by -5 millimeters V-t in i
i
hainniei file ail I call conceptual. Kosiuli wrote, "is... with each consecutive space, from front to back: the first rv\o
ba-ed cm . . . the niideratdiKhii'j iif the hiiis'iiistic mil lire of nil rods of each row are jilaced 80 millimeters (3 '/sin apart, the
iirt propositions. " last two rods •'ioO millimeters (22% in) apart. Metal haliile
Some artists of tlie late sixties betian a cool aiiabsis nj' stadium lights illuminate the work, which is 45 feet wide and
die siineiiiie of language itself. La\\fenee Wiiner sinp|ied 125 feet long overall. The Broken kilometer is a companion
painiiiiL; in l'*()o and began writing impeneiiable \erbal pieie to De Maria's 19"? J ertical Earth Kilomefer'm Kassel.
pn ipi isi lii 111- direct 1\ on the âlleiN w all. |i ir evainple: ('.eniianv. where the ailisi droM' a single brass rod of the
340
I.
mlii
o
same rliameter. weight, iirid iîal Iciiuili ilnwn 1 kilmiiftiM-

11.5 Bernhard and Hilla Becher, Watertowers, 1980 Nine
{Vh mile into the grouii<l. black-and-white photographs, 20' 4 ^ 1 6' 4in (51 .4^41 .3cm) each,
Since so many works of ail |)ro(lurecl aroimcl 1 970 were 5ft 1 ' 4in > 4ft 1 ' 4ln (1 .56 ^ 1 .25m) overall.
either ephemeral as in performance an or inaccessible as Courtesy Sonnobend Gollery, New York.
works of Nhchael I leizer the fjocumentaiy oi)jectivitA

in tlie .
of piiotographv was reasserted. This, in timi. led to a wider

interest in the photot^'ajjli generally. The (iennan couple and the exclusion of any incident of light or
aiuliorship
Benihard and Hilla Becher. perhaps the most interesting atmosphere reinforces this neunalit^ By stressing unin- .
documentan- photogra])hers to emerge at the time, catalog tendefj visual relat inn -hips iti the man-made environment,
functionally and visually related architectural structures they cau.-ie such building- m he seen as a form of anonymous
with a tone of detached neutrality fig. 1 1 .•"). Their collectiye -culpture. created by social function and ccmNention.
341
Milnerahle. Phi'- led lo a iiroup of actions designed to stress

Vito Acconci: Defining a Conceptual Oeuvre
himself |)li\î(all\. I, ike so niiicii of tiie art of llie tiine,
ihe-e action-- --iir\i\ed oriK as documentation on Mini and
i:i-iifi;il. iiin(i-|iiii;il ail rii(ii-.cil mi ihc arli^lir i-\|M-iifmi- in |ihoIo;;ia|ills.
III
and it> theoretical
ilôlt idiiiiioiiciils. so liuit recourse to an hi I ''"I Acconci )ecame concerned
I lliat he had left llie
object was freqneniiy Miiieilliious. For exarn|)ie. \'iio \ icw CI (iiil hv iiein<i: so self-oiisessed. so lie de\nsed a piece
Acconci one of tile most tiioiiglitfnj and articnlale aiiiî^ nl ( ailcl DUiiiu- Scrri'l.s in which he Mood al llie enil of a
lii> iieneialion exjilored tile artist— xiewef relation'lii|i in dcî'iii-il |iii-|- in New N oi k liclwci-n one and iwo in ihe
iii- /WA;«7//Ii/Vrccon '»(,<) n^. ll.(, i,x randoMlix -clrrliii- inonmii; w hile |ieo]ile came one at a time to hi'ar a --eciei —
iiidix idiialN on die •-lirci in \c\\ \nyi. and followini; lliciii soniclhinu -.iifficientlv self-incriminating' thai the |)ei>on
iinlil llii-x wcni iiiiii -.(iini-|ilai c ilial \\a-ii I piililic. "I \\a- a would hr alili- In lilackinail him. l.ach >ecrel was lold lo oiil\
|ia--~i\ ! rc<(i\cr (il ôiiiniiic - liiiir and ^| la cc. In- i-\|ilaiiicd. one \ isjinr. I hc\ were a ho III heinu Oil the sjiol. die artist
t)iic c|iiîMli- la-li-d nine lioiii'--. mdiii^ wlii-ii \ci(inci lol- said. Bill he i|iiickl\ ran out of secrets — it turneil out he could
liiwcil die |)rr~oii into a tliralcr ÎmwiiiL; a Mini ciinilnl oiiK ill ink ol lour or li\c really incriminating things to tell.
I'illllllllKl'. ."lonii- of \cconci s most notorious nieces heloim to this
Alter ill i> ^niiii|i ol \\(ii'k>. Acconci took l lie \ icw llial the
|iie( I- oul:IiI Io he alioni the |ierôn niined. 1 ie asked liiin>ell:
"I low do I |iid\e I'm concenlralin;^ on nnseli":' I do some-

1 1 .6 Vito Acconci, following Piece, 1 969-88. Black-and-white
ihiiii.' to iiiy>elf attack m\~ell In l''""!) he sat in a
photographs with text and chalk, text on index cords, mounted on
.
and miiijed his arm iiniil

le-tauraiit hied lo see if viewers it
cardboard, 3014 x 40' iin (76.8 x 102.2cm).
could more ea-ilv a|i|)roach him if he made himêlt moi'e' Photograph by Lorry Lame, courlesy Barbara Gladstone Gollery, New York.
rOLLOW DirniUUNJT PIERSO.V I-VI£UY day UiV-
/«»*• iiîri tr^M- .
SL T'i^T S, 'S. X,
' 1^' ^- ^
TIL PliimON' l-.\'TEIiy PIMVATI: PLACIi^&teff

342
iroii|)ol'|i>\cliol()!iicallvrliarsreil works of l In- early -.evfiilii'^ 77l\\S-FI\/:i). I, nice. Cnlijornin. Ipril .'-i. IT-f. Inside,,
dial (iiiccilv t'liiiair"' ilic xifwcr. In an a<iioii ot I
''"2 i allcil sin<dl u:<ir(iu:e on S/ieedn<n \renui-. I stimd on tlie rein
Srcdhcd. for t>xam|ili'. lie altt'inplrd lo t'\|>ior(' llir (li^liiir- hnnijier oj a I oiksiriiiien. I l(i\ on iin Ixn k nrer /lir renr
tion between piihliiand |>ri\aie ^|iafe. In dii-' work, die arli>l .tection oj the car. -Kt retelling n/\ mnis itnln llir raol. \(nls
erawled nndei' a raniji and ina>nni>an-il wliiii- xiiwcr^ //ere ilr/rei/ tl/i'd/iii'l/ i/n' fx/l/iis i/iln ///<• i/mj nf iii\ ca/ . The
walked on the ramp oxer liini. I lie \ iewei-^ niilil iioi î-i- liiiii. i ii'd/'/iiic diior //v;.v o/ie/ied a/id the cur ii(/s /ti/shrd hiilln-(i\
Init tliev were informed thai lie wa^ iindri ilic laiiip oiil /i/lc) Sf>eeih/'i/\: >cre(i//i//iii fii/- /lie. tiie c/ejinc i/'ii.'i /i/i/ nl
masliirhalinu. and liie\ cciiild hear liiiii lliiuuizli a ôiiikI Uill .ijiei'il Id/' li/'o //inn/les. \lle/- Inn /in/niles I he e/i<j:i//e //(/•i
ilook-np. which he ii>ed to iinadi' dirir p-\i liojciiiii al -jiaie lnr//ed nff. i/i/d I he en/- fin.shrd lii/ck inln I he isn/'iejc. The
liv makiiii; niieomlortahlv ai:i:i'e^î\e -lairmein^ -m h a^. donr//-nsch,.'<ed.
"1 111 loiiiliini; \(iiir as>.
I )nl\ llii- nalN ami llie de^cripl ion rciiKiinccl a> aililaci-. of
dii^ iiiaclnne-ai;r cniciliximi.
Body Art
he piuiiceiv weir die
I III |iiid\ all \ irillir^r arlimii^l^.
|iiii'ii~i' hiMJilx iii\ cil\ eiiieiH x\a~ iioi mil iiiniiioii mi ilir an I lie \il>lriaii aili^l 1 leiiiiaiill Nilîli iiiaile an r\pir--.imi-
>eeneof the and carU ^cx em ic^. In ''"it )ciiiii--
late -^JMie^ 1
I i^lir iiê of lii^ iixx II lioiK ilia -.eric-, ol liliiiiiK i iiiiaU dial lie
()|)penlieim ^[leilt threemi a anrornia licacli paiiil-

liniii-- ( licLiaii eiiaclini; in l''l)2 lii:. I
1." and rmiliiiiieil peilmiii-
inil his body bv laxinji oitjeei- on iiim-ell and ueiiini; a illi: llirmiull die sex i-illii'^. hl^plird li\ arlioii paiillllli: a- \\ ell
around them doemiieiiied in coioi plioiiii:ra|ili-

suniiin'ti . a^ lix I rendian px --cIioIolix . lie ^miL:lil a p^x cln iluiiical
In Hocked Circle ... Fear l''~l he ^lood In a cin le in lii~ calliai -i- llnoiieh fear. In a ix pical \il-ili priiminaiiie. die
backx'ard and \"ideota|ieii iiim-ell a- liiend- ilinw km k^ ai a 111 > I ^ a~-.i^lams nii;:lit liriiii: in a ^laii^lilri ed lamb. ~ii iiii: il
iiim from second- and lhird---im \ w indow - lor half an Ihnir. and diêiiiliMXxrl
lip. il lirl'i nc llir am liriire, I lini I hex xxmilil
The best knoxxii bodx aili"! in ihi' I iiiled Sialr^. ( In i- pmir biickel^ III till' liliiiid nxi r llir aili-l. iiiidi' and lied
Bin-den. xxent in for siartliiii; aii> ol -ell-mniilaiion. I le ii])side down to a cro-,-,. I he aim xx a^ in libeiaie ilie -nciallx
drauired himself bare-chested throni^li liioken ;:la^^. ^hm a repressed Inn iialmal aiiiire^îxe in-liiui-- ol bmli arliî
bnllei through his arm. and performed a êiie> ol --xmliolic anil sj)ectalor.
rituals such as those that resulted in die relic-, he -.lioxxt-d at Armilt Haiiier look ilii^ îx le ot X i-.ieral expie^sioni'^ni on
the Ronald Feldinan (ialleiT in \ex\ ^ oi k in l''~(i. Tnins- to llir -treii- of \ ieiiiia. iielliiii: liimêll aiie~led. Ii ir
fi.vcd. for exainpli'. consisted of ixxo lilooil->iaiiied iiail-- example. XX lien he |iailired dried blnml in îreak^ iloxxii his
accompanied lix a lalii'l dial read: face lo allack die cmiiiilaceiicx of limiiiieois scicieix.
11.7 Hermann Nitsch,

Isf Action, 1962, Vienna.
c. 1 994 Hermonn Nilsch/Ailisls Righls
343
film. The artifarts of Horn's performances have developed

an increasingly opulent visual presence as objects and her
wmk dimiLih diiiiiK engaged with the bodv. creates a
-I 11 -11 nil- rail 111 ilia 11 a distiirbinglv cathartic experience.
Performance Art
Anndin iin|Min- lnr dir biii'gfoning ol die |)eilnrinaiice

-rriii- and ail ariimi- ainiind I'CO came from \aiigiiard
da lire and new iini-ir. lii'\ in 11111. fed into the momentum
I . 1
bfgiiii in llir lair liliif- and early sixties bv the liap]ieiiings.

I liiMi-. and dir.lud-nn Dance Theater. It was. forexam[)le.
an iiinn\ali\r ilanirr-rliiiiengia|ilier in \e\\ ^mk. I ri-^ha
lirnwii. wliii in I'lli'' miiliiird a man in iiioimlaineering

grai In -iiiill -idrwax- ilnwn a êveii-storv biiilfling. in
liri inaiiri -nl-larlK lillrd lA;// Ualking Down the Side

ol (I BuildiniS.
F?oberi W il-mi - /'//I' /.//(' (uiil Time; of Siiifniiii(l Freiiil
!'•()<» and lii- r.iii.-iliiii oil the Beach 1970 had a grander.
alinn-i \\ aLiiiri ian -lair and --taging. These works, and tiiose
nf \li rrilidi \|niik. al-n defied traditional boundaries be-
twerii \i-nal ail. iiin-ic. and theater to address the experi-
ence nl piirrpiiial abundance iliat dominate^, life in the
media era. In Liiislini. a ri\r-lionr extravagan/a al die
Mrlrn|iiiliiaii ()|iiTa limi-r in .New York. \\ il-mi rnllalin-
raird Willi llir lailiral rnnipoêr Philip (da-- and cngagrd
such avant-garde dainf 1- a> Lucinda C^hilds to perloiin in
this theater of meiapli\-ical. dream images. ])rojected mi in
minimalist struct me-- mi die stage.

1 1.8 Rebecca Horn, Finger Gloves, 1972. Fabric and balsa wood,
27' iln (70cm) long.
In 1980. ])erfni'manir art crossed over inin main-lream
Appeors the f.lm Performonces Photograph courtesy Seon Kelly, New York. |iopular iiilliirr wlini l.ainie .\nilerson > recmdiiig of "O
in II 11973)-
Superman iiiadr ilir liii innrd cliai't-. The followinu \ear

\^ aiiier i5inlliir- -iiined Ander-mi ml lor a -ix-recmil
I low ex IT. R;iiiii-r i^ lif^l knuw ii lnr lii^ |Miiiliiii:^ I iri:ii 1111111; iniilrail. (• ~îi|ierinaii allude- in a -11111: wiilleii b\
aniiiiiil I'Mill . w liirli In- nlirii iiiailr li\ înrjiiiiL: mi llli- .Massenet, an a|ipeal in ( .ml diat begin.s "( ) >mi\ erain "(
|i:iiiil will) 111- li.iml- ami Irri. -miirl mir- wnikiiii; mi llifiii Lord "
I. Rose! n- ( .nldlin-r. w ho wrote a mux r\ n| priTmin-
lllllil III- llJIliU lilril. Illr |ill\-ir,ll llllrll-il\ nl KailUT- allce an. ilr-i 1 llird \lli|rr-nll s pieCC as "an appeal lnr llelp.
lll\ ii|\ illlrlll ill lllr an 111 |iailllilli: lliailr lllr-r Wiilk- Miniii die ineilia iiillnre lliat controls, il appeal- In a
i-\lrii-imi- 111 IiimK ail rallin lliaii |iaiiiliiiL; in llir ii-iial iieiieialimi e\liaii-leil |i\ il- artifice.""
-rll-r. i.aliT. Ill- rlll|ilii\ I'll llli'-r llllrll-rl\ |ill\-iral |iailllillL; \iidri-nn liriian dniiie pri'lniinance wmk- in l''"'^.
|iriirriliirr- in a -i-iif- nl iiiaLliiil irnil -rll-|imnail |iliiilii- Ill I en iii\ nl\ iiii; die \ inlin. w liieli -lie had ]>laved since die age
1:1 a|ill-. alli-iril w illl jiailll 111 li\e. In Ditiis (III he. \iiilersnii selected four locations in
i't'rlia|)s ilie nicwt talked alioiit nianilt'siation of \ iennese New \ oik (.\\\ dining the summer of l''''4 and stond b\
ariiiinisiii was the "fatal" pei-fomianre by Rudolf Schwartz- herself jilaving a Bach \inlin duet while wearing ice skates
koirler. who cut off his owni penis as ati "ail arrinii in I'^d^). In embrdded In a blnck i\\ ire. \\ hen the ice melted and the
fact, he niniiiiiglv siibstimted a sausage. Inn lir did rmnmit bladi-s hit the p,i\eiiieiii the |iiete was over. Increasinglv.
suiiide l)v means soon thereafter.
other i \iidei-iiii altiied liei \ inlin in various wavs. In one piece, for
I 111- (.riiiian anist Reberra limn al-u r\|iii iniriiifd example -lie pill a rermiling head on the xiolin and replaced
Willi IhmK ariimi-. beginning around l''~0. bul her-, i-. an the hail mi the Imw with a ta|)e on which she had recorded
rnliriK dilliTrni imie. Finger Glorcs fig. 11.<S . foi' e.xani- the senteiii e 1 dieained I hail to take a test in a Dairy (,)iieen
|ilr. iMrniU ihr lunetion of the lianib a- an inli'rface on anoihei plaiiii B\ iiio\ing the bow across the head at
liiiwrrii lllr I iiiirr -elf ai id die la-k nl' ailing in llif fXleinal different speeds -lie mild distort the sound and pace of the
i
w m Id. \laii\ 111 lirr w ink- ail- rii-innii'-. ilr\ i-rd lnr |
ml mm \ nice. The iiitiiiii\ e milage of images — taking a test, a Dain'
aiiir- and iinrra-iiiLiK lilin- . a- in llir labnr and w nml Oiireii. -pace ad \ eiiiine — ha- the familiarir\' of recollections
linrii and -lia|i- Im lin / /»rr,/7/ nf l'|-() 1,, |ir_>. wliirli -lir linin an \meiiiaii eliili llinnd of the fifties. .\t die same
|irllmiiiril iiiidi-. ill iialiiial -nil nnndinr-. .ind rrinrdrd mi nine die rleilrmiii nianipiilatimi disrnilmdies die \nice
344
a-k--: Hfllu. excuse me. aui \nu tell nie w lieie I aiii'' To
1 1 .9 Laurie Anderson, United States Parti, ^ 980, at the Orpheum
Theater, presented by The Kitchen.
whicli the gas station attcmlaiK re-.|MMiil~ umt and ci\ei-.
Phologroph c by Paulo Court. \uii can read tlie siLni>.' niiniiiiiiiraliiiii tiriiid^ in a hall:
. . . (
messages mis> du-iidi--.tiiiati(iii^. and <liil'i ainili-^-l\ (ill

into <iiare."'
di>liirliiiigK .laiiet Kai<l()ii. in her catalog to the .\n(leisnn

.
The World as Art

retrospective in 1983. aptly chaiacteiized Andeison'--
perrorniances as "a thean'ical aitil'ice. cioss-t'ettiliziiig Siinie arii-i- ii-iil |MTlorniance a-- a wav of extending their
whimsical ])sych()<liama with the intimacv of the diai\. "'' ae-lhcrii inh> the e\ervdav \\(irl(l. In l''()l the Italian
By the time Anderson performed herinonumeiital. four- artist Pieio Manzoni ledetined an in include the entire
part i nitcd States the first part was ])erformed in 1<)80 lig. world, which he jmt on a sculptme |ii"dr-.ial lalieled Socle thi
11.9 aiul the full composition. di\ided into rsvo long Monde Pedestal for the llorld fig. 11.10. Intliieiiced liy
evenings of performance at the BrookKii Academv of Music. \ves Klein. Manzoni also made "living sculpture> in l''()l
in February 198.3 the simple self-presentation of works like

. l>y signing the backs or arms of his models. For Manzoni
Duets on Ire hafi been sii|jerse(led bv a com|)le\ o])era nl individualirv itself became an in real lime, e.xpressing "being
light, soimd. mo\emem. and text on the order of Eiiislei/i mi
"'"'
and living. His most scaiidalou> gesture was to produce
the Beach. In Inited States enigmatic narratives slip niner\' cans of artist's "shit, to be sold at the same price per
through one another in a disorienting subversion of rime and gram as gold. Making art out of hi-, own blood aiul excrement
space, as in a William Btmoughs novel. The critic Michel \erified the ])hvsicalii\ ol ilir wmk wiili an cvi'ii more
Serres descinbed the work as a discourse on the media as a >hocking reality than I.ucio 1 i ml ana - a-~anli mi iln- i an\ a'-
"scramble system. .Anderson's voice through a hanuoiiizer w itii a knife.

back and
shifts octaves forth from male to female. A.-. (Iraig Haii^-cllenberg >- exleiiîon of hi-- ae-llietic tLi llie wmlil
Owens, another critic. re|)orted: •The woiTian rejiealcdlv and Warhol-- de-definition of reality to use Harolil
345
Re-Radicalizing the Avant-Gorde
Rosenberg's term' ' iriin :iii aestlietic cdllase alsii |)refiiriire(l
siieii artists ol' llir laic -i\iic> a> (iillierl Pioescli and (ieoiire
l'a-.~niiin- know ii unlx a> (iiiixMl aii<l (;e(iri.'c

"
. w ho lic^'an
collalioialiiii; ,i- l.i\iiiL' Scnl|)lui-t' in I'U)^). Tlii-y riM-.o I
iIkii a- aili-l> llir\ ilicTii-.i'l\i'H coii-'lilulfil li\ iiii; ail anil llial
f\r]\ llniii; I lone 1 1\ an ail i^l i~ arl a- li mi: a- il !• conccix I'll in
an aoliirliialK con^c ion- \\a\. In !''!)" a Icllow ^liiili'iil al
St. Marliii- >tliool ,,r \ri in I ondon. |]inrr \l,l can niadr
'FioatawaN Siiil|ilnii->" li\ iliinw iiiv; -irap- ol lioanl anil
linolciiin inio a ii\i-i- ami "Siila-li >riil|p|nrc^ li\ ^ki|i|iiiiii
-lonr- on llir walrr^ ^nilarr. I ikr jolin Lalliani. \Irl ran

anil (.illiril anil (.I'niiir wnr irarlini; aiiain^l llir nanow
ar-lliiiir 111 llirir Irarliri- — aili-l^ -iirli a-- \niliiiii\ ( am —
w 1 1 llir\ âw a^ liriiit: loo iniiill iiirinriirril li\ ( Irnirnl
(..rernliri ;: - li irinali-.in.
In ilirn |ii'i lorinanir |iirir I'lu' Siiii>iiii>- Sciilf)tiirc
-l lulrnicalh thr \nlivs" Ijo. 1! . II . ( all'.rii anil ( .i-oi-,.
stood on a lahlr danrillL; a ^ri|nrnri- ol IiIliIiK roiilriillrd
ino\ rnirni' and |io^r^ w liilr îiijiillil aloiii: w illi a la|ir dial
|ila\ril liirialK iiiidrr llirir feet. Their |iro|i^ —a inlilin
L;lo\r. a walkini: ^liik. |innil\ lioiiraeois. woislrd and -iiil^,
liron/r inakr-n|i lor dirir Ian-, and hands — allrin| ilrd a

lr\rliiii;ol' in(ii\ idiiahl\ . Likr llir l:Io\c. these arli>l> inraiil
lo iinplv that thev were noi ilm-r who lonii lint ilio-.r who
ha\r takrn I'onn. Iiollo^- and inirrchangeable. E\er\ ri\r
ininiiir^ • oT ihrin woiilii i;ri down to restart tliis rnordrd

irndilion ol llir |io|iiilar old soiii; which tells of twii nain|)--
lo^l in lanla-v a- llir\ îl niidrr llir archer ol a liridgc:
inidcnicalh ihc archer, wc ilicani our dreaniN away. I he
iiii|iliialioii i- of die all-rnioiii|ia.'sing totality of an arli^lir
\ i--ioii. "an iiii(ire>>ioii of thealrirality whieh can lie IriLihirii- 1 1.1 1 Gilbert and George, TheS/ngmg Sculpture l" Underneath
the Arches"), 1969, performed at Sonnobend Gallery, October 1971.
ing ill ii> ioii>i^teney. " as Brenda Riehardson |iiii ii. hnr I
Photograph courtesy Sonnobend Gollery.

i> in dir |iiililii' a[i]irehension of ihe jiersoiia oiiK dir ino^t
negligililr of di--liliiliiill-. Iirlwrrn lilr and all a^ rondiiiird
l)\ (.ill.ril aniKiror-e."'"
Art into Nature
row ^ iiilorfiil rore .•.ainpie;- in Alan Sonfi?.l'>

Thr ill -.oil
IJir/// Miiiiiiiiiciit Id (liicdiro [

196.5—74 and llir mining
n.lO Piero Manzoni, Soc/e du Monde (Pedestal ior ihe World), |iallrni^ of |i\e ants he i rraled using rliemiial trails in his
961 Iron and bronze, 32 Vi x 39% x 39%in (81 .9 x 1 00 x 1 00cm).
1 .
1/7/M I///.'.; Pattern wul Sinicliircs (1972) extend art into

Herning Kunstmuseum, Denmark. Photogroph by Thomas Pedersen, caurtesy Herning
Kunstmuseum, Herning, Denmark. the world l)v exploiting ..lirniilir |iroredures and natriral
jjroeesses. In the early sevemie^. the San Diego artists
Newton anil Helen Maver Harrison Ijegan to use scientific
rr..raicli lo create a far morr elaborate network of
meia|ihoi>.. a^ in their Lagoon ('ycle. "
The Harrisons' idea
develo])ed around their attempt to replicate the ecosystem of
the Sri Lankan crab San Diego laboratory. Structured as
in a
a dialog l)etween a "Lagoon Maker" and a "Witness, an

evolving text is augmented by inaj)S and images. The hnbris
of the Lagoon Maker's amiiitious ])lans to re-create the
habitat of a mangrove tliicket in a tank in California is
challriigrd b\ ihe and the

\\ itix'-.-.. who see.s its artificiality
naiiownr-.-. of from global systems.

it> ecological isolation
I hr discourse becomes a confrontation of the romantic
iioiion ol die self-contained creative ego against the interac-
lixr inodrl of lilolial s\ mliio.si;,. The microcoMii of ihe
346
347
Re-Radicalizing the Avont-Gorde
^'•' '•^"''^"" '''- ''•"i^HM. „„M.,|,i,n,-, r,,r Mil dni.ai |,ni„,-

^j,^ jypg Pgji^'j Electronjc Nature
cal. -iirial. ami rcdli ii;i(:il ~\-li'iii^. In iniiiiiiriiiiir\ In llii'
Third l.iiiidiiii. ilii-\ wjdic:

lii^l as 11(111 icricli-rrd (Aiii-rii-inc nl iialiiir a-- a
,',,,
,111 ilii'
/ ; ; / (
( /
An (iliKirKil Id'joim IS till- nhicc ii-lien' tresli (111(1 salt inilcrs I ' ' '.
'
I ; • #iii'f(i-|)lnal -.rti-fii dl iiriaiii's. the Kdiraii- Xriu-iican aili-l
tiH't'l (111(1 ini.i. 11 IS (I rii<iilr inccliilii aiKi iiii.iiii'j. iiol li(iriii<r v i, ,
,. ,
• ' , '. , • ,, ' , Nam ,
.iiiiii' I aik ni\ta]P()>c(l \i\i(l sciisalioii-.

i i
iil
, i
ilir
i
IkhK
i
in
l/n' (oiisldiicyoj tlic occiiiis or the rirers. If is d cdl/dhonilirc
rral liim- i'-.|ic( ialK >i'\iialil\. as nninl llir imisi \i\i(| jiodv
(Kircntiirc. Its cvistciicc is iilirins dl risk . . . Lijc in llic
t\[irrii-mfs w iili ilir iciiidM'd i\|H'iicncc ami llic coliaipsed
Idiioon is toiiiih. and icr\ rich. It brccils (/iiic/Jr. Like all aj
and rri iiniliiiianl lime nl IcIiAisinn niiir llial can lir
IIS. it must iinprorisc its ciis/cncc. rcry crcdlircl} . inlh ihc
i'i'('iinlii;nri'd al will . I 'aik cainr In an nun I a I laikiirniiMd in
iiKitcridls lit hdiid. lint llic iiidlcridls kcc/i dKiniiinu: ( )iil\-
Wcsicni niiisic, ai(|iiiird in .la|iaii. and wniks widi llir
/he iiii/ir(irisdli(in rciiidiiis ((insldiil.
InndaiiirnlalK iniinalrrial iikm linni nl clrcli (uncs m llir lii-ld
In ilir niiii-lirs iln- I lani-on-. |ia\ c îi Ird in |iiisliiiii; llii'ir nl s(nl|ilnic. w liirli I ladil iniialK (nncrnis |ial|ia|p|r' \ ninnirs
I rii|(i;:iial ac--llii-lii' in In I a ml |iiii|rii>. a- in llii-ir lioiddcr — in ii'al s|ia(i-.
I II, h'njrdiind/On-riirdiind >((/>-,! II dldiids II d/kjor lioid- I'aik I

linm-i- 1 rd I III- |i nil la I i-\| ilnial inn nl lcli-\ isinn in Ills
dcr (reck liii.ll.l^. \s||ir\ cxiilain in iii-(ii|iliniis nii ai I nT llir rarlv sixiirs. "W r an- iiin\ iiii: in l\ aw a\ Irniii lii:;li
draw ini^s \\,y ihc |irnji-(i. "Ha Iniir in li\ i- a err w el land w i-ic lidflil\ |ji(liin's in Inw lidc-liu . ilir saiiir as in jiaiiiliiit;. lie
In he iiiiisii nclcil alnilir a si'iiinn nl Bnllldrr ( ii-rk adjacriil r\|ilailird in I''"!!. I roll I ( >inlln In Rfml)l'andt tlie aim WHS
In llir rxisiini: wairr |
in i i liral inn lacililN. llirii lliis wrllaild lidcliu In nalllic. Mnllrl cliailLird all llial. I aill dnillL; tllC
"''
cniild ii-cci\r sccnndaix I real nnail waliT.... nllinialrU same. I'aik s work is ii-\ nliil inliaiv |
irrciscK I ircaiisr nl
liaiislniinini; iliis m'cc^âix imiiismn nl ci\ ili/al mil iiiln diissliili Irniii '
(niilciil-li'\ rl |
m-k i'| il inn In "iirnri-s^dcN rl
iialini- iiiln an arsdirln- iA| irrirncc. I Ic-ir die ailisis inli'i- ]pfi(i-|il inn. I lis riii|iliasis is nii I mill linw we sit and w lial
\ flir ill llir inlriaclinii lirlwrril nan and llir rcnlni:\ Willi a
I wr see. si n 1 1 1 1 lal irni|s|\ : hi-, wink is a mil a Lir nl n\ dial i| illli;
dr-iiiii dial iMiiilirs llir srwriarr rllliirni and iiiakrs ihr ii ilninial inn siniiiinrs dial nil arrnss iiirdia Irmii ainiial
w alk a niria|ilmr Inr llir w airr s |ialli In iirai imialiiliu . niiisir and |
iri rnnnamr in înl|iiiii-r.
11.12 (opposite) Newton and Helen

Mayer Harrison, Boulder—
Underground/Overground Seep —
Wef/ands Walk for 8ou/der Creek, 1 990.
Photograph collage with mixed media,
drawing and text, two panels 1 7' s SO-' ain -
(43.5 78.1 cm) and 29 SO^în

(73.7 X 78.1cm).
Photogroph by D. James Dee, courtesy Ronald Feldmon
Fine Arts Inc., New York.
11.13 (right) Nam June Paik, TV 8ra

for Living Sculpture, with Charlotte
Moorman, 1969.
'Ci Photograph by Peter Moore,
348
Paik's I'iisl wiiit'K icli-liialrd w oik \\a- l.lialv fur ~c\rr;il nf hi- ('iiin|piwiii(iii- IVnni iln- hili- -.i\lii'-.. In ()/icni
Pidiio/nrle m l''(t(). in w liirli lir |iiin|iccl IVdin a -I:il;i- -ri n|i ."^r.iird/iii/iic. lor r\ani|ilc. ( liaiidllr Miminian hail hiiloa
in ail ani^l - lull in (^'riiianx . c in oH .Inlni ( at;i' - lie w iili -iriiilra^r uliilr |ila\iiiL; ilir nllu ami in )(iiitiu: I'rins
si-i.-Mir-. anil ilcinî'd liini w illi --iiarniiiio. I lr Idi a niiiliinx lie >\iii/il/iiii\. Irn mhiiil: nn-ri lirliind a |
ia| in ( ni lain -link
nillllilliliill lln-^lairi'. tiliilliltlic -liar.' w ill i carl" m 11101111x11 li-. lln-ii |irni-r- In -ii|iiinrr ilirmiLili llir |ia|" r al llir aiiiliriirr.
and llli'ii It'lc|(ii(>iif(l tVom (low ii^laii-- 111 ~a\ dial llir |iirrr In I'^li;; (hailiiiir MoiPinian wa- .iiiv-ird Im indn mi
wa-- n\ i-|-. I'aik nu't (iagc while îmK iiii; m-w iiinîr riiiii|io-i- r\| 10-111 r dining; liri lo|i|i~- |m-i loi iiiaiin- ol ( Ijhiii ><\t iin-
lion in ( a-niiaiiN and Cane inirodiH rd I'aik lo /rn. Vlin ///(/(/. ai i In- New ^ mk I iliii-\|akri - ( iiiiii]ailiri|iir,
(\|(li>riiiLr lliccxlcli-i<iii orinii-ic iiilo \ i-iial lonn and iIhmIit In / /'Ar/ / ixli oT I'*"') Mm. I I . |-f . lank-- oT li\ r li-li -land
Paik llicil Uiriicd 10 \iili-o. inror|ioialiliL: lrlr\i-ion ri|ill|i- 111 Irolil ol lrlr\i-ioii inonilol- willl \ldrola|ir |oo|i-, o| li-li
nu-nl and video iiiia;;cr\ inio an. -wiininini; aniinid, I In- -inn- m nun iln- n-al lank- iiiio
l-*aik had lii- l'ir>I vidroi-xlnliilion al llir ( .alrrir I'arna-- nioniloi- and llir nilm- iiilo li-li lank-, a- il ri|iialiiii;
ill \\ ii|i]penal near l)ii--eliloi f in I'lli.'i. I h- L.t/idsi/idn of re| n r-riiial 1011 and iralii\ . Paik al-o -iilixri led 1 I'lii- ol
Music — IJiclninic 'frliTisiiin inrhnled diirlren "iiii'iiared" liinr anil -|iarr. a- 111 /'I Hiiilil/ni \''~-\ . w line die live
lele\i>i()ii>. diree |ire|iaied |iiaiio-. and noi-eiiiakei~. lie 1111 miior 1- 11 ni-lain l\ iei;eneral iiii; die iinat;e ol a nml ioiile--
e.\[ieriineiiled w iili di-i onion- ol lnoadra-l le-l jiain rn- and -lai I die Biiddha.
in ]"().") when >on\ iniiodiued liei:aii ii-iiii; |.onahle il I'aik- 77/r \ln<,ii Is Thr ( ll,l,sl Tl l'»l)." ,on-i-l-or
\ideo ei|ni|iineiii ni make an. lia\iiiL: iniinedialelx reeoi;- iweKe lilaik-and-w liiie inonilor-. eai h -Imwini: an iniaLie
ni/ed die ie\oliilionar\ |ioleinial ol deeeiiliali/iilL: eoiilnil dial look- like a |

ilia-e of die 1111 In / / ( link I
"»().'> he
liver media w idi die new axailaliililv ol ine\|ieii-i\e e(|iii|i- roiii| 11 e--ed die iiiiaiê on eaeli ol die Iw eiil\ -lour -el- |o a
II lent and die |iii— iliiht\ ol \ ninalU limille-- miinhei- ol line, like hand- mi a elork. I he w oik- allude lo lime am I \ el
ia>er eliannel-. he n-e- iele\i-ion. a medinni ol iiio\iiil; ]iiiinie- and

\\ liile |ierroriiiiiii; mi .la|iaii 111 die eaiK -i\lie- I'aik iiu-l I em una |
I e\i-iii-. lor -1 a lie imaiie-. I or i'aik all liiiie (•olla))>e^
^ll^â \|ie. an eleeiionie- eiiiiineer. w iih w hoiii he eollali- iiiio llir |ire-em a- he jii\ia|io-e- multi|:)le sequences of
oialed on wax - to 1 1 an -h inn the \ ideo iinaiie and on llnhnt imaiie-. One need 11 1 -ee a whole -ei|iienee on the ta|ie loo|(s
k—t.i(). a leiiioie-ronirol rohoi that walked, talked, and he eiiin|io-e- lor the telex i-ion -elin hi- -riil|itiire- to i:el die
det'ecated lieaii-. In l''(i-t. allei -]ienilini.' a x ear in .lapan. he minddiendini: elTeii ol their eontra-l lieiweeii imniediale
went to where (.eorê Marinna- and Dn k lii!-

New \ ork. I e\| lei ieme and he I artilii lalilx ol imaiie- and media time.
irins — Flli.xii- he had met in I'Nil m l,iiio[ir

arti-t- xxlioni
— inlrodliced him lo ha riot te Moorman. Moon nan. a eelli-t.
(
llieii became the |iriiici[ial actor lor hi- |ieiioiiiiaiice-.

11.14 Nam June Paik, Video Fish, 1 975-9. Video installation: five
In an el'loil to inteiirate -.e.\ into nin-ic Iil;. I l.l"! .
aquariums, five monitors, two video tapes, live fish,

theme that Paik lelt had noi lieeii -nlficientlx dexelo|ied. he 26 110' 4 ^ 29' 2in (66 " 280 - 75cm).
'^
inclllded in-lrnctioll- lor illCor|ioralinil >extial act'- into Collection, Musee Notional dArtModeme. Centre Georges Pompidou, Pons.
349
Christo
(ioxernor. \yhose family were Hot coincidenlally foimding

Direct Political Comment imiseiim. Ihe (inggenheiin Museinn also
trti>lee- of the
in\ited I laacki- in -Imw hi- wmk Inn when the direrlnr.
lli.-|iii;lil\ iliai;:i-(l |Miliiiral iilllK i-|ilic-rc n| ilir l;ili- -i\li.'^. Tlinina- Me-ser. di-i(iMird dial I laaikr wanted In |iiH ll|i
111
iiiaiiv arti>t> waincil iiKin- iliaii iiic'ia|iliMi - In l''();'i ilic pliiiiiiLiraph-. iiT -Iniii leahe-iaie milling- I owned hy niii-eiiin
FriMich artisi Daniel Biinii w mic: \i i i- iln -îlri\ \ al\ i nl II n-iri- \lr--ii ranrrlliil die -hnw and fired the en rami-.""
mil- ii'|iii'--i\ 1- -v^tem. As loili: a- II cxi^l-. anil liilln Ml. tlii-
innii- |iii\alcniit becomes, an will I"- ilu' -\ ~li'iii > di-iraii-

The Potential for Broader Political Action
iiig mask. And a system has iiotliiiii.' l" I'mi ^'^ l"iii; a- ii^
reality is masked, as long as its contiadiciinii- an- liiddm. I'H'i.lean Dnliidlrl w lulr ul ilir an- lli.il lia\ e nn name
In
BiiiiMi |iaiiiii-d a --iuiialorN [)allcfn i>i'iei;iilai --iriiii- in [inlilic ...die an 111 -prakiiii;. die an iil walking, die an of
placi'^ a-- an ail (il [idliliial a|>|)io|iriatinii. I |r f \ m a|)|M(i| in- hliiw iiii: rigairlle--iiiiike i;rai rlnlK in in an i ill d land ina li-
ali'il an lii^tiir\. a-, in lii-- I''"" i'<iriii.-<: I'lnn/iiin I ndrr ner. I he ail ol -nil HI inn. 11 le all iit daiieing the waltz, the
( oi,i/H,silian" <it"f'lii'i> lull Ddfshiiru. i Fulinrnf I'Ad X an iif iiia-iini: a rliiikrii. "' DuliiilTet s remarks underscored
S(,.-t, rii. lUiivkiiml llhilt' I vrtind Slnpis nfS~ iiii. i,f\l hirli the perennial iiniiein iif iniiderti artists with the idea of art as
riir FirsI Whit,' Hiinil is Hi;i,riT,<l inlli II lii/r \,niic. a mean- nl re\i-inu life. Painting . . . i- a wa\ nf living
I Icaltaclied his stri]ie |ialli'in m i In- w all he hind the paint iiiii toda\ . dr Konning e\|)lained."" while \ves Klein <leclared
li\ \'aii Doesbnig that hang- in die \lii-.»''e National that 'lile ii-iH . is absolute art.""'.losej)h Beuys stated that
d \it Modeiiie in Paii-. "Man i- iinU iniK alixe when he realizes he is a creative.
Hans Haacke \\aiili-(l die aili-t i|iiead crilical alini)-phere be con-idered a work nl art if it is a con-ciini- act.
dial challengedtlie political .s7f//((.v (///(;. In die Inldiination Throughout tiie t\\"emiedi renliirx. mndern an ha- been
-how ai die Museum of Modern Art in l''~0. he installed a assncialrd with \aiii:iiaiil -neial iijeolog) . In the pnlil iri/rd
ha 11(11 1 11 IX where \nsitors couki express their opinion of cliinaie ai ilir end nl die -i.xties. many artist- warned ii>
(.iiMTriur Roikefeller's stand mi Prr-ideni Mxnn- Indo- -nli-lilnle arlinii- in real liiiie fnr work in the iiinre I radii in-
cliiiia ]inlir\. The results caiiie in iwii 111 line agaiii-1 die nal media nl' painling and -ridpliire.
Christo
When the student-worker revolt of Ma\ I'KiM -wept

Paris, the revolutionaries threv\ nd paini mi die
diiiirative statues in the Tnileries and liinig [fig. I 1.1-)
iinn-es arounfl the necks of the busts of Poiissin and Puget on

the gates of the Ecole des Beaux-.\rts. The sttidents conectK
piici-ixeil that those hannless old sculptures symbolized the
-labilitx of the tradition-oriented governing aristocracy, an
iiiiiirn regime that has remained remarkably intact n\ ei die
iwn hundred and some years -ince the French Rexohitimi.
Ilie |)oitit. wiiich has been made with increasing frecjuency
n\er the la-t t^\•entv-five year-, i- dial die wnrd- and image-
w nil w liirll a pinlilein i- de-criiiei I liniil die range nf pii--ilile
-nhitimis line can see.
The students in Pari- iiiiiiiied die pnwei nl din-i-
-eeminglv apolitical scnl|)tnres as jiait nl a clas.-. ol >\iiib(il-
w Inch flefined the context of the reigning discourse on social

so thev used red paint to ap])ro])riate those visilile
.-tructtire.
signs into the language of their revohttion. The paint on the

statue-, however ciaide and destrnciixe. ino\<-fl the debate
Imwaid by symbolically attacking the. s7(//».v (///". Thi- act nf
a|i|iiiipi iatioti made change — exen in die muil garden- nl
die l.miMi' Palace — seem possible.
n.l5 Classical statue in theTuilenes in Pons defaced by

revolutionaries with red paint, May 1 968.
Photograph 'ci by Joncthon Fineberg
350
Art in the Theater of Real Events

''''"
i"")''' '^ "•^'""- -""'> <
i"'^'" A|.i^nn.-,i -.mmI
M)cicl\ ri'-|piiiii|-. Ill ;i wax. a^ il ii--.| ioik I- in a \c-i\ miiinal

-iliial ion liki- 1 11 nidi 111; liiii l:;r>. i ir i naiU. m liiiiliu a\ - \\ lial
;ii'li-I ha-- had a iiion- -oiiln-iliali-d iiiidiTîandiiiii nl w r kimw i- dilti-n-nl i- dial all ilii- rnfri;\ i- |iiii lo a janla^lic
Ni>
I
It li idea I a|i|ii'<i|ii'ialiiiii iliaii ( .liri>l(>. i ii> an I'i'lii'- (III ilii' li raiional |iiii |Hi~r and dial i~ ilir r-x-m >- ol i|i>' u m k.
lir-o ul \\i> .-.illidf |iiililii-al iii>iirln. ('iil|»)\Vfrcil li\ iln- -.lirci ( Ini-icp i-inliark- on i-acli luciji-ii li\ lalkiiiL: In |Mii|i|r
\ i>lial l)i'aiil\ i>l lli> iMiiifCl^. int'iiiia^tMJK' |iiiiilii-iMi ina^î' ill alidnl il and li\ -linwinij ilicni drawnii:- and cMlla^cs m
a rrilirai rit'hate on valuo. I lu' |iiililical ii|iliea\al nl ilic lai<- wIikIi In- lia- i mux iiiriiii;l\ \i~iiali/rd n. I li~ niai:niln iin
sixlii-> ccnlfn'd mi llic i.'ni\\iiii: ri-ali/alimi dial llm-r w iili iliall-iiiaii-hi|i inaki-- lln- riiiiii-|ii ~i-riii lailinU |ilaii-ililr
weallii and power cdiild coninil a dciiKurarx hx -lia|iini.' and lir Inrdiii ninlcini- ilii~ ( ii-diliilnx xxiili irclinii al
wliat |>i'n|)lc >aw on telex iîoii and irad in lln' inxx -iiaiier. dala — nia|p~. |iliiiiiit;ia| ili^ ol ilir -in-, iniînni ini: dia-
anil llie |nilitarv-indn>lrial i(>m|p|e\ lunl iiidii-d i;aiiied Lriani-. ami -| nciricalKin iiu Mr| mi ali-d inn i die di axx iiii.'-'
llie "nnwarranied inllniMue aiiain-l xxliicli I'li'-idi-iil and i nllai:!-. ( liir i- Irli in im ilonlii nl dn- aili-l - ilriii niina-
Eiseniioxxer iiad warned rlie .Vmerican |ieo|iliin I'llil." limi in rdii-irini ilir-i' xxuik-. and ilii- imix iriKni. rninliiiifd
C'lnHstowas tile t"ir>t arlisi locoinnuiiiiiale lii- ae-dii-lic idea- xxiili ilir af-iliciie aniaiii il dir -indir- maki- ii hard
succe.-->lnll\()ii a >eale liiat enabled him 111 coiiiiieie xxilh hii: in n-i-l iinaLiinini: linxx iln- |iiii|rii iniu:hi Inok. I hiin
coiporalion- in >lia]iiiiL' the |iiili|ic- ]ie|-ee|iiion ot'ex i-nl-. iniii. Iniilil- iln- rraliix nl dir nlra ni |i((i|ili- mind-, and
ill Se|ilenil)er 1''<S.~) ( hi'i-ln XX ra|i|ied die ('(ini \riil. ilii' iiiiliale- iln- mninrni dial max nllmiahlx diixr ilie
oldesl liiidize in Pari-, in a -himmeiini;. >aiid--lone-(ii|Mrcd iirdjei i n rniii| iln inn,

i
fai)ric Tor tninii-eil dax -. Ihr Pniil Nenl'. enm|)lete(l in I liOli I ln' |pnlili( al and -ik lal inrre- -n deli( ali-l\ inn rx\ n\ rii
under I lenrx l\ . link- die rl:.'ln and jell hank- nt dii- ri\ ei iiiin ( Ini-in - |irn.i-- rii|imr an inxnlxnl diain;: xxiili
Seine In die lie de la (ah- die lirari nl I'ari- Ini nxri" ixxn |ii-n|ilial i-x rrx |Mimi. In iln- laid. dir icali/ali il rarli
tlion-and xeai-. I hi- -nlidix |irn|inriinned hi-mric |irn|r(i de|iriid- dirniK mi iln- niindmc dl dial mlrraninii.
niomimenl — and indeed die |>erli'ell\ |iri'-r-i'x ed criilei nl W il jiniii \\ mnmi: llir rnn|irial inn nl ihr |
ml ilie. ( liri-ln i i
mid
Pari> a- a x\linle — -I'l-m- In emiindx iln- linieli--- ideniiix nl iicilhc-i nliiaiii dir ( ( m-i iiieiinn |iriniil- iini dir rnniimimrm
France. \ el. I'ni- tile dlirali T In- leiii|inraix Flic /'olll \i'li/ nl dir inlln Ini-. xxlin-r |iiii(lia-r nl diaxxillL:-. cnnaiir-.
II ni/t/x')/. Paris /'>".)- S.'i lii;.!!.!.'!. (,liii-in rl'ieriixrix |iriiil-. and -mall -rnl|ilnrr- iillinialrlx riiiancr- ihi' XX nik. Ill-
tfan>l'orine(l tiieeiinirM Inr X iex\ iiit; dir liiid^r In imdri-rnir iii-i-i- dial [ii-n|i|r lalk alimii In- idra and a- ilirx dn dirir
ejiliemei'aiilx and llir [inxxrr nl an iiidix idiial rrralix r X i-inii iiix nix rmriii i|rr|jrn-. "I dnii i ilniik aiix nl die nin-rnm
o\'er tlie -taitle and anniix ninii- ninnoliih nl -nrial cniixen- r\|iilmi.iii- haxr mnclird -n |iiii|nnndlx ihrrr I Irnl
tion. lie even per-iiadrd dir cnn-rrxalix r maxiir nti'ari- In |irn|ilr a- nm lanchrr- . rhn-in |iimiird niii aliri lii-
lielp l)ini (lo it! IIiiiiiiiiil: ICiirr |irnjr(i f'ii.'. 11. 1*^ . nr ilnrr Inmdii'il
It i^ |>ai't ot ihr rom|ile\ilx nl meaniiii; in a ( liri-ln ihnii-and ( ai- x\ Im x i-iird ///////////i!- /(•//( r. iii a xx ax dial hall
project that it sets in liolil ri'liet ail die meehani-m- XX iihin a a niillinn |prn|ilr m >i ma and \laiin rnnmir- xxeie
soeiety a.- each cnn-lituencx attempts to a|ipin|iiiair dir riii;ai;rd in dir niakini: nl dn- xxnik nl an Ini ihrrr and a
reality of (lliiisto n monumental. teiii|)oiar\ xx ciik nlarl iiitn hall xear-. "
its nornial manner of liinctionini.'. The olil man painiiiiL' a ( hri-in.lax ai helTwa- hoiii in Biili;aiia in I'M."). 1 h- irrew
touristic \iew of dhristo"-, wrapjied liridixe t'iji. 1 1.20 . a- il iiji amid-i ihr I ihardmenrs ol' World War 11 and dun ihr
it were no dilTerent from the miw ia|(ped monument he had c imniix ^^ hniial postwar Stalini/ation. I ie e-raped ilirnii;;h
rendered for sale on countless canvases hefore. [larallel- the ( :zeclio>lo\akia to \ ienna in 1 ''">". and xx iiliiii a \ ai xx a- in i
policeman directin<; traffic aroimd the ciox\(l--. die faclnrx Pari-. |iaiiitiiii:pnrtrait- hir a lix in;: and rxplnrini: ihr hninal
worker -ewiuu the tahric into jiaileni-. ilii- laxxxri- iiri^n- pn--iliiliiir- nf packaiiin;! and -lackim; a- a x i-iial laimuaiie.
tiatiiiii the pei'iiiits. and \la\or ,lac(|iie- Chirac him-elf Ihr rmplnxmriii nf rral nlijrci- — nil liarrel-. Ixiille-.
triumpliinji in this puhlic celehration of hi> eiiliirliteiied and ihr xaiinii- nilin iiriii- lir ha- xx rapprd — raihrr diaii
cultural patronaiie. |-.vervone find> tliem-el\e- doiui.' their irprr-niiiiiL: lliiii;:- cniiu idril xxidi dn- inirrr-i nf hi- cnii-
usual jol). liut no\x in relation in -omrihiiiL' dial ha- iin lriii|inraiir- and Irinid-. \\\r mnircdii.i rvdlistfs. iiia|i|iro-
practical purpose —a work of an. 1 hi- idea ha- iinpnrlanl ]iriaiiiii.' Iniiiid mairrial- al ilu- riid nf ihr liliir-. 1 he Inn-rIx
parallels with Guv Deliord's "situalionist ' aesthetics of the spilled paiiii nn ( liii-ln - xx rapped liniilr- and i an- nf T'-ii!
late fifties. I. ike Ghrislo. Deborfl wanted to ci'eate street and P'."'* nxxr- a drhi in ihr -lill n\ ii pnxx n iiiii Iruacx nl
events that would shake passei>-lix niii nf dii-ir haliiiiial i:r-iiirr ]iaiiiiiiiL;. ^ ri ihi- xxmk al-n ha- a ijiiiir nrxx -rn-r nl'
ways of looking anil thiukinsr."" (•nmimiiix xxiili ihr rral riix irniimrnt. a nail dial -non
Taken together, the fuiKlamental irralionaliix of these emerged a> ceurral to (^hristos aesthetic .
situations that Christo creates, the startling scale and In the /A«A-.v/V/r Pr/rAv/gcv of 1<)()1 fig. I 1 . Il) . ( In i-m
presence of the work in the theater of real events, and it- -larkiiland iliaprd nil iiarrri- and iiidu>trial |)Uper rnll- nn
disamiing formal lieanlv pi<)m|)t neaiK exeivone to look ihr dnrk- nin-idr a ( olnLinr gallrrx x\ here he wa- liaxing a
with fie-h exe- at them-elx e- and al ihr xx nrld a re mud 1 1 inn. -linxx nl hi- \\ nrk. Iln- ( liri-m xx rajiping- fitlrd -n naliiralK
351
Christo
into ilic normal .setting that they seemed scaiciK <li-.iin-

iliiishahlf tVom tlie goods that liad been uiiloadiil nn dn-
dork-. Ihi- >iii|)ii.siiig discoven- that thev were a wm k ol at I
( au~ii| till' \ iewer to do a double take, a de\iii- ( liii--ii)
dr\i-l(i|M-d Id nrrai i-ITi-ri in large-scale projeii- oT the

-cM-niii--' and cliihiic^ ~iirli a-^ Running Fence. Siirniiindnl
/.</(///(/..-. and I lif I'liiil \fiif II rapped.
Dnriiii; the caiK --ixlii's Clhristo e.xlrndeil and nlinrd lii^
MMaliiiknx (il |ia(kaging. elaborating on llie \aiit'l\ oi cord^.

kniii~, and labrif> like a language (d aiitogra|ilii<' liiii-.li-
^li(iki->. I Ic a Uii n -cd I

il Kill mil Ullage 1(1 xjsnali/i' I lis packages
nil an airlnlrrliiial ^ralr. ^riling lliciii iiii die >ite of such
inuiiinnrnl-. iil I'aii^ a- llir Vir i\f 1 iiiiin|ihe and the Ecole
MilnaiiT. ( lirJNid \\ia|i|ird a iaiiL:i- nl iilijrcis Inini niaga-
/iiir> Id hniiiliirc and aiil(iiiiii|iilc>. diongli aMillrn a> not the
rdiiii-ni^ 111 hi- |iarkai;i-- remained unidenlitialiK invster-
idii-. a- in Puckii'jf nil ,i II /icr/hiinrnr oi 1903 fii:. 1 i.l"".
\\ hen the ( .alli-iia del I .nmi- in \ cnice exhibited \\n~ w mk
in l''()'i. IraviiiL; die roinriii- In die viewers imaginalion.
it can-rd die Idial lii-lid|i I iler the exhibition closed
nil urduiid-- 111 dli-rinii\ ! I lie recognizable forms, from
11.16 Christo and Jeanne-Claude, Dockside Packages,
\\ia[i|ied (lee- In tlii- l'(i(k<<l Girl oi 1963 (the temporaiy
Cologne Harbor, 1961 Rolls of paper, tarpaulin, and rope, 16 6
-
'^ > 32ft
(4.87^ 1.83 - 9.75m). w i'a|)|)iiig dl a li\r iiiddil . have an even more sensuous
Phologroph S, Wewerko, c: Ctinslo, 1 961 allure. Like the dia|iii\ in classical statiiarv. the laluic
make-, the Idiiii-. — w lieilier recognizable or inii— all the
11.17 Christo, Package on o W/iee/borrow, 1963. Cloth, metal, wood, nil lie riilirini: b\ -iiiigesiing. ladirr ihan reM-aling. llieiii.
rope, and twme, 351-8 x 59''3 x 20''iin (89.2 - 151.1 - 51.4cm).

The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Blonchetle Rockefeller Fund, Ptiotogroph by Ferdinond
Boescli,© Christo, 1963.
353
Christo
11.18 (opposite) Christo and Jeanne-Claude, The PontNeuf The Shift to an Architectural Scale
Wrapped, Pans, 975-55, September 1985.
!
Photograph by Wolfgang Volz, c Christo, 1985.
11.19 (opposite, bottom) Christo, Running Fence, Sonomo ond

Mann Counties, California 1972-76, September 1976.
Photogroph by Jeonne-Clouae Christo, c: Christo, 1 976.
11.20 (below) An old man making a painting of Christo's The Pont

Neuf Wrapped, Pans, 1975-85.
Photograph c by Jonathan Fineberg.
.M
355
Christo
WMik -o iliiit |irii|ilc iniild wnllv ami -iinliallii' nn ii. Iml lir \ear- nf nei:iiiiaii(in- with the tifiv-nine private ranchers
lailril Id ((iiiimniiiialc llii~ iiili iniial k in and tin- nni^c- who dwiied the land. ie(|iiiicd a 430-page environmental
iliri-aiciii'd neaiK ~<indi'd dir imijici
a >irike dial impact statement, prompted eighteen public hearings (in-
For Valley Curtain V^~'l liii~in liinii: an niaMi:e•

( elnding three sessions of the Snjjerior Court of Claliforniai to
iiiiiaiii acnis> a iiioiintain |iass in ( Colorado. Here llif dbiain the peiniit- and <-d-t a total of S3. 2 million — paid
eiii;iiieeriiiir %\a> >lill more ronijilex. tlie cost in'eater (aboni eiiliieK Irdin the -ale dl the artists original <lrawings.
SKOO.ddll , and instead of a familiar i;roii| Mil an enlluisiasts w rajipeil dbjects. and collages.
with a lew liea\ v-ei|ni|iinent ojieratoi^ and ciiiiineers. Since Christo sets all his huge tem])orary prdjeii- in
dii/ens of liiplih and organized steel workers.

skilled jiiililii- -|iace-. no one |)ays to see them. He has not accepted
I aijienters. and hish-wire rigsrers were recpiired. Cluisto and grants ni and
-poii-di-hip for these projects of the seventies
.lea nne-( la ndr \\ ho had largeK taken ii\ I'f llic liMidini; and eighties, nor does he from films or souvenirs. He stops
])rofit
(iT'gani/alion to hiiild { Initio s |iioje(is cnliTrd a w lidlc new making collages and drawings of a project once he has built
arena, learning aiioiit iniion labor n'lalinn^. In die ^nninier it. In -II 111. there is no way in which Christo makes money
iif 1071. with the [project hall'wa) indnrlcil Imi nn^c rnicd. dii hi- piiijects. Instead, he and Jeanne-Claude raise the
llie loienian mid the ntiion workers to kinic k iil'l when the extraordinarysuiris recpiired by selling small sculptures and
-hilt ended, and wind destroyed tlif iintain.

the' he 1 works on paper, and then they spend all the money thus
( Jnistos had to eonie back the following snniiner \\ ith a new accumulated (and morel to build the work, which they
curtain and fresh resolve in dealing with iniion practices. reiuove after a one- to three-week display period. C'hristo
riie\ did eventnally succeed, and I iilh-y Ctirtaiii looked as deliberately exploits all the mechanisms of capitalism,
magnificent as Cluisto had envisioned. finding collectors to invest in his collages and drawings,
Ever since Jf rapped Coast Cihristo has had professional contracting out the manufacturing tasks, managing public
photographers traveling with him. documenting possible relations — then he negates capitalisin's most distinctive
lo<atioiis as well as all the events leading up to the final featttre. namely the acciuiiulation of capital, and leaves
realization of each project. He has also based drawings on people incredulous.
the photographs or painted on them directly to study his Christo believes that his projects have their most
li concepts in relation to the sites. For e.xample, Cihristo
iriiial jioignant effect during a brief display period. After that he
II led out his first ideas for Running Fence in 1072. painting removes them because in his view their relevance diminishes
nil photographs of different sites. Once he chose his site, he unth the passage of time. "I don't believe any work of art
( iinimissioned careful engineering drawings as well as exists outside of its prime time, " he explained, "when the
t(i|iogra|)hical maps and scale models. As early as 1967 he artist likes to do it. when the social, political, economical
had inclnded such documentation in his collages, setting a times fit together."' Underlying Christo's working process is
fdiinal precedent for the collage sections of Smithson's his indefatigable optimism and a fundamental faith that
Noii>ile>" and other such dncnnientarv presentation- liv eventhing is in a state of peipetual evolution. A work of art
artist- in the late sixties. should, from this point of view, engage the issues of its time
and place, contributing to a constructive dialectic. This was
as true for Fra Angelico. for example, as it is today. "To do
The Logistics of the Projects
valid work then, it was necessarv to be profoundlv religious,"
Cliii-t(i - ti'i/nnina Fence was an IM-fooi-liigli. 2-t' _'-mile- Christo pointed out, whereas "... we live in an essentially
long line of fabric panels that ran across Sonoma and economical, social and political world. Our society is
Marin counties just north of San Francisco, traversing directed to social concerns of oiu' fellow htmian beings . . .
pi i\ate ranches, intersecting fourteen roads and a highway. That, of course, is the issue of our time, and this is why I
pa— iiig through the middle of a towni and descending into think any art that is less political, less economical, less social
the iiccaii at Bodega Bav. It was so large that one conldii see t todav. is simplv less contemporaiT."^"
the entire piiijeri eMMi liiim tile air. luiriniuix Ft'iicc lodk lour This dialectical aspect of Christo's work has its roots in
his Marxist edtication. AgitProp theater, as exeiriplified by
Burian and Brecht. attempted to create a didactic continuum
with reality rather than to take the viewer out of reality and
into a realm a])art (on the Aristotelian model of theater).
1 1 .22 (opposite, top) Christo, Wrapped Kunsthalle, Bern, 1 968. This training also predisposed Christo to work in the real
27,000sq. ft (2,508sq. m) of synthetic fabric, 1 0,000ft (3,048m) of rope.
environment with teams of people.
c.Chnslo, 1968
,\long with his fellow students at the Academy in Sofia,
Bulgaria. C'hristo was sent out on weekends to the farms that
1 1 .23 (opposite) Christo and Jeanne-Claude, 5,600 Cubicmefer
bordered the rail lines in order to airange the ecfuipment and
Package, Kassel, 1967-8. Dokumenta IV, Kassel, height 280ft (85.34m),
diameter 33ft (10.06m), 22,000sq. ft (2,043.80sq. m) of fabric, 12,000ft
produce — in the fifties. Westerners saw Bulgaria only from
(3,657.6m) of rope, weight 14,0001b (6,356kg). thewindows of the international trains that passed through,
Phologropb by Klaus Baum, ici Chrislo, 1 968 and the government w aiiii-d the larms td look |)rosperous.
356
Uno -^ti^ ^14 JSX*,
/
357
Christo
.\nother striking aspect of the Surrounded Islands

The Surrounded Islands
project is blended so remarkably into the visual
that it
surroundings. Here the idea prefigured in Dnckside Package

--('vfial iiKijnr |proji'ct.- reachefl a glorious climax. Not onlv did the project |)ick up
A\\rf liiinniiiirFeiice (Miristo jiigiilt'd
Iiiii all of ilieni were held up hy fnistraiiu'; iMiliiica! on the pastels of the local architecmre in this beautiful Latin
-iiiiL'gle--. He had wanted to \\Ta|) the Reichstaj: in Hi'iiin cit V but it even echoed the jjiiiks and blues of the indigenous
"ime 1*^^*~2
fig. 11.24 and the Pont \eiif in Palis since flora. Surrounded Islands seemed more like a magnification
H'~4. He had also proposed the installation of hetween 'of nature than an im|)osition iijjon it.
eleven and fifteen thousand golden "gates' along the paths Surrounded Islands was |)erhaps Christos most photo-
of ( entral Park in New York. But he hadn't gotten clearaiice genic work, and unlike anv of his other projects the best view
on anv of these projects. Thus, when he receivefl an of it w as either from a helicopter or on television. .Most people
invitation in 1^80 to do a major project for a governnieni- experienced it through the media. Communicating an aes-
-pniiMired fe-tival of the art- in Miami, it seemed a welcome thetic idea to a mass audience is certainly one of the most
relief. important new issues in the art of the late rwentieth centuiT
Cihristoqnicklv dissociated himself from the festival, hut and ("hristo has been more successful than any other artist in
after .some time looking around Miami he decided to go developing the radical potential of media, including televi-
ahead on his own to surround the tiny spoil islands in sion. Not onlv has he sited nearly all of his projects in or near
Bisca\iie Bay w ith floating skirts of pink falnic. In I'WO. the popnioiir- arear- but he has made all the preliminaiy planning
Armv Cioips of Engineer.s had dredged the hay to create a forthem public through the media, thereby forcing large and
lunigational channel for oceangoing ships and had dum]ied diverse populations to become involved in the making of the
the excavated material in fourteen piles that fotined a chain work over a long period of time. Robert .\rneson. w ho lived
of islands. These islands sat. unnoticed fordecailes. herween near Running Fence, obsened. "\t"hen die Fence was up it
file cities Miami and Miami Beach, in the midst of the
of
lleav^ cross-bav traffic of boats and autoiuohile causeways.
Over the next two and a half vears Clhiisto painstakingly
studied the environmental issues, as well as all the engineer- 1 1 .25 Christo directing the work during the installation of his
Surrounded Islands, Biscayne Bay, Greater Miami, Florida, J 980-83,
ing jirohlem- and logistics. He found that the shallow bay
May 1983.
coniaiiifil a ]>letliora of protected wildlife — endangered e Umled Press Internationol.
liiiil-. manaiee-. and a variety of seagrasses— and elimin-
ated three of the fourteen islands from the project for
environmental reasons. Different fabrics, anchors, and
nutation booms were tested, scientific studies of eveiything
fioni the microorganisms in the sand to the birds were
commissioned, and the most up-to-date insniiments were
used to locate the anchors and create computer maps for
the fabric patterns.
The Chrisios also met endlessly with lawyers, goveni-
Mieiit agencies, and public gi-oups to present the idea, win
-uppoit. and negotiate permits. After numerous lawsuits.
an<l cliff-hanger hearings the (!hristos finally won the
permits, and installed the Siirroiiiidect I.slanf/a in May l^F>^
[figs. 1 1.2-5-1 1.
2" . the most expensive project iliey liad -n
farundertaken. Though the project sat in the niidille t^t a
major cit v and stretched 1 1 miles from one end of the bay to
lilt' other, it nevertheless seemed oddly isolated and unreal,
hi aildiiion. it so closelv resembled the artist's renderings as
in ailthe large Christo projects that when one saw the actual
work one had a sense of de/n-ru. comiiounding the feeling of
iim-ealitv. It was at the same time unexpectedly oveipower-
ing. even in the open exjianse of the bay.
1 1.24 (opposite) Christo, Wrapped Reichstag, Project for Berlin,

1 979. Collage, pencil, fabric, twine, pastel, charcoal, crayon,
photogroph by Wolfgang Volz, and map, on photostot and paper,
28'. 22in(71.1 ..55.9cm).
Private collection. Photograph by Wolfgang Volz, ? Christo, 1 979.
"
•'jiii
ffM
Sû.'dî-'XÛ^^
iaM'«nA<«< \*n *i*. ioy
^b.i.^>i . U^- ilOOûi- ...^K H?F>JJ
I'yi, £?**,.{ fa. .-U. t- '*•-<—< •» > -""> [U...;i..ô„ 'W'/U**^;

359
Christo
\\a> irriMi! riif <Iii'(kiim l;i(]i('> in llii' îi|ii'niiaiki'l witc lilmed and there wonid be no problem. The <ireat power of
Ml uiiiMi: mImhii ilii- ilrliiiiiiiiii (il ai'i !
''
the project is because it is absolutely irrationcd. This is
I lii> arj.'uiiit'iu lia> hct-ii timdaiiUMilal l<> aliiKi-^l all ilic the idea ofthe project, that the project put in doubt all
''"'
u|i|p(»iti«)ii lo (lliristo s projects, because in that ilialliiiL;r in till- rallies.
( iiii\eiitioiial (leliiiitiiMi^ \\r- a iii('la|(li(ii' Inc ilic I(Mi>ciiiriji

SlimlK alliT -.iiiiiiuiKJiiii; liic i-laiiil- in Miami, tilifisto
nl Dliier- (letiiiilioii> a~ will. Ol Siirniiindcd Islands.
ircci\iil |i(iiin--iiin l(i \\ia|i llic Poiil \ciil ill Paris [fig.
( liri-ti) -aid:
Il.i;; . lie had hiMt;hl l(.r llial id.-a -ince 197.5 aiifl the
/ lliiiik llic /irii/i'ft has siinii' kiriil oj snhrcrsirc diiiiciisKin and -iiccis- ill Miami max lia\r |ila\rd a niie. The Pont .\euf
I Ills is irliv Iff iuirc so many prohU'iiis. Probably all the \l rapped Willi ii|i ill Si|iiiiiilirr 198-5. It was genuinely
(il)liosition. all the criticism of the project is basictdly that |)iiiiiir-i|iir. and ii ihiw -uint- direi- million spectators. It is
issue.Ifwe .spend three million dollars Jor a /iiorir-sct there imiiTsiiiii; 111 null- thai in Kiiio|)e Ciliristo has consistently
irould be no opposition. They can eren barn the islmids to be iliiiM-ii 111 wia|i will Iviiow 11 |niblic mommienfs — in effect
accepting tluii Innn — w herca-. in the United States and the
Pacific he ha- wmkid w iili al>-iiact forms that interact more
I'ti'i'In w illi llir laniUrape.
1 1 .26 (opposite) Christo and Jeanne-Claude, Surrounded
Islands, Biscayne Bay, Greater Miami, Florida. 1 980-83, May 1 983.
Photograph c byjonothon Fineberg, 1983
Christo in tlie Nineties
1 1 .27 (opposite, bonom) Christo and Jeanne-Claude, Chii-lii - iim-l rnriil and ambitions |ii'iijc(l. The I in-
Surrounded Islands, Project for Biscayne Bay, Greater fîami, Florida. brelhis. .lapan-l .S. and 11.28].
\. l<JS-f-91 [figs. 11.1
Drawing, 1982, in two parts: 15 .v96in (38.1 - 243.8cm) and 3ft 6ln 8ft
ujiened sinuiltaneonsly in Ibaraki prefecture (about bO miles
(1 .07 X 2.44m), pencil, charcoal, pastel, crayon, enamel paint, and
north of Tokyo and in tlalifornia (roughly the same distance
i
aerial photograph.
Collection, John Koldor, New York. Photogroph by Wolfgang Volz, (c- Christo, 1 992, noilli of Los Angeles) on October 9, 1991 for slighiK li--- than
three weeks. The

|)ioject involved the seemingly lanilnm
scattering -iKKI specially designed umlirclla- J.-'i-fO

nl
1 1 .28 (below) Christo and Jeanne-Claude, The Umbrellas,
Japan-USA 1984-91, California USA site, October 1991 blue ours in .lapaii and l.7(ifl gold ones in (laiilninia ii\cr
Photogroph by Wolfgang Volz, © Christo, 1 991 12- and l!')-iiiilr Iniglli- respectively of tin- iwn inland
y/-
360
vallt'vs. Tlie projeci tonk live years ot ])iT])ai"aiiiiii wiili a wiili irmarkaiilc finesse.
|iriee lajr ol' S20 million, mure llian sexi-n time- llir in-i l.acli lunliieila liad 4"'ll iliHriciil |iaii-. \\iiL;li(il inaiK
of Slirn>ll/I(lc(l l.llfintlx. •">()() |miiiiiiI-. nnî-iMc-d !'• Irri ,", Iik lii-> liii;li |i\ lill Iiti Ii
riiere was no ^lior(ai;e ol (lillicnllii'> to o\ercotne. vei in<-lies wiilc ami had a ilciailrd lili- dl ( îrclnl ciii:!!!!-!-!!!!!:.
from llie >lart tlii^ project Ix'iieliled from a wide |iiil)Iic cah iilaied in cii-iin' iiac ( iiraii' Inraii'm and |iici|pir aiiiii-
ailtiiiration for (lliristo's wurk hotli in California anil in liori in iIh- iniic|niin-lallalioii ir(|iinriiirin- nf ii~ |i;iiii(nlai
Japan, as well as the years ol e.xperieiiee on wliicii ilie patrli ot lenaiii. êiiiiii: imil)iilhi> in a i i\ ii ln-d ir(|iiiird a
Christos hiiilt a finely timed ori:ailizatioii. As otn- ap- ditlerent kind ot ancliorini! and lixrlnii: m iliai nn-diil Im
proaclied tlie |)rojeet on the interstate liiuliway in ( 'aliloniia. placiiiL' them on a rocky liill-idc or near road- and inwn-
olficial hiiihway .--iiins a])])eare(l with notice^ like '
1 he with miders;roimd niihties.
L mlirellas yiewini.: area lieM 2 exits. 1 lere wa^ no anonx - lor ail ot ihe e-cakition in loiî^lic-. wlial wa~ n-all\
moils xailiinardi-t. o\erlooke(i |)\ tli<' aniiioiitie-. I)iealhlakini; and new at I / nihrclhix \\a- iiar-ilieiic.
WTlile the contrast of the +.')'* landowner- in .Japan w iili 1 hn-. Inr ilnlii-i nine. ( In i-in placid a ( iillcciinn otdi-c icn-
only 2() on the somewhat larirer California -ile inidri -c . unl i|i|c(i- min die laiaUcapr lailicr ihan ii-iiii; die lalnic in a
real differences in the social character of the two connliie-.. ii more recepii\e ic-pon-e to die |oiiii~ uf naiiire a- in Utiiiniiiis
was the sheer scale of the offranization in negolialine dial Icini' or Siirniuiiilnl Ishimls. ( (iiii|iared in ilie-e earlier
many contracts that seems really e\e-o|iening. Tile Chri-towork-, jiolilic- al-o -eemed relali\el\ le-- pniniineni iliaii
coordinated oyer two thousand worker.s alioiit e\cnl\ torinal e\pie---ioii. One miuht alnio-t -a\ that / ////(/(7/(/.v wa-
diyided between the two mmiiic- . prepared tor die inoie lliaii nnalia-heilK riinianlic in hieliliirhtiiii: iialine. ii-ini; Liold or
three million \i.sitors thai came lo -ee the projeci. and Mne acciiii- lo lniiie nm die ( ic-t of a hill much a- ( on-ialile
attended to the prorliiiioii- (|iiaiilil\ of ileiaiU in ihe de-ien. diainaii/ed hi- |iaiiiiiiii:- ut die l,iii.di-li (iiiiiiii\ -ide widi
mannfactiire. and deli\er\ of the innlnella- iliein-i-l\i-- In illiani fli-ek- o| w hiie.
Postmodernism
he re\olt a<iaiii>l the nonnali/iiiL; tiinclion- ol iiadiiion i- adverti-ini: iinai.'e- or jia-t -tyle- in an wiihoiil re:;ard lo
Ta definini; feature of modernilx. inn while the <las-ical iheir meaning;. Po-iiiiodenii-in i- an inclii>i\e aollielic dial
modernist helieves in the tmth of the |)oint of yiew that he or cultivates the \ariei\ ot incoherence. But. as Neil Po-iman
she offers as an alteniative to the iirevaiiing mainstream has |iointed out. ahead) permeated the |io]iiilai
ihi- alliliide
postmodeniism attacks the \er\ concept of objectivity 'or media in die -ixtie- a- in die laiidomne— ot die jnxiapo-ed
truth . the monolithic authority of a mainstream, and the xaind liMe- on the iele\i-ion new-, where all a->mii[)iioii-.
possibilitv of fixed meaning I
especially ill language . .Vronnd of coherence ha\e vaiii-hed. \nd -u. pertmce. has contradic-
French striictmalist theorv iiad made it clear how
10()l). lion. In the context of no i<iiiU:ii. -o to -peak, it simply
"*
much our interpretation ot the world is shaped in the di-a|>|iear-.
language we use to describe our experience. Pop art liroiigln

home the prioritx' we give to the images we see in magazine- SJQniQr Polko
and our point- of reference in experience.
tele\ ision as
Postmodernism view- both images and concejit- a- The -ixlie- painling- of the (.ennaii arii-i "îgniar I'niki'
radically polyvalent. Thi> |)erniit- a fliiiil reconfiguring ot I aiilici|iated -nine of the key model ni -in.
i--iie- ot pn-t 1 m
one's e.xperieiiee of the world. contimialK changing jiixla- him. die enigmatic (iciirrc of Marcel Diichamp and Francis
positions and sequences in a manner that fundamentally Pitabia s " 1 lan-paiencie- painliiiL'- nt the late twenties in
destabilizes their meaning. Duchamp s readymades set an which seemingK unrelated iinaize- are -iiperimposed in-
important precedent because ihev eslal)lished a dialog spired a liberation tioiii ((ilieniire and tmiii the idea tiiat art
among everxdav objects that poiniedlv does not refer to the emanates from |ier-onalit\ iln- mniantic core ol (Jermaii art
everyday from which they come. 'Molin (âge and ,las])er
life for the ])ast two hmidred \ear- In 1Q()3. Polke and two .
Johns influenced by Duchamp reorieniefl art awa\ tmin nthervoimg Diisseldorf artists. Gerhard Richter and Konrad
the vehement assertion of identity as in ab-tra<t expie--inii- Lueg a.k.a. Konrad fischer founded ••ca|)itali--t reali-m .
isin toward the essential undecidabilitx dial underlies

I
an ironic counterpart to socialist reali-ni in re-pnii-e m die
postmodernism. realities of ca|)italist mass culture.
The dominant stylistic feature of postmnderni-m i- die Pnlke. born in East (ieiinain in 1 ilunaix 1''-f I c iii--ed
lack of stable historical referents, wlietlier in the -en-e ot inio die West on the Berlin -iibway in 1''.).! and li\ l''(il wa-
detaehing a snow shovel from its commonly understood stiid\ ing at the Diisseldorf .Academy with joset Beuys. hi tiie
function (as in Diichamp's //; Adnince of the Broken Arm mid sixties Polke [lainred a group of twelve canvases.
[fig.7.2' or in the narrower fa-hion of cannibali/iiii: collecli\el\ entitled The Fiflie.t fii;. 112''. in which he
361
Postmodernism
ur -Iw I.M.k.. I he ililT. Ii-licr 111 \|)rf^.-.i()ii l)fl\\fi'ii llic

11.29 SigmarPoke, The Fifties, 1963-9. Mixed media on twelve . .
i
•
i r ,i i i r
canvases, installation dimensions variable. '
i i i- i - i i- ,•
i
r
Lolleclion,
II ,
Karlic, k
biroeher c A,
roundation,
1^ H „!,„!„
nessiscnes j=. ,^ ^
Landesmuseum, n„,.„.,„A,
Uarmstodt. ~ liall-iiiiir iiiKii:r^.
iciiilcTiiii: and ilic cliched sexualit\ (illiii-
hulijt'ct iiialtt-r ciiali-N a |ii ii\ iiiali\ e inteiplay of meaniiifis.

Polkepaiiite.l \hrrin II mi(/rrland on97 \ [fig. 1 1..S1]
(Irlilii'iali'K i'in|ilip\fci an inniliiTini -rliMtiDn of kitsili on a patcliwork of |iri-|iiiiiiril falnics with images of soccer
liliic- -i\li--. In ilii- (diii|Miîic work lie liinnil liini-cll |)layers aiul |iolka-ili ii |iaiiiTiis. making an obvious wonl-
ali-iirlMil iniii llic MiliianiN nl {M>{jnlai la-lc fliciv i^ play on •Polkc" iloi^. In llii- work, the artist supenm|)ose(l a
(liiiijiili'-- -iiiiii- cMiici-in in ilii- wiiik alMiiii ilir ciiliin al lr\i-| giiosiK while. aliiiii>l -icncil-likc rendering of a baskciliall
iirilic ( ,,-iiiiaii rcdiiciinir niiiarlciij ihr liliir^ aniUixlii'-. Imii |ila\rr rniiii a ^|ion^ inaiia/inc. a lransci-i])tion of Pen n id .s
il i^ al ihc âiiic liiiir ini\r(l w ilh lic-iniinr no-lalgia. Kalliri illn^lial ii m ol llir ralri|)illar and Mice for .fZ/rc /// llondcr-
llian dwell in;; ill de|illi on an\ une iinai:e in llii^ êi ie-. ilie ha id. ami a repealed oiilline ^laiiip of I he head> ol a lillies-
in^lallaliMM pnniipl^ die viewer hi êe a pmlnîon of >u le man and woman user llii' preprinled image-, ol the
ilispaiale imai;e^ all al once, in êe acrn^^ die --ni lace, a^ in idininercial laliiic-. dial lie used a^ a caii\a-.. In llii^ way he
pop ail. I l(iwi-\er. llii- îmnllani-uii- miilliplii il\ (if ^l\ li'^ III delilieralcK I'lilianced die di^ônance lielwe-en llioeapprop-
'/'//«'
/ (///c.v differ-, from pop ail. w liicli al-o exploit kil-cli or riated imager and llii' \ iîial -.ediicli\ ene^^ of die color and
popular ciilliire. hecaiiM' il allack^ die \er\ idea of Ûli^lic patterning nndernealh. Ilii^ cieate> miillipie la\e|s ol
coherence and die norma I i/i nil force of peiônalilx in ail. conceptual sniiic" sn pen m posed on one another. Il i> in I his
In I'Ki.'. I'oike liegaii -imiilaling die doi palleiiis of êiise dial I'oike — more like BinTouglls than Beiiys — is die
commercial I -coloi |iriiiiiiit; Haîei doN oiil\ moiilli^ innocenl iraiiscrilier. appro|iriating only dead, .second-hand
aliei 1 .11 liieiiîein iniiii'd lo lliis idimneicial miiaplioi ilii' or mediated forms lo |ioinl n|( oin' entra])ment within them.
Ben-I)a\ dol- iii.\ew\oik Ii"-. 'I. I
~-''.-! 1 foi I'oike-. Things as lhe\ e\isi in images are the reality, a halliicinatoiT
ilie-e pallern- represented a di—.oliiiion of die self imo realilv in wliicli I'oike |ila\s onl what die critic/curator
eomniercial culture — he casi liim-ell as die iii\oliiiilar\ Holieri Siorr descrilied as an enduring dynamic between
iran-miiiiiii: in-lnmieiii. \er\ niiicli ill die -eiise dial W il- reason and leiror. expanded consciousness and
liam liiinoiiijli^ iiieanl il. In die I '•()() pamling /)///////c,v fig. derangemenl
I I. .SO , I'oike plaxed ironicalK on die suhjeci of l'la\lm\ In Mrs. \iiliiiiin and 1 1,-r Tiro Daughter.^ u\ 1<»<»1 [fig.
( lull Biiimie- in a mas^-media leclim(|ne dial liieaks dow n 1 I .'-Vl . I'oike lias Idii'd die figiii-es and landscape from mid
in such a wax dial the Niewcr aclnalK sees less die closer he iiineleenlli-cenl iir\ eiie|;i\ ings hv the French illiisi lalor
362
Politics and Postmodernism: The Tronsition to the Seventies

363
Postmodernism
1 1.31 Sigmar Poike, A//ce m Wonderland, 1971. Mixed media on

fabric strips, 10ft 6in x 8ft 6^ sin (3.2 > 2.6m).
Private collection, Cologne
1 1.30 (opposite) Sigmar PoIke, Bunnies, 1966. Acrylic on linen,

583''4 >-39"Bin (149.2 - 99.4cm).
Collection, Hirstihorn Museum ond Sculpture Gorden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington
D.C, Joseph H. Hirshhorn Bequest and Purchase Funds, 1992,
364
«5'
^^-
1^ .;.j!j«iA*.-«^'-i /
•idf Willi .1 |iliiili II rnli^l |iiiiiil iiii! ill liiiifs III t;ia\ . I If lia^
I 11.32 SigmarPoIke, Mrs. Aufumnond Her Two Daughfers, 1991.
ilrlilirralfK ciill i\ iili'ii a \ri\ lirli-ii iiiriiriin^" IiikIn iif
and acrylic on synthetic fabric, 9ft 10' ein x 16ft 43'4in
Artificial resin
(3x5m). |MllllillL:. il^ lie r\| ihlllli-(l III I 'li"i. ). Ilr\ rrlllrii-^^. r\ ciA lllillii
Wolker Art Center, Minneapolis. Gift of Ann and Borne Birks, Joan and Gory
Collection. lia^ 111 !" iirmir iiiiilil. its riiiiliaili<iiii\ a^ il iiia\ lie,"
Copen, Judy ond Kenneth Dayton, Joonne and Philip Von Blon, and Penny and Mike Winton,
T, B, Walker Acquisition Fund,
with odditionol funds from the 991 1
III l''li I . jil^l l\\ 11 IIKilllll^ lifrmr ihr HiTJiii W all Wflll ll|i.
iîilllfl It'll llir Ka-l r.ir Dn-fliliili. I \r \\a- 111 III- lair lllirlifs
ami had alicaiK iiia^lfi vil ilir -kilU nl î.niali^l ifiili'in.

'
( iraiiiK illf. I If lia- if iiilf ifil llir ( .ram l\ illf draw in t;- in a w liirli I if liiriifd lo ariiiiinl in if mlc riiii; iniaiif- dial lunkfil
prfci.-'f lfiliihi|iif dial iniinif^ llif liiif fiinliiil 111 llif 111 ii;iiial likf iiiil-dl-riim^ lilark-and-w liilf îia|i^liiiN nl f\fr\da\
Wdoil engi'a\ II il:-. I In- -i-fm- il-i- II -ff inin hf an allf L;iir\ nl -iili|fiis. allliiiiiL:li llif \ nil en lia\ f a di-l inliiiiL; fili;!'. a- in
tlic season-, willi "Mudifi \iiliiiiiii (iilliiiL; ii|i ciinrfMi dif niicnnilnrlaliK finlir Slmlriil ol I''!)"" a rlii-f-ii|i.
w liiili lif [ dailfiltf I- -laltf r in aiiliii|ialiiin nl llif rninint; In una I iiiidf. -illiiii; mi 1 1 if llniii w idi lie i Liiff- a pari ami
siKiw- (if wiiilff. ^ f I llif rfiiiainiiiL; llin-f -i|iiailf i - ul llii' dii- j'Mid l.i'jlil Sliidciil \iiisi:'i. wliicli fvnkf- mi-lali:if
|iailllinrr i- a liiniimin- ali-liarlinii. i-
\| if liim- nl iiii; in dif a--i k iai n m- Willi llif |iiflnrf- in a liii:li--rliii(il \fai linnk
cliciiiistrv til -\ nil If if I |ii il\ im- 1- and f-ulf lic iniiif lal-. 1 hi- w liilc ail iialK n- If iriiii; In a m ilurinn- -dial iiiindf r c a-f in
flifiiiical f \|iliiraliiiii iii\ ites ihaiiff f I If el- a- lliiini;li -ft- k- ( liiiaLid lii;. I I •i-i ,
iiii: an fimaiii'f inid dif iii\ -111- diiiif ii-i(in III alflif iii\ . I lif-f I ikf \\ aihnl. Hif hie r |ii unlfilK iiiidf ii nl rhari^fd -iili-
wildK ili-|iaralf Miiff- in die wmk iif \ f rllif If ss make a jfi I iiiallc r w illi i:f iif i ali/ini: If rliiiii |iif- and iifiilial tillf.-.
i;iaml. i rial it ma I. iiiid incliisix i- w liiilf 1 If |iaiiilf d iim-l i if llif w m k- nl llif -i\l if- in 1:1 i-iiillf — liiiix .
Iif rfiiiarkfd. im nihfi mlnr i- -nilalilf Ini

Iiki- illn-l lal iiii:
•nnllnni:. " Minfuvfr, ihc iilinm-iaiih Irmn whifh he

Gerhard Richter
|iaiiilfil niitihl i f in-laiiff l>f a haiial -iia|>-lini nl dif
Tlic nciirrc nl' (.fi hard Hichlfr al-n ha- llii- nddU in If ma I k ml if 11 fhiin and a I die iif \l 11 mil if n I a iif w -|ilinin nl ilic
(livt'i-silv. wiiifli i- a fnii-i inn- allafk nil idfnl(ii:\ /<('/ .sc arif-l nl a Heil Biii;adf- Ifirnii-I liliirrfd iiiin iifiifiic-
liolll 1)1)11 1 ica I and afsdifli<- .1 InwiAcr. dif -l\ If nf Kiclu.-i'-. imii-limiiif-- a- llinniih niif w a- im iiinrc c haiiifil Im him
work varii's li-om pairiliiif; in |iaiiniiii;. lallifr iliaii wiiliin than dif nllifr, Iif f-|ifi ialK liked ini,ii:f- Irmn dif iiifdia
iiuli\"i(lnal pifture- a- ill Pnlkf - w nrk, Hiflilf r iiia\ jiainla lifian-c llif\ Wfic axail.ihlf 111 |iinln-inii and. In- said.
'
iiroailK lini-hfil. cnlmTiil ali-liaf lion lii;. ll.-!4 -idf li\ HI if r.ilf d him li mii |
if 1 -mial i'\|if iif iicf .
365
Postmodernism
(•«)n\ creation, rt'cyclcfl images, or the accidenlal forms left

John Baldessari
Irom (iiopixMJ-ni) posters. Baldessari works l)\ iiitiiiti\elv
11- llif eiirl\ M'\ciilii'~ ilii- wmk m| JuIiii |{;ilili'->iiri ;\ ri'iiiM'iilini; tonnd image.'i a> meaniimlnl smhIioIs oI his
S mlherii ('alifoi'iiia aiti-i lui> .il-o i iniiicd on ilir nw II lhoiii;hl>.
lianane «)( iiilnriitaliiiual iii|iiii Imiii ilaiK lilr Ml;. 1 1 ..'?.) . I alkini: aiiniil a wmk nl ihi- mid sexenlie^. Balflessai'i
I Ic -((>•; ill a kind i>{ la-i -nilaii- -laii |ii(kiiiL' n]> iiiiasre-i rhni i-\|ilaini-d thai:
can lit- ii'ion^liliili-cl al a di-laiiri- ami in lln- |iri\ai\ d liis

/ iniii/cd llif inirk In he .in layereil and rich that you iroiihl
iniMuinaliim. \- lie inld llir .n l lii-ldiian I im-|i- \ ,in Hnii:i:cn:
hare Iniiililc s\iilli(:fiziiiij; il. / iranted all the intellect mil
|l • liki- wlirn I am in an aii|ilani- caliin and uMilnai iwo
thinix.i wiiic. and (it the .same time I ant askin<j;ron to beliere
i(in\ i-i'-alii>n~: urn- -ax- -.nnii-lliini; and amidiir urn- 'a\>
the aujihiiic has lamed into a .seagull and the .lub into a
-iirnrdiin:; i-l~r. I .cm Id mil lia\c ilinuiiln n| i di( i-c ilirax-- im
|
iiicrniiiid during the tinn- the nmtorbnat in cronning. I am

in\ iiwn. and I ii'-|iiind hp il |i\ cunmcliiiL; imc In ilir nllicr.
((Jiisi(ui/h' /ilaying the game of changing thin or that.
l.ikiiii; I II 111 I mil 111 llirir iiw II innlrM and li\ inakiiiL; llirin a
risu(dl\ or rerlxdh : l.v soon as I see a u-nrd. I .spell it
|iai I ol in\ iniaLiinaliiin.
hacku'(U'ds in nn' mind. I break it iij) and />ut the /xiii.s back
In ilir mid -i\lir~. Baldr^-.aii liad a hiriid in an
lo'jdher Id make a iieir irord.^
aiKriliîni; aL;i-m\ wlicrr ail\ rii i-iii:; |iii>lrr^ wnnld In- ml
n|i iiilci ifiiiilar -i|iiair> liiliirr lirini: discarded. Baldi'^âri Hald('s-,aii iinplif- dial raili iiidivi(inal constirntesa sejiarate
ill-nan ciiliaijini: llic--r îiiall. ai I lili ,ii il\ i rii|i|ii-il liauim-nl-.. realiiv. ( In iîn i^ r\ m inmr r\|ilicit ahoiit tlii> idea when he
liainliiiL; o\rr ^nnn' and in lln- uiliri- dralinu; willi llir lalk^ a mill I 1 111' iiiiii |iir wax in \\ liicli earh iiiilix idnal \ iewer
aji^lrarl -liain-- crfali-d li\ ilir raiidnin lraL;mriilalii m nl drrini-^ llir iralil\ nl llir aili-l - |iiiiji-ri-. Inr hini>elf or
till- ipi'iuiiial iinaiir^. Wlinlur ii-iiil: -iii|i|M'i^ nl imii-laird hri^rll. I nil 1 1 llir |
ii r^|ircii\ r nf hiiir lii'inwii hie e.xperieiiee.
I5rnaill\ -pi-akini;. I In |ilmali'ni nl llir -.r\eiities grew out of

a w idr-pirad a-.-ailll ill llir lair -ixlir- nil hiriarchir-. cif
aiidmiiiv. pnhliral a- wril a- riiluiral. in la\nr nl die

1 1 .33 Gerhard Richter, Eight Student Nurses, 1 966. Oil on
canvas, 37y2 x 27V2in (95,3 x 69.9cm) each. iiim|iiriir-- nl rarli individual- rxprnrmr a- an ri|iial
Photograph courtesy Marian Goodman Gallery, New York. (nm| mrnl II i il I lir i iilliii al w In ilr.
ec^â^
•"•y*.
•*"*liJv?ai»«
366
.35 (opposite) John Baldessari, Heel, 986. Black-and-white

1 1 .34Gerhard Richter, UnUiled (59 1-2) 1
;
, Oil on canvas, 1 1 1
38'/8 X 36V'4in (96.8 x 92.1cm). photograph,oil tint, oil stick, acrylic, 8ft lOîin x 7ft Sin (2.7 x 2.2m).
Photograph courtesy Morion Goodman Gollery, New York.

Museum of Art, Modern and Contemporary Art Council Fund,
Collection, Los Angeles County
Photogroph by Douglas M, Parker, Los Angeles, courtesy of Margo Leovin Gallery, Los
Angeles,
367
Postmodernism
A New Pluralism
Til iiiaiix rrilii-. ciiialiii^. and i-\i-n arii-l-. ilu- aii u mM i il ilir
-i\ iiilii- -i-«inii| laikiiii: in i liii-riiun \ii iu-\\ inii\ i-nniii-
<liiiniiial*-<l llif x'ciK- in llic wav tlia( |><>|i ail ninl niininKili^ni
hail 111 llif eaiK ami niidiiii- >i\lic^ ii~|iiiii\rl\ Imlriil.
niininiali^ni .iml i r|iiii,il ,iri .nniinnt'il in {iriAail in llir
ixalifi-jo. iiiil liiiili >cfiiii-(l 111 lia\f li»l llifir >|»aik l)\ llir iniil
>f\enlii> anil a widfr-prfad IVcliiiir f.\i>Ii'(l llial |)ainliiiL' liad

died -.iiini'wlieiv alnii<r tllC %\a\. In I''"*) Ruin rl Miilliriwrll
ra|i|)i'(l oti dif iicni'ial inalaist' \\iili a liiiir in dn- \rir )i>r/;
/i/ncs ill wliicli 111' rjainii-d dial In- L'fiii'ialiuii had lakin du-
12
la^l >ii.'iiitirain -ir|i in ali-iiai i an. Painliiii:. hr wmii-. 'Iia-
irarlicd a |)iiinl whrn- \ mini^'lrr- laii iiiil\ add a Icnilnnli-. h

di-|iri-'~i-- nil- a iildi- in diiiik thai \\hal \\a~ onir Indian
irriiiniA i~ niiw |iM'U\ diiiniiii:lil\ nia|i|M-d nnl. '
\l dii- i-nd nf
ihr di-i adf. ihr iiilir ( al\in rninkin- ~lali-ii rali-Liinirallx ill
ihr .\(-//' )»/A'7 dial 111! ni.iji iirw arli-i- t*mi'ri:i'd \iiiriira
SURVIVING THE
II ill
diiniig die l''~ii- and III 1

''ilO Baii>ara Rose, aiindit-r \i-\\
^ll^k rririr. wnii -n lar a- m laiiiiili a prefinprive --liikt- liv
iiii;ani/iiii; an fxhiliitinii rimdtd '

Xiiii'iirail Paiiitiiii;; /lie
CORPORATE CULTURE Liu'/itii'M
diiadi- -11
in
dial ihr
rill- liii|if tit
i'i<_'hrie-
>eiiiii;;
would not
die ifinir- tor
"iro WToilir
the a|i|in)a(liini:
ton
\ rl. in reiiu-|irrl. a iminiicrol niajiir new aili-i- clrarU
OF AMERICA IN THE did riiirriie
iiiiK in art
ill
Imt
the ?tnentie>.
in W r-leni
a.--
ciilturp a- a
radical chanirr-- lunk
whole. lurenin-l ainmir
|ilaci- nm
ihn-r ihaniir- \\a- die liruadrnini: recotniidoil ol a nrhrr.

|iliirali>lic iiilliiie. -iiinaled In die \er\ >aine eomplrx iiinlli-
SEVENTIES |ilicii\ 111 rni->-irackiniz direction- in du- an world dial -o

worried -ea-oiied an tiacker.--. In e.-.-ence. that ]>liirali-iii iriis
die new iiioxement. and it inanil'ested it.self in nianv wa\s.

inclndinH the iin[)recedeiited luiinhers of women eineriring at
the forefront of new anistic developments in the sevenlie- and
ihe rhalleiiL'e of ani-1- fiuin F.iirope. Cîlifornia. and el-ew here
111 thr |.|r\ liill-l\ r\rlll-i\ r liirll- nil \ew" \ ork ill lllr all |
ilr--.
Ill addition, the hnef liiirsi of social eualitarianisin in the

laie .si.xties had opened the door for the enrr\- of black and
hispanic niinoriiies into in.-tiuilioiiMif liiirh cnlnire in .\inenca.
while at the -atiie rime the eiienalion ot the established art
movements created a fresh o]j|jonuiiir\' for artists who did not
confomi to tile mainstream. Rafael Fener. a FneiTo Ricaii
artist iheii working in New \ork. recalled: "It was obvious to
me thai was a veiT frenzied moment when siifldenly there -
it
an o])eiiiiig. * Fenei's own success, besiiiiiiiii; in the mid

seventies, relied nm mi hi- rrlaiinii in |in|i. iiiiiiiiiialisin. or
concepiiial an. bin preii-el\ on hi- di-lamr hoin them as a
(iredominaiuK figiirati\e artist, with an e.\|)ressioiiistic -t\ le
ami Latin -eiisibilils that was both fresh tuid authentic.

1/7 //( Amencfi featured Fener's Puerto Rican Sun fig.
1 2.2 on the co\erof its issue of .March 1980. Tliis moiuuiiental

steel -culptiire. erected in a predominantly black and Pneno
12.1 opposire) Faith Ringgold, Aunt Bessie ondAunfEdiJh, from Rican neiglil>orliood of die South Bronx, depicts the hot.
the "Family of Women Mask" series, 1974. Acrylic paint on canvas,
orange oib of the (Caribbean siui setting betTveen two n"0|)ical
fabric, yarn, beads, raffia, foam base, 65' 2 9 x 1 3in >^ 1
(166.4 X 48.3 X 33cm) and 64- 19 x 13in (162.6 x 48.3 ^ 33cm). palms. A cool lilue moon appears on the llipside. Tlie im-talgic
Collection, the artist. Photographs by Karen Bell l.alin idimii nf Piirr/a lliniii Sun rmilia-r- with ihr liliiiJiird
369
A New Pluralism
370
Surviving the Corporate Culture of America in the Seventies
371
A New Pluralism
iiihaii sorting of tlie iiortlicm frlictto. In My Fnrnwny Sniithcni

1.(111(1. an installation of 1975 [fig. 12.3 . FeiTpr nanaictl an
iinaginan vovage through \Hscerai accrt-tions of colorfulK
painted found objects, wired or strung on |i|-iinili\el\ fa^hidned
tonus, with glowing tonrhes of lu-dn. Iln' wurk di-lined an
aesthetic that had little to do witli ilir rdiivcrilion- dI "New
Virk art."
Likewise, the growing fascinatinn in llir -.i\inlii> w iili ilic-
wiirk of black and female artists such as Betye Saar and Faitli
Ringgold reflected a widening understanding of what "Ainei-

i( an cultine is. In laiili Hinggold's effigies of .-I//;?? Bessie ami
\uiit Edith I
fig. 12. 1 . the intense, contrasting jtattenis and tlir
elegant ab>iraction of the facial ex]irr-.î()ii» bulh draw dire<tl\

nil \\ e>i African textiles and scnl|)iiiir. In ilii^ êiise the work i>
a deliberately |M)litical gestin'e. eni|(hasizing the Afiican roots

1 if iier artistic lineage. The theatiical manner in which Ringgold
iifieii inîalled her figiu'es. with real props in real space, also
eMiki- ihe Afiican-.Vmeiican and Chicano "yard shows."
which in tiini draw on Afi-o-Caribbean traditions as well.
I liese visionaiy yard shows— magical accumulations of found
and fabiicated which one can see on front lawns fiom
objects,
I'i)rt-an-Piince to Yi arts — linger behind the work of Ber\e Saar
iilo. side by side with a sophisticated understanding of pop art
and cubist consnaiction. ' Saar used foiinfl emblems hom

|"i|)ular adveitising as points of emliarkaiinn inio a nanscen-
liental s|)iiitism [fig. 12.4].
The Afiican-Ameiican traditions on which the works of

Ihnggold and Saar ch'ew began to be recognized bv tlie ait
\\ I )rld I if the seventies as offeiing something anthentic. exciting,
and. in tiieir veiy difference from fJleinent Greenberg s main-
stream, central to a new understanding of the diversirs" that
defines Ameiicaii ciUtiire. Romaic Bearden. a major Miican-
Viiieiican master of the abstract expressionist generation,

iiinarked in l''()4 that: "X^liat Fve attempted to do. is
establish a world through art in which the validit\" of mv Negi-o
exjieiieiice could live and make its own logic."" The \"alidit\" of
Bearden s "Negro expeiience was indeed what finallv pushed
work after 1964 to a level of
lii-. first impoitance. and in tiie
more o|jen atmosphere of the seventies it began to be

recognized as such. 1 2.4 Betye Soar, Is Jim Crow Really Dead?, 1 972. Mixed medio
Tlie pliualism of the ossembloge, 17 - 5Va x lin (43.2 x 13.3 x 2.54cm).

seventies expressed a unif\ing
Photogroph by Trocye Soar.
concern with the radical potential of individnahtw Artists, like
e\ enone else, were alienated bv the fractured existence of life
in the electronic era. made Inperconscioiis of political and

êniiotic issues, supersamrated with visual stimuli, and over- dieir indi\idualits' superseded any interest in collective move-
w iielmed liy the anoiiMiiity of mass culture. Gonser[uentlv. for ments. Even the loose consensus of the minimalists and jjoji
manv nf them, a nKire >elf-contained search for the internitv' of artists seemed anathema, histead. a fierce nonalignment
chai-acteiized the best artists to emerge in the seventies, and
that vehement assertion of indi\idualit\- in itself has vanguarrl
implications for a societ)- of mass markets and media.
1 2.2 (opposite top) Rafael Ferrer, Puerto Rican Sun (the sunny
side), 1 979. Pointed steel, 25ft (7.62m) higli, Fox & 1 56th St., S. Bronx.
De Kooning — a preeminent prectu'sor for tliis radical
Photograph courtesy Nancy Hoffman Gallery, New York, indi\idualit\' — in turn pointed to Dtichamp. describing him as
a "one-man movement . . . for me a tnily modem movement
12.3 (opposite) Rafael Ferrer, Mi Lejana Tierra Austral (My because it implies that each artist can do what he thinks he
Faraway Southern Land), 1975. Mixed medio installation, detail. ought to— a movement for each person and open for
Photograph courtesy Nancy Hoffman Gallery, New York evenbodv.
372
12.5 (above) Miriam Sctiapiro, Wonderland, 1983. Acrylic and 12.6 (below) Joyce Kozloff, Plaza Las Fuentes, Pasadena, 1990.
on canvas, 7ft 6in 1 2 ft (2.29 < 3.66m).
fabric collage '^ Glazed ceramic tiles; sculpture Michael Lucero, landscape architecture
Ptiolograph by Pelka/Noble, courtesy Sleinboum Krouss Gollery, New York. Lawrence Halprin.
Photograph by Tom Vinetz, courtesy the artist
373
A New Pluralism
Art and Feminism
FriiiiJii-'l iiilii'i^ril l>('(';iin<' p.'ii'liriihirK irii|i(i| l.iiil ill lln-
^rxiiaii^ a^ |iai'l 111 llii' L'-'ni-tal inlric-i in liiidiiii; diii whal

iiuilvc.-' each i>l II- wlici \\i- ail-. In .l,iiiiiai\ 1''""). \liiiain
>( liapini .lii:. 12. o and Kulicrl Zakanitcli lunndcd a •palWrii

an<l Dt'coiativc Arli>ts ^r(iii|) and llic I lolK Snlonion ( fallen
wliiili (>|M-ni-il llial \iMi' in Sullii llic nrw aili-l- c|iiaili'r
"
>n iilli .i| d 111 ll-lnll M. in \r\\ ^ (Ilk . Iircanic I lie liiciis iifa
wiilcK iMiiii-il "|iallrin and drciiialinn iiiii\rinriil. I he nc\\

dinirn-iiin in llir ica--iTliiin nl |iaMriiiiiii: and dm iial i\ ciir^^
li\ ain-l- -iicli a- îlia|iii(i and .Ihmc Km/IuH lifr. 12. ()j \\a^
î\cii li\ llir allaik (in die iiK k Ici lii-l dix i -khi oI liiiili ail Irnin
die I nil llir all > (il dc(( n al inn. >rha| liid and K(i/I( ilf -aw llii- as
a t^cndci lia-c(l di-linclKin — li ir llicin. 'dccdialix c ((iniKilcd
\\iiincn- \\(irk. In addilimi. llic\ wauled in ic\cr-c die
1 2.7 Ana Mendieta, Sene arbol de la vida (Tree of Life Series),

1 977. Color photograph of earth-body work with tree and mucd
executed at Old Man's Creek, Iowa City, Iowa, 20 1 3' jin
(50.8 X 33.7cm).
Colleclion, Ignocio C. Mendieto. Photograph courtesy the Estate of Ana Men(dieta and Gale
Leiong New York, ® the Estate of Ana Mend(eto.
1 2.8 Bea Nettles, Suzanna Surprised, November 1 970. . .
Photoemulsion on muslin, photolinen, stitching, 28 x 35in

(71.1 88.9cm).
Collection, Ihe artist 'C. Bea NeHles, 1970.
It'lidt-iicv Inward a ifdiictioii of means (as in niininiaiisni lor
an additi\e and incliisixe aesthetic (as in Ventiui's rejeiiion ol
the inleniational stxlc in arcliitpctine).

I lie ( 'iiliaii-ii(iiii arlihl Ana Mendieta took a more visceral
a|i|iiiiaili. She -.oiiiihl lo eslal>lisli. as she |)iit it. "a dialog
lietwien die lands(a|)e and the female body (based on my own
-illidnelie ... a iiimii (o the maternal .source."'" Mendieta's u.se
iillierdwii liiiiK, a- in \\f\Tree of Life Series [fig. 12.7], was a

leinini-ii assciiion ol die female body as a primal source of life
and se.xiialirv, like the |>aleolithic Venuses of Europe. Her
work, like that of her contemporaries Hannah Wilke, Ciarolee
Sclineemann. and MaiT Betli Erlelson, belongs to a resurgence
of intere-.t in the body among feminists that prefigiu-ed a wider
lendeiicN in ilii- diici lion in I he art world as a whole dining the
late eiglities. Mendieia studied ait at the LniversitA" of Iowa,
where she began using her body as a medium in 1973. She died
in a fall from an apartment wHndow in New York in 198.5 at the
age of lliiilN ->i\. bill left an important oettrre of ox er 200 color
photographs ilociimenling her body works.
In the sevenlies reniiiii-i aitists also focused on photogra-
pli\. which lliex percei\e(l a- a new er fine art medium and thus
less liidelidiiiid li\ I rail i I i( Ills (if male dniniiiance. Bea Nellies, a
374
photuirraplier who emerjit'd ai the iH'iriiiiiiiii: of thi' dccadf.

The Prominence of Photography in the
coiuhiiied a late sixties iirevereiice for tecliiiical ((inxeiiiidii-.
witii tlie "initior an" of sewinu. Out of iiostaljjia for hei' iioiiie Context of Painting
wiieii siie went to graduate sehool in U)()8. Netties started
sewing iierseif a ip^tiit. Tiiis led to the idea of [)aintiiiK on t[iillted
III
llinrli o| llic ,111 III llir l.ilc ~i\lir^ and imiI\ -e\i-nlie> —
canvas, and h\ liie summer of \'-)'70 she was experimenting [Miln iilaiK III rniirrplnal ail. prili iriiiani e. li-in]iorar\
witli sewing paper j)ilotogra])hs and llieii |iaiiiliiii; phnli) iii~lallaliiiiH. ami \\iirk> in iniinlr -m inii^ — pliiiiov:iapli\
einiiUidu on fal)riis. wiiicii site stitihid jiiiu ulicl^ like iille-rril till- I III I \ \ i-lnrlr |oi a w hIi-i i|l--riiiiiialioli o| lllc idea.
Stizannit . . . Surprised [llg. 1 2.8j I hi- ga\e piioioi:ra|i|i\ a -peiial pn iniiiinue and inan\
Tlie rebellion against the pristine ((iialiiv nf tiie tradiiidiial -eM'ulie- arli--l-. lioiTi backgroiinil- in painting as well as
photograiihir silver piint demonstrated in the iine\en. liinwii- media like |Mifoniiaii(e art. turned to llie camera. \^ iiliam
stained surface of Sitzdnnci . . .Siirprixed eclioes the defiani Wriinian. tor exam])le. began making ])hotogra|ili- ami
subject matter. Nettles made this work at the height oi ihc -liori. \aude\illian perfoniiance videos in !''()'• wiili a -ide-
coiinterciiitnre protest against the .\niencan invoKemeiu in -pliniiig. dead-pan humor. The viileo> upiralK -liow tin-
\ ietnam. She stuffed this iinmistakablv conhontationai nude aniî in his T-shirt and jeans, working w iili minimal piop-
and sewed it around the erlges. then fi.xed it on to a
self-portrait and delivering an absurd monolog in a Hat. emotionless tone.
faintimage of a fonnai garden. Tiiis version of "Susanna and In !''"() he bought a Weimaraner [nipjn. which he named
the Elders" shows only the bather in her garden, forcing the Man Hav. hi "Ray." he found his ideal collaborator. The dog
\iewer into the role of the elders, caught jieering from the made a perfect straight "man. accepting eveiT command
bushes. Nettles looks the \ne'aer square in the eye: and instead with absolute sincerir\- and transparent devotion. Wegman
of the passive enibaiTassment of Giorgone s or Rembrandt's drew goatees, glasses, and berets on some photographs,
Susanna, tlie gaze of diis nude o\eipower? the s[:»ectator and superimposed the dogs image on evocative settings, and in
assumes control. 1
'^'"'8.
w hen he began ii-ing a large-fonnat Polaroid camera.
e-lalioraird ilie luiliiiou-l\ ftinnv costumes, make-up. and
>ets for the dog into lieautiful compositions of color and

texture that made full use of the Polacolor's siibtlen' [fig.
12.9".With phrases like "bad dog" or "who's coming."

1 2.9 William Wegman, Polynesian, 1 981 . Color polaroid,
24 20;n (61 50.8cm).
W egman prompted poignant expressions and the pathos of
Photograph courtesy the orfist.
the dog — whose lovalr\' and wish for affection persists
through all maimer of indiiinitx — ultimatelv cut> through
the joke.
A Dazzling Photorealism
ae-thetic of the photograph also enterei.l ])ainting

The
around 19^0. Painters such as Richard Estes and Chuck
Close used oparpîe projectors, slides, and other mechanical
aids to produce an itnage that seemed technically precise and
had its point of reference in photography the repro-
duced iiuage rather than in nature. The photograph no
longer simply fixed the subject, it became the subject in its
intiiguing inter\ention between the paimer and the motif.
This new "photorealism" fed oti the detachment of sixties
art— the work of Jasper Johns, minimali-m. |)o]). and
conceptual art.
Richard Estes [fig. 12.10 turned to photorealism in

19t)7. luaintaining that he continued to be "an okl-fashioned
academic painter nying to paint w hat I see Nor do I have . . .
anv verbal theories behind the work. "" He painted nostalgic

views of the old upper W est Side in a dazzling technique,
using photographs as the source for his paintings. The
photographs equalized the vaiiety of textures and objects in
the scene to a common denominator as fomial eleiuents. an
effect the artist fuither enhanced by painting everythini; in a
uniformly shaip focus unlike photographs .
.\Ianv seventies realists S[)ecialize(l in particular

375
A New Pluralism
12.11 Ralph Goings,

Moby Truck, 1970, Oil on
canvas, 4ft 5ft 8in
(1.21 X 1.72m
Pnvole collection. Photograph by D.
5 Dee. New York, courtesy O. K
5 Works of Art, New York.
376
12.12 William Beckman, Double Nude (Diana and William 12.13 (above) Duane Hanson, Woman with Dog, 1977. Cost
Beckmanj, 1 978. Oil on panel, 5ft 4in ^ 4ft 1 1 in (1 .63 x 1 .5m). polychromed in acrylic, vîth mixed media, life-size.
polyvinyl,
Herbert W. Plimpton Collection, Rose Art Museum, Brandeis University, Wolthom, Moss. Collection, Whitney Museum of Americon An. Purchase, with funds from Frances and Sydney
Photograph courtesy Frumkin/Adoms Gollery, New York, used by permission of Forum Lewis. Photogroph by Gerry L. Thompson, New York.
Gallery, New York.
subjects, such as Robeit Clottiimliafn's jiaiiitings of vintage

coiiunercial signs and marquees. Robert Bechrle's cars of ibe
fifties and early sixties, and tbe concentratimi (ni did |iii k-uji
naicks. diners, and trailers bv Ralpli (.oing- lig. lll.ll .
Some ])ainters seem to liave gone iiack to the "one hair

brush "
in oil |)aint-. a> in \\ illiam Beckman s astonisiiinglv
lifelike and beaurituilv painted Double \iide 'Diana and
If'illiani Beckman ol l''~o. which fiiifls revelation in the
minnie>t details of naime. like a mofleni \ an Evck fig.

12.12 Duane Hanson ami .lohii De .\ndiea perfected a fully
.
12.13 —like the wax effigies of

lifelike style in sculptiu'e [fig.
Madame Tussaud. these figures have an imneivinglv real

presence. By focusing such detailed artention on the polv-
ester homeliness of the average .\merican. Duane Hanson in
particidar illuminates the real popular cidtnre of .\meinca.
Chuck Close painted his 9-foot-high .Self Portrait fig.
12.14 and the series of momnnental portraits of friends that

followed from photographs, using an airbnish a commer-
cial an technique . .\s in miniinali~ni. ( lii-.c ~ii arbitraiT
rules for himself: the imigshot com|iii»iii(iii^. die re--triction
to black and while, the colossal -caii-. hi each i a-e. he
carefulK j)repared the sinface with multijjle la\er^ of
12.14 Chuck Close, Self Portrait, 1968. Acrylic on canvas,

8ftll'2in X 6ft 1 r 2in (2.73 x 2.12m).
Collection, Wolker Art Center, Minneapolis, Art Center Acquisition Fund, 1 969,
377
A New Pluralism
\ucli(\ I lai k liKikr lliii)ui;h from a coiiveiilional. late-

liliir- -i\li- (pI u;i-îiirjl iiiiliîn in 1971 to a (lislnrhiiiiily
-iii-li |iliiiiiiirali-iii clun'i.'ed with an eqtialiv imsettlitig
|i(i -iiii.il 11 II 1 1 II II I -i 111; an aiii)riisli to tieate tile effect of the
-lii k -iiilaic iinil llic ili'|i[|i of Held vai'iatioils of a jiiioto-
i:r:i|ili. >hc ((iniiMi^cd -nlMilr oiijects as in a l)aiii(|iie
(illc-iiiA. ill \liiril\ii liiniliis ol IT", for i'\ain|iie [fig.

1-1. I") . I kick |iaiiilc(l a li-\icoii (ircla--ic N\ iiiImiK Inr vaililv
die llKlkr-ll|i |Mil^. Ii|i^lick. inill'or-. . die e|illelllcialil\ oj
lilc die liiiiiiiiiv: I jiidlc. die riiiwcr. die -.iiiriini: lioiiriila^^ .
and ciiilicisiii die ii|irii |icacli and die |ieai's . We wece

ninched li\ îiiiii' ik'i'ji jiaiii and l>eanl\ in liei Maiilsn
'"
\l,,iinM. I ki,k .ai,k Nieanwlide i kick aK., in.hideii' a
clnklliund |.l -lapli nl liei'M'lk k'aNiii- no .loiil.l dial die
al-n inleiidrd an i\| ik iial ion iil her own \ iihiei al lilll ie--
llll<>llt:h the -îiIpici I
Entering the Real Space
i| I ail - allack on die liniindarv iietw eeii liiiili and kiw ail.
PI
iiiiniiiiah--ni ^ >eiiê ol iiteral [H»eiice in real -|iace. and
die iiiideniiiiiiiii; of the aesthetic object per .sc in i iiiice|iiiial
12.15 Audrey Flack, MorWynfVan.tas), 1977. Oil over acrylic on .^,., ,„ „,,| a iiimil.er of artist, in the -.exeiilie. In enle,
I"'"
canvas, 8 x 8ft (2.44 x 2.44nn).
Collection, University of Anzono Museum of^Ârt. ^Tucson. Purchased

„...,. with funds provided by
, ,, dieir work iiilii a niin-ail ciinleM. Scoll Billion . Iiiniiional
the Edword J. Gallagher, Jr., Memoriol Fund. scill|illlie lii;. IJ.Il) delil leraIeK lloxer- oxer die ailllii-
i;iliii|. line iHiweeii line and a|i|ilied ail. Hiiilon made

liiniiional olijcci. Iiiil di'cw on an ail liadilion —
•-inoodiU' sanded gesso, laid mi a liiilii |iencil ^;rid lor scalini; Vri^diw aiicr. .Iiidd. Toiin Si nidi — for his formal \ ocalinlarx
n|i die pliorograph. rouiiiied in die iiiiai;c w iili die airlirii^li. and die audience Ini hi-, work was an art audience.
and 1 1 nil ineticulouslv refined and finisiieil the iiiiai;f. \\ lien l'o|iiili-.i-. like'ferrx .Schoonhoven andMctoi' lendeison I
( liiê introduced color in I'Cl). lie oM-iJaid four who niade ii]i the "h. \. fine Art-- Sipiad" --iiii|il\ w ereii i
nionoclirome paintings f in the |iiiniai\ ciilnr. and Mack as concerned with the a|p| in ilia linn nl die an w m Id. Si a id i iil;
in die color separations made loi coloi

I
iiiniini:. ( lose made illiisiiiiii-.tic painlini;- on Maiik walK in die workadav
llian\ [iliorographs of the |)eii|ili- ;iriiniid liilii. and w lien lie eil\ iionineill ol die inner ciu -.|iiaiiL; up ill iieii;lilioihoods
clio-.e line to paint he baM-d In-, .scleclioii on wlieiher die arnniid die I inled Males at die hegiliniuii of die decadi'.
rmius thephotograpii had interesting edge-
in m paiiii. ( )nce riie-e aiii-i- nlien < Im-e topical themes, as in the depic nun
he had selected the subject, his process wa- s,i niedindical of die Isle iif ( ii/ijnniia 'fig. 12.1"". painted jiisi afni die
dial he could accurately calcnia e die leiii;di nf I iiiih- ii w mild earthqnaki' ol l''~l.
lake III linish a work liv measinini: die area lell in be paiiiled Richard I laas also siailed painling the sides nl buildings
and could also vi-ualize e\acll\ Imw die linishcd work in die sr\ eiiiies Hms. 1 2. b". and 1 12. !'• . bin lie nnsialgically
would look. debed into die real andiili-cliiral pasi nl his siirs. making his
12.16 Scott Burton, TwoPart |I*W*'-

Obfuse Angle (A Pair),
Chairs'
1983-4. Granite, 33 ' 24 ' 33in
(83.8 X 61 X 83.8cm) each.
Collection, Vi'alker Art Center, Minneopolis. Gift
o( the Butler Family Fund 84.3. Photogroph
courtesy Mox Proletch Gallery, New York.
12.17 above) Los Angeles Fine Arts Squad (Terry
Schoonhoven and Victor Henderson), Isle oi California, 1972. Enamel
on stucco, 42 ^ 65ft (12.8 19.81m). Los Angeles, California.
12.18 (right) Boston Architectural Center before the painting by

Haas,
12.19 (below) Richard Haas, Boston Architectural Center, with

trompe-l'oeil painting by Haas, 1 977.
379
A New Pluralism
iiimuls seem even iiidh- icmI |i\ iln-ii- loial iiilrt.'i;iliiiii into SITF. PnijeciN in !''"(). addiessing the singularly non-art
ihrir visual and liiîniical coiucm-.. \1\ wmk llia^ andiinrr dial pii|iiilali-- rriaii chain stores and shopping
explained, "often invoKes. ainoiif: oilier llnni:>. l)iiiii.'iMi; mall |iaiking lots — as in 1978 Ghost Parking Lot
their
liaek an as|)ect of a place that was somehow losi. " Even in in Hamden. Connecticut [fig. is a more
12.20]. Theirs
hi- mosi historirist moments. howe\ei. laii~ did nol render I liiniiiniU pop'îiarart sensibility than that of Haas and is
till- |iast with com])lete faithliilne- — lie (lici-r in-iiMd lo laii;el\ a di-.ign jiractice rather than art. But the collahoia-
ailju-l I he anhileetuial pasi of the -ite to whal IkhI cxoK i-d li\e naliiir i if SITE s design process, as well as the Itrilliantly
amiind ii -Inri-. Haas thus effecti\el\ nnhinu'e- lii-imical iiiiaginaii\i- results, reflects the unanchored imtlti|>licitv of
>t\ies. iisini; them in a deridedK p(i-l--i\lir~ |

mi-i iin nlii\ n la|i|iiiiL: liaine> of releience llial characleri/rd ilie
eniist 1
collage ol airhili'ciiirai laiila-\. In die ihiniialic inllni al rlinialr nl dif -.r\ nilii--.
cutaway-rendering on tin- wr-i wîll dl ihr Hn-idii \r( liiiii-
tufal (Center seen liefe Imih licrnic and alirr n- cuiniileiidii

Public Sites
ill T'"'"'. Haas amal:;anKiiccl I iimni'- 1 .(nii- Bouili'-es
\i~iiiiiai\ |)i"oject for a iiin-rniii dl ihi' 1 "iid-. ihc I'arK- |ncrea->iiig niiinliers of talented artists gravitated to civic
nineternih-ieiitur\ lediral Hall m \i\\ \n\k. anil the and corporate design conmiissions in the seventies and
|)fofile (il till- dmnr nii die I'andii'iiii in Kniiir widl echoes eighties, rvintrodiicing a vitality that had largely dis-
III' dii- liearli\ (liii-liali >rii-riie riiMi|ili-\ in die Boston a])])eared from \-iew in the subways, airjjorts. parks, and
Baikl5aN.'- •-terile and si.xties when the
coi^jorate structures of the fifties
\li-iin >ls\ . Mirlirlle 'Îiiiir. and .lanir- \\ ine- chart ered iiest artists more autonomous context for
retreated into a
their work. Joyce KozlofTs 1990 ceramic tiles for tlie Plaza
Las Fuentes in Pasadena provide an exuberant reprieve from
the workittg milieu of the city [fig. 12.6].
12.20 JamesWines, SITE, Ghost Parking /.of, 1978. Plaza and
environmental sculpture, Hamden, Connecticut. Useci automobiles, .lackie Feiiara also began collaborating with aiiliitects
bloc bond, and asphalt. and w (irking in piiblir -jiaces at the end (if the seventie-.. Tiie
380
nio-i irilcic^l iiii: M^prci i>l licr \\ (irl% li;i^ |M-i->l-icnil\ lircii ilic
lli|i'>'li<iii III ;iii rirrrillK II i( 1 1\ i( 1 1 i.i 1 1 1 \ iiilii limliK ~i I ici I lal ic
|iiiiL:i'aiiis III riiii^liiniiini. wIiciIiit mi a îiiall |iii(r ol
-,iil|iiiiiv Mirh a- \20<r/.,,iiir ll-.ll^.-JI III III ill,- KMI-I.Mii-

~i|iiair 11
I
la 11 nil Ini llic (.'iiidcii ( dm l\(ti<l nl lln- I iilinii
( I II nil \ ( .ii\ ri iiiiiriil I riilri 111 \llaiila a ri i| lal ii il a I ii ii I u 1 1 1
lIlcaiiliiliTl I'aiil I iinll.i-i- li^, IJ.l^.' .
I ri lai a hail In in iii\ ii|\ nl in llir lia|i| iriniiiis iiT ilir lair
lillii'^ anil raiK î\lir^ ami niailr ^niall -riil|ilnir^ i lining: iIh'
~i\lir> III riiiik\ inalcriaK. ( )iir -ciir- iiimiKimI a liali li nl-tlHI
-lilllril |iiL:riiii~. winrli ^lir aripnii-il Innii a laxiilrl nii^l -
w ai rliiin^r 111 I'Mi-f. I rnaia - wmk nl llir raiK ^rvrillir^
111111- al llial liai'killii I in llir ri rrlil l iril\ ul llir liil I
12.21 JackieFerrara,A209Zogg, 1980. Pine, 112 46' 2 31'2in

(284.5-118.1 ~8cm).
Collection, Donald Sussman, Greenwich. Conn. Photograph by Roy M. Elkind, courtesy the
ortist.
12.22 (below) Jackie Ferrara, Garden Courtyard, 1989.

Collaboration with M. Paul Friedberg, granite and slate steps,
walkways, platforms, seating; water, grass, and trees, 100 ^ 100ft
(30.48 -30.48m).
Fulton County Government Center, Atlanto, Georgia. Photograph courtesy the artist.
381
A New Pluralism
12.23 Tadashi Kawamata, Spui

May-July 1986.
Pro/ecf,
Hoogs
Spui Street, The Hogue. Supported by the
Gemeentemuseum. Photograph by Leo van der
Kleig Studio, The Hogue.
1 2.24 (below) Mary Miss, Pool

Complex: Orchard Valley. 985. 1
Curved walkway, wood, stone,

concrete, 3-acre (1 .21 -ha) site.
Collection, Loumeier Sculpture Pork, St. Louis,

Missouri Photograph by Mary Miss,
works siicli asZogg. set off by tlieir iiifticiiJDii^ |ilaiiiiiiiL; ami

iiiii-iiiiiiiiiii. The artist titled Zona al'ifi- ilic |ii-i^(>iialii\
il liHik (HI. 'a^kâiTl looking, pugnacious, cmmi kirn I nl \\is\\
. . . \iiil I ( iirilr-- I iJK, light of Ggdziiln too."'''

I he drawings for a Fen-aia sculpttne are iniegral lo ilic
meaning, hi a work such as Zogg. Ferraia atteni|ii((l in
visnahze all aspects of the scnljitm-e in (lra\\ing-. and in In i
head, then she would figiu-e oin tin- iiiia-iiiciiiciii- Im cai I
of the small wooden element--, liî ilniii ilieiv could In a
huiiflred or morel, cut each ol iln-m precisely and dnii

working from the plan. nealK < cm^liiict the foiiii. I lie
J^!S^:^,.-Jm-,
iliawings include the cutting li>t and \aii(iii-- \ iiw ^ — atrial
|iir spectives. isometrics, side flt'\alion>. anil pailicidaiU
(iiiuplex views which the studies on paper lielped her
'.Jifii
\iîiali/e. The juxtaposition of the lliree-iliiiifusional form
w idi I lie \ arioiis two-dimensional inlfipii-lalioii^ ol il in I lie
draw iiigs in triguinglv highlights the nlalioii ol au idea to tlic
\ariflv of jiossibilities for inteipretiiig il in material form

anil despite all the careful [tiaiming lai li work vielil~
liiirxpected revelations in its three-dimen-.ional incainaiion

The .Japanese sculptor Tadashi Kawamata liaiiu'd a> a
|)amter. seemed to me that tiie structural
Then he said, "it
.-.u|)|)ort of the canvas, i.e. the wooden trame. could itsell
become the basis of mv work." In 1 979 he began construct '

'
ing ever-more comple.x temporaiy installations of wood
12.25 Mary Miss, Pool Complex. Orchard Valley, 1985. Wood,

stone, concrete, 3-acre (1 .21 -ha) site.
Collection, Loumeier Sculpture Pork, St, Louis, Missouri, Photogroph by Mary Miss,
382
Like liu' Spiti Project, wliicli In- ((Ui-iiiicit'd hmm- ilic s|)ring e\cnliiall\ lo-l Id ihc elcmciil- or hi die cnridii-. wIki
ami siiiniin'rof l''8(i iti ilir I laiiiic tiiuî nriiif.c -nv |)i'i)jf dc-li(i\((l ihcni III iimiil; Id lake ilieiii lidiiic, I lic-c dwell-
involve the s]iiiil ol an aniiiric inral -|iarf nr .iniinire ing-, w jiicli Iddk like mmialiiic anciciil iiiiii-. Iia\ c In dd w nil
;%. 1-2.23. a -eii-e dl (KnaiiiK lian-ilidii Ikhii die ( [iIiciik ral pic-cnl Id
The sile projeci^ ol \lar\ Mi-- — lor i\arii|ili' ilic lun- ai a m\ -Ifi'idii- and iiik li-dd-cd liiliirc. "-inidiid- clalidralcd
Luiimeier Park in ."^t. l.oni- tiu-. 12.2-t and 12 2-") — lia\f ni\ llidldLlical (ix ili/alidii- (if "I illlc I'cdpic" dial nid\ e(l im.
an at'finiiv to Ndizni'lii- uaniens in tliai tlie\ iiKinmn- an lliKMii^li dii:aiii( uii'dWlli and cliaiK c cncdimlcr-. Id pcipc-
inrli\'i(lnal and iniiniaie encounter with natmi'. Imi whrn- liialK cxdhiiiii -(||-( (iiicc|ilidii-. I heir Cd-nidldiîc- were
Noiiuehi relied on nalinal lnrni. Mi-- < rialed a ic c (ini|ili\ rctlc( led in llicii -l\lc- dl linildin:; and lli(\ Icli a nalinal
e.xperience of senlinure a- -pair. Wln-n I am Inokini: al lii-ldi\ III ihc-c aililacl- a- llic\ iiiiL:ialc(| ilnoiiiili (lillciciK
?.triieture> that intiTf-l nu-.' -he ha- iini cd. 'I am luni-ini; un ncii^lilidiliddd- dl New ^ (irk, liiiildmi: and llicii aliaiiddiiin;^
the experienee I am -eeini: comaini-d wiihm dirm. ''

I he -ill--.
\\<uk (it \lar\ Mi-- (haw - on carlx nicmoiie- ot die Vmerican I lie dwellini.'- dl ( liaric- >iiii(iiid- cdiiccni (irgailic
Wc-l. |i.it Ik nlaiK on |

Jichi-Ioric -ile- -nch a- \le-a \ erde. gniwih III arclnlcclnic. (iilnirc. and civ ili/alidii and their
which -he \i-iii(l a- a child. When -lie came to New ^(l^k e\(ilnlion hegan with the earth — hteralK. die clav from
Irom iiloradd in I'ldJI her Wdik -ccnicd preoccupied with
( which thev are all niafle. In 1970 anfl l**"! .'îmdiid- did a
recapturing tiiat e.xperience ot ilie extended landscape in the couple of imjioitant generative pieces using his own hodv: In
confined space of her New \ork studio, soniething she tried Ruth he buried himself in a New Jersey and enacted
clay pit
to do hv (listriliuiin>; the coiujKi-iiional elements in implicitly a filmed rebirth from the earth, while in Landscape /Body/
infinite -eipience- acru.-- the floor.' By the end of the Direlling he lav down nude on the ground, covered himself
se\enlie- -he had m(i\c(j intd amliiliou- excavation and with clay. luodelled his body into a landscape and built a
Con>lrU(li(in pr(i|c(t- in die iialiiral land-cape, a- in the dwelling on his torso. The contact with the earth was a
I.anmci( r pii-( directlv sensuous experience in both of these body works,
and their secpietice miirored the development from the earth
Appropriated Sites of animal life, culminaring in mankind, which in turn built
dwellings, and then cotniTumal civilizations.'"
Chaile> >iin(in(i- ( ame lo he known on the Lower East Side The dwelling- in empty lot- and the like followed
of New \ork in the earlv seventies not for commissioned flirccily (in ihe-e budx piiM c-. 1 he impeniianence of the
site works but for work in appropriated sites. L usus|)ectiiig outdoor ])iece-. fragile and e.\|)oêd in the most vulnerable
pedestrian- would ha]jpen upon his miniattne clav villages settings, heighten- that sense of the evanescence of things.
fig. 12.2() undei- ea\f-. in cracked walls of condemned Thev leave the xiewer with the iiusetthn!: conviction that
liiiildiiii:-. and on (Hilddor window ledire-. where nid-t were someone ha^ lived ilieic Inn ha- now mvsterioiisly
vani.-hed — indeed, one mighi niurn tomorrow for another
look only to find even these small traces gone. For Simonds.
12.26 Charles Simonds, Dwe//ing, detail, 1981. Unfired clay wall thi> was a ge.-ture against the materialism and coufonnity of
relief, 8 x 44ft (2.44 y 13.41m). the corporate culntre of the seventies. "If you leave thoughts
Collection, Museum of Contemporory Art, Chicago. Gift of Douglos ond Carol Cohen, 8119 behind vou that other people can develop. Simonds jiointed
c 1 994 Charles Simonds/ Artists Righls Society (ARS), New York.
1lut. "you've had an effect on how the world looks or how its
thought about. I dont see any reason to leave behind thing-

w hich lose their meaning in time, or even exist as a -ymbol ol
nieaniiii: at a i:i\'en time pa-t.
Gordon Matta-Clark's Site Critiques
"-inidiid-. -\laua-(. lark api.ird]iriate(l -ite- for a -dcial

Like
(riti([iie. and as in the site projects of .MaiT .Miss and
Kawamata. his work involved a sense of place rather than
form. But insteafl of constiiictiug a site. Matta-Clark
attacked the strtictural integrity of existing buiklings. ciu-
ling gaping holes through the walls, ceilings, and floors as
-hiiwii in the pair of photos entitled Bronx Floors: Floor
\l.nrr. Ceiling Beloir lit;. 12.2" "1 warned k, alter die .
w hdlc space to its \cr\ rodls." he exjilained. '

\ hi- nieanl a
recognition of the btiilditig's total semiotic system, not in
any idealized fonn. but using the actual ingredients of
a place."-"
383
A New Pluralism
"
Maiia-Clark's "ariarrliiii'inirr m- In- ciiIIimI ii— m |i1,i\ ili'înicmriiiL; was riesiiinefl to create a new biography
Mil w iM(l-. Iiisiiifiaiiarclu ati<hii(liiirc line —w ;i- ;i ilililirraic Inr ;il laric li iriic I Imilditms. "to loiiveit a place into a state
f\|)ression. "BviindoinL'a
"
|Miliii< m1 iiiiildiui;. 111' âiil. ilicir i<\ iiiiiiil. "
arc inaiiv asf)ects of tlie social conditions ai.'ain-'i w liirli I am I lie ôii nl dif -m n-aliî jiaiiin-r Malta. ( .(U'diiii \latta-
"estm-int:- "' 1 Ic --aw the iioiisinj; ol till' Ni'w \ ni k iilniio^ a- ( laik studied airliiirciiirr at ((iiiicll and the Sorl)oinie.
akin to |)ii-'on ci-lll)locks. and tiic i-olaiimi nf tin- -.nlmi lian n-tiii iiiiil: to New ^ mk in I'lti'* oi make sculpt lire. I le died of
"iiox" a-. -caicrlN aii\ lii-iti-i \lalla-( laik- aim \\a^ to cancer in l''"??') at the afic of only thirty-fix c. lint hi- ^lioit
di--.iro\ ilir l>arrii-f- hnwciii |m(i|iIi- hirrallx ami liiiiiia- career nexcrtheless had a profound effect on the toiii' nl i he
ti\cl\ opciiim: lip thc'-r ••|Miii-ii-iiiililar "- >trtictlires. to New \ ork ait >ci-iie in the -cxcinie-,. mideriiiiiiiiii; iixcd idea-
n->c- aiKilhc-f 111 lii~ acniiir |

-. Malla-( lark's aggressive of art as a rohr-.i\r riitity. I If also h;:iirril imporlaiilK in
12.27 Gordon Matta-Clark,

Bronx Floors. Floor Above, Ceiling
Below, 1973.
Site proiect in o building in the Bronx, New York.
Pholograph courtesy Jane Crawford.
12.28 Gordon Matta-Clark,

Splititng. Four Corners, exterior, 1 974.
Six blacl<-and-whitephotographs,
two 12' 2 8'4in (31.8 ^ 21cm) each
'
and four 16 20in (40.6 - 50.8cm)

each.
Photograph by Adorn Reich, courtesy Holly
Solomon Gallery, New York
384
tosleriiiirn seii>t' ol'cnininimily aiiti)im vouiil' arti>l> in '^mI Id Ill l'*~-t \lalla-( lark eiil a -nliiniian New .iei~e\ limine
al llif time. Ii('l|iiiiu tii oriianizt' a cullccliM- ivxliiliilimi mil 111 hall and c lin|i|ied mil die i ni iiei- li^ |_'.l^,", , j h,- |
.,
work s|>ace al I 12 (iri'i'in- Sim-i a- well a- an ini-\|irn-i\ c Wa^Mhednleinm deninllllnlKlllilhelnll-edlnlhealldiMlelv

ralV'teria callrd lond inn li\ ami leu aiii-i- in ilir iitiiililini llnIK and llnlaeeNilnmnll. wlln~|inl>~nlei| llle|iln|ei I. I |ke
hood. \ in. A.v.Mui. \li.-.' Auo.k. .la.kir l.nara. .|,,m|,|i all nl \laiia-( laik - wmk. >/,/i//niu: I "in ( nnnrs wa-
Kosnili. Dinni- ()|>|Mnliciin. Sn>aii HollienKiTi;. Man "âni. iindneimieiilahle. I he arliî exhiliiied lrjL:iiiein~ em mil nl'
and I? id lard Sena wfvr jn~l a lr\\ ul ilif aili^l^ \\\\>< ran inni hi^ \ ariiiii~ |iin|eii~ and ^l i iiuiilei I in liiid a w a\ nl i n|lai:iii;:
one anotiii-|- al 1 1_* ( ^rn-m- Micii. and \\\r raiiMi- ul ~l\li-~ |ilinini:ia|ili- In îi;;-e-l die radii al leeliiiM 1,1 111- idea, hm
among dii> t;riin|i ul arii-l- unii' ai;ain |i(iini-- \r dii' ili'( a>li'. he alleled \- die |iailllel >ll~all Knlllel il lel l; lei ailed llnlll
Matla-('lai'k coni-n-d daniiri- on ~.\i'ial ( oinn- — ânii- llel e\|ie| lelli e 111 >^)///////i;: "j mm nlll-ide. die illl had a leal
roameil the desertecl neiLrlihciiiiiiud- in \\ lin li lie w mknl. In- Inrnial Innk. I he iiiîde^ Were like a elia^ni ii|ieiiiiiL: li|i llie
ri>ked heiiigcaiigiit bv [lulirc -nirr In- LimeralK cm np dii'-c I'ardi al \iiiir leei. Keali/inu thai a limi-e i^ I e. -heller.
al>andoiied hiiilfhiiir> wididni |iiiiin~îiin Inmi ilnir nwn- -ali-l\ . . . Iieilli; in that liml-e made \nll leel like \nll were
er-- and lii- a~-anll nn die -n|i|iiiii -.\-.n'ni~ ol dir lnnMini;^
. enierin;: anndier -tale. >ilii/ii| ilnenia. die earth •- Iragilitx.
made diem liaMc In -Irnclnral in|ki|iî-. lii> iic kli'-îie~> I and lllllnl wnllder.''"
w a> manile>led in iillier wax ^ loo — in !''"() lie w a~ ni\ led n i i
])ariiei|iati' in an e\liiliiniiii Inr aiti-l-- and an Inn-ei^ ealled

The Complexity That Is Culture
"Idea a- Mndel." Inn in-n-ad n\ -.nlnniltini: a |iin|iu^j| Im
new anliileelnre lie deeiiled In i'\liiliil ]iliiil(iiria|ili^ nl die Ciilinn' i- ni'xeian mderlx paekaue. hut an aeeimmlated
ciiffent -late nl -nme lonniT "mndel hnildini;- in die >niidi -edinu'iit in the mind. It eoiisists of all the ideas, people.
Bi'onx in w hieli dii- (peen]ianl- had -ma^lied nm tile w inilnw ^. and

iliiiiL:--. exeiii- that aie as.sitmed bv or seem coiiinioiiK'
On the e\ e nl die >linw - n|ieiiini: lie ll~ed Demii-- memorable to the ])aitieipaiit>. Tlie mnhiplicitv of often
( )|i|ierilleilll - BH L;lin In ^llnnl nil I ll le \\i III InW - nf the gaherx (diitradietofx diieetions in tlie art x\ mid nt the seventies xâs
to «h"i\i- ilie |inim linine. I hex w ere re]>aii'eil in time Inr the new not beeanse other periods weren t eqnallv comjile.x. lint
opctiiiig anil the m i;aiii/er-~ lenioxcd -\latta-( lark^ wmk because the art world had beiriin to recognize that diversitv
llnlll die -llnw . a-- definiiii; it- main--tream.
Romare Bearden
Riimare Bearden. an Alriean- \nierieaii iniiteni|iorar\ ot W riizht. and .lame- Baldxx in. hi addilimi. he diexx mi a
tiie abstiaei e\|iie-sioiii>t>. enjoveil a rediscoveiA' after sophisticated understanding of art lii-imx faxoring styles of
iiis retrospect ixc ai the MtiNeiini of Modern .\rt in 1971. He nia.xiimim coin|)Iexitv. such as the bari>([ue and Picasso's
began his artistic career a- an niidi^tiiigiiished social realist early ciiiiism to describe the xarieix nf street life in the
(hiring tlie W.P.A. and then painted in established idioni> Harlem of his childhood and hi- memm ie- of black life in the
through the hirtio and liitie-. In 1''04 he turned to collago rural South. The iniierent prominence nf im|)iovisation and
of .\fricaii-.\mericaii lile and emerged a- the mn-l brilliant appro]uiation in collage made it the ideal form for such an
new collage-maker of the deiade. Txxn trait-- in partiiiilar aesthetic. The fact that cnbi-t cnllage xvas itself partly
made his work after lQ(l4 impmiant and
so relexant to tiie derixeil frmii the cmiiple\ rhxdini- aiifl analvtical fragmen-
changing ctihiiral ethos of the -exenlie-, and eighties. First. tations of .African art max haxe made it all tlie more
he anticipated the collage ae-.tlieiie nl pnstinodernism b\ his attractive to Bearden. hi adajiting the language of collage for
reconte.xttiali/ation of imaire- iiiina perieption of realitx on his particular expressixe svnthesis. Bearden broadened the
the picture plane. >eeiindl\ . die xx ax in xx liieh he brniight his canon of art historx with a contriliution that wa.s significant
own .\fro-{!aril)bean ciihnral lierilai:e inln a rich relatinn not onlv in term- of it- --iibjecf matter but in it- a[ipioaeh to
with the Eurocentric traditinn- in xxliieh he xxa- Inrmallx the medium.
educated provide- a ]iaradiL;iii Im the axxakenini; nl a Bearden w a- born in Charlotte. .North (ianilina. in I'M 2.
broader muhiciihmali-m. and xxas reared in North Carolina. Pittsburgh, and Harlem.
"1 work out ot a if.-.p(in.-e and need tn redeline die iiiiai;e 1 le earned a degree in mathematics at New York L uiversity
of man in the terms of the Negro c.xperience I kimxx be-t. in the eaiiv thirties and began to paint seriously around
Bearden said."' L ntil his death in l''8("> he ap|ilieil hi- acute 1''.?."). It xxa? in that vearthat he attended a meeting of about
powei - of observation to ciiniem|iiirar\ Mrican- \inerican lilix A hican -American artists at tlie Harlem VMC.A. out of
life, in xvhich he lotiiid xariaiion- mi the tiniele-- Ininum whii h the Harlem Artists (iiiild was formed."" Discovering
concerns raisefi bx xxriiei- of the \^ e--teni iia--ical main- die existence of a substantial community of black artists was
streani frmii Homer tn .loxie. and b\ the mme recent im|iiprtant in hel])ing Bearden to visualize himself as a
Airican-Aniericaii xx riter-. noiablx Ralph l.lli-mi. Iîchaid pioh's-imial painter. The "Harlem Renaissance nl the lale ^
i
385
Romare Bearden
iwenlics iiikI raiK lliii-|i.-^ m ;:iv;iI riowiTiiiL' of Xtricati-

\iTitM-ii-ati ail. crliliialiiii: Mriraii- Viiii-riiaii -iilijrci, iiiailc
llii- a |iailirnlail\ aii^|iiii(iiis iii.mih'Iii lur liraidni lo ^rck
-n,li iimhI.I..
In tliclale tliiilics. Bean In Mm i I hi I w iili ( ..oigt- Crosz at

ilir Art Students Lea<;iie. Tlw work dlilii- ( .i-rman expatri-
ate [fig. 12.29] provided Beaidm wiih : |,.| nf diivil
social and political commeiitaix in lii;:li an w Iik li iiiiiinahK
riK-oiiraged him lo see ihr iiossiliililii's ,if an Africaii-
\ni.-ricaii .^nlijecl mailer.- Bcanini -riAcd in die military
World War
•^^^ diniiii:
i'i~ " die >aip I

II. .showed w ilii
Ivootz (ialleiy in the late forties,

llie abstract expressioti-
and went
lo on die (d Bill ill I'l.lO. h «a-, die Cixil Bights
I'aii-
niowineni in die eaiix -ixiii--. ioi:cilier w idi In- diseoverv of

Maels CaiiMiean ciiliine on die island of St. Martin in 1060,
dial sii-nis Id haxe eakani/eil lijm jmo focusing his artistic
iîli- on die complexin of die iSlack experience, with all its
lieiilaiie and adapiaiioiis. ill late twentieth -cent nr\ America.
12.29 George Grosz, Circe, 1927. Watercolor, pen and ink, and
pencil on paper, 26 19' 4in (66
48.9cm),
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of Mr. ond Mrs. Woller Boreiss and on anonymous
donor (by exchange). © Estate of George Grosz/VAGA, New York, 1 994.
1 2.30 (below) Romare Bearden, The Dove, 964. Cut-and- 1
pasted paper, gouache, pencil, and colored pencil on cardboard

13% xl8%in (34 X 47.6cm).
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Blonchefte Rockefeller Fund Courtesy the Estate of
Romare Bearden.
386
111' illl|i(i|iiihili'il lnii-t:iiiiillil III The Ddif -el- nil llii-

Bearden's Collages of the Sixties I
llllin>ll\ 111 I he ~llr'(i I He. W llli h ^rclll^ M\ rr|Mi|]|lLlhi| In lllr

hill -ill li:
I
lull II, w lillc I 111- iîill( al lianiiic'iilalldii and -lull- in
Ihiri'. a collai;!' nl' l'>()4 t'ii:. \-.'W |Minra\> runic in- >iali- w illiiii rai lui in kir|i ilir \ icw rr rini-ianlU ivadjii-i-
Tin- . li
|)i>iai\ 1 laiii'ill. i)\ri-|aiil w llli ifiinril-ii-ncr- olCliililli 1. In^. In -miii' liiialK. -mli a- llir Iri:- dl llir linmlird-i i\ i r
I lif l)ii-\ ^ceni'. ir'o\\dcd iiiln a -liallnw |iiriiiilal -|iair. w alkiT. Bcaidni liaiiil Ini in- Iroiii |
i1h M(ii;i a|ili- ol |ial inn-
\llii-alr^ Willi acli\il\. On llir Irlr a Hiiinr lill- 111- cnlari^cd and IcMinr- dial lirai iiu nlalKiii in -ninri' m -i air In llir
ti-1 in a Mack |)o\\i-i' -aliilr,A liiiiirliril-n\ n |ii-i|r-.irlaii cilijcci ilir\ an- ralird iiii lo rc| n I'-i'i ii in ilir riillai;r, l,\rii
>CLirrii-~ lliim lllr Icll -Idc inwaid iIh- rciilrr a- a Xdlllli; llluir lliail in I lie i i i|||clll|i( n ai \ wnik-iil Kd-ilii |I||--I. llir-c
(iaiid\ -inil- ai'ni-- llir |ililiiir tmin die ci|i|i(i-iir iliicrildii. -rmldiK Imak- in llir dc-cii|p| idii nl i-m-\\ di-iall incira-f llir
sporting' a fa[). |piillril down ii\ri III- cm-- i>\\ In- ii\ii-i/r
head, and lioldiiiL: a laii;i' clviairiir liiiwrm iniinnnii'inal
fin2ertil)s. Tliirc in<-n -ll cunit'iniilain rl\ (in ilinr -innip-. 12.31 Romare Bearden, Preva/ence o/R/tuol. Baptism, 1964.
Photomechanical reproduction synthetic polymer and pencil on
wau-hini: llu- lif.- of ilir Mn^dil.nrlinnd iia- and tmiii Iin.
,' . . poperboard, 9' 8 I2in(23.2 - 30.5cm).
e\pr\"v\'htMV tactv-- in'i-i- mil mi in ilic -in-iM. \ nn-irnmi- ^ j c -.l
__
'
r u .
Collection, u ul
Hirshhorn .a
Museum andjcScuIplureGarden.Smilnsoman .. u/ l
Institution, Washington,
i . . .
ronjlll" woman" W idl a lial|-\l-|ll-d tarr icacllf- mil and DC Gift of Joseph H Hirshhom, 966 Phologroph by Lee Stalswonh. Courtesy the
1 Estate of
Romare Beorden
Steps dnwii llilti die rllllll corner nl llir |i|iliiri-. leaillllL' mi a
cadiicen- nriiiiciiw ined >lalk> a -\ iiilml nl Imili I lei-iiie,-- and
of the nieiiii-nie lieal.T . •I'.m'II In I'lii-lnir-ii. Ii\iii- In llic 12.32 (opposite) Romare Bearden, eiack Manhattan, 1969.
" Collage of paper and synthetic polymer paint on composition board,
hoti>e in hack of iin i^randnindier-. Branlcn recalled.
, ,. ,, ,
253 ex 21 In (64.5 53.3cm).
"there wa- an o ll wniiiaii iiiiich Icarcii
, , I ,
tnr lirr iinwi-i In iiiii _ ., ^ , . l n, ^ ., „ n

Division, Schorr-burg Centei for Research in Block Culture, New York Public
,
I I
Ajtond An, focls , , , ,
spell-- on |icn|lle.
"'
Library Astor Leno. andTilden Foundations. Courtesy Ihe Estate of Romore Beorden,
I ^V
387
Romare Bearden
388
\nsiial speed of the work, with tiie strong vertical and lii--tiiriaii ^li a 1(11 1 Pat ton lia- pointed out. '
In I he Dure, the
iiorizoiital iirid inakiiii; liie visual racophoiiy even twiyr (i>tijiif woiiiati with lief ni\~teiion- knowledni- ol Miican
pronounced. T/ic Don' pays homage to dn- <iilii~i urid a- a ^|inilnal power- i- an alteiiiatix e iiiiai iiat ion ol the (.reek
wav ot setting off the energetic Iragnientaiinn nldic ~ulijirt. oiarle. Ill the -aiiie wax. the art lii-lofical appiopiiat ion- in
Tile lirick wall in the l)ackgroun<l. ol)slni( iiul: a Ihiil; \ irw I'liTdltiii r ill Hiliuil: Ihijilisiii are at ml her meal i- ol I ilterini;
into space, is hv sexenteniili-i iimn \ l)in(

tlirectlv ins|)ired li the i-xellt- ol lite and lllelllorx iIiioi|m1i ihr ni\ til- ol other
street scenes such as tliose hv dr Idm li. Mcanw jnli- iln ilnM- 1 era- and i iiltiire-. I -eek lonneit ion- -o dial ni\ paiinini:-
ot" the title, perchefl ahove die rmral ijndiw ii\ ,|il:l;'~i^ dn-
i . (ant he oiiU what tlle\ appear lo li'pte-eilt. Hi-aideii
presence of C!hristian faith as a ]iaii of the oxerall --eiiing. explained, d'eoiile ill a liapti-iii III a \iii:iiiia -ireaiii are
without, however, suggesting an\ svsteniatic allegoi\ linked to .loliii the Hapti-t. to aiieieiit piiriliial ion riii'-. and
Bearden scollage> lia\ r ^(inic ncmieni --\ nil)nl>. -ik h a^ to their Miicaii lieritagi-. 1 hi- iiinltipln ation ol xoices
the train in I he n()[)er icfi i urin-i n| iln- /'rcrdli-mc at liitunl: make- clear Beaidi'ii - |iiopiietarx altitude lowaid all irreat
Baptism [fig. 12. .'51 . Im- i-\aiii|ili-. "1 u-i- iln- irain." In- I radii ion- in ait am I lileiatnre.
e.xplained. "as a --x nd>ul nl iln- ndin- cIn ili/aiion — die w liiir At the em! ol the -ixlie-. Bearden alll^l I lenled lli-
ci\iliza(ion and il- cmrdacliini-nl ii|"in die IIm-^ nl liLicJs^. innoxatioii- in collaLje compo-ition — e^peciallv die >peed of
Tlie train was alwax-- --iinirihiug ih.ii (iinid lake \iin ;i\\a\ the infoniiational Imak- in the fragmentation ol individuai
and could al.-'O hring voii in w In n- \ nn wrn-. \rid ai die little figure- — w ith a iiiiii|iie color -eiise. involving large, flat areas
towns it s the hlack [leople wlm li\e iieai llie Iraiii^. "' ^ et of iiilen-e -a 111 rat ion and oil en contrasting hue. Bv juxtapos-
Bearden seeni^ alwavs to --loj) --iKiit nl unriiniiL; lniii-.eil' ( iiii; (•omplementarx color- o| die -aiiie xalue hrightness i.
within a deliherate iconography ol aii\ kind, lii-iead. ilie like die orange and hhie in tildi k Mmi/iattan [fig. 12.32 . for
conceptual unity of his work centers on hi^ acute oi)>ei"\atioii example. Bearden made the color> vibrate xxitli die same
and the way his iiiiprovisational technique
of the j)eojile frenetic intensitv as the iiiiai;ery while siniiillaneon-lx using
convevs the pace and rlnihiii of rheir live-.. Moreover he die blankne-s of the orange, grax and liliie field- to -et off
.
collages the subject matter, like ilu- lniiii-. in an additixe die bu-x eolli-ion ot |iatterii- and lorm- around them.
manner that is distinctly po-.tmodeiii. Bearden — a iiiie-tiiiii> -ong x\ liter. x\iio>e loxe of jazz ]Hd-
hi the Preralencp of Ritual: liaplisin. Beaideii eoii- foundlv iidliieiiced the percu— ix e contrasts of pattern, color,
sciouslv ipiotes historical sr\"les of art In the diiee face^ and subject matter that defined his collage — created a
boiTowed from \X est African masks, and in a iicneral wav he haniionv of inclusiveness in his stxle. a celebration of
also cpiotes art histon- in the com|)o-itiiinal -iructure. ^\ liich comjilexitv rather than a modernist rerliiction that exchifles
takes inspiralioii linni the painliiig> ot Zurhiiran. a-, the art the extraneoii-.
Alice Aycock
Tlie xarielx ol toiiipeting logic- a,-siinilated into Alice >lie iiiav imagine herself as that jiarticle traveling dirough
.\ycock's an give it a fantastic character, hi a single work an accelerator or see the drum of the cement tiaick as a
she may overlay suggestions from a Babylonian diagram whirling xortex that opens a hole in the universe with a
explaining the structure of the universe, the tumbler on a staii-way to paradise. Curiosity overcomes fear in Aycock's
cement truck, the image of an angel floating on a vellow xvork —a frightening whirring of blades or an a^xesome
cloud in an obscure Renaissance painting, and a chart of the breakthrough in astro|)hvsics will draw her in lor a closer
paths of particles in a nuclear accelerator. Each imidie-, a look and she masters the teclmolog)' through projections
system of ideas to her. and she visualizes such ideas into of imairination.
forms and even machines that function, not as sxmbols. but
as incarnations of cross-tracking trains of thought: tliev are { Irani In crurk it n/jrn. 1 /nuc/iirir is ii tool am/ l/if liml is a
majis of the mind. Avcock uses her art as a vehicle for living luvntal I'.iiciisidii of your lioily . . . il rcjlcrts on the striirtniv
and wavs of thinking
the fullest range of different disco^•el•ies ofvoiir niinil. lis that that I' in interested in. the structure of
that she canencompass at any one time, hi this -eii-e. her the mi1 1(1 . . . nn irork is a rer\- personal attempt to deal iritli
work epitomizes what was genuinelv nex\ about the plural- the period that we are in Diirliamp irlio realh had one . . .
•
ism of the sexenlies. She approaches -ciiliiiiire a- an foot in tlie Middle Ages and the other in quantum mechanics
interdisciplinaiy arena for exploring idea-, an ojien -x-ieiii . . . jilayed reiy poetically iritli these ideas . . . I play iritli
'~
which pi-rpetuallv expands and thus. l)x delinitiiju. under- liislor\ : Il s also necess(ir\ lo phi} with science. '
mines all canons.

.\vcock hasgetierated her prodjgion-ontpiit ol -ciil|itiire Ai die ven core of Aycock's self-realization a> an arii-i is
and drawings bv weaving her sources into riclilv detailed an earlv childhood memon of watching her father, an
stories. She scans across historical experiments in science. engineer and contractor, build a small model of a house. It
lilliiuistic striK lures, and die matrical faiita-ie- of children: XX a- -o -mall -he could hold ii in her hand.
389
Alice Aycock
12.33 [above] AWce Aycock, Project Entitled The Beginnings of o

Complex 977, Dokumenta, Kassel, Germany. Wood and concrete,
. .,
"
1
wall facade: 40ft (12.19m) long, 8ft (2.44m), 12ft (3.66m), 16ft {4.88m), 12.34 (below) Alice Aycock, Pro/ect Entitled "The Beg ningsofo
20ft (6.1 m), 24ft (7.32m) high respectively; square tower: 24ft (7.32m) Complex. .," 1977, Dokumenta, Kassel, Germany. Inten ir view
.
high • 8ft (2.43m) square; toll tower group: 32ft (9.75m) high. looking down into shaft with lodder.
Ptiofogroph courtesy the orlisl c Alire Aycock, 1994 Photograph courtesy the artist, ici Alice Aycock, 1 994.
/
390
Xili/it after iiiiiht. I trotild inilr/i liini iiiakr litis, [flfiirdids. iindereronnd I iiniiel-. I he -iililenaiiean nia/e prov ided ihi'
he iiurc me tite iitixlel to phiyiritit and lie limit I In- Iniiisc. oiiK ai'ci'-- Ik the innrioi laddi'i w liii II III iiiin led lip inid (lie
This mis the house I ixreir tip in. >'> / IkhI mi r.i/irin-iiii' eii.'lo-.'.l lnw,'i. W hei '
iinalU dideineiee jr., Ill die dark.
irhieli I think letis very iiitpotlmtl hecmisr 1 1 niild iiieiilnlly CI'll-lllllllK 11,11 III W limilel- III die Llli\ I mill III IM die h^ III. line
possess soniethtiiix. routml il. sec tl us it ii-liiili\ lilrtnlh linlil w a- lap pel
I I in a well -hall m lnwei
///.' ."
it ill my lidild and then later. I tnis inside oj il. sttrrnmtdid rni/iil l.iililhd lU-tiinnitfjs nf ,i Cntiiplr.i . .
b\'(i /)h\sieal. lariie .ttriu lure. I iras isireti mi emiy rltmire -imiillaneiin-K exnked clan-l 1 1 ipln iliia. eiiphmia in die
to eoneeptiialize a spare llial I imtild lire iti. 1 spme in -CI -aI I ion ol lieiehl-. and a I the -a me lime \ erlign, I he narrow
irhieli all sorts of eiitottnitnl eretils iniik jiliter. Hiil il inis u and liiw iiiidei eriiimil pa--aiie- relei red hack in \\ciick-
risiial einteept."^ 11 ip III l''~l) hi die I ,l;\ plian p\ lamid- and die ( .reek lieehne
Inmli- at \l\ceiiae. when -he laiila-i/ed aliiinl lieini: liinied
Ill l''~l2 \\i(Mk liuih il wiiimIi'ii iiki/i- -Vl li'rl ;iriii^v (in an ali\e al the heart nl llie-e liieal iiia--e- of -Imie and earlll.
i--(ilalrcl lai'iii In l'i-niw\ 1\ aiiia. Slic \\a^ IicnIi <ini ol lirr \laii\ of \\c(ick'- work- ol and eaiK eighlie-
die -exeiilie-
ina^li-i'^ ilri:rrc al I liiiilcr ( ullri:!'. w Iiiti- IôIici I Mui 1 1~ had lorced the \ icwi-r inio -eemini^K dangernn- -itnaliun-. a- in
eiifonram'il licr inicn'î in inakiim "-ciiliiliirr-. a^ loul- lur a fiiLihtening anin-emem park attiactinn. '
' In !'•"'' -he

exploriiii; icriain cniki kik r-.. Bruce Naiiinan ^ \ iilrn cniii- con-lnictedr/;e.l/</c/,„/c ///„/ l/,//,r.v ///c // n,/,/, a fenced-in
dors also siig!ze>tfil to Iut tlii- kiml nt ii-^vclidldiiical rmilnin- wooden niazi' thai lead- the \ lew er under a -erie- ot heavv
tatioii witli oneself. Aycock gol llie iilca lor Maze IVoiii the steel giiilloline- iiiin a ciinfimng ciiiiilar lah\ rinth and in the
cin-iihir |ilan for an F,s\"jitian lal>\riiilh which ^hc came liinlt a -ei ie- of miiiori/ed blade machines
earlv eighlie-. -he
acro" III ilic II mid liiiok Eneyelopedid wliilc linkiii:: fur a that-eemed -harp and daneeniii-. In these works she
(Icliniiinii (i| iiiaLinetic Xorlji. '( )riL;iiiall\ . I had hojicd to comled di-a-ter w iili iili\ imi- plea-inc — the fear inherent in
ciralc a inoineiit of ali-iihite |iaiiic. -he âid. "w hen ihc i iiil\ I he II ha- an almo-i eintic
I i|iialil\ . I like In -care m\ -elf lor
'"
thine thai niatlered was to get out, "" the plea-lire of it." -lie -aid.
\\cock'-. work tlu'Ollgll the iiild -e\entie> ceilleied on Seeiiii; il, 0(1(1 people climliing aroimil on the cnn-triic-
|(li\-icai actions that led to a cnnllictine mixture of ex Heme liiiii for l)iikiiinenia nndermined for \\cock the ]iri\ac\ of
p>\choloi;ical sensation- fi laii-.ti'o|)lioliia to exhilara- till- p-\ choloeii alK ciiin|ilex exjierience. and in The .Angels
tion. In her seminal Liur liitildiifj II it It Dirt Hoof [For Maty ('ititliniie Ttirniitg lite II heels of lite I nirerse [fig. 12.35],
101'3 . the viewer liarl lo craw on I all fours into the entrance her next major work, i he \ iewei could enter in concept only.
of the .'^-foot-hieh shack, iindi'r a roof laden with ~! tons of In llii- in-lallation. -he con-triicted a detailed set that
earth. One felt frightened and clo-ed in li\ the weight implied an e\teniled diamatic narralixe. "Because the
overhead, and vet oddK secure as in a dream -late. I'rnjeel archaeological -ite- I lia\e \ i-ited are like em[ity theater- for
Entitled "The Bes;innings of a Comple.v . . .
"
[fig-. 1- -l-! and pa -I e\eiil-. I trv to laluicale drama- for in\ In hiding-, to (ill
12.34 an elaborate wooden complex which \\(

. (k k Imili them with event- that iiexei lia]i|pened. -hi- explained.'
for the "Dokiimenta" e.xhiliition in (iinianx in l''~~. .V\ cock look iii-|iiratioii hn I'lie \ it gels ( on I nine Iroin many
consisted of five sejiarate -triicline- cdiinected li\ a -\ -liaii ol -oiiice-. inclndine an l-lamic diaeram de-criliiiiL; how a
Ji'Mff 12.35 Alice Aycock, T/ie Ange/s

Continue Turning the Wheels olthe
Universe: PartII In Which the Angel
in Red Dress Returns to the

the
Center on a Yellow Cloud Above a
Group of Swineherds, ,1978. Wood,
23ft 23ft 16ft3in(7x7x5m).
;-
Sledeli|k Museum, Amsterdam, destroyed.

Ptiotograpli courtesy the artist. '£ Alice Aycock,
391
Alice Aycock
1 2.36 Alice Aycock, From the

Series Entitled How to Catch and
Manufacture Ghosts, "Collected
Ghost Stones from the Workhouse,"
1 980. Coble, copper, galvanized
steel, gloss piping, steel, wire,
wood, 30 >. 75 -^ 120ft
(9.14 X 22.86 X 36.58m).
University of Soulh Florida, Tompo. Phologroph
courtesy the ortisl. (£ Alice Aycock, 1 994.
iainl)ii\\ Idnn^. medieval paintings of aiiiiels lexiratine in one moment he was fighting a battle with the archangel
mid-air niiK a levitating angel could aîi'iid du- iiiMMlecl Michael in die -k\ and at the next moment, because he had
staiir. . and frightening childlidud memories and dream.-.. ealeii beef -lew and he was not supposed to. he caused Vi orld
In 1979 .\vcock moved Innii die wmideii -.inictures to XNarl.-"'

a|i|paratu*es that reseml)ie(l die lalinrainrv in a xiiitage
I raiikenstein movie, as in liei- llmr In ( Uti li mid Mdiiiihii- Metaphor Replaces Physicality in Aycock's
liirc Cliosts 1Q79'. She liad n-ad -.(imew liere llial when
Work of the Eighties
|ii(i|)lr lir-i discovered and magnetism the\
electricilx
diiini;ln didê phenomena were and ennld In- n-ed in

mai;iral Fnini die Sines Jjitillcd JJoir lo Catch mid \hiiiiifacluiv
riin|iire up gliii^t>. .\> her imaginaiKm weiii id work on liii,-. Ghosts. 'Collected Ghost Stories from the II nrlJiouse"
-he 1 iiniluded that ghost? prohahlx cume mil of light. ?o she Lfig. 12.361 developed out of //oH'ô Catch mid Mmiiijacliirc
ciin^nncied How
Catch and Manufacture Ghosts with
to Ghosts. To visualize the parts, the artist borrowed frniii eaiK
iinen-.e theater lights trained on a |iiaifi)rin surrounded by experimeiu- in electricitv. a Standard Oil refinery nn die
\aiicin> elements of steel, glass, and w ire. A live woman was New ,Jerse\ I inii|iike which resembles a futmi-iic cit\. die
rrnniied lo sit on a bench, blow in;: bubbles at a pan of launch pad Im Mmitgolfier's pioneering balloon a-cent nl
wairr, in winch there wa^ a bniile willi a little bird inside. \~iVA. and element- of .Marcel Duchamp'fi Bachelor Appar-
\lla(hcd In die pan wa.'^ a leinnii baliiTx. "

taken from the iiliis. \ccm-diiig tn the ai'tist the galvanized drums — which
in-Ill ir lie 111^ ill a science bonk fur i Inldren. re-einble Dnchanip - ( hncolate Grinder from the Hachclnr i
first -hnw n. \\ cmk pin a i|nntalinii —are was

[ppmiiliis " agilal inn canisters.' Wlieii a ihild
W hen die work was 1 I
nil die wall lie-.ide it from a schi/nplui-nii w Im had w ritteii ihmight thai iii\ -mil Innked like the inside of a washing
""
dnw 11 In- dreams. 'This person realK fell thai he w a,- the air. machine . . . Sn I di--iîieil ilii- w iili a movement like that.
he iliniiL:lii dial he had created .Alaska, he fell speed moving The and plaifnrm have multiple mechanized parts
canisters
ihnin-h hi- bnd\. he felt himself being |iushed along the and originallv -he inicnded die work to include live liirds in
wall- and all the liiiie he -i-enied In be experiencing cages as well, d t^li dial prnxfil too problematic.
-en-aiinii- w liieh \\ e can nnb imagine. In nne of his writings .\lice .\\( lick - wnik frnm the late seventies through tin-
he -aid -nmetimes I dream in\ nindier dreaming me and mid eightie- re-create- the magic, the nostalgia, and the
dial - hnw travel home. "
I
m\-ierinii- ilneaieiiing hirces of dreams. Often. indi\idual
W hat .\vcock liked esjiecialK in llii- iiiaii - w riling- wa- wiirk- c pi i-e niiK a small fragment of what initialK -eem-
ihai -he could identify with the wa\ he diniighl. "with the like a cniixnliiicd narrative but which does not actiialK
-iniiihanenn- in-eiiinn iif iniillipir level- of diverse matter fnllnw die -ei 1
1 ii'i 1 1 iai Imîc nf a naiiatix e at all. 1 ler blade
dial 1 i;ii iliinni:li when I make a piece."'" .\s an e.xample: niachine n\ P'iH. I Sidiildlioii In ihc Uniidcrfid I'lii nf
lie wnnid lalk aliniii innxiiii: diinniili -pace and time. At Knnirlrdisr .Irllv llsli. II nlrrspniilrr. . . . Thciv's a I InIr in
392
|(enci-el\ 1 1 lira I en ini; chararler nl' die ]iliy--ical cniil|inlirilt.>.

1 2.37 Alice Aycock, A Salutation to the Wonderiul Pig of
Mirr dir iri-arhi'inii- lilade niacliine.-. ami magical
Knowledge (Jelly Fish, Water Spouter, . . . There's a Hole in My Bucket,
There's a Hole m My Head, There's a Hole in My Dream), 1 984. Mixed cniii|ile.\e- -mil a- T/ic II i)ii(lvrfiil Pig of Kiloiflediie and
media, lift 7ln A 9ft 4in - 6ft lOin (3.53 - 2.85 - 2.08m). ( 'ollcrli'd (,'l/iis/ Sliii-ii',1 from the Uorkhoitse. Aycock ste])]te(l
Photograph courtesy the John Weber Gallery, New York, ici Alice Aycock, 1 994. into a iiinrr ah-naci and ]ihiloso[)hical mode dtirine the mid
on esoteric diagrams of the iini\ci-r
eighlie-. cnnceiitratinK
and nusiical languages. In a drawing of 1*18. > riiiided
MvlUnkrl. Tln-rvSallulrni \fy/fr,n/. riirrrS ,, I In/r in 1/r Circling 'Round the Ka'Bu: 'I'/ic (i/ass Rtud Cniiie fig-.
Oil 11/11 lii:. Il2.3~ . Ii;i^ a ili^(|iliflili;: |iir--i-iiic. w illi inox iliu 12.88 and 12.8<)\ .\ycnck imdrird die mii\ei-r a- a l.nard
fllas.s lilailc- iind clerti-ical |iinl~ llial ^ci'iii (hnitirrnii-- in game. The -w iiliiig fniin- a( die ceiiler deriM' in |)ail IVniii a
a|)[in)acli. \i\ at llir >ainf liiiir llic iniaL;iiiali\r lnaNado nl Renaissance i r|]ii--enlalinn nl die ci»iiin- liy the I'.nglish
I lie tiilc and I III' innocence witli w liii li \\ i nek had iiiaiiiiin- iii\-iic Hnlirii I liidd whii-e fanciful drawings also inspired
lali'd llii-~r forliidding material- ami dr\i(r> -iiiilic-i ilic die cnr\iiig Imni- Inr niaiix nf .Viicm'k's blade macliine> .
liaii-l(prinali\i- [lower- olacliild-laiila-^N. .\vcOck nirlanini|ilin-rd llic-e -w illillg CIIIA e- iiiln ihi- idra III
I lir aml)iu'uil\ nf llir lillc III dii- wink iniiriir- llu- a small, di-kdike aiiiiihidii-ater. fnr which -he Inmid
(luiii)le-e(lL'e<l torinal riiil<r]ili(iii. maild
llu- lic-niri- iiii|ilird
in llie âliilalioii. and ilir nlrniicr in ilir ir|Miniini-

cliildi-en'^ ->nni; "Theie'v a Imli' in iii\ Inukri i'\iikr warm 12.38 (opposite, top) Alice Aycock, Circling 'Round the Ka'Bo: The
iniairi'-- of cliildlioiid. Ca-liiiL' knnwlrdiir a- a \i\il and Glass Bead Game, 1985. Pencil, pastel, and watercolor,
4ft9'2in ' 6ft 11 in (1.46 2.11m).
l\\i>linj.' die innocenr >ong into an e.\|irc--'inn nl cxi-triitial
Private collection. New York c Alice Aycock, 1 994.
(lisilliir.ionineiii tiinis tiiese sensarinii- in-idi' mit. I lie liile
and llip [liece are childlike- in diiii \ iilm raliiliu and \ ii

.
12.39 (opposite) Alice Aycock drawing Circling 'Round the Ka'i

cruel. The [.)Oeir\ nt' the work lir- in dii- jn\ia|in-innn nf The Glass Bead Game, 1 985.
the delicately elahnralerl a>^ncialinn- in rhildl d and die Photographer unknown.
393
Alice Aycock
"^^ L<Z.
394
' *"^"*^-'îmf<
395
Philip Guston's Late Style
-nine time been working with bowls, inspired hv ancient

12.40 (opposite) Alice Aycock, Tree of Life Fantasy: Synopsis of
theBook of Quesfions Concerning fhe World Order and/or the Order ol biiliaii llb--erâtories. The work also has references to the
Worlds. 990-2. Pointed steel, fiberglass, and wood, 20 ^ 5
1 8ft 1 - lirlirr- iil l)\ \. In fragmentations of the Gropitis theaters,
(6.1 X 4.57 X 2.44m). and 111 iiieilii\al and Beiiaissaiice illustrations of people
Collecllon, University of Illinois of Urbona-Chompaign, Photograph courtesy the ortist. 5 Alice
walking off to Paradise through a whirling hole in the sky.''"
Aycock, 1994.
Here that ladder to heaven has undergone a radical meta-
morphosis iniiia |iiii|i-ilii-liiiip" roller coaster sunnounted
by cosinograni-.. and mi ilir iicllis at the apex the artist
|initotvpes in the ron-tTii(ii\ i--i "T(ii:il I Ih;ii<t" flesigiieci liy iinaginr^ a li\ w isteria grow ing up from the back, a garden
i-
ill pa radial- and a tree of life. The white represents the piu'itv
\\ alter Ciropins for Biiliii ill
\'>'2~. \i ilir rciiier is the secifi
iilitire of'tiie Ka Ba. a Mo.-^lcm >liriiie in .Mecca that honse> a ihal llii- iral Will 111 lacks.
Mack stone said to have been given l)v tlie arcliangel Gabriel \lirr \\riirk i^. in iiiie -.eiise. a traditiiiiial makrr ol
hi Miraliain — llie objeri inwanl w liiili \|i i-lciii- all (i\cr llir iibjeii-.. Ill ilir rarU scxenties her highly personal. com])lex
Will III lari' III |iia\ . ka Ba aKn iiiraii^ bii\ ill \ialiir. am I a \ was radical in relatirjn to the minimalist cube, the po|)
isiiin
lilaiL Imi\ i^ tlie term ii>e(l in science tor an "unknown" to icon, and the conceptual art action that dominated scnl|iiuie
br ilriliKnl bv experiment. Here it embodies a cosmic at that time. Her work is inclusive and maximal instead of
iii\îer\ that one can t penetrate: it is also a shack, like the exclu>i\e and minimal — it is aboiu eveiTthing at mice,
l.oir Building nith Dirt Ron/ Fnr Mary IQT'B . So the filtered through her ])eipetuallv e.xpanding network of
ill aw ing combines architeinne. nature, and the mairic that is imagination. Each object has layer upon layer of unex-
ill --o much ot her work. pectedly intersecting stories and allusions that keep reap-
Tree of Life fanlasy: S\ii(i/)si.s (if tlie Book of
hi pearing in her work as a w ay of bringing eveiything together
(Jiu'stions Concerning tfie U orld Order and/or the Order of into some complex whole, while at the same time undermin-
llorlds [fig. 12.-f0; of 1000 „, ic)c)2. Aycock turned the ing the fixed relations of a stable world view wnth a constant
^lipped amphitheater upright, making it vertical "so that influx of new ideas. think that it s just simply the desire to
1
ilie --teps are not steps that von can walk mi Thev re not
. . . push farther, to go beyond the known structures, and. in a
i|iiite of this world." she explained. In aililiiimi. ^lie had for sense, the w ork is a ineta])hor for that."'*^
"I ]i the anti-historu-al posnimi Philip ( .iiîmi iiiî^teil in a The sheer courage of Guston's leap to a figiuative style
I lecture of 1 y 74. "each artist is , liiiiisi-ll. "'"' In I'mitrast at the end of the sixties [fig. 12.41]. as if willfully tossing out
111 jiostuiaies of historical inevitability or ilie social construc- hi- "old master" status as an abstract expressionist [fig. 6.8].
lion of meaning piu forward in the latest critical theonof the 1 Ul night on a storm of rebuke from his established colleagues
se\enties. to the iniperaonalitv of minimalism, anfl to the and former friends. For that ven" reason it also reaffirmed
language-based signscape that preoccu|iied .lolins. the pop painting as an arena for radical ideas in so far as Guston. in
ai ti.si5. and many conceptualists. Phili|) (liistmi's reassertimi the service of authenticirv. had no alternative. Guston was a
111 the self as the [nocreative nucleus of art in the seventies painter perpetually beginning again, risking eventhing to
amiounced. and influenced, a rejn\enaiiiin ot introspectix r I'lillow an idea iiiln the iiiikmiwii. Imth -i-rliirci! ami tortured
paintiiiii li\ ilmilii. Mv whole life is Ixmed on (in.viety. he wrote to
What made Guston s wmk ul llir lair si\nr^ ami Ills Irieml Dole Asliiiiii. where else does art cniiie from. 1
seventies so impoilant was imi iis puliiiral iliiiinisimi — its ask vim '
""
"imaginative grasp on the epoch, as Hoseiibeigpui it— exen Ash ton described (,usion s character as one ol extreme
though that was present, but that the depth of its existential iierMtus tension he was a chainsmoker and a pacer and the
'
'•
struggle made painting real again. To most of the art world, high initability that existentialist philosophers regarded as
paiiuing had become inelevant as a response to the pressing the hallmark of the artist."'* Wliat particularly struck the
concerns of connecting oneself tn the world in the later critic Peter Schjeldahl about Guston s late work was that it
sixties. Rosenberg hinted at Gustmi ^ rule in reconnecting 'appeared to deal with a level of doubt that would paralyse
painting to the self when he WTote ol Gustoii s late work as a anyone Even in the earlv fifties, when the abstract
else.
""*
lilii-raiimi trom detachment. "" For Guston and other expressionists hung out at the Cedar Bar. Guston's friend
all
iiiiisis of the abstract expressionist generation, jtainting Mercedes Matter recalled that "he'd come in one night in an
iiiafle concrete one s thoughts about the most im|iortant absolute gloom. He'd sa\ just scraped off months of wmk . 1
i|iiestions of ethics and identir\— w ho one was in relation to on the floor. I'm not a jiainter. It s no use. .\nd lied have
iMiits and to the painful dilemmas of the human condition. everybody flow n . . . \iiil ii iii\er failed that the following
1lirir ilelilieratioiis became palpablv visible fonns and thus week he would final in. not touching the ground, and say,
pi lints 111 -,t\le engendered passionate exchanges. 'I've just fiiiisliiil till- first lainting I've ever done!'"'"'''
I
396
12.41 Ptiilip Guston, The

Studio, 1969. Oil on canvas,
4ft x3f»6in (1.22 X 1.07m).
Pr New Yorl. Phologioph
ivale collection. by
Erie Polhtzer, courtesy David McKee Gallery,
New York.
(.nsi,,,, ,v;i<i ;i\i(iiv-.s|,,-,i,iiiv in ihf iifid. ..r phiio-

Guston's Early Career
îi|ili\ ami lilfialinr — and laiiiilil liiinsi'll tu paiiu. llicie
Gii-iiiii w a~ It'll II l'liili|i ( .till Ui I'll I III 1 '' I i 111 an ini|iii\ ri - waîi 1 iniirli in ^rr in ilir |iiil ilir mllrri iuii^ ill Los .\nji;eles at
i-liril Kn^îan iiiiiiiii:raiil laiiiiK. lie nirw ii|i in l,ii^ llii-liinr. Iinl lir Î iidifi I ir|iiiidn(iiiill^. i-s|ifciallv iif Jiaint-
Allgidi-> anil a I die a tic iil iwrKr ^1 a 11 rd diaw iiii: ^riii HiÛ . iiiL;^ 1 1\ Pira^îi and li\ dii- [ti-nai-.-.anrc nia^li-rs. In \'>'->- dii'
i'nc(iiiiai;i-il li\ lii^ iin illii-r. lit- ln\rd llir n niiir^. r^| iriialK \lr\iraii niniali^l l)a\id Sii|iirini- |iainlril a wall al llic
A/v/rr Ar// and \hi/l and Jr/j. and w aiiird In lir a railimnisi . ( Jiiininai'd In^liimr an ail scliiinl in I .its Vnueles) and tlieil
(a.i~ciiii allrndrd (In- Manual All- llii:li "^rlmiil. wlinr In- raii-nl a |iii|iiiral siii wjih an i mldi itir w ink ft ir Tin- Plaza
estahlislicd lit'eloiii; rrifiiil~lii|i- willi Hi-nltfii Kaili-li ami \i I- ( fiiiia mi OKfia Si. H\ ilii-- I inii' ( .ii-ltui w a- alifadv
,lack~iin Piiiliick. Iml In- li-ll willmnl f\ir liiii-.|iiiii: liiiili in\til\id in Iflli-I |iiililiis and krriiK inli-i v-lfil in the
>rliiiitl. In-li-aiL In- I
l: m-
nnl Willi a -mall ami i rl hIIh \lf\iraii ininali-l-. 1 If ami Piilluck f\rii Wfiil mil In .êe
l.'iiiii|i 111 liiiiliK inlfllfiiiial and aili-lic IrirmU w In fi Imalfd i ( )iii/r(i al wm k mi hi-. I'miiii-lhcns a I Pi iiiiniia ( nllfiif.
lheni-fl\f> hv readiiif.' literaliMf ami |iliilti-ii|ili\ ami \aii- (.ii-inn |iaiiilrtl -iniif |iiirlalilf IVf-nif- ul hi-, own in
L'uanl an jitlinial-. like Tninsitmn. The Ihiil. and < n/iiris l''.'l|. mi die difiiif nl ilir iiiiiniiiiii- lari-l liial nf die
il'All . \\ -e\ fiileeil lie ;.'iil In see lilt- inaLHii lifeiil ii illeii ii m nl .'riill-l inn Bnx
i -. In iiiii- |iailll illi; i il lite |
ii-iitiil he de|ii(iril Kii
lllDilern ail that lielmitiftl m W allfi ami 1 .mii-e Kn-n-ln-i ;;. Klii\ Klan-im-n w lii|i|iiiii; a iii|itil lilaek inaii: in am idler.
'I"hi> was a tliniilli; |Miiiil. and ( ai-lnii lali r t Tfililril llir dr hiindril Klaiisinen ainieil with eiiide wea|iiiiis limldle in
(Hlifit'O liaintillS.-. ill [larlieiilai- w nil liel|iint; 111 I r\ slalli/f Ills Irniil nl a |iiiiiiili\e iiallnws liLi.lJ.-H! . lie shnweil die
ami til inn tn heennie a |
tail Her. IVesenes in a Iriemls liiinksinre shiniK aller |iaiiiliiiL; I hem.
39
|-.ailv one morning a firoii|i nl KLni'iiicn :imi1 \iiii-iirini
I.i'L'ionikiires hnindisllin!.' lead |ii|m~ .iml i;iiri~ Im^kr irilo llii-
iHMikstoiv. >inii--lli-il ii ii|i. Mill I 'liiil llii- iM'- anil i^riiilal- mil
111 rile figures in llir |iaiiiliiii;~. l?iTaii-i- ilnii- \\a- an
i-\e\\itness tlie arli-^l anil hi- Irii-ml w nr a Mr in -iii\ inn ilir
jiiiliie. wlio oiiNiiMi-lx lii^lil^cil ilnii Irln-i |iii|iiii -. ili-iiii--ril
liiecase. teariiingGu>liiii a li---iiii aliiiiii jn-iirr in Kimrica

ill' never forgot.
in l'''W ( ai-ton worl^fil mi l\\ n iiiiiial |iaiiiliiiL; rmiiiiii--
-inii-. mil- ill Moi'eiia. Mexico, ami aiinllii'i in ( alilmiiia. ami

ilii-n 1 1 II i\ I'll 1(1 Nrw Ymis w lii-rr lir -lax 1-1 1 Willi I'lijlnrk III nil
lir isn\ -rlllnl. In llir lair lllillir- lir |iailllril iiiinal- Im llir
\\i'\ III \i\\ ^mk anil \r\\ I :ii:;laiiil. llir Inlnal |.ii .jrii-
|iiiiiim||i ii,:;iil]cr ,i iral ri iiiiiiiiniii \ nl iiilrllrri iial- ami

aili-l- 111 Nrw \iiik. Willi ihr I'lilliirk lilullirr- ami llir
|iaiiiirr .laiiir- iirnnk-. Im r\aiii|ilr. (.ii-lmi wmilil iû In
( )lii/rii - liTliirr- al llir \rw "-rlii ii i| i ir In a |

ila\ |illl nil li\ llir
12.42 PhilipGuston, Conspirators, 1932. Oil on canvas, 50 -3610

(127 91.4cm).
Locolionuntnowr Photog-oph courtesy David McKee GaUe.v New Yo'l<
12.43 PhilipGuston, The Porch, 1946-7. ON on canvas,

56Vex34in (142.6 X 86.4cm).
Colleclion, Krannert Art Museum and Kinkead Povilion, University of Illinois, Urbo
Champaign. Purchased out of the -Illinois Biennial" exhibition of 1 948,
Irilrral llirairr |iriijrii ami -(a\ np half the iiiL;lil lalking

alinlll II W illl llir nlllrl-.
Ill I'm (ai-imi Irli ihi- li\eiy scene to teacli at tlie
I iii\rr-ii\ ol Iowa Im Imn \ ears and tlien at W asiiingtt)n
I iii\rr-ii\ in .'î. I^mii- Im two. Wliereas Guston's |)ainling

Ciiiis/iini/nrs nf \9'A2 [fig. 12.42] has not only die iiimiii-
inenuilin Inn die <lraniatic volumes and spatial rece->imi nl

Renaissance and Mrxican frescoes and of de Ghirico. Iiis
''46— 7) [fig. 12.43]
painting T/if I'mcli I is squeezed into a
-liallnw iiilii-i -|ia(r. Tlie The Pim/i rrxcal
figiu'es in
( ai-iiin - lair lllillir- di-c(u eiv of Max Beckmann. dirii in .St.
I niii-. w iih ilirii riiililrniaiic lull uiidecipherabie pro|)s: tlie
Ihiir. a iinwii. a child wiili a jiajier bag hat tunietl away

plaxini: die diiiiii. a lilllr girl co\ering her eye^ with a
398
hantlkercliii'l iir|>a|)erlial. a masked li;ii li-(|iiiii in wliiir w iili with a ilccpci palciic. \| die -ame lime die inciea-iiii;
I lie sole onii> slioe ria(teiie<l ajiainsl ilic pn iiih' |ilaiic. jihI a -pcciliciu nl ilir Mile- aci nmpai I ici I a Liiadnal cnn-nlidal inn
liÎiiif wiili (iiif !«<: \\ra|)|)e(l as tli<nii:li in ilu- riMion^ nl a nl die inncllc- nl in|n| lllln Inl Ml-.
hallel clipper. lioKliui; cxnibals tlial ifrall llir L;ail)ai;c can I he I line- W a- a pel ind nl ma-lel llll a<l|nll pa ml llie- Inl
liil> iiM'd l)\ the cllildicn al |ila\ in ( .n-hin ~ W I' \ niinaU ( .ii-lnii. I Ic wnrkcd laie.'U III a ln|i III ( .leciiw icli \ Hla-e ami
riie |)(i\\»ier blue >k\ and (irani;i- liinnnd [ilain- in die w a- nnce aiiaiii iii\ nl\ ed Willi die ((iiiiimm II \ n| pa in leiin
lMcktlr(i|i lo The Porch siigiiesl llie ((iniinnniL; inllinnii' nl New ^ ork. -lax i lie lip all III el 1 1 Inl cnn\ el -al inn, W nrkilie 111 I
I'ierodella V viincc^ca' ^ FIdgellntioii a kiml nl aiii-lic . liiac un neixnii- encie\ nil Iniii: Walk- III die -iri-i-i-. -ninkine and
liir (iiistdii fVoin the heginiiiiiir of lii-- caicrr In addilinn. die drinking lieaviK in bar- willi niliia .iili-l- ni al die I iidax
Ixiildiiii: ill die let'l distance eMike~ an llalian |iia//a I ml dii- nii:ht meeting- nl "I he ( liib. In J.iimarx I''.)!! he -liowed
liki' llie wide wiuideii lliMnlHiaid- iiia\ lia\i- ninre hi dn die lielii. call ie rapine acimn paimiiiL:- nl I'L") 1 al die I'eiidot
with the Vlen-iielL'^ de (llilicn-. (.Il^liin^ illlerr^l in ( .allei \ . In- lir-l -hnw in Ncxx ^ nrk -iiice I
''4 ). I hi' nexi x i-ar
and -|iecitirall\ in Pna^ô^ (•urniud liii.Ll.ni

i-iihi--iii. . he joined the f.gan ( .alleiv. xx here In- xx nl k prnniple(l talk ot
einei'iied between the lime he painled ( (iiispiniliirs and I he ab-tract impre--inni-in. althnngh die real ancestry of
I'diih. iii~|iirini; him in dn- lalier wmk in Halti'ii the liiinic- die-e xxnrk- xxa- noi in jiliiii air paiminy: bin in lIu'
and ii-e dii' wimmI Iramr |inrrlii-> i\\ die liiHi-e> m Inwa a~ p-x clioloi:icallx charged ginxx ilial illnimnali'il ilii- |iaiiiling-
I'ieni di'lja ranreêa ii>ed die inhimii^ and beam^ m the li-ll
l" i iiT Rembiandl.
-ide 111 riic FhlgeUdtlon In eii-ale a xi^liai leiiînll bel\\een
the diaiiiainniarir reeessiim ami the anti-iilnsioni^tie tlallen-

The Reemergence of the Figure
iiig of patterns on the jdeuire jilane. There is a riassical i'ii;i>i
to tiiis t'oniial structuriiiH that lends a timelessness to the X die end nl die riliii--. (.Il-lnll beiiall In feel that it had
eoniposition. However, the uncomfortable compression aUn B bi-cnine Inn ea-X In elicit a li'-pnll-e ''
x\ itll these
relate^ to new^reel- the arTi--t hafi recently seen of the pile-, of seiisiious absiractioiis. Iliiis his lii-l ma|nr museum retro-
biiilie~ in the Na/i i nnceiii lai ion camps — he said he "was spective, at the Guggenheim .Mn-enm in 19b2. marked
-eaichiiii.' for the pla-lic condition, where the conipre-scd another turning point. In that year he had not only drastic-
tonus and space them-eUf-. e\]iif--ed m\ feelini: alionl allx reduced the color — or radier ]iaimed out with layers of ii
die holocaust."'" broad gray and black lirushstrokes — but in the process had
UHT* (ai-toii left leachiiii.' for a ni-.ticall\ a]i[)ointed
In begun to discover pal|)alile forms in sjiace. In II Inter I of
hoLi-ê in Woodstock, an old artist coloiiv in n|)state .New ,-. l')b.5 [fig. 12. 44 J the black mass is a head — not a jirecon-
^ ork. hi October l')48 he left for Europe on a Pri.\ de Rome ceived head, but one anived at in the act of jiainiing. \- he
lor a year, and of course went to see the Pieros and Masaccios told Harold Rosenberg in 19(:)(i:
and Lccellos. His painting was at another crossroads and he

To preronccirc an iiuiige. oreren to (hrcll on tni uuo'je. (nul
once again used the isolation to find his direction. In 194? to
then to go ahead and paint it an inipossibihty fur tnf it's i.s . . .
194-8. (iiiston began radically abstracting the shallow space

intolerable — (mcl also irrelerant — because . . . it 's simply
and emblematic figures of |)aintings such a< The Pnrrh.
iiiul (iiilv rvcdgnizdbli' . . . I'aiil I aler\- once said that a bad
while the palette carried the reduction eyen linihcr tnward
piKiii IS (Hie that vanishes iiiln meaning. In a painting . . . it
jii'l black, red. and --ome touches of firown. In ''•")(). .nîoii 1 (
ranishes into reeognilKin. The traiible irith recognizable art
m<i\e(l into a more |iiirel\ impro\ i-alional dialoi: with the
isthat it excludes tan iiiiich. I iniiil my inirk to include more.
painlril -III lace b\ il-elf.
\nd "mare" also comprises line's doubts about the object,
plus the /irablem. the dilemma, ol recognizing it.''
Guston's Action Paintings of the Fifties
Ihii- in the -ixtie-. (.iiston s [lainting turned into a dialog
Gii'inn- |iaiiiiiii;:' Imni l''.)l diidugh the caiK -i\lic- about touch and form as a prolog to a more complex
fii:.(),o each e\iil\c nriiaiiically through the arii-i- exfiloration of the tension berReen touch and image in the
interaction with the |)aint and >nrface. Gii>ton - imii|iie works of 19(i9 to 1980. as in Central Arenue [figs. 12.45 and
\ai'iatioii mi the idea of action painting concein- lom h 12.40] where the same sensual touch and palette as in Oasis
more than iie-tnre — the sen-iialil\ ol the -inlace imnple- fig. 5.8] still exist, but now with another layer of discourse
meiits an iiicreasim;l\ rich ~]ii-<triim nl -alinaled cnlnr about the subject matter superimposed on top of them.
ihi-ough the fifties. \l fir-t the aili-^l cnn>l iiicied clnmb nf "Sometimes I know what [the fonns] are. he said nt his
little \crtical and Imri/ontal stroke-., like tlii- '
plii~ and black-and-white compositions of the mid sixties. 'But it I
minu>' stroke- in Mondrian s "Pier andOcean -.erie-.. think head' while Iin doing it. it becomes a mess ... 1 want
These paintings are all al i n|penness and freedom — to end with something that will baffle me.
(kistoii largely dissoKed -.olid fnrm and vet the legacy of The mid sixties were an anxious period tor (,u-inii and
Piero and Clezaniie still persists in the way he seems to locate his drinking ran out of control. At that point his painting
the briish-.trokes in a defined sjiace. In 19.57 the sti-okes nearly ground to a halt for two years as he swtmg back and
became a li.de more ai;<_'rev->iye. Iica\ icr and nmrc ii rcLrnlar. Inrlli bclw een an abstraction of Zen-like puritx drawiims ol
39^
Pf.t^.j'^.
g^jWBPI^Sg.
hnililiiiiss. Iiiinils... riie iir.il liny, or iliiy iiflrr. Iiiirk lo

12.44 PhilipGuston,Winfer;, 1965, Oil on canvas, 5ft 8in -6^610
iloinv: llir purr lonslriiiiions inn/ lo iilliirkinii: l/u' ol/ier.
(1.73 1.98m). '"*
Private colleclion. New York. Photogropti by Soroh Wells, courtesy David McKee Gallery,
\ni/ so it in III. l/iis tnix-ol-iriir. /nruhnnl liro yrnrs.
New York ,
In I'KjT" (.ii-liiii iflifali'd Id ilif i.sdlaliiiii cif W iKid-lnfk

aiiaiii. fxiii (lixiiiiiiccliiii; the riiit; etu his jtliunc mi iiu diii'
(iiiilil call Then, as Doie Ashton reported." he began

ill.
jii^l iwii III' lliiff Imlil lihiik liiii'-- 111! J wliilf t;iiiiiiiil am
niakini; little jjaintiiigs of objects. It was the time of the
-kticlif- iiT lilllf (ilijfiN ai(iilll(l llic -lililiii.
intensifying protests against the war in \ ietnam and a
/ iiiiiriiiliri dins iil iliiiirj "/i/irc (Iniiniiiss iiiiniriliiilrly pointing finger emerged in Guston's work— the same ac-
/nlhiirr,/ liydins nfi/iiiirj l/irol/irr — ilniiniiiisofahji'ils. cusatoiT hand that reappeared in Flatlands of 1970 [fig.
It ir<i.<n'l (I tnnisiliiiii in llic ini\ il irns in l')-fS. n'/icn one 12.471. As he grew more and more outraged by what he
Ivclniii u-iis jinlniij: ini<i\ (Uiil II iirir mic liiiil not yet been saw nil iflfx isiiiii — the Democratic Convention of 19ft8,
linrii. Il \\a^ iwii fi|iiall\ |
kiw filiil itii| iiiKi-s ai loaiit^rlieads. anil assassination-- of the Kennedys, Martin Luther King,
/ iriiiilil iinr ilii\- link ii/i in l/ir hiiiisr 11 liiiiiili 11/ /iiirr and Malciiliii \: mii\ friiiiifiil \ iolence against sliiileiils:
ilniiinii^s. fci'l iSiHiil iihiinl //inn . . . \nil llinl nidit iiii mil In die war — llif iiliclln his xoiith came rushing iiaik.
I
ihr siniliii In l/ir ilnnrniiss ofnli/rrls — honks, shoes. First III' |iainlfil iln/riis nl' liliii'k\ rarli 11 iii-likr sliors.
400
12.45 (above) Philip Guston, Central

Avenue, 1969. Oil on canvas,
4ft 9' Bin 6ft 8m (1.45 2.03m).
Collection, University Art Museum, University of CalHornio ot
Berkeley. Gift of Mrs. Phrlip Guston and Muso Jone Mayer.
1 2.46 Philip Guston, detail of Centra/

Avenue.
401
read, and he wmild lii'ai lii> iiioiIht tflling llie laniiK dial he
12.47 PFlilip Guston, Flof/onds, 1970. Oil on canvas,
wasn't home.
SftlOin A 9ft 6"2in (1.78 > 2.91m).
Collection, Byron Meyer, Son Francisco Photograph by OHo Nelson, New York, From 1969 through 1972 the hoods obsessetl Giiston.
David McKee Gollery, New York. He issued a constant flow of notes to himself for paintings:
"Have them playing poktr. have them sitting around
drinking beer and eating hamhiiigers."^ He explainefl that
Iiiiil(liiii;>, rliick-. and lnMik^, ami lln-ii in I'lO't llii- his intent "was really not to illustrate, to do pictures of die
liiMidcd lii;iiii':- i'infii.'f(l in ini rra--iiii:l\ ainliil iuii^ ciiiniMî- Ku Klux Klan, as I had done earlier. The idea ol evil
li(.n>rni;s. 12.-+1. 12.4.")- 12.4:' . fascinated me, rather like Isaac Babel who had joined dif
Cossacks, lived with them and written stories about ilnin. I
/// l')()~~(>\ I licrdi/ic n-ivilislitrhid h\ ill,- inir nml I lir
Tlicy hi'iiinic
almost tried to imagine that I was living with the Klan. W liai
(Iciiiiiiistiiihiina. iiiy siili/crl ii/iil/cr iiiii/ I iras
would it be like to Ite evili' To [ilan. to plot."'^"
Jln,,il,;/ln <lliiriiinn: U lirn I inis ihniil < IT- 1 \. I Innl ih,iir,i
Ihe 1 Is are die ambiguotislv frightening ami lovable
irliiilc .SI77C.S ii/ iiiiiii/iii<js iihiii/l l/ir kii k/ii.i k/nii. irlinli iriis
sides of the arii.Ni> ov\ n creativity. If the dangling light bulb
ri'n /Kiinijiil in Los Angeles . . . In Im I I Inuhi slimr nj lluni
goes back to Picasso's Citernica. this Jekyll and Hvde view of
in II hnnksliii/i in Hnllvirood. irlicre I irus inirkinis nl lliul
the artist's creative force resemltles Picasso s identification
time. Sniiie nieiiiliers of the klan inilki-il in. Inol tin-
with the simultaneoitsly >vm|iathetic and frightening mino-
jtiinitniiss nfl the null iiiul sldslieil tin in . . . I'liis irns the
taur. In Central Areniie. the hoods with their wooden cross
/leginnniLi. Tliex inc sell-/)iirtniits. I /lereeire iinsel/ as lieiiiii
are also artists with an easel and stretchers: the sensuous,
helninlillinniL'"
"tat pink paint' ''
ias (histon described the kind of passages
I liai ilif^c iii;ar--m(ikini; hoods represent tlie artist Imii^rH he used for the to])s background buildings in
of the highest
i^ |ilaiii i-iiiiui;li in [laiiitiiigs like The Studio [fi^. 12.4 I . Central Aecniie) goes back to abstract works of the fifties like
w licrr (III- hood paints own ])oitrait in a closed-oif room
his Oiisis; but in The Studio it suffuses eversthing.
w iih a hail- hnlh hanging down from a wire. The scene itself The idea of the goleni. which fascinated Guston."" seems
got-, hack to (iiiston's childliood memories of liiding in a particularly germane lo die hoods. Mystic Cabbalists of the
iIomm on Sundays when his relatives came to visit. A single Middle ,\ges v\ould imidcl a liimiaii figure (a golem) oiU of
liiilil liiiiii; ilciw n 111! a cord in iIiIm'IoscI ô lie coiilil draw and red cla\ like die 'ral |iink' paint?! as a pious reenaclment
402
(»r tilt' creiilioii 111' Adam. But tiiat was a (loiililr-tHliifd Madr.
siiicf ji'w isli law loiiiadf i;ra\cii iiiiaiics — oulv (iod luid liii-
fitrlil to make lliiiiiis in lii-- dwri iina;;c. I.il^^\\i^(•. (lii-iun -

iciiitioiliiilioii ()| iiravi'ii iiiiai;!'- In lii> |iaiiitiiii;-. lian--
mcsscd the laws ot abstract cxiiioîoniNMi and wa-- i'mmi
iiioff ot an altroiit tt) (iii-enltefj; s "ikmi' |iairiliiru.
In I'rO (histon al)soil).-.l dir lio,,,!. inn, Ji.l.U ,,l

svmbols. In FUillands the legs and ilic ôli- of ihr >li(ii- a^ in
The Porch come luick. alonj; with lin- luick wall liiic a
ciiiiniiey and llie lioaid w ith nails IVoiii w oi k^ likr ( niis/nr-
ators. The clock, the >lon\ pictures lianuinu from w iir^. and
btioks persist from the small oil sketches of l')()o. New ioi m-
such as the sunrise enter as recurrent motifs, wliili' -nme
iuiajies like the truncated foot) seem new and mi nvcrlirr-
ate with old meanings. The wnik~ of !*•"'() aiô ^cnn lo
hroacii new. more complex -iniciural idea^. Il<ill<in(h. Inr
example, opens onl laleralK rallirr than lioldiriL; a ci'nirallv
organized com|iosition. It !- noi an all-oMi jiiiimr mi
much as one that delilieralcK <lelir^ ila-.--iial lialanc e — an
iflea that Terrx W inlern later dr\ eloped w itii radical r(--ull-
[fij:. 14.8\
(juston -.howed lii~ liiiuraliM' wdik lor the lir>i time in
October l'l~() al Marlboroiiirh (.allerx . The critical response
to hi^ >liow wa> predictaliK wirheriim and it took nearlv a
decade for e\cn his friends lo caich iiji with the total
works represented. The Mailliorou'rh
rethinkinj; that these
show w;)> another watershed for (histon. markiiiL' the final
phase of hi-- work that la-ted from l''~2 until hi- death
in 1980.
403
(histons late style is torn between Piero della Franresra

12.50 Philip Guston, Moon, 1979. Oil on canvas,
5ft 9in 6ft ll'2in (1.75 2.12m).
and ilie comics, Rembrandt and Kafka. While on iln c
Collection, Ph.hp Johnson Photograph courtesy Oovid McKee Gallery, New York. hanil (here is discoveiT— "X^liat \ou waul
his exhilaration in
is an ex[)i'rii iicc nl making something that vou haven seen t
before' "' — Hiiii- i> also the anxietx "Oin- whole li\cs since
: I
Tlie black and irrav paintiiiL;-' nf ilic lir~i hall ol the can i-emcnilii-i- are made up of the most exrreme en leliies of
sixties simultaiieoiislv iVMal liiriii and (Ki-s ji <iul. w iiili- liu- liiilocansi>." he w iiite Dore .\shton after the (llA ((inp in
liood.s mask tlie ideniilx ot dii- ainlii\alinll\ enileariiiu and ( hile. 'We are ihe witnesses of the iiell. Allien I think ol the
menacing aitist. In tlli^ new wmk nl tlif niiijillc and latf \ iciim-. it i- mibeaiable. "''"
^\nd vet it is the pecidiar fate of
--i-venties. the painter is levealcii i'\i r\ w luif. Head inxl -.nch an ariisi id wain lo see eveiTthing. Giiston s friend Ross
liott/e [fig. 12.48 unmasks the paiiili-i^ \ iîmi ami lii-- \ ice. feld re<allecl going Woodstock and standing silently in
ii|( to
I lie lioi)d> began di>a()|ieai'ing in I''~l2. ri-|>laced li\ raw bunt of a group of these new paintings. "'There was silence.
images of the artist s disetnbudied e\f anil head as in ihi> .\fier a w bile Alston look his thimibnail away from his teeili
(
drawing, piles of legs and the soles of shoes as in The Floor and -.aid. I'cii|ile. \cin know, complain that it s horrilying.
[fig. 12.49]. paintbrushes, ngly bugs, and strange lunar -\s if its a |iicnic for me. who has to come in here evei'v (\n\
landscajtes as in .1/ooA/ [fig. 12. .50]. and see tliein first thiim. But what's the alternative';' "'''
New Expressionist Painting
in Europe
1
"" 1 . pi-l a- llii- Ni'W ^ ink Mil wniM w a~ himriiiini! llic
111
(Iralll III |iailllinL:. lllf l\\ rm\ --IX-X rai -i iM Dri-î-Miill
artist Jort: liiiiiit'iifii)rft was [)t'r,--oiially reiliscoxciing it>
relevance in a series of poignantly soul-searrliing coniposi-

lions. The increasingly politicized atmosphere of the sixties
was reaching its climax, and Inimeiidorff was seeking to
reconcile his own strong commitment to political and social
13
activism with his deep-seated desire to jiaiiit. His stiidies
with Joseph Beuys (1964— TO; had reinforced his dedication

111 a politicallv engaged art as he watched Beuys himself
move increasinglv in thi^ direction over the second half of
the decade.
In paniciilai. the I'-Hhi Beiiv? performance Hou- To
PAINTING AT THE END Explain Picture.^
catalvtic effect
Dead Hare seems to ha\e had a
to a
on Immendorff. bringing home the limita-
tions of pictures and words as Beuvs. his head covered in
OF THE SEVENTIES gold leaf and honev. w alked around an e.xhibition exjilain-
ing the works on display to a dead hare, held cradled in
hisami. Pamela Kort. in a catalog on the anist s w ork. has
described how Immendorff turned to chiklhood in lÔb for
a language that satirized what he regarded as the elitist
bourgeois hierarchies of high art. the veneration of artistic

genius, and the preciousness of the art object.' He issued
"babv talk" manifestoes and painted works like Teine
Tunst Moclie or "top toing art" (a quasi-infantile rendering
of keiiic Kiinst mac/ie or "stop doing art"). At the same
time, this work embodies Immendorffs ambivalence
about his growing inability to justify- "doing art — wliii li
is politicallv ineffective — and his continued attraciioii
to [)ainring.
Immendorff labelled his wmk beiwi-en l''(io and I'CO
"Lidl"" based on the sound of a baby rattle .\ childs .
pantheon of s\inbols populated the "Lidl" paintings timles. i
dogs, goldfish, and polar bears offering altertiatives to the .
vocabulaiT of adult artists whose creativity Immendorff

saw as confined bv bourgeois convention and by the
spiritual wounds still lingering from the Nazi period. The
child art stood for beginning again, free of history and
convention, but it also brought back the accusation of child-
ishness, used bv the Nazis as a weapon against inodeni-
isin. Nor could Immendorff keep his faus.se naivete pure
of his unconscious ambitions — as Pamela Kort has pointed
out. Iinmendorff identified himself with the turtle out-
racing the hare, an unmi>takal)le embleiii fur hi^ teacher

Joseph Beuys.
13.1 (opposite) Elizabeth Murray, Hobo, 990. Oil on hvo 1
canvoses,88 x 74 x 3ln (223.5 088 x 7.6cm).

Photograph Lee Fctherree, courtesy John Berggruen Gollery, San Francisco.
405
New Expressionist Painting in Europe
1
406
Painting ot the End of the Seventies
clKilii^r ;iii\ lliini;: Siu'cK iinl. lie w ritr^. inil wliiii idca-
K.©nt\ca ca©Da docao'O's'lhsJQs vepQca^^cca^
l;iki- ^lKi|if we MM 1 iM\c>liL:iili' llic iiiriililiiiii^ Iniiii w liK li llicx
ili'\i'lii|i. W I- laii a-k wIkiI ,11111^ iiiiilix .III- llir-iii, W r can

iliii'i iiliiic wlii'llii'i llii\ îi|ii'r liiiiilK irlli-il îiiial iniMli-
liiill-.. ^cT\ ( III I In ma I r \\all>. iir w Ini lirr llir\ ri nilriliiili- In
ii-M-aliiii: (inilrailiiliiiii^ ami riilri iiiin llir ^liiiiiLilr In

ii--iil\r llii--.!- iiiiilrailirliiin^.
"I waiilril III lie- an arli-^l. Iir wnilr alinxr anullier

I
laiiil ini: in llii> ^rrii--.. I In- w nL Îmw
1 ^ Inin mi I In- I li n ir 1
1| a
Kiinanlir aili^l > lianii. --laiini: al a lilank canvas li\
ranilli-li;:lil w liilr a L;lrainiiii; hill iiiiinii liani;^ in llir ilark ^k\
mil llir w iriiluw aliii\ r liiin. I In- ra|ii n m I irli i\\ r\|ilaiii^: "I
I ll raiiird a I II II 1 1 -rriiii; in\ name nrw ^|ia| iri'^. Iia\ ill^ a

in llir
Ini III slinw ~. anil naUiralK I inlrinlnl in dn sumii lini; nrw I
in an, \1\ Liniilrlinr was i-i;iii-.in. In mm annllitT work lie
irllrrlnl. "l w a- llllalilf In ]

Hit ni\ -rlT ill llir |ilace ol' WDrklllg
|irii]ilr. I was iinalilc In IIliIii Inr ilii-ir iiiirir^l'-. This w ill nol
rliaiii;r iiiilil niii- hri;ins In s|niMM|r. nn a ilaiK hasis. aiiailisl
Slch&rlich nichT, Qber wenti Ideen Ge^TalT <xn- niir s own ri;nisin aiiil ai:ains| ihc |iliiliisn|ili\ nl ri;nisni
nehmen,Koinn mar unTersucher oiuf welcher
and |iiiilil."
GrundJage sie ©ntstanden sind.Wir linniriiilmiT drlihrralrK siin| ilil in I his style in lliese
kbnnen prOfer>,was fOr einZiel S'^ °'^-
will ks ihr sakr as in snrialisi realism. But
K^^f^rv man feststellen, ob sie die
I III- III lr!.:iliilii\ . if
j-j- rebels-
ihr s|\ Ir attacks ihc imisiirs, n| h\ inMikini: the
qesellschaftlichen Verh<iltr»isse oberflacV»lich |ii-n |iaiiiiiiii:
w ied^rspiegeln,ats Wandzierdc QusschmOcK«?n, s\iita\ nl illiistiaiinii. the drlinitix rl\ hand-inailr character
Oder ob sie dazu beitragen die Widersproche III' r\ri\lllinL; Irniii tin- IrttcrillL; in llir liiiishinrs, nf the
ouFiuzeigen.fOr der K.ampt lur Lbsung di«&ei- iinai;cs asserts the ]irise-\ rrencc nl a mil la 11 lie iiidix idiialisin.
WidersprOche einTreten.
Mnrenv t-r. the si-iies is aiitnl>ioi;ia|iliicai. Beuvs ton stnijrjilerl
with the cnnliadiclimi t>i [ieisnnalil\ as aiiainst the political
13.2 Jdrg Immendorff, Con one change anything with these?, ini|ieiali\ e Inr a collective practice as current Mar.xist
1972. Acrylic on canvas, 1934 x 31 'sin (50.2 x 80cm). ilieorx (leniaiided . He knew he needed his own liiniiia|iliv.
Photograph courtesy Golene Michael Werner, Koln and New York.
he even iiivilioloîized it as the sroiind plain- Im his
Jorg Immendorff's Political Analysis of

13.3 E. L. Kirchner, Ench Meckel and Otto Muller Playing Chess,
Painting in the Seventies 1913. Oil on canvas, 14 x 15'iin (35.6 > 40.3cm).
Colleclion, Brucke-Museum, Ber-lin, Photograph by Henning Rogge
111
an aiiioliin;.rra|ili\ |iiilihshnl in the earK' seventies
riililleil //('/( nn</ \n,r: I'n I )n illial lias to Be Doiir.-
linilleiidortT ileiii)eialel\ iiiMikcd I ciiiii s economic plan of
l')0o. ;///(// /.v To lie Doiivr Vel. despite his dedication In
ieltisl ideolojiv. the artist riuoroiisK aiial\/ed liiiiiscll. his
political convictions, and the social rele\aiice ol |iaiiiliiii;
w ilh excriicialinn; honi'slv in a series ot imlitled paint it itis nl
l''~l . "(ân one chaiiiie anvlhiriij; with these';' he w inte across

the loji ot one ot them [ti>i. l-^.l2 . hi the picture, centered on
die while canvas like an ilhistralion on a paê. he depicted
hiiiisi-lt three times in the same s|>ace . in each pose he holds
one ot the painters most basic materials. didaciicalK
ca|ilioned with small \ellow labels like a diaLiiam in a
manual: " This is a simple liriish Inr "A)
lechiiical instrnilion
ptenniL's. riiis is normal hoiisepaint. this is a caiixas
slrelched on a wooden liaine. It is where the artist s ideas
lake shape.
Below ihe pichire. the artist lianil-priiileil a le\t in the
im|)ro\ised inaiinerot a political placard. I lere lie speculates
in response to his own cpiestjon al t w lieiher |iainlini; can

407
13.4 Jorg Immendorff, Cafe Deutschland III, 1 978. Oil on canvas, Grappling with Identity
9ft Sin 8ftll'2in(2.82.- 2.73m).
Photogroph courtesy Galerie Michoel Werner, Koln and New York. Inimrndurff hciian [lainiini; his "rafe Denlsi liland cycle '
in 1977. The Cafe is liie meiaphor for- ilie artist's own

psyche — a tinmdtnous --wirl of current poliiicai figin-es,
iliarismalic autliority and for an aiitlieiiiicalK Irli ûiic- German national heroes, and ihr working class of Marxist
intnt. This cDiitradictioii Ixitli in Beuv-.'-. work and in his theory in a thick soup of inheiited s\inl)ols. hi Cafe
own did noi .-.cape ImmendoilTs diaconian seli-Miniln\ . Deutsriiland III (1978:i [fig. 13.4]. Imniendoiff created a
and ilii- la( I that he accomplished his self-analvsis dnciuiih crowded, tipped-up space thai recalls the an.xious, composi-
lii^ painiini; must also liaveIjeen apparent to him. hi l'*T'h he tional angidarity of such paiTiiings as Kirchner's Erich
diojiliid die didactic snde of the early seventies for a more Meckel and Otto Milllrr I'/ayin- < Jies.s of 1913 [fig. 13.3].
complex and inlrospciliN e a|ipi(ia( li. Bnl unlike die ila----ii' (^'iinan expressionists. Inunendorff
408
Painting at the End of the Seventies
provides lui stable grouiidiii!: in nature agaiiisi wliicli lo me-.--aL'e here bnl ratliei- a pledidra of imager ami \ iiiiieiie^.
measure tlie expressive distortions of color or lnnii. In cliai;.'ed w illi eni;:malic and crn-^-iiaikinL; a-'^(Mialii in~ a- in
IiumeudoitTs work, the hackneyed syinliol ot the ea<;le a ili'eani.
inhabits tiie same reality as the artist's sell'-|)ortrait: luem- 1 lie animiîn ul -iirli -xiiiImiK ^'icw even iiKne prci-
oiy. perce|)tion. raiita>y. ami mediated know li-(li;e all iiniineed in hninendoi'll ~ painliiiL:- "I llie ei^||lle indeeil.
iiueract on an equal footinir. lili- \ilalil\ lA ~\lllli(iU weiLlhed he;i\ll\ nn llll~ wllnle
hnnieiidorl'f shows iiimselt ai die c i-nn r nl ('dft' Lieiieialiciii 111 ( .einiaii arli-1-. had liii
>iiiiii- niali\ e ( hildhiiipd
Deiilschldiid III i\Aec\\. slumped over a nmnd laiilc i Inicii- inemorie- nl die war nr nl die |in\ almn^ in 11- alli-iinaili
inira paiiitbru>h. A mirrored colunm iieliind lijin icHi-ciin (.eorg Ba>elil/ and \. i{. I'eiiek. die nlde-l nj lili' (.iTiiian
giMsaille the Braudeulmri; (iate in Berlin — dn- nin-i \i-iii|i- neo-expressioni-i~. Iiail iimwn np jn-i uinîde Dreîlen ami
interlace of the totaliiariau I'.asi Bloc widi ilic W cî In ilir a- eilildren willie~-ed die rirelMiniliini: nt die ei(\: Ba-ejil/
still-di\ided Germany of the >eventic-. I lien- an' njiil-. nt de-nijied ii a- iIh- nm-i ii\eniiL; ineimirv lA Iii~ llie/
menacing characters carxed into the colnnin> in iln- lon- I'emk and Ba-elilz were jn-l ~i\ and ~e\ en al die end 1 if die
<rrouiui o(Ciifel)eiiUclil(iii(llll—a shadowv figmr im in li- war. and diniigh this geneialinii nl (>eiinaii arii-l- Imre
one of die columns in \xf\)f — and ab(i\ c ilic hail a lir-|M(ianil re-|iiiii-iliilit\ Inr die war ur die alnicitio ol llii'
cled man Erik Hoiuiecker. the partv cliirrdt l\a-i ( .11 niari\ riiird Beirli. ilie\ inlieriied ilieiii a~ part of the Onnan
imrls lit candles as tiiongh he were ia--iing --vinliDJ-- lifted naliunal enn-einn^ne^-,
readx -formed from a painlini' ii\ Max Beckmaim. Brilliantiv A~ die eiilie Dniiald kn-pil liaii|i-er\ ed. dii- -iliialinii
illuminated mides in scenes of sexual abandon hisidighi the endowed abstract ^xnilinU wiili a pafticularlv profound
backgroim<l while a fierce eagle the German national psvchic force in the work nl eniitemporaiT Gentian
svmbol >w oo])> dowii on the painter, who wields a club and jiainters.' Bv --ucre-.~liilK îxiiiL' Inriii to -iicli pnwerfnl
falls back on the theater ropes in a scene to the upper left.
The simultaneity of these self-portraits within a single,

continuous space as works of 19'!' 1 reflects a
in the untitled
new kind which perceptions coexist on the same

of realin in
13.5 Georg Baselitz, Late Dinner m Dresden, February 18, 1983.
Oil on canvas, 9ff 2' În 1 4ft 9' .in (2 8 ^ 4.5m).
plane as abstract concepts and need not confonn in the and New
Coilectior. Kursthaus, Zu-ic^, Photog-oph coj^resy Gole-ie Michael Werner, Koln
structure of serpiemial time. There is no -imple -fni-x- line or
4-09
p-^vrhic experience, these artists elucidate it. creating a

3.6 A. R. Penck, Untitled (Group of Friends), 965. Oil on
The vitalitN' of the svnihols — the fact iliai
1 1
linidainental tiiith.
fiberboord, 5ft 7in ^ 9ft' iin (1 .7 x 2.75m).
ilii-\ iiold theii' owTi with conventional fiirinaiive imageiA in Coiieclion. Museum Ludwig Koln Photograph courtesy Rheinisches Bildorchiv, Kbin.
ilioe paintiiirrs — underscores ilic ali-iraii distance with
wliiih eveiything is e.xperienced in die hue iv\i-iitieth cen-
iiir\ 11 natin-e is conspicuously ali-cin In ihc- wnrk of dif
( .rmian neo-e.xpressionists. aUo raicK eucouniered.
it i> and then fragmenting the figures in his compositions in the
unaltered by man. in the realitv of modern in-ban life. Thu> mifl sixties: in 1969 he came upon the idea of turning whole
ilu* preoccujiation of many of these German painters with paintings upside dnwn and sideways in what has become a
asserting a tactile immediacy — as in the yiscosif\" of the paint signature i\i'\ m c i" lake the focus off the sid^ject matter and
in the work of Baselitz Tfig. 1-3. 5j or the use of straw and lead redirect it inwanl ilir expressive surface. The build-uji ol
in \iiselni Kiefers compositions [figs 13.8 and 13.10] —is as iliiik. liiaMiia lini^liw ork in the painting of Baselitz runs
1 liiical in coming to terms with conrempmarv experience as heail on into llir lalr-îxtie-, flenial by the theorists of the
\\if more explicitly theon-con-cii Ml ^ |mi>iiiiimIi'i iiiîii nl Hilier political left ot heroic inili\ idualitv or romantic "genius i
I iiniempi)rMi'\ arri-r~. in painting.
A. R. Penck whose real name is Half \X iiukler worked

in East Berlin until 1980 and. as in the case of Immendorff.
Georg Baselitz and A.R. Penck
his internal sunggli- with leftist ideologrs" peaked around
Griirg Ba-elitz and A. R. I'cnck lig. 13, o canir lu ilic Inn- 1971. He wauled to make paintings that would connnuni-
of a group of outstanding gestmal painters in Berlin in cate as clearly as the infonnation signs that direct people to
1 1 II- Along with Eugen Schoneheck. K. H. llodiiki-.
sixties. escalators and bathrooms in public places. His fonnulation
\larkus Liipertz. and Bernd Koherling. Baselitz and Peiuk in l'i~() lA ilii' generic 'standart — a primitive stick figure
(Mine from East Germany. Baselitz studied at the \\ est Berlin with itsamis thrown up submissively into the air [fig.
IliM liM liiile fiirBildendeKunstefrom 1Q.5? to l^Hrl and had 1-3.7] — was partly derived from the vocabulaiy of the signs
liifir-i ..luiw with the tiedgling galler\ of Nhchael \^ erner and his fascination with cybernetics the science of the
anil Briijainin Kat/ llir li illiiw inti \rar. lie lirgan isolating iriiiilalion and runlrol nl IniiiKiiis and machines . Penck
410
3.7 A. R. Penck, Standarl, 1 971 Acrylic on

<!]<'•'' ^îtl-^SS^SSt^^ 1
canvas, 9ft 6' jin 9ft 6' 4m (2.9 - 2.9m).
Photograph courtesy Golerie Michoel Werner, Koln and

.
New
York.
13.8 (opposite) Anselm Kiefer, Wayland's

Song (with Wing), 982. Oil, emulsion, and strov
1
on photograph, mounted on canvas, vj{\h lead,

9ft2'4ln- 1 2ft 55 sin (2.8 v 3.8m).
Photograph courtesy Anthony d'OHoy Gollery. London.
1 3.9 (opposite, bottom) Anselm Kiefer,

Quaternity, 1973. Charcoal and oil on burlap,
9ft 10' sin X 14ft3V4in (3 x 4.35m).
Private collection, Germony Photograph by Malcolm Varon,

New York,
n-fil ilir -.i;iiiilarl ii^ a li.Xfil (Huaiiiziiit; |iTiiiii|ilr anniiiil Kiflfi' - -niijeil inaller ha- iiiiiliniialK ifiilfifil mi lii-
w lliill I If \ Ml in I 1 1 If >l\ If In tf^t a \\ iilf railUf nt fl until 111^. |iei-mial idenlilN ami cullliral origins. In I'H)''. al ihe age of
i5ii(li I'fiirk ami iia-flii/ rnnMiiiii.sK iiiliixaleil ilif i\Miii\ -four, he made a book of photographs of himself
iiiilf|ifiiilfiirf lit llifir îilijfii iiiallfr Irniii llif ah^liart gi\ ing the I htlei- -aliite in front of a variefA" of monuments on
coiiceni- III |iaimiiiL:. I lii- iinl miK aiiliii|ialfil tin- m-w hi- \ ai alimi- ill liaK and f ranee. Instead of traveling as the
iiiKiL.'i'-l |iaiiilfr^ in llif I iiili-il Slalfs in tin- ^f\fiilif-. il rniimi- imni-l eager to explore another cultine he went to
-liai|il\ ili-iiiiv;iii-lifil Pfiiik and Baseliiz Irmn tlifir e\|ii rieme the -ensation of the Nazi occujtation force and to
f.\|iif>-iiiiii-l |iifi'iii -III -. Mint-over, as tlit- art lii-lni iaii iindf r-iaml iietter this undiscussed facet of his heritage. The
SifiitVifil ( .iilir lia- |iiiiiilfil mil." the range of eniotimi ilial i- ai li-i piolied a sadistic urge in another piiotogra|)hic liook of
|M)--ililf III inaiii|iulaiiiiL' all- Hart qualities of the paialiiiL; — l"*()"' entitled T/ip FIihhI iifHeidrlberg. Here he cast himself
|iarliiiilail\ ainiiiiil ilii- iiiinf or less fi.xed form of PeiicL - a- iheperpetraim 111 a da in f\ pin-ion that causes a disastrous
-lanilai I
— iiiiiilifii mi llif iinilerlvinji irrationality iit'liiinl flood,which he linn iiijnx-. likf Nero watching the liinning
tlif a|i|iaifiill\ lalimial -\>lfin- that regulate (Jernian life as ofRome, from a casllf ii\ f ilnnking llif cil\ Inr Kiflfi. llii- .
.1 win. If. acknowledgemeiii nl hi- nw n dark llimiglil- miiinr- die idfa

that Satan belong- ineMiiraliK m die mialiiy nl'taid.
hi his IQT'.'i painliiig (Jiiii/,rni/\ fig. l-'i." he nlilii|iif
Anselm Kiefer l\
i-Mikes the dark German foie-i in the wnnd dial dmninaie-

Aii-f liii Kieter ta|i> iiilii tlii- \\f II III iiialimialit\ f\f 11 iiimf ilie jiainting. The abstract pre-eme nl the Iriiiiiy. incarnaie
iliifilK. wmkiiig iiiialia-lieilK in the (.eriiiaii rmiianlir as three patches of fire on die llnnr. i- eiimplemented by
iraiiitimi. lie eiiuM'x- a hea\ \ aulhorial |iie-eiii'e ami. like Satan (the >nake to make up the in-eparable ([uaternity of
Benys. his material- — llie leail. -iraw. ami ileii-e ]ia-lf- nf die tide. The I'laiiif- uaiismit an atmosphere of -piriiiial
pigment [fig. l.'i.fi — -i-eiii al mue linked to nature ami lo traii-cendeme. while al die same time threatening lo in\i-
-ome esoteric m\>iei\ ihai iiaiiscends the |)hysiralit\ n{ sume the wiindeii rnniii in an a]iocalyptic blaze. 'I iliiiik a
nature. Kiefer's search for jiarallels in world mythology- great deal alimii leligmn. Kiefer ex[)lained. liecaii-e -ci-
Nordic. Creek. Egyjitian. Early C'hristian. and the ,Ie\\i-h ence provifles no answers. "
Painting, it seem-, nllir- liini
( ahhala. to luune a few —is a romantic trait, as is his morhid redemption from the honors of a dark histor\ and fmni die
|iifiircn|ialimi with ilealli. ile-lrmiimi. and reiifwal. ill hi- nw n nmnn-iimi-.
-iiecters
411

412
III 1174. Kiefer"? aiteiitioii siiifteii from the iinageiT of nl' ihi- aiiil niher iiainiiiiL'- :ifler I '•('!(). inii'iidinL' llif ni;;aiiii-
the German toresi aiul iln> >piriniall\ iiilial)itecl wooden (li-lriiiiialliin 111 I he -n aw 1m riiiriur ihi- 11,11 111 al ex rlr (i| lilr.
rooms based on his attic studio in an old rnral sciioolliuuî- dexuKiiii.' I<i (Ir.ilh .iriil (li~-ii|iiiiiiri, I he -Haw 1- iran--
to tlie scorched hindscapes on whicli lie fantasized the liai 1 U-^ tii;ured 1(1 u-e ihr aili~l'- iiwii iciiii 1 1\ liTineiiUilioii.
of Gerniaii iiisioiT iiaviiig taken ]>iace. hi 11 (ly/find'x Sotiir e\()king nol oiiK ihe riieia|ihiir- nl ali licnn and redeiii|ini m
irilli U ing of 1982 fis;. 13.8 . an immense leaf! win;; 1)111 Kiefer'-. L'liMinu pri i^'iii i-i- (in I he fate of ( .crnianx .
siirmomits tiie hmiii hhick field. Tiie niand -<ale of k'iefer - I he --eir-dc-inK lini; organic materials in Kit Id- work
painting — tiiis work ineasnres neaiK Id li\ ll^ feei— :niii had |ire(i-(lciii- in ilic iialian arte poreni. in w Imli ilii\ al-d
the density of the mali'iial> e\|ire» tiie iiioniunentaliix nl liKiiiL'hi hdinc ihc pidxiiiiin ot nalure. However. f(jr die
his theme. lialian- (il ilic tirli' jKircrii. ilie rc-nllini: iinpermanence of
The ston hehiiul U (i\ land's Song with II ing ileriM- ilic (ilijcii al-o ser\es as an aiiack (Hi liie comniodification of
from tlie anonymous Scandinavian poems the Eddus ihat an — ilic ( (iniinerce in "thiiiL;- iliai iransfonns the spiritual
tell the history of the Teutonic gods. Riciianl Waiiner ha-eil a( I (ii oliject. Bv contrast, itisonlv
niakingari into a saleable
tlie operas of The Ring of the \ibehtng on liie-e -lorie- and ilie and the sMiibolism that attiact Kiefer
niaieiial presence
tluis Kiefer's choice of snhject also canie> tiie aura of ilii~ M -iicli material. Kiefer also admired the materialir\' of
most romantic and histrionic of all German comp(i~rr~. j(i-e])h Ben\- - work and the physicalitv of the American
Moreover. \^ agiier like .Nietzsche was appropriated l)v minimalist and process artists of the si.xtie^.
Hitler in the latter's melodramatic celebration of German The pages of Kiefer's book The II omen of llie HcihIii/ki/i
nationalism. Kiefer delilieiateK court-- îicii emotional and 1987 [fig. 1.3.10; are made of lead, and rely tor iheu
symbolic e.xtremes. expressive impact on the chance effects of oxidation, ciieiiii-
The last part of the Eddas tells of The Tinhght of the cal impurities, and the palpable weight and softness of the
Gods Die Cdtterddmmerung in \\hich the greed and deceit- lead itself, like a work by Garl .\ndre or Richard Sen-a. Vet
fnlness of the gods -who are not iinnioitai lead to their own Kiefer also invests the book with historical allusion, titling it
demise. The King of Sweden captures \^ aviand. the greatest after Jules Michelet's Les Temmes de la Revolution 1854 .
of all metalsmiths. cripples him so he cannot flee, and places and writing the names of the women on its leaden [lages. In
him on an island as a prisoner, thenceforth to forge treasures addition, he invokes a mystic association with the alchemical
coun. In revenge. Vi ayland rapes the king's daughter
for the transl'onnation of lead into gold and a dark symbolism,
and murders his two sons, presenting the king with drinking incoiporating dead plant material— a rose and a lily of the
cups made from their --kull^. Tln'ii he fa-hioii-- him-elf w iiiix- \alle\ which ha- fragile. -weet--inellini: flowers but poi>o-
and flees. iKiu- -lems and roots ."
The smith is an ancient metaphor for the arti?t. He i? Kiefer's Breaking of the les.selx fig. 13.1 1 consists of
also the alchemist who magically fashions base luetal lead l-'i.OOO pounds of these lead books, crammed into a lt)-foot-
into gold or. in Ghristian s\inbolism. redemption . Kiefer is. high steel bookcase. The bookcase sits in a field of shattered
as it were, handing Germany the heads of its children on a glass and has corroding copper wires trailing from part to
plate. He incorporated straw into the iiea\ ilv painted --iirface (lart. The daunting material presence of the w (nk resembles
13.10 Anselm Kiefer, The Women of fhe

Revolution, 987. Book: lead pages with dried
1
plants, mounted on board bound with canvos,

six double-poge spreods, plus covers,
27'/, X 193i X lijin (69.9 x 50.2 x 3.8cm).
1 3.1 1 (opposite) Anselm Kiefer, Breaking

of the Vessels, 1990. Lead, iron, gloss, copper
wire, charcoal, and aquatec, 16ft x 6ft x 4ft 6in
(48.7 X 1.82 X 1.37m), weight 71 2 tons

(7.65 tonnes).
Collection, Saint Louis Art Museum. Purchosed w(th funos given
by more thon twenty-five donors througtiout tlie St. Louis oreo.
413
414
13.12 Sandro Chia, The Wafer Bearer,

1981 Oil and oil pastel on canvas,
.
6ft9inx5ft7in (2.07 x1.70m).

Private colleclion. (oiSondro Chia/VAGA, New York, 1994.
lllc laiiri' -'li'i-l |iii-(i-s 1,1 Hicliniil Sena. Iiul llir idiii r|il iil' hell. if-.iine(iioii ami dcalli. ( )ii aiKilln-i lr\cl. ihe shattered
llic lon^lrMcliiin ili-ii\r^ liciiii llie luv.-'tic .lewi.-^li Zoliar iilass. as ail alhisioii to die lirokeii dome ot the iieavens.
wliiili |i(i-ii> iiii (|i\iiM' iMiaiialiniis — the attributes of god hnniglit lioine Kiefer s persistent exainiiiatioii of Geniian
.\in ^(i|>li — i-(imairic(l in iIh- sifirnt '
\pssels or spheres). ideiililv hv also calling to mind Kristalhuirlit theNovember
Kiet'er iiiscrii)e(l '
\iii >(i|ili' (ni ilu- :^la^~ î-miriri-|e (the iiiL'hi in 1Q38 when Nazis shattered ilie windows of
dome of hea\eii ab(i\ ! ijir w m k. and he names of nine of
I .lewish-owned shops all o\er (Jermain . sigiialing w hat \\as
llie M-s-eb (111 llir >idrs and ii(ini> i>| die ^liebes below. toeoinei.
omillint: die liiddi-n .sc/i/v/ — '
Daalli" or know ledu'e. The

lliiiT -hiUr- ( iiiiv^pond III llii- lliii-r pillars — Mer<\. .bidg-
Italian Neo-Expressionism
mc-nt. and MiMnes-,.
ndriK ing rralion. ar<oiilinL; lo llir /oliar. is die aii
I (
Like (iermain. Italy produced a dazzling grou]i ol neo-
ol Ziiii /mil in wliicli llie inlinilr \iii ôpli iiinliacted c.\|)ressionist |)ainters in the seventies, including Sandro
inside Himself lo allow lor die rxislencc' iil suniediing other (ihia. Enzo Cucchi. Mimmo Paladino. and Francesco Cle-
lliaii Himself. Till- \rs„-b wiTi' cicalrd lo lalcli die i-maiia- mente. Althongh thev are sometimes grouped under the
lioiis dial tell Iroiii primordial space and. in llir process of rubric of the trcmsarnngunrdia. it would be a inistake to
lioiiig so. six III dii-ni will- -lialliied. releasing e\il iiilo die think of them as a movement— rather, they are compatriots
world, in the scul|)liiii'. mniarini: spiîis of sjiallered glass with imporlanl commonalities. Above all. they share the
jilt out from (he books and In in die flour. I lie iiooks allude iiilliience of arte povera. especially in their strong sense of
to kntiwledge. the secret sefira. wliii li cmilains wisdoin and llie ]iiimal force of nature and of man's place in nature as an
history within itself. Tims o r IimI die Brenkiiia nf t/ic animal among other animals. Thev are also all figiu'ative
/c.v.sp/.5eri-om|iasses the loialiix ul l: I and e\ il. In-iix en and paiiileis. line miglil sav paiiileis of die xisceial [iresence of
415
ihi- IiihK ( li-nii'iHi- ill partir\il;ir iriiKiiki-d mi hi-, ;iilniii:i-

'
'"
iiMii |(i|- ilm^r \\ hii ha\t' 'tlioufilil w iili ilnii IhmIi,--. ami
all lia\e an t'spcciailv lialiaii seii-.c ul iln- li\ iiii: |iif,i-ri(f ul
I 111- iiistorvot art. In atitlition. eacii (pjllniii rmiMx - a Mniiiiii-
aiid cin"ions mixture of sensual proxiniilx iii lii~ wni k ami an

nncentererl sense of inrliN'idnal idenlitv
Saiidro Ciliia t'iiz. l-!. 12 . w Im di\ idc- lii~ liim- Im-iw i-cn
New \'ork and lialv. di-\ nm- ai i hi-lnncal ^l\lc~. Tlif Unlcr
Bi'<iri'ri<\ l''c"il run-- tile i;aniin liiiiii liapiM|iic allc:jiii\ inilh-
ilc-(iiiali\i' lali- ( liaLrail. Jajianesi' -c rcni-.. and lumlic- ol
IwoinliK ill llir -cailiTril iiaikiii'oiiiid l(Hiii~. iliawii in a

llrrliiii; w hill' lilir .
"
Ilir li^li 1^ a -\ iiiIkiI nl dralli . . . || i^ llir
liil^^r^l I hi lit; w r laiTV an niml w illi ii-. Iir i'\|ilailiril. " \v[
llir ahiiip^l iiirlniliaiiialic riii|ilia-'i~ nil die ^\inliiili^m dm-s

mil iiii much ludow die ^nrtace. a> iT to proN ide onlv a --ainiilr
111 ii'ono<rra]iliv too. This imanrhored. deiiheratelv shallow

Lilamiiii; oil' a lireatlitalcinL' ^w I'l-p of \ i^nal iiiliiiir i-> al tin-
liran ol till' idea. It im|)lic^ a |ioîiiiodiTii -.imi-i' of

ili'-lahilized. historical seqnrm r and liiiir in wlmli r\ri\- 13.13 EnzoCucchi, /fMusfNof Be Said, 981 1 .
Oii and mixed media
on canvas, 6fl7in 7ftllin(2 2.41m).
ihing is contemporaiT and him lion^ on iiim.M iin|ionaiii •
I i" 1
lr\el at tlie suriace. rather tiian in diiiili.
i>
'
1 I 11 Private collection,
Enzo Cucchi and Minnno Paladino liL'^ l'>. l-i and

I.Vl-l-^ are both artists dee] )1\ i-nnrmhid in Italy, indeed in
ilii' |)articular landscapes in wliii h dii\ As with
larh live.
( Ilia, there is a persistent trii-ion in ihrirwork between the

iiiirii^rK sensual demeanoi' of iIh- paimini; and a nnionslv
di>Mpated sense of self or identin in ilir Mibim matter, as
'^.M Mimmo Paladino, Su/l'or/a de//a Sera, 1982-3. Oil on
,1
inoiiiih
'^
one
-
s sell IS
ij.. , .
inorbidlv over\\lielini(l
_
,,
•
•
,
I ,11 li\ ilir siale
,
and
, canvas,7ftlOV4in X
„ „
rrivote collection,
„ „,
1 4ft SViin (2.39 X
,,,,,.
4.4m).
Rome, rriotograpn by Zindman/rremont, courtesy Sperone Westwoter
_ _
_
\alil'I\ llf liatnre. But for ( Jlci-lli and Paladino ihc conflirt i- Gallery, New York. iciMimmoPaladmo/VAGA, New York, 1994.
416
not [jjaved mil so much <m I lie surf act-. L:i\ iiii: ilifir iiaiiiiiiii:-. ir-.|ir(ii\cl\ in iln- ci (iiiii iiii\ ami iiiiiaiiniial diaiariiT of
a nioir iraflitionallv expressionist ami ~\iiili(ili>i llaMn ilic-i- diawini;^ I lie I'iukIk lim I'aîfU \ai\ wiiIrK in
\
respectively. This sense nl nalmi' --w allow in:; np idrniilx i^ si/i-. uxcii -.n|i|cii mama . ami su |c. ildinim; an ac-.|liciic ul
certainlv a recurrent a^pcci ul nrli' /xircni a- will. Imr inclnîx i-rir-^ :niil ili\riîi\ ,
nowhere is it so slrikinuK i'nn\f\r(j a^ in ilic work nl { Icmcinc ixplannil. \1\ m\ lull îi anL;\ ni \iiw a^ an
Francesco Clenienie. arli-l i^ in aii I'pi IraL^nirniaiinn. ami m ^.•c wlui cnnii's nl
II — il an\ lliini: . , . I rchiiii all\ , lln- niran~ I (In iinl anaiiL:!'
FrOnCCSCO ClBmSntG ''" 'i"''''"'"" ami imaiic^ wniL wnh in l aii\ liiri;M'('li\ nl
\ allir. ( )||l- i^ a^^nml a^ aiinl lici Ini inr. \nil In- \ irw ^ llir
FiaiUf-iii ( :|emfiili' ^ l/iV7(/(/.s- ti;:. l-'i. 1.1 consists ol nine- iniiltipliciu nl ilir ~c|l in lln- âim- \\a\: I lii-lii\r in llic
teen small |)aslel ihaw iii>;> lirlniii:ini; in a larizrr p-niip nf (liîiiu nl' imcIi nl ilir (lillncnl li-\ I'U and pai i^ nl llir ^cll. I
eiuhtv-live such \\di"ks the so-(aIlc(l ""l'niidiclii-ii\ Pa^li'U dnn l uani In In^r aii\ nl llirm. In im- llir\ i-ac h i-\jî
done in Pondicherrv and Mailia-. India. I In' drawiiiL;^
express a spiritnalil\ in die -inallrsi d.'iail nl naiiirr. an

aspect of (llemeiUe - wdik dial i^ \eT\ nincli al linim- in iIh' ,^ . „ _ ^, ., ...
111l.eat. ,
. ,
J. .
I- 1
1- ,
1 I
i3.i5 Francesco Clemente, Myriods, 1980. Nineteen drawings,
religions ol India. Innmi,- ivad die in lian^lalmn
(
gouache, charcoal, and graphite on paper, 6% x SVsin
,nk, pastel,
duriiiL'lii- \niitli and Iniii- nin wiili cnmeiniial aili-l- in llir (16.2 x 8.9cm) to 13''? x 13in(34.3 x 33cm).
earU -l-\rlllil--.. I lle-e illllllrmr> nndnllllleilK (nllllillllird Photograph courtesy Anthony dOffayGollery. London
1
H
I --^
\ri
417
^
'^
C=<5^r-5
v/
^
(^
'i^
^
siiniilraneou>l\ . mil liieiaichicallv . . . Oni' i> iidI lierter

'" 13.16 Francesco Clemente, He Teaches Emofions with Feelings,
than another.'
1980. Fresco, 9ft 10' Bin x 19ft 8'jin (3 - 6m).
The [la-ifl- ill Myriads are conceived as a group within a Private colieclion. Courtesy Bruno Bischofberger, Zurich.
group and iiiirciiliiie a way of seeing art in profusion anil

?iniuhaneity. A> a composition. Myriads lias the same
imdecidai)ility. open-endedness. and emjihasis on seeing Roman frescoes at Pom[)eii. The ci)ni|Mi-.iii(iii \\ithin each
across the sm-face tiiat we have discussed as a trait of segment of this work, as in several of the drawings in
postmodernism. Clemente emphasizes fragmentation and Mwiads. undermines conventional notions of
deliberately
polarities, wandering from image to image, subverting one senses the influence of the even
pictorial balance, hi this,
conrrol and cohesion. \Xliere Kiefer obsessively seeks to more notational drawings of Joseph Beuys and more proxi-
define hi> identity. C'lemente seems determined lo decon- mately of Cy Twombly. who shares with C'lememe a classical
-trurt hi--. aesthetic elegance.
"1 feel a lack of affinity, a dislocation that gives me room Clemente was boni into the titled aristocracy of Naples
to work."'' To balance this precarious dissolution, hir- ill and had a pri\ileged background of elegant
1'^'52
sexualir\- provides an affinnation of his existence as part of surroundings and classical education, which he himself has
the overwhelming and infinite processes of nature. The described as detached from the realities of modem urban
curator Kathy Halbreich called him "a voyem' of his own life.' ' He moved to Rome at the age of eighteen and traveled
liomelessness. and his sexuality give^ him his jiortable to hidia for the first time in 1973. when he was tweim-one.
d\\ elling. the shelter of identity, hi Hindu fashion, he often He returned there for longer and longer periods, as well as
poitrays evanescent or out-of-body experiences reached spending time in New York, w here he finally relocated the
])aradoxically. in Western tennsi through a widening of center of his activities in 1982. Clementes constant physical
orifices and erotic possibilitv'. This opening of the senses to dislocations to Madias, Rome, and New York, as well as
the world creates a visage alteniatinglv \tdnerable. tenified. travels to Afghanistan. Japan, and elsewhere, luiiTor the
"'''
resigned, preterhmnan. dislocated sense of self in his paintings. He even displaces his
hi the left-hand section of He Teaches Emotions irilli sexualit)- in his paintings, often reiinenting himself with a
Feelings, a portable fresco painting [fig. 18.16], Cllemente kind of anioiphous sexuality- that is ai nwrv feminine and
portrays himself as though helplesslybound while a shower masculine.
ofanus reach out from all directions, the fingers invading (demente seeks to achieve a kind of liiniio in his work,
and penetrating eveiy orifice of his body. The individual making it become
possible to experience eveiMhing. e\cii to
tonus not only have no
in the three sections of the fresco something else. This remarkable openness can only exist by
one another, thev also float in imdefined
explicit relation to suspending a strong sense of identity. His remarks about the
space within each segment, like the motifs in some of the 1981 juiiit \ot St. (iirolamo might apply generally to his
418
13.17 Francesco Clemente, Untitled,

6ft 6inx 7ft 9in(l .98 X 2.36m).
Collection, Thomas Ammonn, Zurich
\\<iik: riic iiiKiL't's are result.-^ . . . ot waiiileriiig iiinn nni- Viik a-, .\uslralia. the electronic commiinicalinii and jet
iilca III iiiKiilirr without giving more weight to one oi' ihi- iia\el of the last two decades have made ii pn^-iMe to
oihrr . . . Mill what von see thru'.
liiii;i-l wliere \iiu hegaii. So |ianicipate activelv in the international discourse.
I (lull know nnî'li. niaile- a -.air
I and io-.t the ixi-\ I . . . I . riie .\ii.stralian artist Mike Parr [fig. 13.18], for exam-
Anil losing liie key niake.-^ the woik. gixes the wnik (hi-- |ilr. wni ked w itii tile \ ieniiese actionists in the mid --fXfntie^
antononiv. '"
Liideitliese conditions it doesn't niatiei w here and was iiispiinj li\ ilieir stirring emotionalism, lie is well
one eiuers the ((iinixisirion — one begins wheiever one iii- reail in pliilosnph\. linguistics, and psycholog) and was
gages it. hki- |iiikinL; up a newspaper after months ol nol drawn not simply to the reason of major theoreticians in
reading iheni and iiiuxiiii; hii'ward witli euiTenl exenl^ uncial science and the humanities but to the irrational that is
w ilhoul e\ CI li lokiii:: hack. iiia-kcd liehind their theories. In particular, he focused on

\i i- pan 111 liii' rich aiiiliigiiilv nl (iiemeiile > work llial works -.iicli as the late wi'itings of Antonin .\rtaud (on the
an aiii-l -i i didiiairii in liii' --nspension ot self slionld aKo iheater and llinê nl the p^\ ilii laiialvst Wilhelm Reich.
focii-. relenilr^-l\ mi lin- ^rir-|iorirail a^- his vehicle. He is an when their language came apart, losing itsgrammatical
enchanting lalmh-i a^ in lii;. Il, I reawakening the
" . structure and devolving into a secpience of images. Parr s
fanla^v and în-iial plcaîiir nl an li\ an infiniteiv

]ilacing imiijiie neo-expressionist stxle of drawing emerged in the
niallealile >ell' iiiin coiiîaiil l\ changing places in liie earl\ eighlies. driven b\ hi-- i-\plnralinn nl iliis hidden
iniagiiialiiiii. lie i- likr .lolin ( agi- in hi-- recf|iii\ ii\ lo conlent in theoretical text^. Mam nf these mniinmental
chanie eiicoiiiiter-. and i- ine-nierized li\ liie i-iliia!-' that drawings center on the artist s head, defonned by rendering
ciidil'\ ihriii. a ])hotogra]jh twisted in ])erspective s])ace. In counteiijoint
to the meticulous, if tormented, transcription of the head is a
The Internationalization of response to its defomiity in a free gestinal field of abstract
Neo-Expressionism line and cnlnr.
Till- New \ork ail wmld did imt lakr nnli- nl' the new The Peculiar Case of the Russians
lApressionist paiiiliiig nl ,. rniain ( and llaK until the earK
eighties, hnt once the di^coM r\ wa- iiiadr n inangniated a Prior to the dissolution of the Eastern Bloc in 1090. the
rapid intenialioiializatinii nf ilic an wmid. hi die nineties it re|iressi\ e climate made it imj>ossible for Russian artists
incliuie^ Japan a> well, win ri' ihen- lia^ emerged a |)iiii-iil tn cxhiliii anxthing that varied from the official formulas. In
fusion ol indigennii- pliilii^n|ili\ and ciiiiieiiipnrar\ iiin-i- Mn.,rnw. a light-knit commnnitv of dissident artists staged
nalinnal ti nds. Lven a> lar awa\ liniii iMirnpe and New iine-night exhibitiniis in one annlher's apartments by
419
13.18 Mike Parr, The Inertia ol Night

a Slat), 1 983. Charcoal and
(Self Portrait as
Girault on paper, 8ft 1 1 'sin x 6ft
(2.74 X 1.83m),
Privote collection. Photograph courtesy Roslyn Oxiey
Gallery, Sydney, Australia.
iii\ iuiliiiii iiirU ami (li'|ii'ii(lf(l ii|i(iii llic --liiiiiihiliiiii nl li\i-|\ New ^ ork \ia bracl in 1978). socialist realism and main of
(Iflialf aiiiiiiiu.-'t llifin>el\f.-.. riif\ wcif aliii(i>l t(ilall\ ciil iiff the stock ûbjeci.'^ ii dejticted had a nostalgia that evoked the
lidiii (le\elo|>ments in the \\ e.st. .so that tiie work of tiiose atmosphere of their childhoods in the last vears of the Stalin
will) atteni])tecl to respond to the inteniaiional scene looked peiiod. Stalin and the Muses (from the "Nostalgic Socialist
oiit-of-date and tediously deiivati\i-. 1 Ins also existed in a Realism" series) [fig. 13.19] has the tenebrous light and
>i range limbo within their own soiiii\ . ( m nil from entering palette of the poorly conserved Rembrandts and other old
ilieirwork into any form of public (li^cniiiî- on values. master paintings that hang in the gloomy light of the great
The most innovative Russian an nl ilie seventies and Russian museuius. The scantily clad muses approach a
eighties came out of conceptual art. oficii ap|iiii|iriating the smiling Stalin, who accepts their offering of divine inspira-
xDcabuIary of socialist realism.' For ilicMomiiw artists tion. Dressed in hisgleaming white militaiT uniform, with its
\ ilal\ Kumar ami Mcxandcf Milaiiiiil who emigrated to hiahlirrlits of red and gold aiirl rich azure linins, he is an
420
\iniTic,ni iilfii|(it:\ diil n| ihi-ir mnimi-riKil ruim-M in (ii'<lfi-
l< > injiii{ Miliiii' I hi '1 1 1 J- HI II I > III I III' mil nil'.
Il\ ;i Kali;ikii\ . jMiilhri >n\ irl ili-~ii|rni. iliif^ mil aililri---
lilrulii^\ lull lllr ~|iilii| llicllirirllr\ :illil 1

1|
i| i|i---i\ r i lliil il ir--
nl i|lliilliliall rxi-lrlH r ill Hll--ij. KaliilkiA > wnlk rrllliT- nil

lllr lllilliriliarv iil li\ri| r\| iiTli'l li r. ll - iml llli- arli-lir
iraililiiiii lull ilaiK lilr llial Iiiiiil:- iirw iilr.i-." In-
r\plaiiii-i|, Kaliakii\ al-u r\li-iiil- |iaiiiliiii: inn rlianlir Inlal

i
environmeiu- out of a variety of <cillecied trash, evoking tiie

grim squalor of the communal apaitments in Moscow where
line's tiny bedroom may open on to a rrnwiiiil i inridni w itii
ihree families sharing a single kitchen ami haili. 1 \v wriir^

fantastic tales to accompany his installations, stories filled
with ironv and a profound sense of the absurd, in the
tradition of Gogol's "Overcoat. " It is as though the very
extra\agance of these fictions senes as a form of resistance
to the grav sin-face of events.
To accompanv The Man U hn Hi'u- Into Spare From His
[pfirtrnent 'from the series "Ten Characters fig. l.H.2() .
Kabakov wrote:
The lonely inhabitdnt of the room, as beeomes clear from the

.story his neighbor tells, was obsessed by a dream of a lonely
flifiht into space, and in all probability he recdized this
dream of his. his "grand project. " The entire cosmos,

according to the thonghts of the inhabitant of this room, was
permeated by streams ofenergy leading upward somewhere.
His project was conceived in an effort to hool\ up with these
streams and fly aurn- with them. A catapult, hung from the
corners of the room, would gire this new "astronaut, u-lio
13.19 Komar and Melamid, Stalm and the Muses, 1 981-2. Oil
on canvas, 6fl ^ 4ff 7in (1 .82 1 .4m).
was sealed in a plastic sack, his initial velocity and further
Phologroph by D. James Dee, courtesy Ronald Feldman Gollery, New York. up. at a height of-tO—50 meters, he ivould kuul in a stream of
energ}' through which the Earth was passnigat that moment
as moved (dong its orbit. The astronaut had to pass
it
through the ceiling and attic of the house with his vault. II ith
imperial presence of historical manrlpiir. not the blood-
this in mind, he installed powder charges and at the moment
thirsrs* t\Taiit of the hist(iry liooks.
of his takeofffrom the catapidt. the ceiling and roof woidd be
On the one hand this work satirizes tlie saccharine
wiped out by an e.rplosion. and he would be carrwd away
glorification of Soviet histoiy that the style of So\iet realism
into tlw wide-open space. Everything urrs in place late at
was fashioned to depict, pushing the cliches to a ridiculous
communal
night, when all the other inhabitants of the
extremr' in this ludicrous apotheosis of Stalin. Yet it also
apartment are sound asleep. One can irruigirw their horror,
evokes a genuine nostalgia for the past. Moreover, the
and bewilderment. The local police cue summotwd.
friglit.
fabulous invention of deities visiting Stalin, in an incon-
an investigation begins, and the tenants ,'iearch
gruous setting patched together from haroiê and Renaiss-
everywhere — in the yard, on the street— but he is nowhere to
ance paintings, creates a sense of displacement in time and
be found. In all probability, the project, the general nature of
social realirs that resonates with the suiTeal existence of the
which u-as knoirn by the neighbor who told the uwestigator
Soviet dissident ariisi of the seventies and eighties. It is an ''
about it. was siicces.'ifulh- realized.
alienation thai seems increasinglv familiar too in the mass
cidttn-e of the \\ est.
Komar and Melauu<l became dose friends in art school
and in 1072 five vears after gradnaring) they decided on a

13.20 (opposite) llya Kabakov, The /\Aan Who Flew Into Space
collaborative career making what they dubbed "Sots" ait. From His Apartment, hom "Ten Characters," 1981-8. Installation at
The n-rin referred to socialist realism which was the old- Ronald Feldman Fine Art, New York, six paster panels with collage,
fashioned academic vocabulary in which they were trainerj .
furniture, clothing, catapult, household objects, wooden plank, scroll
type painting, two pages of Soviet paper, diorama; room

but it also alluded to .American pop art by lifting socialist
8ft X 7ft 1 lin X 12ft 3in (2.44 x 2.41 x 3.73m).
realism out of its ideological context ju>t as j)op art took the New York
Pholograph by D. James Dee, courtesy Ronald Feldman Fine Art, 'C llyo
cliches of idnsinner good- and ]i(i]iiilar media ilie heart ot Kabokov/VAGA, New York, 1 994.
422
Jennifer Bartlett, Susan Rothenberg:

New Imagist Painting and Sculpture
Till-
Ai'w Imaiii' Paimiiii:" Îmw. which ii|iiiict| ai the iniinnlain. llir nccan ihc lir^l lonr iniaiir^ dial oc<iiirc(l hi
W liitiu'v Miiseiiin in New ^(l|k in DcciihIkt 1''~o. liiT ; L:<'oiiii-irii- ioriii- a circle, a -([iiaii-. and a I rianL;li' :anil
t'ucnscd attention on a m-nuini'K new a^jn'ci ul paintini.' iliai a calalo!^ ol dilTerenl -n leof drawiiiL' freehand, iiiled.
luul lifcn evoKiiii: oxer th<' jireiedini; decailr. I lie c nialm. ailddoiie.l .
Riiliard Mai>-iiali. singled out ten |)aintei> who u-i-d icini;- Barileii paiiiled (Ml llie plale- w ith re-liir- enamel, ami
nizal)ie iniaijes in tiieir work hnl wlio^c execution w a-- die -iKipe- ami liiiaLie- iiiiild appear miniaturized on a --ingle
[iiincipallv in dialog witli ali-na( lioii. rioi iiadilional tigi na- -ipiaie 111 lemleled lailli' acro-.s nudti|ile -i|uaie-. ,^lie
tive [tainting. 1 liese artist-- — ami ii |iro\r(l iiiu- ol oihii worked according to an elaborate set of self-imjjosed rules.
inijiortant artists who eniergeil in ihi- -rMinic^ — \\v\i- ( oii- e\eii ii-ing a matiiematical scheme to detemiine the precise
seionslv working w illi nnilli|ile. inleiacting Inn inilependent placement of the dots, .\lthough Bartlett [jaiiUed the circle
layers ot discomê -inndianeousK in their works. canTing freehand, dotted, and measmed in small, medium, and large
oft' this separation of >I\ le and iniaircrx w ilhoni -uhordinat- -ize-- ill ihe first section of the mural, she forgot to do the
ing one to the otiier'. -aiiie ill -iib-effuetit section-- for the --(juare and triangle."'
"New Image Painting included the work of Nichola- 1 hii- -he made rules but then ln-i interest in them as -he
Africano. Jennifer Bartlett. Denise Green. Michael Hm-on. Weill along, disregarding or imidilVing them, so while
Neil Jeinicv. Lois Lane. Rohert Moskowitz. Susan Rotlun- Rhdp.sody seems fastidiou-lv procedure-oinented. like a
lierg. David True, and Joe Zucker. Apart from Moskowiiz Le\^ modularized like an Andre, codified into various
itt.
these ])ainters were still in their twenties during the late catalogs in its language like a conceptual work. Bartlett onlv
-ixiies. w hen rules of all kinds were thrown open to ([uestion. used each of these stylistic ideas as one of several, overlaid
and thev were raised on the more imdtidimensional world for expressive j:nn]io-e- in the wmk. FiiialK there is even an .
matle availal)le through television, hi their work, they freely iconograjihic dimen-imi in -in li work- — for example, the
êlected ideas from ali-tract e\|]ressioiiism. minimalism. individual names of the comjiosite title Falcon Areniie.
|i()p. and concepln:d an wiilidiii teeling constrained li\ ilie Seaside ff alk. Dirigltt Street. Jarris Street. Greene Street of
dogmas of any of them. the same vear [fig. 13.22 ' each refer to one of her fonner
Jennifer Bartlett created a sensation among artist> on the aildresses in New \ork or California, hi her work of the
downtown scene in New \ork with three shows, each of eighties [fig. 13.23 Bartlett frequently juxtaposed janiiigly
which filled a whole gallerv with a single work made up of different st\ les or plaved off illusionism against real, i (in-
hundreds of 1 -foot-stpiare steel plates, hung in regular rows. structed forms in space within a single work.
Slie had the plates C(5mmercially coated with a laver of Michael Hurson could sjiin out elaborate soap operas
baked-on white enamel like the signs in the New York around such intiinsicallv banal objects as a pair of eyeglasses
subway from which she got the idea in 1968 ."" The final ^fig. 13.24 . He retreated from the comple.x inacrocosni of
show, held in l')7b at the Paula C'ooper GalleiT — a work the world and magnified the ordinaiy into the most in-
entitled Hhap.wdy ^fig. 13.21 —involved the installation of credible gi'id of event and emotion. The commonest details
'^'*?>?> plates. Bartlett had grand ambitions for the work to of life implv intricate melodramas filled with events "still
include t'xcrvtliiiiL' : timnalix e imaL'erv — a house, a tree, a lo be explained. . . .dramas that are inconclu-ive. absent of
13.21 Jennifer Bartlett,

Rhapsody. 1975-6. Detail of
installation, enamel,
•
Alli*îA.A..i^»A^r
mrt,\ AA.iMii fi2i silkscreen, baked enomel on
» • n3 steel plates, 988 plates,

12'12in(30.5x30.5cm)each,
7ft 6in '^ 153ft 9in
-•î'/tvS (2.29 46.86m) overall.

-
InstollecJ in Paula Cooper
Gallery, New York,

May8-Junel6, 1976.
Pnvote collection. Photograph by
Geoffrey Clements, New York, courtesy
Paulo Cooper Gollery, New York.
423
Jennifer Bartlett, Susan Rothenberg: New Imagist Painting and Sculpture
1
424
1 3.25 Neil Jenney, Girl and Doll. 969. 1
lOm 6ft4'2in
Acrylic on canvas, 4ft
(1.47 X 1.93m).
Privole collection. Courtesy Thomos Ammonn Fine Art,
peitplf. anil iiiis-.ing tlie iianati\e itêll ,. . iiiliiiiatioTis ti-ees and lumber... lin noi imfrc-.ieil in a narrative...!
of a dramatic situation, like a chair ovcitiiiiiiMJ. or a door wanted the ttbjei-t? to be stated emphalicalK with nn
left ajar.""" Hursoii's revelation ofnuances that no om- ]i?\ ilioiogical imjtlications.""'' So if tiie bru?hwiiik lia^
else notices is coniic in ami at liie >aine
its nai\etv a??ociations w ith abstract expressionism, the images — single
time frightening in it? acuity. He transformed e\er\thing oiijects. isolated in a visual field — seem like a minimalist
into an anecdote, trivial in scale and vet >omeho\\ credihiv rctluction and the jisvchological remove of the --ubjects into
imponant. neutral images like a work of po|i art.
Hurson constructed beautiful, miniature rooms in balsa After 1971 Jennev took a st\ li?iic jump iiiio a ini-dciilnii-.
wiiod iluring the early seventies, as if to imagine the space in naturalism of a seeiuinglv ii]iiiiiTn(h-ri-iiiiii\ -i<y\. \<-\ his
which ihe>e dramas took place. .\t the end of the decade he use of exaggeratedlv hea\ \ black liaiiic- wiili the liilc?
wrote a [tlay called Red and Blue, which opened at The lettered on them emphasizes ihr iinnieeiiih-ciiiiiirv idea
Public Theater in New York in 1Q82. There were no actor? of painting as a"window on in naiiire. in contra.st to the
on stage in his play, only an em|)r\". miniature room with an self-contained object jini foiwanl in fnimalist theorv.
overnirned chair and a red and a blue light bulb conversing. The anachronism underscores a |)op art conception of
exchanging fragments of gossip, and dimming on and off. nariu'e as inlierentlv mediated, an artinnle echoed in .lennev s
Despite the rela.xed spontaneirv of Michael Hurson > remark that: "I don t think the artist should deal with s[iace
drawing style and the witty infonnalitv of his subject matter. or think about dealing willi space. He should think abmn
a fomial underlying grid inconspicuously conti-ols his com- adjusting culture."'^
positions. The and images in Hurson s drawings lead
st^le In 19b-t.Robert Moskowitz siaiteil learliing a seminar
independent and each detail, each brushstroke, each
lives, at the MaiTland Institute in Baltimore in which he simjih
structural scheiTia has its own highly developed and insular showed slides of works of ail he liked, in alphabetical order.
significance. Hurson remarked that the images in hi? 1IV artist."" There is a simple. Warhol-like deadpan cjnality to
Eyes^la.ss Painting #/ have nothing directly to do with w iiat this that also characterizes his best paintings. The two grand
is happening e.\pre??ivelv in the paint." In this sense, tin- simplified images of Skyscraper 2 i'1978i [fig. 13.2bj each
paintings are realistic and ai)?tract at the same time. fill a 10-foot-high canvas precisely proportioned so as to
Neil Jenney's paintings tjf 1969 and 1970. like Girl and have a nearlv even margin all the way around the regular
Doll have a viscerallv expressive, gestural
ifig. 13.2.5j. geoiuetiT of the near-identical fonus. It could be a ininiiual-
brushwork— in some he even seems to have used his hands ist painting but for the stibtlest hint of sj )atial recession in the
directly to manipulate the paint. At the same time, the fact that one is just slightly smaller. Naturally, once the
imagery is presented in a strikingly neutral way: "I was more viewer recognizes the allusion to the World Trade Towers in
concerned with approaching the \newer widi relationshijt?." New York, what at first seemed like a mininialisi absiraciion
he explained in the \ew Image Painting catalog, "for changes completely for the viewer.
instance, a crvins i-'irl and a broken vase, birds and jets, or Susan Rothenberg exhibited six of her horse |
taint ings in
425
ilii- Arw im;iL;i- l*,iir}iiiii;" -Ikiw . She began tlie serie-- — her
liiî IiimK 111 inaidir wiirk — in 1974. (:ie>cril)iiii.' ii as
luiinliiij;.-, al)()iu "plac cineiil in space" a mininialisi ideai.
I he [loiiit. as sjie e\|(hiine(l it. was ro take (he (iiarired image
111 I he hiir-.!- ami (Irciirri;!/!- il a- \\ arlml did w iih hi^ -uhjccl
rnaiii-i while al dir ~anir linir |)nllinL: die enniiioii imi ;\
inininialiî inneiTn irno ihe fiehl of hrusiiwork.' Sheihi-w

all die hiii-e~ ill lhi~ lii^l series as flat oiuUlie figin-e^. in lell
I
II 111 lie. nil lie 111 le-,-,eeiiieied and filling tile eiiin| ii i-il ii ill. >lie
ileah with die {laiiil -nilare intliienced li\ die |ira\iira
lirii-hwiiik i.f \eil.leiiiie\-.eaii\a-eMif 1 <)(,'» n, 1()-|)-" ;,|iil
ihe iiiliir wliieli had nn relaliun tii die rulnr iif an arliial
Imrê a^ elenieniN uj an ali^lrart gesture paiiiliiig. Tlie
e\|ire--si\ e iiê iif niaieiiaU ill the woric of Eva Hesse as well
a^ liie leinaikalile ^\niliesi> of alistract expressionist liand-
liiiL: w iili an eiiiiiiiniially resened. indeed ostensiljiv neutral.
iieainieiil 111 iinaiieiA in ilie work of .Tasper .hihii'- had an
iinpiinanl inipaei mi her diinking.
I 111- Hiiiheiiliei l:. die |iainting process is a corrective
exjiei ieiii e III wliiili -he -tarrs witii an idea then keeps
eiirreiiing all die diiiigs that siie thinks are WTong wiih it
until -he gel- il liehi. The antagonism laetween elemeiii- i-
iincial lint the elements are also interdependent — in each

ca-e the field, for e.xample. evolved in relation to the image."'
In addiiiiHi. Rnihenlierg in some manner cut the image
Willi geniiieiiie divisions or lines or the bisectimi of
die eiiiii|iii-iiiiiii — a- in Tiro Tone '1975i [fig. 13.27 —to
empha-i/e die pli\ -iraliu iif die canvas over tlie image.
.\e\ertheless. as .loan Simon pointed out. in iter In ink on
Roriienberg. the horses tend toward a human ladier dian
and their movement — even in soitie sense their
ei[iiine) scale,
anatomy — seems reminiscent of human beings too. The

aiii-t hei-cif was aware of the connection and in V^-t
|iliiiiiieiaplied a friend in poses related to the horses all in
lell pnilile and then diil three paintings of her that ine\ei-v
iiilier wax lieliing in ilii- first series of horse iiiiii|iii-iiiiins.
13.26 (above) Robert

Moskowitz, Skyscraper 2, 1 978.
Latex, acrylic, and oil on canvas, tv/o
panels, 10ft 4ft 9^^4in (3.05 « 1.46m)
overall.
Colleclion, Mr. and Mrs. Ceroid Gri
York, Phologroph courtesy Blum Hel
New York.
nwold.New
on Gallery, ^
13.27 Susan Rothenberg, Two

Tone, 1975. Acrylic on canvas,
5ft9inx9ft5in (1.75 X 2.87m).
Colleclion, Albrighl-Knox Art Gollery, Butfolo.

Gift of Mr, and Mrs. Armond Costellani.
426
But. slif >airl. "1 got niofe coiicenied with tiie ai'ticnlatinn nt m| ihc- aniuKiJ. (MI llir |iirlnic |il:ini'. 1 In- ilcvici' conlrailicl--
ilie fiiiure tiiaii painting aiui wa;* liaviiiga hard liini- ki'i'|MiiL.' ImiiIi iIii' Xdlnnir .mil llii- nn|>liril nii i\ i-rnrnl. Imkintl du-
"
them flat, silhouetted. Finally I had to sto|) it." ll nil i mill 1 II' -|iarr iil llii- ri iiii| m i~il ii ill. I lie -.liftT -cli-iialil\
Wltv hofsesy To be sine, the artist ideiitiliicl wnh ilu- 111 llir-i- |iaiiiliiii:- -iiiiL'c-I- an inimciliacx . a bmlx |ii i-scncc
horses lint at the same time also wanted lo niainlaiii a a- ill I Ic-si- , \\ 111 k .iinl in llii- iiiiiicm|iiirai\ di/f /iniiru . \~
distance from hersell in her subject matter. In For //if Li'jiil >iinnii -'iii;i;i--iiMl. ilii~ iiki\ In- irlalrd imi miK in lriiiim-.|
ÎC^S-Q ;% 13.28:. the horse lia~ bn.k.n ,,ni n\ il„- i-~llr- In I 111- all al I lie llinr lull al-n In llir |
ill\ -li alil \ nj llii-
controlled silhouette and charges at ilir \ii\\ir. l^llll(nlMrli ilaiiri- ami liniK |
irrli irnianrr- Hnlliriilin ;; had lirni lii-
'
block > llii> aiKaiice w itii a boni'-liki- Iciriii liii\ criiii; in In ml \ ii|\ I'll W nil ii\ rr lllr |ilrii-(lllli; diTaili-.
Kiilliriilirri: n-. l:'..2'l wa- bnin In 1 '>-+.') ami llwd a

(omueicnllm r r\l~irmi' in ihr late -l\ili'~. Ilnl--liliig a B..\. al
Cornell In \'H)~ ami liiialK -I'lilmi; In NVw ^ ork in the tall of
l''()''.'"' Ilii-rr -111' ii'i iinni'ilril wlili trirml- -In- liail kmiwii
al ( iirnrll. Imlmllni: (.niilnn \lana-( lark ami Man >ai-i'i.
who brought her in imuli w lili the downtown art '-cene. She
studied dance and performance with Deljorah Hay and
.loan .lonas and the direct bodily expressionism of thi> work
came out in her subsequent paintings. Rothenberg made her
1'^'"'4
lir-i hi>r?e painting? of in a raw >leiia color, like
rla\. relating to the earth, to the body, and ni prehistoric
caye painting?.
It was diirint; a lonely tall seme?ter at C al -\rt? in 1^J77
that Rotiienberg started taking the horses aj)art. -\s they

became more yolumerric. mobile, aliye and more human .
?he headed them off— as in For the Light— v^hh surface

fonns. or dissected them into free-floating legs and heads, hi
19'79 Rothenberg made a painting called M\ Bones and with
this her subject matter became more directly per--oiial. The
hor?e transformed itself, she recalled:
// turned almost into it figure. And it turned ii// iii the hare
hones. -^ o supeijhions geoinetr} deahng irith the edges of the
/Hunting, but just the bare bones of the frontal horse, which
suggested that a figure uris appearing— that the horse teas
metamorphosing into a human figure. I realized that there
ireren't rer\niaii\of tliose irnaaes left, that it had nhsnliitely
13.28 (above) Susan Rothenberg, For the

1 978. Acrylic and flashe on canvas,
Light,
8ft9inx7fl3in (2.66 X 2.2m).
Colleclion, Whitney Museum of Americon Art, New York. Purcho
with funds from Peggy ond Richard Donziger. Photograph by
Geoffrey Clements, New York.
13.29 Susan Rothenberg.

Photograph © by Bngitte Locombe, 1 991
427
13.30 (above) Susan Rothenberg,

Hal! and Half, 1985-6. Oil on canvas,
5ft X 7ft 1 in (1.52x2.1 6m).
Private colleclion, New York. Photogroph courtesy

Sperone Westwater Gallery, New York.
13.31 Joel Shapiro, Untitled, 1973-4.

Bronze, edition of two, 3 x 1 V4 x 1 'A in
(7.6 X 3.2 X 3.2cm).

Privote collection. Photograph by Geoffrey Clements,
New York,
r(iiii|i(i-îl iiicis ;niil liiciisiiii: cni iiiii\ cinciil. |i;iiiiliriLl <l.ni(ci--.
jiiL;i:lri -. îriil ~| iiriiiiriv; liijurr^ in ciiiciiial Ir nidlidri. 1 lie
-l|-aili;i'. >|ilil ri;:il I

( ill //u //(///(///(/// Nci'iii^ ( .lacnirirl 1 1- like
il 11^ cxi^lclilial :ili\irl\. wliilr llii- iiilcilÎlN iil c mIui and

hindiuolk rrralU l!n|inai<L Mini, al I llr rin I nl l lir r|M|,| I.--,.
I III' III n'-î"^ I liiii'iird III a c a Inn a and iimi r laul ic liii in.
riierr weiT -i-M'ral (illier iiilric-.| iiii; ailisi, in 1')'!'8

13.32 Joel Shapiro,
wlinni line iniiilil lia\i' inclndrd in a '
nrw iinaiic s|ii>\\.
Untitled,980-1 Bronze, edition
1 .
AP/3,4ft4'8inx5ft4inx3ft9'2in iiiiliidiiii: llic siul|iliii .Idi'l >lia|iini. In l''~l. >lia|iini \\a>
(1.34 X 1.63 X 1.16m). still e.\|ieriineiiliiii; wiili |iiiMr-~ wnrk- ^ni h a~ ( hir llnnil
Privote collection. Forituilg/Two Hiini/s I iirniina—WMi piles nl inndnlai Iniiiis
in raw tired ila\ made iiihi an nliloii!.; Milnnie Willi niie
hand and a hall with iwn hands ii--.|ie(ti\ el\ Mr iiiadr .
pieces concerned with plusical wrii.;lii and measineincnl.

and simple, abstract, geoiuetric loniis. )nr ot these niiiii- (
mal" geometric forms turned mii in he a bidiize house, like a

hotel from a Monopoly gaim-. and another a miniaiiiir
bronze chair [fig. l-'l.'M \s in die work of Bartlell and ,.
Rothenberg. Siiajiiro rendered his hmiî- ami chair in a
inaiuier more o\erll\ cou<'erned w ilh alistiaclion.

I he .^-inch-high hnnize chair like the little house sat
Ddliiralh' rfdiicfti ilsell lo ii /)liiic iilicrc I iras going to be
" on the floor in a large pnlilic s|iace. raising |ie( iiliai' issues of
forced III innlmin' — iliffiTi'iitlw
scale and perspective. Ii Imili disappeari'd and at the same
''"*
So "ilip horse iu-.t ran out. and she was left "srared ao;ain. lime brought the viewer along. I was insi-,iing on an
'
hi 1980 and early 1081. Ruthenbeiij; painted a series dl Ultimate e.\]:>erience in a public situatimi. he- i'\]ilaiiied. ' B\
-c hiinatii tares and liands. in tlie smnnier she shifted tn nil the end lit tlie decade. Shajiiro s îm|i|r êumetric conliguia-
|iaiiii> al die >uK2estion of her friend Elizabeth .\hirrav. and limis cast laigeK ticim ciiiisiinciidns nf wooden two-by-
liiai [iroinoled a finer, longer. inipressiiini--ric l)rn-.h-.ii(iki — tiiiir- became more and more m friU recognizable as acti\e.
a directional gesture witii more color, a^ in I lulf nml I lull iiidbile figin-es [fig. l.'^..'?2 . lie cnniiadii ted the motility of
l')8.'S-"' tiL'. V^:MV . Thi- work (if the mid .-ighlieswas the athletic poses with the ielali\el\ iinliaiistormed iileutit\'
\ei\ dilteient Irniii what had ciiiiie lielore. \ll of a sudden ot the wooden blocks, w liich pnsrx ered as such. i-\ in w hen
she found her>ell sliiiggliiiL; with more coinjilicated formallv frozen into hinn/e.
Elizabeth Murray
Alice V\iiick mice niaile llir i il isii \ al ii in dial die wmk ul narrative, the absiTacl consirnctidu nf tonus in relict,
uian\ women arlisN derixed an inteiesting and partii ii- the expressive brusiiwork. and the iiuerjilay of depicted
larizing eccentriciix tnun an e\ce|iiionaI responsiveness in abstract forms all maintain their dwii identities, develop-
the realities of their lixes. '
XccnrdiiiL: to F.lizalietli Miirrax ment, and associations, while at the same time interacting
line finds art "in tin- ~iieei. ( )r \ nn liml ii at liunie. i ii:lii in with one another, w ith the artist's |)ersonal histoiy. and w ith
lioMI ot vou. I |iaiiil alidiil llie diiniis ihat siiriumid iiir — llie hisforx of art.
lliiiiL's that I pick up and handle e\ er\ da\ . I ha Is w lial ail
is. Vil is an epiphaii\ in a cdller ciiii. \liui"a\ paiiils ihr

The Origins of Murray's Style
encotniter of her inner lih' wiih tin' wmld and renders ihis
collision ot internal and exieinal h\ supennipnsini; sr\eral li/abelh Miiiiav sdaih encdimter w n h the great ( ii'zaniies
trains it llmught mie annther iii her ciimpdîiinn-

ii\er E in Chicago while she was a student in
the \ri Institute of
wiihoul lor a mouient losing ihr independence nr miinien- the Schodl (if the .\rt Institute from fôo to 1^)62 taught her
tiim ot an\ (if them. 1 he figiirali\e ^nhjeci mailer and to see the wa\ picldiial sniicture. handling, and (lescii|iiidn (
429
Elizabeth Murray
('(>iilH imbue a vital spirit into the simplest inatiiinate object-. Mmiays unirpie vocabnlaiy of bioinoiphic abstraction
Sbe would also "go upstairs to rle Kooiiiim's KxcdVdtioii in and e\pie-si\e surface handling came together around
-fi' how he maiiipulalerl the j>aiiil. Au- iciniMiibi-tid. "I had I'C). anil ill that year she was enlisted into Paula (loo|)er's
an idea of what it ought to feel liki- in make a paiiiiiiii.'. Ii - a valleiv w here her friends Joel Shapiro and Jennifer Bartlett
\iTv "inner experience. When things go well. \nii -nip were ahead) -howingi. Cooper and Murrav were a good
diinking about what voii redoing. Iwasinnn la-i \rarn| :ni inaieli. Iinth fiercely independent though soft-spoken and
.-chool when 1 finally |)Ht it together and di-c uMicd how id diplnmalie dedicated tn their work, and little intere-ted in
.
get inv feelings ont. It- not that von learn Imw in paiiil — die la-liinn- ami eaieeri-m n| the marketplace. In l'*(i8
aiivbodv can dn dial — bin \i>ii Icain hnw In l)c i:i/)rcssirf ( iinpei hail ilin-eii In npeii her galleiA" ill the 11111-downi area
\\ ilh paint. " where die aiii-i- were taking up residence rather than
\Ilina\ Wrill I,, \lllK ( nllr-e In, ail \\\ \. TIlCIV -he ii|j|nw II near die enlleiini -,. ( nnpei'- was the first commer-
Miel .leiiiilliT liarlli-ll. wlin. when \|iiria\ lilialK llln\ed In cial galleix 111 "-nl In. and her I'ir-i -linwwas a benefit for
New \nik(ll\ III I''!)", iiilrdclui I'd lic'r In ;i Lilniip (if like- \ eterans .Xgainst the War in \ ietnam. Joining Cooper's
iiiinded îrii-i-. \i ilun lime. \Iiiiia\ leli -imiiliaiienii-l\ galleiT allowed Mmiay to concentrate on her painting.
enimeeied In and al-n enmpelilixe Willi prnee-- art and If the title of Tempest [fig. 13.33]. a canvas of lO-O.
minimali-m. e-peeiall\ llie wnik nl Kieluird Sena. Keith suggests some turbulence in Muiray's emotional life in die
>nimier. and Brice Marden. 1 he prexalent attitude dial late seventies, the sf\le provides a rejuvenating escajie intn
pamiint: wa- nut . . . w a- inmer\ ing. she recalled, jnii dun the comics. The cartoon-like black outlines and clear,
1 didn t gi\e a damn ... For the fii-l lime in m\ lile I wa- and intensely contrasting color areas recall die
brilliant,
exactlv where I wanted to be."^" drawings of Donald Duck. Little Oiphan -\niiie. and Dn k
13.33 Elizabeth Murray, Tempest, 1979, Oil on canvas,

)Oft 14ft 2in f3 05 4.32m).
Colleclion, Memphis Brooks Museum of Art, Memphis, Tenn Photograph courtesy Poula
Cooper Gallery, New York.
430
Tracv that siu- iuul adinircd as a iciMiagcr. '

Ml of mx i(|ia> a--ocialioiial drpdi oT llir haiidlini;. ralln'r lliaii leading; die
ahoiit art came from ltuikiii<: ai comic I k^. -\u' -iu<\. \ lew craw ,i\ hoi II i in- ah-i i ai l n in Mail low ard a rec i ii;ni/ahli'
thinking hack to iicr carlic-i iiilric-.i in |Miiiiiiii;. I iciiirm- -iilijiTi. I -111 I 111 kiiiiw w hal llir\ aie. '
-he -aid. "I in I don I
i)cr wfiiiiii; to \\ ah Di>ni-\ lo .i-L il 1 i unld \<r hi- -re ivmi\ . . .

II iiii|ilricl\ kimw wlial dii'\ aiei-ilhrr. ^'
I liiiiik caitooii (hawiiii; — the r.im|)hli( Miion. ihi- niii\i r-;il- r ornialK , / iiii/icsl i rlalr- In |
io| i ail in il- |
laha h- and in
ii\ . tile ihairiaininatic (|iiMlit\ oi llic iiuii k- ihi- inrakihiw n dir ivli'li nil- 111 die colllil-. I \\r -lia|iri| caiua-. winch -lie
oi i-ealil\ . il> hhuaiii. -\ iiilnilic (iiiahlx —ha- jirm an iimr- inn iidlii eil III ]'l~('i. deii\r- lioiii >lilla - |iaillllli^- iil die
mon> intliience on ni\ work. ^
In /rv/^'cs/. ihr hm' \rllo\\ -i\lii-. Inn in-lead ol i inilii iiiiiil' dn- -Iriu liiial Ionic ol dir
line [hat connect- and [icncliale- die lignre- -ecni- alino-i inli'iini III ihr la-hiiin ol loniiali-l |iaiiili'i- Miiiiax in a
iiairalixe ami at the -anie lime like the emhienialii- -il:ii- decidi-dk |iii-l Iiiii allililde -el die | hi iiiieln - ol llii-
n-ed h\ cai'looni-I- lo indiian- niniion. -in|iri-i-. or an a-ide w I

II k ol I anain-i die II ilerii n aci n m . îiiiilai l\ . -In- e\|iloi nl a
thai i- nol mcani lo he -ecu w iiliin die nan ali\ e Iranie. \aiiel\ ol -iiilaie haildlllii;. Irolll a drIlialrU irlined Iniii h
hilimation> ot (he tigiii'e imiea-ed -iiadiK in \Iinra\ - II iiiiiiiochriinialic held- iii-|iireil li\ ihr -nrlace- ol Brice
ahst faction at thi> time. ^ ei. like her cipnleni]ioiarir- in iIm' Maiden - ipainlini:- ol die lair -i\lir- lo ILilK |iainled or
"New image l-'ainlin^: had a |iaiaiiioiinl inleic-i
-how. -hi' ni|iio\ i-aiioiiall\ \ariet;aled |ia--age-. B\ l''!)] -he had
in the jiaiiit and -irncinre. Indi-i'd. \hina\ - tocii- on heiiii; le\ rlo|ird ihi- -iiinillaiieou- \ariel\ o) hand ling with -nlli-
"('.lj)ri:s.siri' w illi jiainl connecl- her lo ah-liacl i-\|ire--ion- ieni delihrralene-s to remark that -he 'tell it wa- |io--ilile to
^"
i-m. while her n-i- ot lii:iiral relerenee- inhaner- dir |iaiiii all die wa\- i can |iaiiU in one |iainiiiir.
1 3.34 Elizabeth Murray, Painter's

Progress, 1981 . OH on canvas in nineteen
ports, overall 9ft 8in ^ 7ft 9in (2.94 x 2.36m).
The Museum of Modern Art. New York. Acquired through
the Benhill Fund and gift of Agnes Gund. Photograph by
Geoffrey Clements. New York, courtesy Poulo Cooper
Gallery, New York
431
Elizabeth Murray
13.35 Elizabeth Murray, Her Story, 1984. Oil on three canvases,

8ft 9inx lift (2.67 X 3.35m
Collection, Robert K and Loretto Lifton Phologroph courtesy Paula Cooper Gollery,
New York
Pursuing the Logic of the Shaped Canvas conscious and unconscious efforts to l)ring dis|)arate.
"*"*
conthctive parts of [my] self together.
The -li;i|if.l ,aii\aM.> .il I'*";; and IT'' - |.i(ilitfral.-il Although Nhirrav s |>ainting has too many crosscurreiUs
iiiiii ( |iiiîle paintings m.-nlc ii|i n{ iiiiiliijile cainaM--. of assiM'iation to permit one to read it in literal correspond-
liki- |iii//li-^ iliat tlon't quitt' lit i(ii;i'ilii'i-. I In- transition took iiiii-s with the rxeiits in her life, she did venture that
]ihi(r III I'lJil) with a |>aiiitinji callci! Brctikiiin'. Miiiiax hail I'liinlrr's I'raiinss was sii |isychologically satisfying be-
iiiailr hiin ^ha|ii(l |ianel.s. paiiitcil two. anil tlii'ii |iiil ihr cause 1 fiiialh meaning of shattering and of
irali/rd the
iillii r iwii •ilciwn nil the floor and lonknl at lliciii i(ii:rtlirr. It
I
ml ting an image inside the shattered parts that would make
"*
w a> an rnninioii.-. step because it I tad nrsrriuciui'ed to nie to tliem wliole again. and elsewliere remarked that 'this
'
""'
liii-ak n|> III Use the shapes togetiirr. . . I he i)eei' glass [the applied til iii\ art and iii\ lih-. As in 'fiiN/xs/. the
( rnttal inolil is breaking in half in an illiiîonistic as well as passionate nlnrs and the caitoon-like drawing in I'dinlvr's
i
III a [)hvsical wav. and that s the lii^t liine I irali/ed that I Pniiirrss |iro\ ide oimterpoint to a darker side and offer an
i
""
riiiild do both at once. exit into iaiiias\. like the cartoon paintbrush that intro-
In I'diiilcr's Progress [fig. 13.34], Nhirray l)roke ajiart duced the \\ alt Disnev True Life Adrentiire movies (such as
ilii- (iniial image of the artists palette and Imishes. The Liri/iii Desert that Nhirray saw as an adolescent in the
<
-raitniiiL; it across nineteen separate canvases, as though fifties, hi these films the Inush would jiaint a stroke of color
irah/ing ill tangible form the shattered surface of facet across the screen and as the paim dri]>|)ed down the cartoon
lilaiii- in K ii en-.
a cubist Picasso of the eai was imagininu I would magically fade out and die live filmed images would
a whole thing — dropped or and then shattered — on
fallen take over the screen, tinniiig into the opening scene of
the i:iiiinifl. in the air, or [lerhaps in the body or mind. The the stiiix .
iina;:r iiisifle is trying to form tiie pieces whole again .Tile . . A cleaiK disceniible collee <-ii]i emerged as the ciMilial
|i-\rliiiliigi(al meaning of ihr |iainliiii; Im iiir i- in\ own iiiotil in \liiria\s painting dining the sununer 111 I''i'!l and
432
eliair hack. Mnrrax |iaitileil ilie-e iinaiie^ ii^;ht ii\er the
lieL:all\e .|iare~ ami liei~ iil leliel in llie ranva^r^. niakillL:
iinnn^lakalile hiilll the imle|H'mleiii r iiT ihe -iihii rl rniiii the

.i'lil|iliiial .11 1 hi 1 1 If III I III' -III lair, ami he em I n Iiiiil: iI\ lia-
lllli III llieii |ii\la|iii--il imi, llir aili--l lia- elal ii il a lei I raili
ii|i|ei'I Willi I he -.ame i|ei:ree i il el li;aL:ei I el I ml nil la I iiillllllil-
mriil a- -he ha- I In- ali-liaet inii-l imiri rlenienl-.I
>mh ii|i|iii-ilimi- e\en e\i-l williiii the rulnr, a- in the
wa\ \|lllia\ |ila\- nil tin- l rlineinelll nl llie liliie. leil. ami
\ \, la\ em lei again -t the ami llie vritlN i ii-t le In nw n- ami l;i eeii-
mil ini-heil -iii'lare a| iliral imi. llie |ialelli' ami liamllinL: i|
al-n lia\e allnlln'l' ln-liir\ in relalimi In llir limK ilrlialnl

.liilian ^rhnaliel e\liiliilimi al the Mai\ Bnmie (.allei\ that
\ear. .'êhnaiiel - eriiilr a|i|iliialimi nl |>aiiil n\ei lieliU nl'
-hatlereil ernekerx Iig.l4.!i em ri-| mm Inl with ami iiia\
e\ en lia\e lalaK/eil \liiria\ - ileliliei ate awkwanlne.- nl
|iaiiii a|i|iliiatiiin. Miirra\ e\|ieiiineiileil with a rrmlei.

iliser. ami le--, elegant >l\ le nf a|i|ilieatimi in llir lain |iai I nl
]^>H'2 at the .ame time a- -he -larteil in a—eiiilile her

iiverla|i|iing Inrin. ami Imilil mil tnwanl the \iewei with
iniilti\aleiit |iietnrial ami rmi-tnieleil element-. \- in
\hirra\ - -e|iaratiiiii nl her w nrk iiiln -e\eial ii\erla|i|ping
lint independent liiie> nl i|e\ ilnpniiin, the palpahle lealits
nf Schnabel's plates af-n rnnrlimieil imlepenilenllx nl
hi- iniageiT and handling.

Murray has remarked on hnw iinere.tiug it is tn |iaiiu
nil these surfaces.""*" The ]ih\-.ieal -tritcture and (le|ith reh-r
tn tlie evulutiiin nf the -lia|ied and cnnstructed can\ a- Irmii

Picasso tlirougii Stella, in aildiiimi. Nhirra\- turned the
shaped canvases intn aimthei thread nl literal subject
1 3.36 Elizabeth Murray, 99 1 1 matter. Mv
."^/rin- cmi-i-t- nl iwn letter .X"- ,-et hnttnm tn
Photograph V by Brigitte Locombe, 991 1

linttnm at the niiilille nf the cnmpn.sitinti the tup of (Hie
piiinl-dnw 11 tn the Inwer right and llie other tn the upper left
and iiM'i iliem -he placed a backwarrls letter "E. in ellect
lii-cami' llir (liiiniiianl llii-iiir ill till- iiaiiitiiii;- (il llic liilldw iiiL; pla\ ing w ith language as a tatigible reality
\iar. MiMiiw liilc. Miinax aKn hriâii ci m^l iiicliiiL; iiinii' f/ir Ston' is a |iiirtrait nl a w ninan. pulled in di Herein
(•niii|ilii:ilril ~ii|i|Miil^ llial lili'ialU (i\rrl;i|i iiiir aiii il lirr. directiiins vet cohesi\r and ealni. llie painting |mrlra\.s
ImiMiiit: iiiii idwaid till' \ icwt-r ami li-ailiiii: lo -inli ((Hiiiili'x >im|ile. nrdinarx thing- —a eliair. a Imnk. a cup of cotfee —
>ii|)|i(in> a-' ill Her Slory l'û-+ j
i'iii. l^.o.j .By lilt- iiiiie'tit'> \ei it i- lavereil with eniii|i|e\it\ in -tincture and allusion, it
she \\a> iiKKleliiig the surfaces [fig. 13. 3C)]. She liafl e.\|)eii- is a ciinteinplatixe nimiient tn dn with reading, remember-
inenleil with in erla[i|iitii.' -heet- in her pastels in I'lHO -iiice ing, thinking alimit Imw all the pieces fit together Imth
I'ru ,|„- ha.l nil, -11 i|.r,| r,,|,.iv,l paMeK. lik,' her .mall literallv and fignratix el\ It is at once . a |mrtraii nl the
milr|iail .ketrlie-. hi r\| iiTiiiii-m imur llrrK willl new artist - mother and a self-portrait.
iilea- . 11 le -iilijeii iil' ///7' >7n/;\ r rni-. in |iarl. the (leal li Dnmestic subjects dominated the iintingraphy nl
ol the aiti-t ~ innlher in l'*i"i.''i. In ilii. |iaiiniiii: Mniias .\lurra\'s painting through \'>H7^ a- she awaited the hirtli of
ariiipleil an alnni-l >liii\ -telliiiL; inmle In ileal with the her second daughter So[>hie was Imi n in I ''o2 and Daisy in
-tihjei't. >lie ex|ilaineil. "I a^îiriatril liiiiik^ w illi m\ miilher. U'85 . She e\en 'did twn drawings light lieh)re Daisy was
//(•/ .S/o/T i~ realK a |iiiilrait nl her -ittiiig with a hiink. horn about babies. s| iis and mgaiis. she pi liii ted 11111."* In
hiilililiL' a eii|i.""' \t the âme time ( ivanne > |iiirtiait nf 108.1. Mtirrax hillnwed the s,ii|pinial implicatimis nf the
Mnrhtmc (rzaiiiic in a }r//(iir \niirli(iir. wliirh \liniay layered cam ases intn iimre liilK rminded protrusions w here
slndieil elo--el\ in tin- \rl In-titiite. aUn êein. |iie.ent a- a Lngantic innlded Inn 1 is extend alm\e and below and out f 101 11
lingering influenee mi tlii- |iiirtiail nl a -eateil w an. the (enter III the iiiin| iiisii inn. Smite paintings became
In Her Stnn: ilie hliie figure ah^lrarteil iniu .iiii|ile alninsi liilK rnnnded sculpture, as in '/oH/o/voz/'of 1988 [fig.
angular lipiin- ît. mi a reil rliaii w illi a |iink hiink in her lei l.)..!" where the relation to comic-book description comes
.
lianil ami a enlfee eiiji ill her liglil. I mier the linuk re>t. a lint in a \\ilt\ exaggeration. Here Murray [lenetrated the
freeforin liiw lalile ami. I irliiml ln'i. mie s,-c, the -|iine-. nf the soles of the giant shoes with openings that shift in cartnnn
433
Elizabeth Murray
fii'liiiiii Iriid knniliolr- in a |ilarik (if w I. I'lif-i- in Inin iinniii\i- iiiiici--.-. ami then |)ainted in an intuitive response
lici iiinr i-\ .- Mil hiir-~ in |irii|ili> anil .il-n niilici'-. 111 dii- rmni-. nliin inodil'viiii; the stiaictiires in the course
In lli>h,> ^tig. 13.1 . Mnnay a.irlcd >niall Miilpunal 111 |iainliiiL:.
i-\irn-iiins to the eve sockets aiul the striiii.'-- ili.n la^^n ilu- ( liir III llir inii-I I'finaikalili- a--|(e(t~ iil Miiii'av •- wiifk is
iic'i'U in 7o/Ho/vof/'havemetain(>r|)li()se<l iiiio I lie orjianicalK Inr ciiiiiaLir in li illuw ini; n train ot association wherever it
mndelled le<is of a table. s|)lil in liall'. Whereas in the niiii liaiN. wlirdin ii 111- a lnriiial development from the surface
eighties MiiiTav eonld inaki- |ia|i( r liiii|ilafi~ Inr ln-r ^liidid iniii iliiri-iliiiiiii-.iiinal s])ace as in Tomorrow and Hobo] or
assistants to translate iiiin w iMMlcn -inirliri - |iaiiiiiiiL;~ likr III iriiii^ ul ilii- îiliji'ct matter or expressive handling. It is
Tiiniorniir and llubo feiniiird >mall clax iiiai|iii'iir~ Im ilii-ii- iiliin a riiiilliri lilli'd struggle: "I never finish a painting
w mid 1 1 II nidations. Even so. the ai'tisi -I ill did imi \ i^nali/i- widiiiiii haling it lii'>i. riiere's always a point when I want to
llir \\iiik~ riiiii|ilfti-l\ ill ad\ani-i'. Slii- made iIh' hiiin- li\ an lliiiiw llir pain ling awav. But then overtime vou start to jiuli
ii iiigiiliii : Mill figure out what vou ve been struggling for.
It -. ilnilling w lien vou feel like you've got the painting, when
\ I 111 reallv get it. And then it's over. And then all you have . .
13.37 Elizabeth Murray, tomorrow, January-February 1 988. Oil

wfll. mavite ilii> i'^nt a good thing to sav. But I'm glad that
on two canvases, UVhx 132% x 21 V2in (283.2 x 337.2 x 54.6cm).
Collection, Fukuo Sogo Bonk, Ltd., Fukuoko, Jopon. Photograph by GeoHrey Clements, New
mv dealer can sell in\ jiaintings because 1 don't ha\e anv iir.e
'"
York, courtesy Poulo Cooper Gallery, New York. fur tlicni."
A Fresh Look at Abstraction
Jl Iniii: Willi 1 III- lAciliiii; ii--iiri;rM( !
14
THE EIGHTIES TILL NOW
435

436
The Eighties Till Now

437
14.3 (above) Terry Winters, Good Government, 1984. Oil on

linen, 8ft 5' 4in « 1 1ft 5' Jin (2.57 ^ 3.49m).
Whitney Museum American Art, New York, Purchase, with funds from The Mnuchin
of
Foundation and the Painting ond Sculpture Committee. 85,15.
14.4 (right) Terry Winters, Fourteen Efch/'ngs 5, from "Fourteen

Etchings", 1 989. Fourteen etchings with cover and colophon sheet,
18^8 A 14' sin (47.3 >. 35.9cm).
Published by Universal Limited Arl Editions, Inc., West Islip, New York, printed by Keith
Brintzenhofe, John Lund, and Hitoshi Kido. Photograph courtesy Sonnabend Gallery, New
York.
14.2 (opposite) James Clark, Hermes, 1979. Helium, three latex

balloons, argon lights, electrical mechanisms, 8 >^ 6 > 6ft
(2.44 . 1.83 X 1.83m).

Photogroph courtesy Mox Protetch Gallery, New York.
438
C>
4t Mo \^,\'m
1 hf\ all Use materials in nci\el wav--. Kapunr. loi' exam])le.

1 4.5 Tony Cragg, Green leaf, 1 983. Found plastic fragments,
pciwders intenselv saturated pigment over and on to the floor
7ft 7in 9ft (2.31 • 2.74m).
Photogroph courtesy Marion Goodman Gallery, New York. aioiind organic forms that look like overgrown goinds of an
esjiecially odd variety.
Ciragg's perceptually intriguing found [jlastic pieces
[laiallel? a (lelil)pratelv imgrareful sense of tmin. nlm. îmi
( engage several levels of content simultaneously [fig. l-i.5 .
>iiirace. riie oriratiic origins of tlie materials i^ an iinpoiiaiii 1 le is inone sense a materialist in scattering his motley
asjiert ot the cotilent in tliese works too — Vi inters went liack (I illection of found plastic fragments on the floor or the wall.
Id the aneieni natm-alisi Plinv to leani about tlie source- nl like a Carl Andre, emphasizing real space and real time and
[ligmenis and tiiis intoi inalion conirihiites to tlie train nl al-o like .\ndre subordinating the indiîdual elements to a
uriranie associaiioii tliai generates these works. Lisa PhiHi|)-. laiL'er svstem of ordering. L nlike .\ndre. however. Cragg has
in her eatalof: essav for his mid career retrospective. apiK ii-ed plastic detritus as his medium and his schemata involve
ile>cribed liis paintings as "loiallv nningi-aiiating and viMi- liiitli ordering bv color and the creation of a representational
ral. tliev are nonetlieless tactile and sensual. The paint it-t-lt -ilhiiuette dun cuts to aiKither le\e] (if |ieiception and
is a psvchologicallv and se.xiially charged material, li-- inter] irelation entirely.
"'
mnciiaginous te.xture reeks of a slick v sexnalirs. Infomied bv the ongoing vitalit}' of conceprual art.
That same eccentricity of form and visceral sen--ualiiy i-- jumps as definitive of "Man s
('ragg explores these cognitive
e\ idem ill the strong crop of ahstraci sculptors who appeared relationship to his environment and the objects, materials
in Britain ai die end of the se\enties. among them Ti)Tiy and images in that en\ iionnient." Cragg described his
" video landscajjes.
Clragsj. Richard Deacon. Bill Woiididw. and \ni-.ii Kapunr. -ulijeii mailer as . . . ( i-lliiinid wilillife.
439
American Neo-Expressionism
photographic wars, poiaroifi familie.s, offset politics. Quick

change, something new on all channels, .\lwavs a choice of
second hand images. " For this artist, such explorations are a
mailer of sunival: "Reality can hardly keep up with its
iiiarkiiiiig image. The need to know hoth objectively and

-iiliict ii\flv more about the subtle fragile relationships
between us. objects, images and essential naiural processes
and conditions is becoming critical.'""
The -.inlpiiire iif tlif .\merican artist Martin PiuTear
[fig-', l-t.ft.ind 1-+."" liiN at the other end of the s[)ectrum
bcim I lie plaîii- accumulations of Tony Ciragg, although it
slian-^ ilic pariicularizing eccentricity of the English ab-

stract ii mi î^ anil of W inters and Clark. Puryear's work relies
aboM' all nil a unique style of working the surface of each

object and maintaining the e.xpressive integrity of that
surface as distinct from (and at the same time in dialog with <
the free, organic improvisation of the fonn. Living in Sierra

Leone a> a Peace Coips volunteer, studying print-
making and woodworking in Sweden, and later visiting
Japan all nmtin-ed Piuyear's sensitivity" to the varier\" of
materials in natiu'e. and his working of the materials has a
profoundly personal and spiritual character, hi the late
seventies, the revitalized interest in expressionistic handling
in painting made Punear's sulitlety of smface in -.ciiliiture
newly relevant too.

Pmyear entered his first body of matme wmk w hen he
resettled in Brookim in 1973. where the stimulation of the
New York art scene seems to have catalyzed the transition.
From work has only increased its self-assurance.
there his
Martin Pui"y"ear's sculpture centers on a solid practice of
making objects rather than asseiting an artistic ego: its
14.6 Martin Puryear, To Transcend, 1987. Stained Honduran
mahogany, poplar, 169 13 90m (429.3 » 33 228.6cm).
« -^
pntnoimced physicality represents a return to bodily experi-
Walker Art Center, Minneopolis. Wolker Special Purchase Fund. 1988, Photogroph courtesy ence. .\s in the work of Brancusi and that of the African
Donald Young Gallery, Seattle. car\er^ wlm inlluenced both Brancusi and Pm"\ear. this
e\pre?sion of the body in connection to natiue is an
14.7 Martin Puryear, Moroon, 1987-8. Steel wire mesli, wood, imjiortant facet of PiuTear's sculpture and anticijiates a
and tar, 6ft 4in ^ 10ft- 6ft 6in (1 .93 x 3.05 1.98m). <<
nutre general reassertion of such concents in die art of
Milwaukee Art Museum. Gift of the Contemporary Art Society Photograph courtesy Donald
Young Gallery, Seattle. the nineties.
"All Ills linages arc -.ui)(irdinatc to tile notion oi paint-
^îiig. .Iiiliaii announced in 1988. What niat-
Sclinaliel
tiT--. he said, is ...not what is painted, but how it's
painted. "*
BtU in another statement he ^\anied: "To those
will I think ] tainting is just about itself. Lm saying the exact
ojtpiisiie. Tiie concreteness of a painting can't help but
aliuile to a w tirld of associations that may have a completely
different face other than tliat of the image you are looking
""'
at. This kind of self-contradictory pronouncement, mixed
witli a iiarocjue energy and ambition, has characterized
>( linaiiil > paintings as well as his public persona. Wliat
iitiier paiiiii T wDidd attempt a Portrait of God. as Schnabel
iliii ill l"'i")l. or lefer to iiimself (a Jewish artist from
i?i(Mikl\ II a>.S7. Selxistiuii-Boni in 1951 (1979)?
440
14.8 Julian Schnabel, The

Pattent and the Doctors, 978.
1
Plaster, oil, plates, and tiles on

masonlte, 96 108 12ln
f243 8 274,3 30.5cm).
Sclinabfl -imiillaneoii--l\ inturiated and entranred the cemented a field of broken di-lie-. cup-, and oilier ceramic
New \oik art world in the earlv eiglitiej.. tociisiiii: attention fragment? to a di-jointed ?et[ueuce of wooden [)lanes a? the
on the emergence of a new ex]jre8sionist current in Ameriraii -ujiport for the painting. The colorful relief of jagged edges
painting. Tlie new Maty Boone Galleiy >old out Scluial" I- and awkwarii lumps is so disnaciini: that one can l>arelv
tir^t one-per:?oii show of Fehniar\" f'T') before it e\tn make out the images painted o\er iliem. \Ioieo\er. the
opened and then enticed Leo ('a>telli tlie world ? nui-t \arioii- crudelv painted figures and oiiject-- ,-eem to ha\e no
fainou> dealer in contemporan art lo ienil hi? iiiiprintatur more lo ilii wiili line another than with the pot shard? or. for
bv joining in on a rwo-galleiT ^how ol Schnabel- wnik. that mailer, ilic liili-. "I wanted to make something that was
Schnabel and Maiy Boone orchestrated a media blii/ dial exjilodiiiL' a- much a- 1wanted to make something that was
caused considerable resentment, and to inanv it -\ inlmli/id (ohe-i\e. lie -aid of the plate paintings, which he began
the supercharged careerist tone of the New \ ork ait world of with ilii- work in l'l~8 after -eeing Antoni (iaiidi- u-e of tile
the eighties. This made it veiT difficult to look at the work fragment? in Barcelona.
objectively, and riianv of the critics were inclined to wriie Schnabel mixed mullijile styles of iliawiiii; wiiliiii a
Schnabel off. -ingle composition and in the eightie? would iiicorp<irate
Schnabel- work i- an niiirageiin-. explosion of inarticu- antlers, paint on velvet, and freely change stales altogether
late energA'. filled with icpiitradiction. good passages and froiu one painting to the next. His ?trength was the ability to
bad. all at maximum That veiy inconsistency is its

intensity. assiiuilate evervthing he saw into his compositions. Schna-
strength. Schnabel takes formal risks and pursues grandiose bel's an extended Rauschenberg's assiniilationist aesthetic
ambition- that no caution? or deliberate artist would, and of the fifties but. bv conijiarison. the Rauschenberg? are
that had an immefliaie and profound effect on mlier selective and carefuUv com])osed. Sclinabel attempted to be
important anisis in the earlv eighties. Elizabeth .MiuTay. for a? uncensored as po??ible. Bv way of explanation he offered
example, remarked at the time that "|)eople fort'ot how to the metaphor of an incredible com]mter with all the
work wirh all the inalerial .lolin- L'a\e u-. ^cliiKibr! I>iiiiii;lit information in the world on it. But it's going around so fast
""
that back that it's too hot to be able to get the infonnation. If they can
In TIk Pdtieiil (iiid the Dortoix fii;. H.H . Schnabel e\er fJL'ure out how to cool it off then we can tret all that
441
iiitoniiaiiun. The simultam'ityol ii all i- \\ Ikh iiiirri^t- im- nlijecilx liy of these powerless bodies is an acrjuiescence to die
Schnabel ^•all^ the iiiteirralimi nl |i,iiiiiiiii; iiinl iiniii;i- a~ I nld cniporaie authority expressed by the office block.
well as the preniise ot stylistic ciiiiiiniiin inin i|iieîioti. He \\ liai ha- liecoitie considerably clearer in the aftermath
|iaiiifs a realistic and an ahstraci |iic iiiic ai ilic --aine time ill pup an i- iliat corjjorate cultnire and mainstream \ahies
anil, in ailditiun. "I waul m\ lilc \i> he rnilM-dili-d In ni\ lia\e I nlnni/ed everyone's identity, undermining the -en-e
wiii'lv. lie >aid. "iTii-liid iiiiM iii\ iiainliiiL;. like a |ii'r~^fd iliai line has imicpieness or originality. For Kric lisclil die
""
laf. Howe\e|- much •^cliiialicl ~(iii:;lii hiiairx Iniwaid llir wlinle siruggle lor meaning since the 197()s has lieen a
heroic individnalisin III llir ali-liaci r\|iic>->i(iiii--i^. llii- w (II Id -II iiggle for identirv . . .a need for self."'" But Fischl's subjeti
111 die eitrhties was too full ot fonlii-înu in|iiii in Im ii- wnli I- -iiliiirlila. w here die veneer of normalcx loiiild- ackiinw -
iliai kind of ceriainlv. Indeed, what di'-liiiLiiii^lir- \iiicriiaii led iê 1 1 nil I nf w lial dnesn't fit the image.
ncii-c\|iii->-iiiiii~i |iainlinii' from ila-~iral lnnii> nl r\|iir'- I i-ilil- wink- iilllnid like -inrie-. His startling 197Q
•iiiniîii i^
I
iiriivcK llii-. diffuse seller ul idrnlilv . pa Inline; 111 die >lir/iinilkiT. fnr example, shows a naked boy
W lielea^ •scliiialiel I lira-lieal h ml in In- n iiii|ii i-iliiiii~. -landing ankle-deep In a siiliiiilian liaik\ard |ionl. ma-liir-
1 1 lied Willi \ ilalilN . w .inliliL; In a--ri I lilili-ril in llir w nl Id lin lialliie. 'Wlial'- an adnle-ceiil lin\'- ma-l iiiiial lull aliniil
llialler die mid- nr |

irii-| lecl - . Rnlierl I nlliîi -eein- del il lel- aii\\\a\. r i-chl a-ked. "if its not. In snme sense, a
alcK In make In- |ier-nii di-a|i]iear mm die corjiofate sejiaraiion lei liiili|ner' He's separating fmni his parents.
w nodw oik. Longo staited out diaw ing cool lilack-and-\\ hite He's beioming aware of himself."" Fischls Bud Bov lii;.
fiLriires in freeze-traine dramatic jiose-- as though he \\ere l4.ff is lieantifnllv indeed sedncti\ely painted, draw hit;
liliiiig stills from/?//// //o/r detective storie- which he has a in die \ lewer III as all accnmplice to an act in which he m sin-
considerable interest . He has an elegani Im iiial linesse w ith max iini wl-li In pariiilpate. Fischl has made ex|illcli a
minimalist form and pop art ap])ro])riation including its cm mm 11 I Inn iininiallv unacknowledged situation — here one
arhitraiy juxtaposition of images . while the theatiicalin dne-ii I kiinw II the title refers to the theft from die pm-e or
willi which he iliree-dimen-innali/e- pictorial concejits die giiili die liii\ leels for liis sexual curiosity, and we are lel'i
seem- In feed, and In lie led li\. -eidiiiilding for his undecided almiii w lin's exploiting whom.
siimilianeniis wnik in liliiiand performance. In the se\ iMities and eighties culture at the margin- nlilie
Ill \(ili(iniil I'liisl lii;.l4.'' for example. Longo joined
. maliisiream became a mainstream idea, fostered Imili li\
I wo slightly laiger ihaii lile-sj/e draw iiigs nfsintile mires li\ I i discn\ eriiii; new
models such as "decoiistrnc- Inielleciiial
a cast allimimim relief nl a -iiii|ililied Mmk nl iniiaii limi which aiiacks nni miK the idea of a dominant
liiiildint;-. I.onirn j^ niorliidU laseinaled liv evocations of mainstream but also the idea of any fixed meaning and by .
anilmriiN In lis most obdmale Inini- Irnm .\lbert Speer to the more generalized assault on orthodo.xy and authority in
( .elieral MnlnrS' Blld he Jiersl-lelllK lea\e- llle \ ie'\\ el' the culture as a whole in the afteniiath of \ ietnam and
I raiiiiiL: In- nr her neck up frniii helnw ai die inweiing \\ atergate. Robert Colescott's painting of Grandma (uid the
liinldin:;- dial embody it. Tin' figure- lie contorteii as tliongh Frenchman (Identity Crisisj [fig. 14.10] deals with an inher-
-hill dnw II liiit they float In a \nlil, iiiierlv without reference ited conflict that only became xisible in the mainstream art
In lime or space — not even the ground plane is articulated. world with the emergence of this more pluralist perspective.
I ikew |se. the relation of the relief to the figures is inex]ilic- ( iolescott is a black artist who went to Egx"j3t for two years in
alile. excejir 111 the lmiiili\"e -en-e that the emnliniiless 19(i4 and disco\ered a 3.000-year-old histoid of African
narrative art that catapulted him into an anal\s|s nf die
cnm|ilexltv nf his own identity and situation. '"
( niescnii w as I rail led in the French schnnl. Including a
14.9 Robert Longo, National Trust, 1981 . Two charcoal and
Near In die alelliT nf I eiiiand Leger In Paris 1^4'^'— oO . in
graphite drawings on paper, one cast fiberglass and aluminum
bonded sculpture, three panels, 5ft 3in x 19ft6in (1.6 x 5.94m) overall. (iniiidiiKi I ti id the I rciiihiiKin. he used cubist fragmentation
Colleclion, Walker Art Center, Mmneapolis. Art Center Acquisition Fund, 1 981 ill die desii Ijiilmi 111 die i en Ira I llgiire s head and sho-^-ed the
442
14.10 Robert Colescott, Grandma and the Frenchman (Identity
Crisis). 1 990. Acrylic on canvas, 7 x 6ft (2.13 x 1 .83m).

Courtesy Phyllis Kind Gallery,New York and Chicogo. Colleclion of Jomes and Maureen
Dorment, Rumson, New Jersey.
443
innuence of Leger in the inomiinentalitv of the composition.

14.11 Eric Fisehl, ead Soy, 1981. OH on canvas, 5ft 6 8ft
Iliiwever. his expressive liandlinii of tlie surface is unitjue
(1.68 X 2.44m).
and \i>iy unFrench. hi this painting, the white doctor wlio Pnvote collection. Photograph by Zindman/ Fremont, courtesy Mary Boone Gallery, New York.
-rrm-. (CI have reached for his white-figured ciaicifi.x rather
dian hi:5 stethoscope takes the black woman's pulse wliile
-laring fi.xedly on her sexy breasts. Meanwliile. tlie African
Jonathan Borofsky
w itch doctor s snake coils around tiie other side of her chair.
1 1 is ironic that the .\frican doctor's mask and the heaii nf Boidf-k\ lini-liiil vrrarluate school at the \ale School of
(.landma herself derive from the African-influenced figure .\rt in l'^'()(). \[ iliat time he turned away from making
in the lower right comer of Picasso s famous Les Demoiselles olijectstoward a more concepmal fomi of art. Conceptual art
il' [rianofi a landmark of the white aii liiîmical canon . dominated the scene when, sometime toward the end of
1 he cubist oscillation of (.landiua- Iic:hI. fiuni black to l^(i8. Borofsky started counting and recording the mimbers
( aucasian and back again, ir^ amplified in the vignettes on sheets of [laper. Wlienever he returned to his work after a
around the canvas showing her as she conceives herself in lireak he would clieck to see where In- liail left oil ami -lan up
aliernating aspects of black and white identitie-^. lirought again from iheiv. He exjilained:
nut. presumably, by her aniiii\ alini mi -(in w nli ilu- Frencli-
I
After rduiiliiiu: far (I jeif liaiirs at a tune I often toiiiid nnxelf

irian. This, of course, hasimportanl parallel-- w idi the arti-.t -
nuikiiiir little .scribbles on the page — stick figures, heiuls
iiw n rdntlicis aboiu his French classical training.
file authentic discoveiy of one's own identir\- was the
ultiiehed to trees — but I let them go by. Then one dayl
lodkeil (it one ofthepdst scribbles and thought. I'd like to
Inndamental goal of all the most important American
make (I jxiiutiug of that Then I took the number I had
. . .
exponents of the new "decentered' expressionism of the

been ou in in i
•
counting ami put it m tlie corner of tlie
eighties just as it had been for the abstract expressionists.
painting. Siniiething connected there. I had both a
1lowexer. the degree to which contemporaiy life intrudes on
recognizable image and conceptual ordering in time . .
and destabilizes identity in the eighties redefined the task.

Looking back on it noiv I .see it as a reaction to Minimalism. ''
Notwithstanding the differences betiAeen .lonathan Borof-.
sky s fonnal and psvchological em|plia--i--. Jean-Michel In I'^n.^ Borofsky exhibited several stacks of the munlierefl
Basipîiat's powerful emotionalism, and die sociopolitical ]ia|)ers as Counting Pieceshowcurated by Sol LeWitt at
hi a
aspirations in the work of David \\ ojnarowicz. these three the altemati\e Artists Space in New York. Borofskv had
artists in ])articular emerged as heioic figures in the sense starteil painting again in 1972 and. as he told Katliv
iniciMJi-il |j\ ilie abstract exi)ressioiiists. Ilalliri-ii li. piaciicalK cmtx wink was a kind of si-|(-|iortiail.
444
in tlie sense tliat lie \va> atteniplini; lu ii'|ii("~eiii rlu- ronii'ui and llii- i- die miiiiii of die hlack -illmnrKr nf a man with a
lit his llead.''' Mcneoxer. lii> work heianir a ( iiiiliiiiinii-. luial liiirlca-e dial ha- a|i|iraird III -i i
iiiaii\ (il In- wmk-.
1'*"') dinriU nn
]iri)jert. His (\v>t --liow al tlie Paula ( imi|m r (.,illii\ in I5(iriil-k\ Irh dial. Ii\ diawiiiL: llir wall- in llie-e
w as an overfilled installalicin inio w lilc li In- laniiiird cmi \

-
in-lallalimi-. In- wa- rii-aliiiLi -i miri Iiiiil: dial iniild imi he
diing lie had heeii doini: tor die la-'t yi'aini ~ii w iih irlali\ il\ |inr(lia-rd — llir \irwrr had in he lliriT mil 111 a iirmiinr
Mule seleetion. It inelnded >elt-|)ortiaii^. -kiirlir- mi ^( ia|i~ illlerr-l in 1 he r\|irrirlicr.
ot ])a|ier often inlerniixed \\ idi \ arioii- iinir^ nl imc kind ni Biiiol-k\ - in-lallalimi in llir I'aiila ( (mi|mi (.allriA ill
anotiier. >onie comiileleK innnilani- and dn-aiii' hi' had \'K\.\ wa-..n,- nf hi- ::rralr-i wnrk-. lln ivaird a hafflin-K
written down tit;.l-t.I2 . 1 hr -hnw a-|)iic-d lo nix ini; |m-(i|>|c chaniic rii\ irniimriii nl -mind-. imai:e>. ino\enieiil. and lielil
"a feeling of heint; in-ide in\ mind. '

a- wril a- iiiini|inraiiiii: |iamime, drawinj:. and -ciil[)liire in
Vfler in>talhili.' \ iniialK the entire con lent- of hi- -liHhM a raiii:r nf -i\ Ir- and -lair- nf i 11111 |ilel inn fii;. M. 1-5 . 1 lir
in llii- I'aiila Cooper -how Borof>kv -larled draw inu: (hue d\

. hair raii\a- -lirlilirr. ihr wall- nl |iililird-n|i imir- and
on the floor and wall- (if hi- dirn-iiii|ii\ lull. le w mkid mi 1 drawiii:;- nlim mi -craiîiK -craji- ol |ia|ier . die notalinii-
ihi^ new piece -olid l\ Im' ii\ i ra inmiili. dniiiii all die draw iiiL: nl drraiii- and ihildhnnil mniinrie- createrl an einotioii-
freehand. After llii- Biiriif-k\ crraird all hi- -nl i-ei|neni fillrd almn-|ilirrr dial rxnked iini oiiK llir inlimacN ot the
in-lallation- n-in;: an ii|iai|iii- |iriijrciiir ni iran-lrr hi- -mall arii-i- -111 din Inn a re\ ealini; Innk -irairhi iiitn In- p-velie.
note- and draw ini;- mi m ilir wall — he wmild arri\e wiili Bnriitsk\ |)ainted T/ir \linilcnl<inn llniiinn. }i>ii \('rpr
onlv a hriefca-r of draw ini:- in-n-ad nl a li mklciad nl ulijcii- Km III- W lierc Shell Turn I jint 2. S-^/. TT'Vin an illu-tialioiial
si\le as though straight out of the omnijire-enl underwear
advertisement of the time. The free association from the line
14.12 Jonathan Borofsky, Installation, Philadelphia Museum of

of faceless -oldiers -raring at the woman in her lira and
October 7-December 2, 1984. Detail showing drawings pinned
Art, to |iaiiiie- In llir featureless Chattering Men i- du- kind nf
the wall. a--nciati\ r -inicrmr w ith which Bnrnt-k\ w nx r muni irr lln-
445
uii-aniiiLlle--- rliallrr. ///c / tiinciiiLS ( Imiii nl _'. S-/, )..')_'.). w illi

14.13 Jonathan Borofsky, Installation at Paula Cooper Gallery,
November 5-December 3, 1983. View showing (left to right): il- Iwi^linii liMil. .-.ecin-- In ilnniinate the room inlTnsi\(l\ .
Chatiering Man with Photograph at 2,845,312 (1983), Pointing with in-i-lcnily singing "1 dnl ii ni\ \\av"; a brilliaiuK iiiliniii!
Hond Shadow at 2,84 1,780 (1981-3), The Donc/ngC/own at 2,845,325 anil Lir-lnre-filled canvas railed Sing s,hoy,'» Borofskv Iran--
(1982-3), The Maideniorm Woman, You Never Know Where She'll lixril li\ a Lildwiiiii lalilii with the commandment ">ing"
Turn Up at 2,841,779 (1 983), Chattering Man with Two Stretcher Frames
inî riliiil mi it while llir melodic sound from a ta[)e beliiml
at 2,845,3 13 (1 983), Molecule Men at 2,845,3 18 (1 982-3), The Berlin
Dream at 2,84 ), 792 (1 982-3), Split Wire Dream with Chattering Man at tlie ran\a^ |ila\ -- ^cing- rimi|)osed and sung by the artist. The
2,84 1,784 (1978-83), and (including neon loops and projection on / nii-cisd/ (,'niiin I'niiiling recites facts and grotins. ^xhile the
ceiling) Flying Frog with Chattermg Men at 2,845,322 (1983). |ieifiiraleil -illinnene-- of Two Jfrestlers have an agi:ie^î\ e
M-rhal e.xriiange. W ith images projected on lu the reiling. a
string of blue nriui i inlr-. blinking on and oH in a \\a\e
I'litiir iii--t;illalioii. lu.-'U'ail n| |iaiiiliiii; in a ~l\ Ir i il lii^ 1 1\\ ii hr |ialtern o\erheail. ami \ iîlois wandering through the ^|iaie
iriiilrri'd each object in a la^liimi niir in ii-dl a^ a it \\a- a iiiih \\ liiimaneîjue cataloging of contein]iorar\
|iirilrl'iiic(l. received imaiê in liiim- i\. -n ilir ili^rmi- i'\|ieiieme.
lii II- iiiin|)s in stN'le. subject, xalc ami -(hiihI Inun wmk
low ink I III. in the end. repHcatc a iiiiiliril r\|irni'iiri- — iliat Graffiti Art
of the artist s mental landsca])e.
hi this sense, the menioiy trace-- nl i|Miiiiilian existence Willi 1 III- kind iirin.slallatioii. Borofsky niiened the door to
are vividly evoked. The Clhatterin^ Men are featureless a gialliii ar-ihiiir w ithin the art world at precisely the
roliots with mechanical jaws that ri'|iiai ilir ânie inove- niiimrnl wlirii a m-\\ w a\ e of expressionist graffiti emerged
inrnl-- anil with a tajie liiii|i i-inanair a rnn^lanl din nl in llie real iaro|iliiiii\ iif the citv Streets. Comiiii,' finin the
446
trains was integral to its character. However. Keith I Jarin;:. a

14.14 Lee (Quinones), Stop fhe Bomb, 1979. Whole car, spray
iwenty-two-year-old ])ainter from rural Kutztowii. Pi-mi-
paint, New York subway, destroyed.
Ptiotogroph ^^by Henry Cholfont. ^vlvania. inaugurated a major body of work in more con\ en-
tional media in 1980
was inspired bv graffiti wnitiiig.
that
1laring came to New \ ork in 1978 and went to the School of
poor iieiiiliborliood^ of BruokKn ami ilic Brun.x. iIh- :;rattiii \ isual .\rts. He was painting in a bntsliy abstract st)le when,
winters a])|)ioj)nateil the train cars of tlie .New \ ork siil)wav toward the end of l^loO. lie ii(iiici>d that the transit authority-
system like naveliiig exhibition walls that permeated the covered the posters mi iln- -ubway platfonns with black
entire cits with their influence [fig. l4.l4 . The rrraffiii [)aper after the rental ])eriod on the advertisement expired.
wTiters were not naive, either in theme or sr\le. even though Hariiig found these black panels irresistible surfaces and his
they had little fonnal education and gra^^tated toward white chalk line drawings in the subways soon became a
fonies and fifties gestin-al abstraction at just the moment coiisimiing passion for him — by his own estimate, he drew
when was embracing postmodeniism.
the Anglo art world over 5.001) of ili.in between 1981 and 1985 [fig. 14.15 .'"
Rammellzee. for example. wTote a manifesto of 1979 to 1986 The suiiwa\ aiulmrities woiUd remove the rh'awing-- in a
called IONIC treatise gothic FiTnusM
knonm-EDGes .ass.xssin matter of days aiTesting the artist if they caught him but .
I>F THE REM.\.\1PIX.\TED SQIWRE POINT ONE TO 720° R.\MMELL- Haring replaced them as fast as new black frames appeared.
zee which, as John Carlin described it. "reads like Jacques The subject matter was a recuiTing repertoire of simple
DeiTida on acid linking the biophysical structure of the naiTative images that travelers all over Manhattan began to
universe to the shape and evolution of letters. The thrust of recognize and look for: flving saucers with beams of energy"
the n-eatise is the abilir\' of s\Tiibolic creation to undennine em]iowering radiant babies and barking dogs, little
institutional control. It sets forth a symbolic war wherein the andiogyTious people often masses of them, all exactly the
artist's ability to manipulate letters will change the realir\' same composite monsters with some himian or animal
.
structure."'"' body parts and often with television sets for heads.
The Stan of graffiti art in tlie early >e\eiuies i> u~uallv Haring's drawings deal with the life of Eveiynian in nur
attributed to TAKIS 18.3. as the first to "tag u]) " write hi- ifle\ision culture. Sometimes he ])ut dollar signs on the
alia.-^ and the street on which he Inmg out repeatedly in ilie telex i>ion --creens suggesting advertising or showed a
>ub'tt a\ cars. The graffiti ^Titers' simple sciHpt of names in barking dog ])erhaps politicians or a soap opera In one. an .
black marker or sprav paint moved to the outside of the cars arm reaches out of the screen and grabs a helpless little figure
around 19~3. It then evolved into the more elaborate bv the throat implying the rtithlessness with which tele\n-
"bubble letters, inspired by underground comics espe- sion sometimes manipulates the unsuspecting viewer In the i.
cially the "flheech \^ izard '

cartoons bv \ aughn Bode . and catalog for a -how of Haring's work. BaiT}" Blindennan
in 197.5 Caine and Fabulous Five painted the first "whole (ie-ci-iliiMl the ani-i - uiidri i\ iug -uiijeci matter a-^:
car compositions.
"
The eighties was the golden age of graffiti
the hdlhicinatory iitteijace of biology and technolog}' iti our
writing with complex, abstract letter fonns called "\^ iid
incrensiiiiily cybernetic society Audio- ristiol snnedlance.
."^tyle
"
as well as ]3olitical and allegorical themes. Some of
monitoring of bodilyfluids as an employment prerequistte.
the other leading artists were Cirasli. Dondi. Futnra '2000.
genetic engineering, mass-media anestliesia that is
Lady Pink. Lee. Phase II. Rammellzee. Revolt. Seen, and
beginning to seem as much iidierited as culturally uiduccd—
Zeph\T. X^Jien one of their cars rolled into the gray gloom of
these are the conditions that characterize our so-called
a New \ork subway station it was. as ("laes Oldenburg '
postmodern era.
remaiked. "like a bii; bou([uet from Latin America. '
The writing of Burroughs w as a fonnative influence

\\ illiain
on Haring as on many
of his contemporaiies in his efforts
Keith Haring
to come to tenns with this postmodern condition. For
Efforts were made to transplant the work o| ihc ^'laifiti Bin"roughs. experience conies in too much profusion and
wTiters into the an galleries, but it could not ûn i\ e tliai emotional intensity" to attempt integration. Instead, he
traiisirioii because the political ai)|)r()priatioii i>f llie iit\ piirtiavs him-.elf as a neutral conduit through which all tiiese
447
14.15 Keith Haring drawing I
the New York City subway, 1 982.
14.16 (below) Keith Haring, all

works untitled, black light installation
for an exhibition in the Tony Shafrazi
Gallery, New York, 1982.
(c; Ttie Estate ot Keith Honng 994
1
448
[isvciiic states pass: "I am ;i ircDnliiii; in-lriniu'iil . 1 dd imi tiadilimial arti-tic -iibjeci- and mie a--nci:iied willi iiinral
|iresiiilie to impose '••lor\' iilm ('iiiiliiiiiin .
" liiii wlnrc alleL:nr\ and made a i/milili- ci/lriiilic n\\ ilie In era I mean in l;
l?iirr<)iiglis is liespeiaieK alicnaii-d limii hiiu-rll. Ilariiii;^ nl nalille diad' I iinnienl nil all .lue i p|I leninili
ie|
liiTiires are lite-aftinniiii;. takiiii: iduitnii in iliiir i niniiiniial anil apprn|ii lal inn when i iie p. mil- Imiii lile aii\ mure
aiioiiviniu and iiaiiire ii-ell ha- cniiie iindei allack a- a \iable leriii.
Some 111 Hariiii: ^ -iiliw :i\ ilraw iim- hail nlix inn-. |inliii- I inalK. die mnle \l-ilile ple-elice nl i Inw II -a lid -nl 1 1 peiijile
cal llieme>. -luii llir nnr lalirllnl 'ônlli \lrira in lliiir nn llie -Heel- in tile l.a-l \ illaiie made -nrial l--lie- —
naiTali\"e frame--: a litiii- lii;nir IimiI- a iiiain li\ a iM|ir e-peiiall\ i
ll ill; aili lirl iiil i am I llie \ 1 1 )> rri-1- I hat emeiged ill
ai'oiiiid tlie neck, lln-n ilir l>ii; lii:nir rnli^ ii- -nir ruck the earh e|e|ilie- — paitli II la li\ pniMfianl, (.allelic- with
e\"i(leiitlv assessiim ilie îinalimi . and in ilir ilnnl lianir ilir name- like ( i\ iliaii W arlai e and I'lH )\\ w i iiieii like -mini I
giant stam])-- nn lin- ~mall lit;nre In armdirr draw ini: I lai inn el I eel- ill a -nperheni cninie linnk -I glial tlle-e i ll 1 nen-lnl 1- nl
showed a lillle [n-r-nn |uilleil jianilnlK ni Innr dirriiiiin~ li\ ihela-l \ llla-e-cene.
l>ii: liaiiil- lliat rcaili inln dir runi|Miîiiiin Imni ilir Innr
rnriiei'-. eaili i;ra-.|iini; nm- nl llir lirdr |pi'r~iin- innh^,
Jean-Michel Basquiat
Hariliii crealed irnri- nl ma-- cnllnic In wlmii r\rr\i>ni-
could relate, n-ini: da- -a me dr\ ice- a- ad\ riti-ini;: ri-|irai(il Like hi-, triend Keith I hiring. .lean-Mii liel Ha-i|mal made
ti'aiieniark imai:e- w idi -nn|ilc. nr-ianlK midei-iaiidalilr network nf ari-world connection- thrniigh ilie dnwii-
hi-
me— a;:e-. I le -alnralrd hi- audience w illi dienr |iaimim; on inwncliibslikeCBGB's. the Mudd Chib. and Hurrah where .
aTi\ -nrtace al liaiid and e\en |ia--ini; iml Iree liiiitiin- and he jterlormed with his own "tini-e band in l^TM and IMoO.
|Mi-iei-. a- in an ad\ eil i-ini; cam|iaiiin. lie al-o ma--- Haring and Bas([uiat also bill h Imi-i mi in the ait scene with
maikcied hi- iniaLie- a- ine\|ien-i\e -nnxenn- lhrou;:h The instantaneous celebritv in I'lJld the\ w ere tweuiv-two and
l'n|i ^llii|i. \\ hicll he ii|ieneil nn die eiliie nl I he >iil In L:,lll''r\ iwentx" respectivelv and then w ere iinne a- -iiddeiiK a- the\
ili-iii( I in ]''«')(). had appeared: Haring died of .\lDb in !')')() at the age of
In tile wnrk Hariim did Inr die art eallerie- — a- di-tinci ihirtv-one and Basqtiiat of a drug overdose in 1988 at the age
liom tile public \enue- — he drew man\ (i\erd\ -exnal nf twentv-seveii. Finallv. Bascpiiat also had a formative
sui)jerts: copiilatini; |ien|ile and dnrrs frequentK mixed . cnmiectinn tn L;ralfiti writing, but for him it had the
ma-rurhatini: fiiime- incliidine iliat ot Mickex \lnn-e. |iarticnlar \ aliie nf jirovidiiiL' a coterie of other black ani--ls.
w Inch in -nine -i-ii-e repie-eiil- Vmei'ican ma-- ciilliire . and lie wa-e-peeiall\ cin-e tn Hammell/ee. lab-". 1 leddv. and
wiiiL'ed phalln-e-. lie wanted lu addres> ê\nalil\ a- llie liiMC.
driving forre in life. But even in the work Haring made Ba-i|uiat. Iinwe\er. ui'cw up in a middle-cla-- neighbnr-
stricilv for art audiences he also rotnted the taste for popular hniid in Brnoklvn. Hi- father i> an accountant of Haitian
entertainment, as in the fluorescent works he painted for his descent and his mother a black Puerto Rican w ith an artistic
shuw al dieTiMU Shafra/i f;allerviii HH2 fig. l-+.lb

1 . --ensibilirx" but a fi-agile character that led to her institutional-
ization while he was still a child. Bascpiiat wa- bilingual in
S|iani-h and Engli-h aiifl an avid reader from childhood,
The East Village Scene of the Eighties
ahhmigh he drnpped nut nf high school and largely educated
A-elie- nl eaiU eighlie- -hnw - l)\ keilli llarillg at a him-ell. \i -e\eiiteen he left home and lived from 1977 to
dnwntown pinik-rock music club called the Mudd ('luli 1'*"'' on the streets sometimes literally, sometimes in
."'
inaugurated "fun art " and this in timi sjiaw ned the lir-t Ea-t abandoned buildings or staving with friends
\ illage gallen— the Fiui Gallerx. run bv Patti \-tor. The During this period of homelessness Bas(]uiat collabor-
-eedv. low-rent East \ illage quicklv blossomed a- a boom ated with a schoolfrieiid named .\1 Diaz ou a secjuence of
tnw M Inr new aft. with young people in their twenties many "SAMO "
texts originating from a combination of "Sambo"
of ihem opening galleries in tiny storefronts side bv
artists and "same old shit" which they inscribed up and down the.
side with the drug dealers, hookers, and gangs who had ImiL; D-train and on walls around SoHo and the East ^ illage.
occupied the neighborhood. This resulted [lartlv from trii-- I iilike other graffiti, the "S.WIO" texts were puzzling
tration about the inal)iiit\ of voting arii-t- tn break into the aphorisms like "S.\M() as an end to mindwash. religion,
chic .SoHo an world and tlie name- ol these galleries nowhere politics, and bogus philosophy or "Plush safe he
emphasize the difference between the East \ illage and think: S.\M()." By 1980 Ba.sqtiiat had taken over the SA.MO
SoHo. where most of the galleries are named, like law firm-. writings, and through them gained ûme degree of personal
after their founder,-. ( ASII âllerx. wliirh ii|peiied in l''!!.!. iintmietx in the downtown art wmld. He also established a
suggests in its name the c\ iiici-m abniil cnmnieicial en It n re fixed addre— and showeil hi- ait tor the first time in the
that ])er\aded the East N illage. There was al-n a -njihi-tica- counterculture "Times Scjuare Show" of 1980 .
lion about language as a tool of political and -ncial apprn- In FebruaiT 1981 Basquiat installed a wall nl paintings
|)riation and about the use of appiopriation generally as the and drawings in the important "New York/New ^Save
basis of an. \iiliirc-.Mnrte gallen. which opened in May exhibition at P.S.I, a highlv visible alternative space on the
1Q82. tonk till- 1 reiich term fur a -till life one of the mn-t Iniii.' 1-land -ide nf the .o9th Street Bridge. This exhibition
449
iiirhided ôiiie of the graffiti writers, as well a> Wailidl.

14.17 Jean-Michel Basquiat, Boy and Dog m a Jo/innypump,
Haring. and his friend Kenny Scharf. Bastjiiiat- cuniriliii-
1982. Acrylic, oil paintstick, and spray paint on canvas,
tion attracted the notice of die SoHo dealer Annina Nusei. 7ft 10'/2in X 13ft 9V2in (2.4 x 4.2m).
who gave him the basement of her gallen as a studio and cThe Estate of Jean-M.chel Basqu.ol, courtesy Golerie Bruno Bischofberger, Zurich.
iiegan to representhim in September of that year. He also

won the allegiance ofBnuio Bischoflierger. an important
Swiss dealer, who represented him in Ein-ojie. same instant, one expenences the tenifsniig vertigo of what
From litis point onward Bastpiiat's career toliowed a tile seventeenth-centtiiT ]:)iiilosoplier Pascal refeiTed to as
meteoric trajectoiy. driven l)y his relentles-, |)rodncti\ itv. "tlie eternal silence of these infinite spaces ';"" Basquiat s
\nnina Nosei gave him a one-])erson show March \'^82
in ]iaintings portray a breatiitaking existential absence. As a
tiiat drew considerable attention, but by fall he had s])lit with black artist in a wiiile world he was otit tliere alone to an even
Nosei and organized a show at the Fun GalleiT. It wasn't greater degree titan otiier major artists.
until March 1984 that he signed on with another New York In this painting tiie I)lack i)oy stands, paliik-. out. in a
dealer. Mary Boone, and although that relationship deterior- gesture of supplication and spiritual disguise with a red-
ated too in 1086 it finnly established his market. Meanwhile. haloed familiar at his side. He lias an ingratiating smile, ijut
Baxjniat had fomied a close friendship wHth Andv \\ arlioj tlie face is a vacant mask wntii the inner person of the artist
and had become an an celebrin- in his own right. In liie liidden from \new. Meanwhile, tlie bov's dreadlocks flash
spring l*'8-t sale at Cliristie's (one of the two major art from within: the bones glisten
i)rilliant red. as tliongli lit
auction houses in New York a Basquiat painting sold for

i
against the black, animating the skeleton like a spirit
819.000 — an extraordinaiy price for a twenr\-three-vear- hiiiiiLihi iiack to life. Bas(juiat has raised e\en color and
old-artist — and in FebnutiT 198.5 his phoTograjth ajtpeared biusiistroke to its maximum intensity, as in the rhythmic
on the cover of the .\eir }i)rk Times Magazine. stiticture of jazz, giving the work what the art historian
Bastjtiiat was a brilliant success almost fidin ilie siart Robert FartTs Thomj^son has called an "Afro-Atlantic
"^
bui lorn upli\ >ilf-doubts to the end. In a painting like 5ov \nvidness.
and Dog ni n Johnnypitnip [fig. 14.17 . one iimnediateK The black gestural line in the left forearm of the figure
feels the e.xalted e.xhaustion of a Jack Kerouac ni Aljru in Bay and Dog in a Johnnypump is "wantten." as in a
Ginsberg. The beaiuv of the color and the >iililinirl\ graffitero's script, and "'.NEEET '
is inscribed as ^'loiigh on a
expressi\e l)ru>liwuik oM-rwhrhii ihe viewer and. ;ii dn- wall lo die left. Yet the iudad aesmres of re'' , eilow. and
450
llifif \\ illi llif wind ( )|iiTa. -iii^Lir-lint: a |iaiallfl in arli-lic

H/iLO ES
-lalmr liiiwrfii '( lirnikrf and lln- nm-i ariNiniial ic iil
pifT-rv N HE CEMT,
I
iiiii-ii al Lirnir-. Briiiw (hi- lir |ilarril a riiiwn. wliicli i-- Imlli
a ^\ mill il I il Parker ^ ail i -I ir II i\ alls am I Ha^qnial - iiw n lai;.
In aiiiilliri |iainlint; iil llii> \r:ii. I'liitniit <il'/lic \rhsl as llir kiiii;. ( )n lln- lii| i nl lln- Irl'l
hand |ianrl nf ( luirlis llic llisl llir aili-l |ilarril a rniwn

lalirlli-d riiiir." -iiggf-iing a parallel w illi llnni\ llii ili igical
kmi: 111 ilir Niir-r ^nd-. 1 he four lealliri- in llir ]iainling

allndr 111 Pai kiT - iiirkname "Bird, and llir lilack lianil sug-
i:e-i- 1 1 If |iiiw iiliil liodiK [iresenir ol I mill horn jilaver and
I
lainier. Bahipiiat has also included the words "Manel Gomics
in two |)laces. drawn the emblemSupemian. and WTitten of
\-\lan '
! another superhero who appeared in Mar\'el Comics I
aliii\e it. So here the fantasy wurld of the comics merges with
lii-ioiT in sup])l\ing a spirinial genealog)' for the artist.
Bill in Charles the First Basqniat also expressed a

|ier\asive ambivalence. "Hall of Fame" is also "Hall of
Shame. "
as he has noted in paintings like Mitchell Crew
iif l'»8:i In Piscine lersiis the Best Hotels Ba-iiuiat lists
14.19 Jean-Michel Bosquict, November 10, 1984.

Photogroph'e> by Phillips/Schwab
'
i n i ii ii "--<. --
i— iiMi n ii i
nn-
14.18 Jean-Michel Basquiat,Chor/esfheFirsf, 1982. Acrylic and
oilstick on canvas, triptych: 6ft 6in x 5ft 2V4in (1 .98 x 1 .58m).
© The Estate of Jean. Michel Basquial, courtesy Robert Miller Gollery, New York
grcfii ifM'al Ha-iiiii;!! > indilnfiliii-^- iti 1 ran/ Kliiif. Pol-

lock • i^'aiK wink, anil ill' KiK 111 iiifi > fii;iirt'M)l the ,ii.\lii'>. 11 it*
t\\|iii-.-i\r t-M 1-.^ Ill the >iiif'a(e in thi> |)aintin<; |)nnifles at

oMCf an iiut]iiiurini: ut teeiinf.' aiifl a wall throuiili which tiie
outsider canniit penetrate to the core of the ai'tist s being. As

hell hook- ha'- written. "Basqniat s woik gives that private
aii<;iii-'li ot tin- lilack c\|ieriencej artistic expression."""'
r/,,,//c.s- ///,• Firsl. also of 1982 [fig. 14.18]. shows
aniiilit-r cliaiacifii-iic -.iile of Basquiat's stvle. The coniposi-
tioii lia>a noiaiinnal qualitv like graffiti but it also reseinl)le>
the ]»aiiilings of ('.\ Twonililv. which Bas(|iiiat had scruti-
nized in the niii--iMnns and in books. Basqniat s sunimarv ot
hi:- subiect niaiii I in an inii i\ iew with Heniy Geldzahlei- a>

"RoNallv- and the streets.""' seems jiarticiilaib
lieioi>iii.
germane I he First is a coronation of the gnai

here. Chfirlcs
jazz saxophonisi (iharlie Parker and belongs to a recurring
-et of lioniage> to black heroes with whom Basqniat identi-
fied especiallv: the baseball |)laver Hank Aaron: the boxers
Sngai' Rav Robinson, (iassiiis (llav. and .jack .lohnson: the
jazz musicians Parker. Dizzv Gillespie, and Louis Aini-

strong: and the writer Langston Hughes.
In a while s(]uare to the right Basqniat wrote "Cilier-
okee." the lillf nf one i if Parker's iiiosi lainnn- innr--. rit'lii up

451
"1. Balfl. II. Fat. III. Simple as attriimir- wiih cinwri-. i*\-
David Wojnarowicz
ploiatorilv (oiiiiecteci to C^harlie ParLi r while drawn li
"""
ilie "facts in books of niedievai kiiii;>: (îiarli-s liic Bald.
(Charles the Fat. and Charles the Siin|)le. In (roii-ns Pexn
The ail 111 l)a\iil W iijnarow icz leaves no amliii:nii\ abnm
\etn and elsewhefe Bas«|niat jjaiis the royal ciowii with die idenlitv of the artist. On the contrarx. Wojnarowicz
a rro\Mi of thorns and in Charles tlif First even ihf --tani-- n-e> ihe >hai-]) delineation of hi> identirw principalh in its
'
of halos undercut bv their ])rici' al

is "Fiflx nine i eni--. ili\ eriieiice Irinii die ciiltme - nonns. to lay bare societv's
1 he ver\' ambition of Ba-(|iiial •- |iaiiiiiiii: ( Imrlcs the ethical daw - and li--innilat mil. Hie aesthetic he created out
i
tirsl. and of his identification with du- rii\ah\ and hi-in- 111 ilii- |iaiiiliill\ iiiHiimpromising self-scrutiny and exposure
i-Mi (il hi- [lerxinal black paiulnnn. nunc- widi a ciinr-- iie\ 11 tliele-- enilii lilies the remarkable beauty of a coinjilex
|MinihnL' an\ii-l\ : in the lower leh cornci' nl ihc |iainlinL' he and ini'i-i\ e iiinid.
wiiiir; "Mii-i Minnt; kings get thier -ic head cm off." He W iijnaiiiw iiv had been a rliild |irii-titnte nn the- -treet in
ci(i--ed oni \iinni;. liie i|nalifici- ihai clearly refers to Times Sipiare his terrifying iiomose.xual encounters in
Inni-cll. nnly In enliaiiie ilie -eli-relerenlial oveitone: "I subway tuimels and rooms are recounted in
sleazy hotel
cross om words so vim will -ee iliein mine: the fact that thev excruciating detail in his writings"^! and he died of .\IDS at
are obscured make- mih wani \i< read iliem. '
The same the age of thirty-eight. At the same time he had one of the
might be said of the im[la-.-i\ene^^ one cannot read
nt all that
III the iconography of Bastjtiiat's jiaintings and persona tfig.

14.1*^. His works cry om fm cinmection and vet ward it
14.20 David Wojnarowicz, Wafer, 1987. Acrylic, Ink, collage on
off— Bastjuiat's oeiirrc i- a donlile jiortrait of absence and mosonite, 6 8ft (1.83 •
2.44m).
in'e-eiice with an niicaim\ ImdiK and -iiiriliial immediacy. Pr.vate collection. New York
452
iiiosi brilliaiil collate sensibilities of the lair l\\ I'lilii-ili 1 nniia^l- belwcen die In-li hninan rriHJciiiii.' (if iialiirr ihe
it'iilnn and used it in a Inrid exposition nl ilu- la\iii<l Ikil: and llu- ^laikK iiicrliainial n-ali-in nl llir inlmli---
interaction between nature. lii> jiersonal idenliix. and con- pliiilngia|ili ii-ciiriliiiL: lln- dririlii- nl iiiImii i|cra\ ~ii
lentporarv eidiinal vainer. up one 111 llic inan\ cliaiiii-ij lr\i-U nl di^rinn-c willnii
die coniposition.
My irlwle life I'rc fell was lixiking into sncictyjrnm iiri
like I
\\ ojnarow ic/ lilleil llir c iiilri i>l // alcr \\ illi an niiianic-
oilier edge, heeaiise I embodied si) many ihintis that were
all\ iiinluuri-d viiid nl -mall black -aml-w liilr |ii(iMri'- in an
iiipposedh re/treliensih/e — hemic lioinosexiidl or having
illn-lialiiinal -l\li-. I In- -nlijcii mailer nl ilic-c incline-
been a prostitute mis a kid. or luiriiig n hick of
triien I
lelale- In llie \annii- image- arnmiil llie ]ieri|ilier\ nl die
education, [llmyhfe Hooked at the worhl ivith a hinging /n
eiini|MP-ilinii. Snme lianie- rnnlain eiiei eeiiealU -wiiliiii;
be accepted, hut . . . the onlyiray I coidd he accepted iroidd
-piial-- like eddies ot water: I here are I'Imt and m ean-eape-
moment of diagnosis [ot
be to (h'ny all those things. At the
willi a -wimnier. fish. view> nt the -leain-liip in ila\ light.
AIDS I fully gave up that desire to fit in. and started
Mi|ieiiiiipo.-itions with other images: the trog recurs, once in
realizing that those places where ! didn fit and the ways I 'l
a surreal scale looking over a railing, and in another section
most interesting parts of nn self. I could
ivas diverse irere the
it is prefigured as eggs and tadpole: and other allu-imi- in
use that diversit\ds a tool to gam a sensi'o/ who I icas.'
ontogenesis or to the biologs' of internal organs al.-o i rii|i up
hi Hater [(\<i. 14.20 . a paintin"; that belongs to a evele of around the grid. Finally there are three overtly erotic scenes.
eoinpositions on eanh. air. fire, and water, a dark ocean liner depicting se.xual encounters berween two women, three men.
surges into a vast night sea. A cut-away on the hull — a-. and in the liiird the nude male torso and an im|)iied
though we can see with Supennan's X-rav vision — reveal> a iinlooker.
strange tangle of \-iscera in muterj color, all drawn witli a In the n]iper right cniner nf lliitcr the artist super-
comic-book simplicitv of sr\le. Above and overlapjdng the impiPMil a enjcpiful. eirenlar vignette n\ei- ilii- inonochromaric
ship is a frog, rendered with nieticidous natiu"alism in a
palette rich as onlv nature itself could conceive it. A vîudow
14.21 David Wojnarowicz, The Missing Children Show: 6 Artists
opens through the back of the frog and looks do\Mi on a from the East Village on Main Street, December 6-10, 1985, Louisville,
black-and-white photograph of a trashed automobile hulk, Kentucky.
abandoned on the >ide of the road. Here the -trikini; Phologroph courtesy Grocie Mansion Goilery, New York.
453
14.22 David
Wojnarowicz, The Deo»h
of American Spirituality.
*1987. Acrylic and mixed
media on plywood, two
ponels6ft8in 3ft 8in
(2.03 x1.12m) each.

Privote collection New Jersey
clieckpihoarcl. showing an e.xpies.sjoiiisticallv ])ainrecl liand cnsscrossmu: in front oj cacti other ttierebv creatiiiti cndtess
-.watlied in bandage*, reaching out ilnoiigh prison bars. A fii.ilapositions and associations.
tlower seems to drop from the hand into a snow-\- sky with
The career of \\ niiiaiow icz resembles that of Ba>(|uial and
liny white figures scattered below like snowflakes. Finallv
Haring id ilic rxiriii that he first attracted notice on the
ilie inky bhie water and night -k\ iliat fonn a perimeter
downtown ^ctiii- iludugh the clubs, where he began j)laving
aroimd the painting are traverM'd li\ a --i IkioI of >])enn cells,
wiili a p(iî-|piiiik ni)isr band called S Teens Kilt -f—j\o
animating the composition willi a dfliratc pattciii in tlu-ii
Moiirc in 1''""'!. bill ilic core (if his earlywork was a
tree prolusion.
guerrilla-^l\ Ic poiilii al aclivism. stencilling images on walls
Fart of the impact of this painting, and of \\ ojnarowicz s
(and gallciA ddoi^ ihai he derived from the tabloifl merha.
work generally, involves a radical insight into tiie compli-
cated layering of impressions from nature, from subjective
politio. and ilic î reel — burning houses, dinosaurs, guns,
mugger*, -.dldicr-.. xoung male torsos, addicts shooting up.
frameworks of inteipretation. and from the languages c>f
His aim \\a* locall attention to the ethical state of emergencv
cidtiu'e that make up what we understand todav as "realirw
he found in .\nierican culture of the eighties.
W ojnarowicz seems to have experienced all these levels with
\\ ojnai'owicz frefpiently made powerful use of the media
remarkable distinctness, and yet that ven anaivtical claiitx
dt |M ridrinance and installation, sometimes in galleries [fig.
also seems to engender a kind of detachment:
l4. 1 and at other times in derelict buildings [fig. 14.211 or
liisulc Diy head heluiul the cws arc nmiiins on
leiiiith\liliii.< even illegal sites like the abandoned
piers at the west end of
nuiltii)le projectors: the jilina ore iiikiliv.s imulv
from ti/i C'anal Street in New an act of conscience, he never
York. x\s
iiifonnation from media . . . some of the films are chiklhnod permitted his art-wdild .success (which verged on becoming
memories of t tie forests Hoy doini surfaces of the earth
in: tlic considerable bv the mid eighties) to overshadow his political
f scrutinized and sdiiii' arc made np
dreams. Sometimes of and social statement. Sometiines he directlv attacked the
tfic iiro/cclors run simidlancousi\ sometimes ttie^'stop and comjilacent ease of the art establishment — in 1*^80 he and
start hut tiic end result is tlionsands of feet ofiiudti/ilc films his friend .hilie Hare diimjied a load of blooflv cow bones
454
from tlie iiieat-packiiii; ilistrict into the staii-well o\ I id |iall>'l~. jiiJMi'd li\ dir < MlililiiiJM nl |||r liilll III IM~. 1 1 1
1 rr ol
C.astelli s cliir SoHo salleiT mi a Saturday wlieii it \\a> full ul lllclll. lllr llllilllllllill^ IHTiiN, ininllli'l IWii. llli- ~k\ aci"--^ IWn
visitor?, and in 1082 tiiey made an unsolicited coiiiriluinnii Mlllfl -. ^ rl W llllr ihr ~k\ i null - n\rv I 111' l.ip J id lllr I In I
to the "Beasts" exiiihition at P.S.I, releasing li\r cim k- |im1|~ iiT rlri I 111 ll\ |i II 1 1 nil liHir ll allli-~. lllr L:ril\ lurk- 111 {\[r
roaches with tiiiyglued-on hnnny ears and tails ' "(iiikalinn- ll|i|irl I ILllll lillllll K -liil I ;il lllr II 1^:1- ;il II I lllr 1 irlll I 11 111 In 111
nies" into the galleries at the opening." llir llliiillilaili l~ al>ril|ilK rill li\ I lir i IIH II II ir i if 1 1 ir i i ii |I| ii i-i-
Nhned to a new kind ol'selt"-a\\ ari'iif-- li\ iln' w i iiiiii;- dl III 111 w lirli iillirr rlrmriil- air mil I 1 1 1
- |a 1 11 1 il:1\ rr mini rr-
ilic Freiicii novelist .lean Geni-l and lain li\ William lllr milllllrx rird iraliu iil r\] in iriii r li u \\ i i|i i,il 1 1\\ li/. a- ill
Hunonghs. W ojnaiowiiz ili\ rlii|i(il a rmitroniational --ixlr 111- pailllini: '/ iiliT.
ol working that jtiished hi-- an mn ol ilu- loinfort zone. li- I I lie in ril\ iiig iiiiage- nl 1 1 ir Iji i| ii -iiakr ilia nun am I i In-
wiirk ((iiu'erns the real ininicdiacN of bodilv e-\])erience and kachina with its radiating streak? ul riin^;\ air ihr a\ aiai - nl
ideniitx in a ciiltme tilled with nnaiknow ledged violence, the ancient culnire of tiie America- and pn hap- ilir piinlx -
whivli M)(iet\ ina:-k> in a liariage of eonsiiiner fiction and ing ii lire 111 nature itsell. Thev seem in nun i^r hi mi llaiiir- nl
idiitradiciion. 'Nou can tiiiii and see some bum or some ile-lnicnoii. nicircling the i)earing- rnllarnl li nm dnllai lull-
image of decay, he pointed out. "and then turn again and tciji and die gears painted mi a pnliliial map nl lllr
center
see some restaurant where it costs S40 for a meal. So von ir .Xmerican iniilinrni-- below right r\ la--ii|iir ihr arm nl . m
con-tantly ~ii|ieiiinpo-ing images upon images and saiui- the cowbov. who derives from W niiianiw icz - rarlin- rrafliti
wiching iheni. T\ magazines, information, memorv.
. -tencil of Ronald Reagan as a niiclrar liiiikarnn. W njiiai-
groceiy store signs— and there's all this suggestion of owicz once pointed om that childrni an- ilir onlv jieople in
"'"
consumprion ... of images. societv todav who think about g I ami i\ il.
'
' He despaired
""''
The Death nf American Spirituality 4'ig. l-t.22 is a of thi? "diseased society. and Mi lir -rnn- in lia\r had a
•-mumanzing painting for \^ ojnarowicz. hluntlv stating his glimmer of hope that the directnes- nf hi- rniifrniiiaiinii with
grandest theme. He di\ided the conijio-ition into tnnr ii- niinal tailiire ini;:lii rmnrilimr in ii- -aKainui.
Appropriation
III
an influential essav of l''h~ niiiiird "Tlu- Death ni ilir
14.23 David Salle, His Brain, 1 984. Oil and acrylic on canvas,
Viithnr. the French literaiT critic Roland Barthes stated
'
acrylic on fabric, two panels, 9ft 9in x 8ft 93/4in (2.97 x 2.69m) overall.
thai "a text i- not a line of wiird? releasing a single Phologroph by Zmdmon/Fremont, New York, courtesy Gogosion Gollery. New York c Dovid
theological meaning the 'message of the Author-God .
Solle/VAGA. New York, 1994.
but a multidimensional space in which a variers" of wTitings.

none of them original, blend and clash." and he attacked
iraditional ways of reading in which "... the explanation nf
a work is always sought in the man or woman who producn I
it. a- if it were always in the end. .the voice of a siiiiilr .
[lerson. the author coididing' in u- X^lierea?. Bail In- . . .

^
argued, even" sign a worfl or. bv extension, an image nr a

brushstroke is a product of histoiT and social conventimi.
By assigning a role to the reader and to culture both nf
w hich are peipetually ciianging in defining the contenr nf a
text. Barthes negarerl the possibility" of finding a -lablr
interjjretation of anv te.xt or image. Rather than a fixed einii \
with an unchangeable meaning, language is inherniiK

unstable, he insisted, and not governed bv artistic intention.
Moreover, he denied the concept of originality": "The text i- a
tissue of cpiotations drawn from the innumerable center- nf
culture .. .The writer can onlv imitate a gesture that i-
alwavs anterior, never oriiiinal Did he wi-h to r.rprr.'is
. . .
himself, he ought at least m kimw dial ilu- iiiiu-r iliiiiL!

he thinks to "translate' i- ii-elf miK a leaiK -Inrinrd
*"
dictionan.'
Following the lead of Polke and Baldessari and olini
influenced bv the poststructuralist theories of Barthes. maii\
artists of the late seventies increasinglv lookefl to read\ -
made image- or ideas as the ilata nl jier-nnal ex|ierience as

455
Appropriation
14.24 Gary Panter, Untitled, 1 ^
Acrylic on canvas, 5ft 6in x 7ft 8in

(1.67 X 2.34m).
Privole collection.
wrll a- ilir la-w niaieiial otdiit's own expressive «(irk. Tliis 'Scanning ex|)erieiice as in media and cnmpniri-^ lathcr
approach, which came to be known as a])piopiiation. tlian jienetratiug it> deittii.
fO'ew out of collage, ^âpop art. Indeed, as John Carlin has David Salle, a student of Baldessari's fig. 1 1 ..'i'i . began
wiiiien: "Pop art wasn't just a 60s phenomenon. It has overlaying images in 1979 and. as with Polke ten years
Ipiidine the dominant f'onii of realism in the late 20th earlier, the priman" stimulus was the experiential complexity
reniun He pointed out that pop art re])laced "the mimetic of a culture defined \>\ images from advertising and meflia.
"
.
hasis of realism with a |)un'K >emi()tic one. The primaiy

. . . "Ever\'thing in ilii~ wnrld.' Salle e.xplained. "is sinudta-
artistic reference is no longer natme. bin cidtiire — the neousK" itself and a representation of the idea of itself. This
fabricated system of signs that has taken the place of things was in a sense mv big art e|>iphany . . . The pleasures and
in our consciousness. In shm-f. landscape has become challenges of simultaneity continue to be one of the rlri\ iiiir
"^
sign scape. iorce> ni mv work.
The New York an world took up ilie is?ue of ap])ropria- The vi-.nal busyness of the graphic design in ."salle s
lion and the arbitraiy overlay of ready-fonned images in the |)aintings xarinuÛ anticipated in the srxles of .lohns. Polke.
later seventies as part of a reexamination of the possibility" of and Rosenqui>t detlects emphasis away from conîderiuL'
originality" and growing corjjorate mass
authenticirv" in the the imageiT as icongraphicallv significaiu. Indeed, ilir ai ii-i
cidtiu-e. Influenced by Barthes. one critic praised David iuis repeatedh downplayed any reference external lo ilic
Salle's paintings Tig. 14.23 for example, for being "dead, . paintings: 'Tn |i» n- mi where the images come from.' he
inert representations of the impnssibilitv of jjassion in a has said. "di.>ioris du-ir life together in a paintins:.
""'
Thus
"""^
1 iihnre that has institutionaliznl -iir-r\]iression. For this Salle encourages us to see the female nude, for examjile. as
w riter. the impassiveness of Salli- ~ w ni k w as a new value in an image among images, part of the undiffeientiated — anrl
art precisely because it respomlril in w Ikii ihi- critic saw as by implication ethically neutral — ^tidf of iecei\ed experi-
tlie new cidtural situation. ence. The fact that we cannot i> one of the iTdierent
Siieirie Levine and Mike Bidlo attracted attention in contradictions that, for Lisa Phillips, made .Salle'- work
New York bv making look-alikes of celebrated works from poignant and relevant: she saw "embracing the inten-ity
it as
"*'
the histoiy of art. Their art explores the pos-il)ility of of emptx" value at the core of mass-media representation.
expressing oneself using the ready-made expre>sioii> of Gar\" Panter [fig. 14.24 who began overlaying forms in
.
someone else in particular a well-kno\s"n historical artist as Los -\ngeles in the mid seventies, leaves the viewer with a
if to ask: can this method express authentic feeling!' i-. it more luisettling and thought-provoking ambiguity about
originar:" Similarly. Richard Prince introduced the cone rj it where. concei)tuallv. to place his images. One isn i -hit in
of "rephotographv '
in 1977. making photographs of |iii -
Panter's work w hether to read them as appropriation- tium
lures inmagazine advertisements and then blowing them up. life or arlyeiti-iiiir m a> caricatin-e from the underground
cropping or rearranging them fig. 14.25 His work imdei- . cdinic- a genre in w liicli lie has a considerable reputation i.
scored tile ])Ostmodeni emphasis on die surface of eveius. Panter's lainmi- inmic rliaracter ".Iiml)(j. a di-ciiiiirrlint:
456
14.25 (above) Richard Prince, Untitled (Three Women Looking m

the Same Direction), 1980. Set of three Ektacolor prints, edition often,
3ft 4inx 5ft (1.01 X 1.52m) each.
Collection. Chose Manhattan Bonk, New York
fii-iiiii 111 man ami aiiiumainii. roam- llif ili'lmmani/i-il
laiila--\ ciix 111 Dal- I nk\ II w liirli i^ >imiillaiiciiii^|\ hum i^lic

and anliinialfil. I lin- iinlnimnl Irmii ralinnal limr. r\rn llir
'CllinL' 111 l-'anlcT - naiialix c- imilriniinrN iIh- ii iiiir| iinal
Ini'rai'ciiif-- mi wliirli iinr'~ -rn^r nl |irr-iinal I nnini larir-
irli,-.^-
Inr Hiclianl Piiiii r. llif ma-- nifilia |irci\iili'- a -luck
caialii;: 111 r(inli-m|iorai\ ilr-irc- -\ nilmli/i'il in ail\<Tti-ini;
iinaiif-. fur i-.\am[p|f wliirli In- can a|i|irii|iiialc a- \cliiclc-
Inr hi- own c\|icri<'ncr. I Ir ili-lncalc- ilir imai;c- li\ |iriijrci-
ini; hi- own lania-ic- inio ilicm. -ii|M-iim|iii-inii ami iccnlni-
iiiii ihcm. hi / iititlcd r/inc II imii-n l.iKikiiiii m tin >(iiiir
Dinutiiiii \\i:.\-\:l'i llii' -imilarilic- liriw rni llir lliicc
imaL'c- Iniiii diffcrrni aiKmi-cmcnl- linamc tin- cmmiciii,
making: a ciiiicc|inial cnniicciinn ihal i- imlniiliial ami

miinlcmicil li\ ilir aiKi-rli-cr . riiii- Prince i- a kimi nl
|pa--i\c wiim---. \ii hr cniilnil- llic caim-ra. -u he can

inam|iiilair the imaiie- in hi- uwii wax, in ilii- -en-e. he
reclaim- ainhnritv over hi- nw n iilenliu in I he (le|iei-iinah/-
iiii: wmlil III I he ma— media, and iliai iea--erniiii i if -ell i- al
ihe heari i il hi- w mk "I ha\e al\\a\: - I I il dillicnll In la Ik
al I w lial n - like III ie|)liii|ii^;ra|ih an imaiie. he ha- -aid.

"*
"I Hit 'whal il - like i- w lial il - aliniil.
Tile lineal ul ili--ii|iiliiiii in ma-- cull me i- clear em in uh.

and S(i is riie snlminn |iiii|iii-ed li\ lîchard i'rince: "I lliink
die audience iia- alw a\ - lieen die aiidinr nl an aiii-l - wmk.

differeni imw i- dial die aili-l
\\ liat s can liecnme die aiilhnr
(if someone el-e- wmk. lie ackimw ledi;e- the cnm- ''^
monaliu of tlii- inlminalimi ieirie\al. die laci dial we\e

-iiared it and think - -mnelmw pari nl n-. make- ii- think it
alimil tlie int'onnalimi a- a ^;eniiiiie e\|ieiiince.^ I lin-
i'rince -eek- a route intn indixidnal anlhenliciU ihrmiiih

media I'll It me rather- than a<;ain-l il.
\\ here I'l'ince manipulate- imaue- a- readx -

aiKeiti-iiii:
made repositories of lii- enimimi- and de-ire-, die leiicli I
artist Christian Bollan-ki recmili-iire- -imple. nfieii nld. 14.26 Christian Boltanski, Reserve of Deod Swiss (sma/l), 1990.
r Photoqrophs,
^ "a ^ fabric, tin boxes, and lamps, 1 16 •
37 ^13'2in
I
nl)]erts
•
from 1 -1
dail\ life
i-x- I »
and anmivmmi- old photoiiiaph- I I I 1
mill
,
' ' ^'
(294.6 94 > 34.3cm
nienientos of ficlive identitie- lii!. l4.2() . He ha- e\ en
Pnvole colleclion. Photograph by Michael Goodman, courtesy Morion Goodmon Gallery
revi-efl lli- nw n lia-t: "Ive recniimed -n iiiaiix iiixeiiled NewYork.

457
Appropriation
iii('miirii'> iihiiul in\ rliildlinMd lir lia- -:ncl. "ili:!! now I
liiiM- till ri';il mil-.

I -iiii: îrcliiv !- m| |p.mii -i|iialil\ |ilii ili ii:ij|ili dali-il
-ii,i|i-hiii-. Ill laniilir- nri iln- IhmiIi. ImImi-. |ii-u|iIc iâilicrri I
aiiiiirid llif iliiini-i lalilr. ,1 -.ihliir in iiiiilonii — In- cic-air- ilii-
|iio-aii' irciiiil dial adiU ii|> In ilir inlinialicin ula lii(it;ia|ili\
111'
a ((111 II nun li()iiii;i-(ii- lilc I Ic nia\ add nw i - dl nld lii-ciiil
lin- a- i'i-li(Hiai'ii'> ny la\ (Hii die iiin-i iim li-l iiiMin-lic( I
llnll-chiild ilcill-. like i-\|(|ili(C III a \lllinc. >iilllc nl die

|i||iihii;ra|ili- .nc nl jiicwai Jcwi-li iliildii'ii limn Dijdii.
\ iciiiia. and I'aii- wlm lia\c di-a|i| icaicd iiidi a IcnihiilL:

aiiniiN iiiilN . W nil die liaic IpiiIIi- (il ( lica|i iiiclal laiii| i- I n n ic(
inio llicii lace-, like an inlcii i iL:al n >ii. ilic-c in-lallalinii-

evoke ill. II. .|(Mall-l,
Using the Language of Media for Personal

Expression
A|iii//Iiiil: iiai iali\ . Iiaein.'iil — ..lien lil.-ialK w rill en i iiilil
ii\ei,i...llaL:e..la|.|.r(i|iiiale(liinaee- — l.rinii-dieeNi.eri-
.'ii.'.' ..I Ilia-- .11 Inn.' I.a. k l.i die l.x .1 ..T in.lix i.liial an.'.. I. .1.'
in ill.' w. .rk- (il \l('\i- >iiiilli, a I ...- \iii;el.'- ai l i-l. an. I in lli.'
in-lallali.in-. asseml)lai;t'-'. and |iainliiii;- ..I \.'in.iii T i-li.'i
li'..in Dalla- l|^^. l4.2"aii.l l-t._';; . In l i-li.'i ->//<»/' .///./
/'.'//. ri.ri-\ain|ili'. I lie -ten.ill.'d l.-\l r.-a.l- lik.- a /en /{(imr.
( hif lilllr lairl Kcirr lirniin/il iin\ ihiiiu: In s/iniiiiij: liniv. ( II her
ilnldtfii iiiiLi/il l/niiLt (in iiiilliiiilii liiilinii licnildrcss
(irijiiirfd nil (I riiciilitiii in [nzniiu. urn ( nil It nr sirnni

liiinilcil ilnirn I'rniii Cniil Crnnililinl. Iiiil irlifiirrcr llir
hnilicr nskiil: "Don. (In ynii linic din I Inii'j In slinrc iiilli iis
ln(l(i\ .'" she nnlyshircd (Il I lie Inji nf licr desk nnd slinnk her
licnd linuhlrniii side In side. Ilicn niic dm: IniiiS dflcr her
liirii lind incrci/iilh' disn/)/i(in cd. Dnii (ihrn/ilh Icfl her scnl
(indirnlkcdlnllicfrnntnflliccldss. II illi crcrvniic's shirllcd
(lllcnlinn she licisnn: " fndm nil llic ir(i\- In silinni I jniiild
458
soniclliiii'j: that I irmil to sluirc. "She held her arm stiffly on/ >licmi.ni rli.illciiLic- li\ci| nli-nmv l)\ inkiiiu mi ~ii in;iii\
in /runt of lieriiiifl heiidil xhiirh' (/ro/>/)iiiii: liin/)ie(e.s o/ i;in~i'~. mi ilic >|pii ilirii\ ol ihr iiii;il;i'~ ,iinMi-^|, ,-, ,|imi
.•i/n('il(h'(/ kh'cne.f. "Sec.'' she said. ">niiii: ciiiiiihiiKil iii\ oiiiinii mi her |j,ii i iii (aipIwiihi; r.n Ii îili|ti i
In ihr -r\rnl,r. -I,r mi.hI.- ..nl\ Mll.lll I >l. h L -,, I M I

- \X 1 1 1 1 r
(..iikK >lifniiaii li-- MJ",iihl I4.I11 ii-i'> .mIiIIiti'III kiml |

ilmn .-1 .i| 1I1-. . In m l\ iiitliirnrnl |i\ lilni ;iii(llrl,-\ i-i.ui, ^lic
ul |»-|-Min;lll/iri'j: liail;UI\ 1-. Alullllil 1 ^C~ ~llr hc-.lll | iln ilu- -lllllnl h. .\ l,ni:rl ^ralr ;ni(l In lllr ll-r 111 a IkIi (111. 11
i:ra|'liiiii: lifr-i-JI in raiii)i\ (illir- miltil- ami llini in nlliii nrliiiii|ni' ar I ilir imkI nl {''."ill In ilir laic ciLililir- ~lir
I ii'iiiiiii'-. and -i-iliiii;-, llir~r an- |iiiiiiir- iil rnM.iinn-- 1 in iiri I ii 1 iik 1 iaînL:l\ I li/aii r. -c unn inn- niaial m- lliiiiu-^.
|iri-.iiiiilir(l. '
anil all I II II 11:1 1 ~lii- i- iIh- iniiilr! in iirai l\ I hi Ii~i ini: an i'\ ii -w n li-nnii: 1 aii::i- ul ~nl i|rri^ am I i-im il h iii>.
I'lilnr (<(7//7T. lioili- III llii- |iirlinr~ an- ~i-ll-|iiii lrah~ III llii- liiliki' ^liiinian llir ^laiii l\\iii~ Mikr ami Dmii;
111 1 liiiaiA -I-II-I-. Iii~li'ail -In- rr'Mli-- iinaLiniarx nanalix r- 111 1 lii| il\ iii\ • il\ n I I Ihiii-i-K 1- 111 iIh- |
iIh iIi il:i a| ilm iiin jinni a^ a
wiiii-h <li<' art-, arkm i\\ In lîn:: ilir jiiiwrr ul ihr jiliiiin- niriliniiL I lini wmk rrnlrii'il mi |iiin r-^ lallin lliaii mi a
i;la|iliril iinaL:'' a- ii-alil\ anil 11^1111; llil- lailli ill llir linlli nl liiial liiir |iiiiil. lull ni-lrail nl ^rrkiiii: in in\ciil iiiii;nial
ini.ii:c-- In i-\|i|nii- Inr lii-r-i-ir a wiiji- iaiii:i- nl -mnilinii- iiiiai:r- llii\ i 1 illalim al i\ i-l\ -rlrriril Irmn a -imk lliiil
-l<ii-ni\ |iiral mil-- Im- w niiii'ii. aliraiK r\i-lril I ir::iiii 11111: Willi |
il 11 il 1 ii;ra| il 1^ nl laninii^
14.29 Cindy Sherman, UnMled

Film sail #3, 1977. Black-and-white
photograph, 8 x lOin (20.3 - 25.4cm
Collection, the artist Photogroph cou-lesy Met'O
Pictures, New York
1 4.30 Cindy Slierman, Untitled # H 9,

1983. Color photograph, 3ft 9' 2in 7ftl0in
16 ^ 2.39m).
Collection, the artist Photograph courtesy Metro Pictures,
New York
459
Appropriation
^»(
#'. 'irtW-.v"
^'MJ,
lliis way (III- Siaiiis Iia\r Innml a unique means ol' rermi-
14.31 The Starn Twins, The Horses fICA Edition), detail of nos.
1-49, 1985-6. Toned silverprints with Scotch tape, 10 ^ 16ft
si nil ling a w m lil ul in ri\ ril images, a remai'kabh niinaniir
(3.04 X 4.87m) (for all ninety-eight). iilea liira postmodeiii era. altliough the romantir inili\ iiliial-
Private collection. Photograph courtesy Stux Gallery, New York. <c: 1 994 Mike and Doug in nf llie Starns is deliglitt'iillv eomplicated b\ ilir niili\ iilnal
Starn/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
amin\ mii\ nl iliesr idenliial iw ins.
The Aesthetic of Consumerism

\\iirk-. cilan takt'H dii ilnir -iiKJfiii iii|i in Pari- in l**o."). Tlu'
l/iirscs /( \ Edition t'i::. l-t.-l I cnii-i-i^ nl iiiiifU -i-i;:l]t
Fill"
s r nl ihr aiiisi~ emerging in tlie eiglities. mass-
ilillnriii |iliiit()graplis niadi- liniii a îiii^lc iii-i;ali\f nl iwn niaikii rnnsmiierisiii in itself offered imaginati\e pnssi-
liiii^f- lii-ail> ill tliiiii-l,iii(i- a |ii(liiif iiiailf li\ I In- .'^lai ii- liiliries. "\li Halias caM- is nnt nnlike Macv s. Ilaiin
111 a |iair nf lim-î'- IH-Iniiiîni; |i> ihrir î>iri . Tln' i|iiiik\ Îrinliarll irmarkril. was mure lerngni/ril
Inn llirn it
|il illlillL:^ lliaLf 11111^1 111 till- |illiilni:ia|ill^ llllii|llr. ili->|piti- llir as fantasy."'' Ilaim 'sirinliafh. .leff Koons [figs. t-+..")2 ami
li-r\ rliiiv; nl lllr illiai:iT\ . \-i.'-V.] Peter llalli). \s|iley Bickerton. and Mey-er \ aisinan
.
I 111- Siani^ ii^ril ilii- I'tilarLirr rallin lliaii ilir raincra as Inimil a genuine aestlieiic pleasure in contemporar\ con-
llii-ii |iiiiiri|ial liiiil. "W lial wr iln i-- la\ mil a iiTtaiil aiva sHini I riiltiu'e. The coinmodifiration of art— art treated as
w iili Mark la| n I In- wall ^n w r ran lia\ i- an iilca a In ml tin- an item Inr sale ami cniisumption — attracted them as a
|iri iniiirr. I \M- nun nil llir mlaiLifi anil w iili jiiî ih,-
lifii lasi inaiini: new as|ir(i nl rnnteniporaiT cultiu'e.
~alf IIliIiI i>nwe tajii' tin- HliIiI -srii-ii i\ c |ja|irr-- inln ^leiniiarii Is \ i^naiU excited bv seeing the wav things are
|iii~iiiiin."''" Thev mav pi'iiji-n a -inL;li'. rnniinnuii- riini|iii-i- presenieil ill slacks in ihr sinre and builds special shelves f(3r-
linll acidn.i a JjarcllWOrk nf ini|i\ iilnal -hrrl^ nf |ia|iri m- nil lining up ihesr mannlacinred objects in re]3etitive rows. His
anil ifassemble images a- ni -miir "I I'/ic Ihir.os. In eiilin an cniiceiiis 'taking pleasure in objects and commodities . . .
ra-e. iliev take pains to niakr lln-n nialniaU ami |inMr~^ being cnmpiiiil wiili ilie jtroduction of desire."'" llalie\
\ i-ililr. "To get a 'realer' mmiî- nlilir iinai;r \\r wmiliUi ranli painis riilnrii\r i;eiimiiric abstractions deri\e(l bum cir-
lllr lilin so vou could see tin- iirL;aii\ r. ^ '
llirx aUn liiM ami riiiir\ iliaîanis m a rr\i\al of geometric abstraclinii —an
iiai ilif |iiinting paper l" lurak ii-- |irisiinr smlacf. "We esperialK appealini: -i\lr preciselv because it was liir
wain III make tile viewer /cc/ pin iIulii a|ili\ . as a painler iileii|ngi(all\ rinpiN Iniiii i if cnnuiie]-ciai abstraninn agaiiisi
makes \i\\\ Jcr! ilie paiiil. w illi 1 1 rips ami I inisliîidkrs." '"
in wliirli aiisiraci rxprrssjnnism relielleil ami winrli linalix
460
14.32 (above) Haim Steinbach, Ultra Red 1,1 986. Mixed media
construction, 59 • 107 • 19,nn49 9 271.8 48.3cm),
Pnvaie collection Pholograpn oy Dc.iO Luoorsky. courtesy Sonnobend Gollery, New York
14.33 Jeff Koons, Pink Panther. 1 ^ .Porcelain, 41 ^ 20' ix 19in

y (104.1 52.1 48.3cm),
Private collection. Photograph courtesy JeH Koon;
4
lii-iaiiii- i(ini|ilei.'l\ cli-li;i-i-il a- up an in iln- -i.xiii-^. .\-.|ili-\
'În BickenDii jinidiufN ^lêle^^ i)lijf(ts that >eein like toininer-
riallv taliiicaied ((niMimer goods covered in coniineiTial

lipiid-.. \\]u\i- \lr\( 1 \aisiiian\ work is charged vsitii a passion
till' thi' a|i|ii ii|iria(iiin of simulated appearances, historical

art >tvlt'>. and >iil)ject matter that ha- deteriorated as an
I
artistic language from tner-ii-e.
Allan McC^jUum. who nniM-d m New \ork from Los
Angeles in I'^'ô. |)roiied ijii- i---iie of commodified artistic
language bv making art -inrogate:^ or neutral "vehicles" to

see in what wax (Hie an separate and perfect the forms in
i
artistic thev were mass-produced goods. His

language a- if
VW2 Drawings ^fig. l4.-'^4 has a wonderfid

installation tA
coinplexilv embedded in it- matter-of-fact treatment of the
drawings a> infiiiin-K le'ciPMibniablr jHi'tab unit-. -lacked in
hi "The.New." the |irinii])al -erie-i)f work i)y .lell Kud

461
Appropriation
&:ljH4'KH**j®iHLji
y^l-|'Nti'>|*i*'*'»i^>ilt;
mn iM
i
-g^Qinoo
Q-n-DOua
riiii^ KcMins laees iinlliiicliiiigK the (Ivnaniics of the old
14.34 Allan McCollum, Drawings, 1 988-90. Installation at John
Weber Gallery, New York, 990, over 2,000 framed drawings, pencil
1
.•i|iliiii iîii ilie lull iiKike^ ilie iiKiii. recognizing the wav the
on museum board, various sizes. iM(li\ iiliKil e-.ialili~lie^ (iinlideiiee in his position bv virtue of
Photograph by Fred Scruton, courtesy John Weber Gollery, New York. I lie iili|e(i^ w iih w liiili he îi ni ii uiils himself. These objects
w ill mil III' loiikeil at in a contenijilative way. but will only l)e
there a^ a mechanism of securitv. .\nd thev will be accessible

in rlie earlveii;lilii-^. llif ailiî i'\|iliiii-il imi miK iii(Hlfi'iii-.iir-. to all. Inr an can and should be used to stimulate social
jit'ipetual liimf.'ei- loc |ii-\\iif». " Iml llic M'lisr of |iii^tiiu' mobiliiN ki ^ then deliberately moved into kitsch and
.
"
iifwnes.s tlial iii-cniiipaiiifs die a((|iii-.ilii)ii oi riiiisiinii'i- If there into explicit pornogra|)hv. making c\i]ical
'^
goods and |iiip\iikrs ^mli "a strange excilnni-iil in |
|ilc." ennîinief iciiii^ lor the rich thai w I'l'e nevertheless still
Taking a nlililaiian ohjcct like a vacmnn cleaner (inl of il.s more shocking as an ex]iresbion of his ambition than of his
linirtional context, Koons gives it heroie status bv enshrining baiha-te.
it in an elegant Ple.xiglas vitrine with fluorescent showcase
lighting. For Konns i( is both an aesthetic object (tmlikc the
Political Appropriation
rciidviiiades ol i)ncliani|)) and a social icon. "One reieixi's
objects as rewarrls lor labor and achieveinein^." he ihem- Willie Kooii^ rcM'leil in the idiiîiiiier cultm'e of the
ized. "Eveiything one has sacrificed in life ... in the elTm 1 in eii;lilie^ a lorcefiil |iohtical count ereiilt tire also emerger'
obtain tliese objects, has been sacrifieecl w a gi\iii lalim w itiiiii till' New York ait world, sigiuiled by the founding •
situation. And once tiiese objects have been aeciiiniilalei I. ( ( )1 .AH ill I
'I"" FashionAModa and Group Material (f
1. di
tliev \\drk as sM|>|Miii iiiecliaiiistns."''' ill I''"''' a^ neiiililiorliood-based art collectives [figs. ?
)5
462
14.35 Times Square Show, June

1 980, second-floor window with
ointings on mosonite by Tom
3tterness announcing attractions
nside.
Pi-olograph c by Lisa Kahone, New York.
14.36 (below) Times Square Show,

June 1 980, anonymous chalk graffiti
on the walls of the building's fourth
floor in front, Tom Otterness's
Punching Bag.
Phologroph :c: by Liso Kohane, New York.
DlLeTAHle' lOuEKlLLA
."ûtSlI C
,,,y;-^-^^sî
463
Appropriation
and 14.36\ Like the Britisli aiii-.!-- m| ihr lii<li|Mii(lriii îii-li a- iiender di'-criminalion or L.S. ;id\enliiiisin in
Croup in the fifties, these ai"tisi> lonk in ilu whole riiiiL:i- "\ ( inlial \iiii-iica.
cnhmal jirochiction fioin |)aintins:> in kii-rh nnin^ ainl ilir 1 lure were a iiiimliiTiil iva~i'n- win -ncii ai li-.l> lici anil-
television news in their eollaborative in-ialhili<iri^. Muinisci ~ii lipi ii-eil III! |i(iliiii'al mailers in llie eiulaii'-'. Proiiiineni
tliev inihided not only tlie iniageiT of eonteni|iorai\ pojudar anions; lliem wa^ llie .\1D^ criî^. winch first appeared in
cidture hut also its maimer of presentation. Ihey were more l''o i and ex alaieil iiiloaii epidemic at a lerrilviiig pace, llie
militanth ])oiitiral tliaii tlieir Britisli prernrsors. howe\ er. in e\|i|oî\e iiKPWili III honielessness and uiiemplov niem aLo
-rekiim to use popular culture to ronnert art with romiiiuiii- made inaiix leel dial government in the eighties ser\ ed onK
lies. ofien specificallx adchi'^'iiii; -ocial i'-'-urin llu' pnni die inleresi, iililie liili. I iiiaiix . I here were liindanienlal new
neighborhoods of New \ ni k ( ii\ liniii w liicli llirx caiiu'. llireal> 111 lli-eclciin in Aineiica. in parilculai die 11 ni^nliila-
These artists wanted to inteneiir (linnU in exeiil--. liciii III ineilia ilaiU new --paiier^. matrazines. Iele\ i-.ii ui
serving as agents for social change. Inn .1^ Tim Rnllin-'. a liiMik^. anil miiiiiin (inline-, inii 1 die hands of a few pnw eilnl
liiuiiilint: mcmher of (.i(>u|i Malnial. |iiiiiiic(l mil: "a corpiiialiiin^. In I'Til. Iiin\->i.\ corporation^ nininilled
|ioliliral an lan'l rcalK ill- mailr (// w n; kini: |m'ii|iIc oi /i(/lhc iiiii^l 111 ihe liii-iiie~^ in media: by 198b. thai nnmlier had
npprc-.-e(l. V radical arl i- mii- dial licl|)s organi/r |iciiplr -lirunk to iweniN-nine. Ii w a> estimated tiiat bv the vear
wiiii can ^pcak lor iliciii-cl\ c^.
(
'()L.\B s fii-i major 201)0 ownership of die American media industiT might be in
jiroject was to take over an abandoned citv building on the tile haiifls and global communica-
of only >i\ conglomerates,
Lower East Side in order to stage an event that focused tion dominated bv only twelve. '" This take-over of the media
attention on tenants rights issues in New York. The "Real seemed especially pernicious since the political event- of die
Estate Show." as opened on .lanuarv L 1Q80
it was called, eighties had made it painfully clear that slick adveiii-emem-
and was iininediatelv closed bv police. As Rollins remarked: could -ell die public a perception of a candidate or is-iie diat
"It's a radical ait with a radical methodolosv. because it's mi nil I 1 11 a I nil resemblance to the fnith.
illegal."'" Ienii\ lliil/er. a pai lici|>aiit in the "Times S([uare
Pom ( )lteriieN-.. from
.lolm Aliearn. and mlicT arli^ts •-ihiiw . ap|iiiipiiaied die \ehieles of aiUeriising and graffiti
(X)L.\B and Fashion/.Moda organized die L>8() "Times loi an Home pei-.nnal expression that iindeiiniiie> die
Sr|uare Show" in an abandoned sex shop by Times Scjuare. slerciiiv ped message- in die media dig. 1-f.i"" . Îie -laiied
the Manhattan pom district. Thev jammed the space w ith her iniisiiis and later eleciruniealU
in L'""". printing
videos, graffiti, posters, installations,and ongoing perform- encndin^ jihiases such as
"Murder has its se.xual -ide.
ances, cnstallizing the fusion of schooled art and Bronx Raise boys and girls the same way. "Abuse of power
graffiti that was taking place in the East \ illage with aiii-'i-- should come as no suiprise on posters, flyers. T-shirts, hats, "
"
like Keith Haring and .Tean-Michel Basquiat. Meanwhile, in and then electrnnic sign-. Holzer smantptilaTion of "almost
September 1980 Group Material opened one of the first Ea^t familiar phrase- dis|ijace- die clear presence ot a |)ei-iiiial
^ illage galleries in a storefront, where for about a vear tiicv Miice — the word- -eein impei-onal. under-cnrini; die e--eii-
•laged e.xJiibitions that spotlit broad socio] xilitical i-.sue> lial empline-- nl die media and the -iraiiLie i-nlalinn ul
14.37 Jenny Holzer, Truisms,

1977-79: Abuse of Power Comes As
No Surprise, 1 982. Spectocolor Board
No. 1 , Times Square, New York.

Sponsored by Ihe Public Art Fund Inc. PhologropI'
courtesy Borboro Gladstone Gallery, New York
464
|icii|ilr Iniiil Mill- iiMiiiIiri- in ihi^ -iicii-ix nl' iikin^-cmIi iiif
Ilk.' Ilnl/rr H.irlMr.i Kniijrr liu. l-+,.l.". Imi.--

,iiii|jiL:ihiii-- ^l(ii:,iii^ Willi M.ick -111 1(1 -w line mini;!---. |mî(il iiji
liiLli'llii'i like ,1 |ML;r III IicimK l:i';i|iIiii' drîLin riiiiii \l(i</
i-iiKiiscllr. line I il ilir in.iLl.i/ii M- w linr -lir w m kn I li n rli'\ ni

MMI-. Ir.irilllli; liri i;rii|illic ilrsJMn skill-. >lir iil-n IkihiI-- uiil
liii iiii----;iL:r- (ill iiKii( liliddk- l-s|iiii~. Idle Imi:-, |i(i--lcr-,
.111(1 |ili(ii(iiiiiiiii;ii:c-- Inn liii- I- iiii jiii:i\ .md .k i ii-.inn \
\(ii(c Willi |ilii\i-.c- like We Wdii I |ila\ nadiii' In \ii|ir
I 'nil nil', \\ c- w (in I lie (iiir ow n lic-i cncniv \ ( ni ( (

il( nii/c
i.KCI.ilcd (i|,|c(|.. krniici alMKlchlicialcU I(M\c. Indli llic
\ ( lice III 1 1 II' I CM .nil I I III' iiili'in Ici I II 1(1 III 11 III .ni( >ii\ mil \
llinv I- iKi -.IK h iiinlii-inu in llic icM-. nl llic (.ncinll.i
(.III-. \ll('l llic \lll-clllll (il Modem \ll held II- \ll-l
Inlci iiiil iiiiiiil ^ni\r\ (i| ( (inlciii|i( il iii"\ \il in l''i"i-t. in
wliiili ;illll(i-l IKi Wdllicn (i| IIIIIK II 11 ic- were ii icIiK led. :i
nnnilirr (il |
in il('--i( mal wdincii in die New ^ll^k an wmld
loiindrd dii- ((illcciiM' (iii:iiiii/.iii(iii. llic ( .iicnilhi (,iil-
.i| i|iciiicd nil lclc\i-iiiii wcaiilii: lillilici Lldllll.i iii.i-k- hi
iii.iiiinnn llicii ;ni(iii\ iiiil\ llic\ adx ci I i-cd. and di-l iilinlcd
led Id- and |i(i-li'i- Id Ihiiil; al iciil ion hi die w iilc-|ii c.id race
.mil ccndei- di-cninmal ion lli.il c\i-l- in die all wmld Ii".
Kr/\ -/lol W (i(li( vko. an ai li-l w liliiii; li inn ( iomnmni-l

I'oland in die mid -e\ eiilie-. {
k ill iiei I ( ml dial ma lol.ililai iaii
-lale. iiidi\ idiial- don I own iiiiace-: die -lale doe-. Tlie
le-iill i- llial il i- illl|i(i--ilile 1(1 clianue llie e(i||le\l of
iinace-.""' liowexei. llle ol i-ei\ a I ion al-o a|i|ilie- lo (he
((il|i(iiale (dill ml (il llie medi.i in Anieiiia l(ida\ . \\ odie/ko >
aii-wei (o llii-. like (liri-lo-. i- lo ireale a-loiii-liiiii:
-|ieiiaele- in die W(iikada\ -el I iiii: oT die ciu dial will -larlle
llie ca-iial |ia--ei-li\ out ol ln> ol' her routine jialiil-- ol
14.38 (above) Barbara Kruger, Unfitted (You Rule By Patheiic

Disployl, 1982, Photograph, 6ft 1 in 4ft lin (1 .85 - 1 .25m). 14.39 Guerrilla Girls, Do women have to be naked to get into the
Krannei-I Art Museum ana Kinkeod Pavilion. Uniuersily of Illinois ol Urbona-Champaign Met. Museum?, 1989. Poster, 11 28in (27.9 • 71.1cm).
-Purchased by Ihe Art Acquisition Fund. Courtesy Mary Boone Gallery, New York Private collection.
Do women have to be naked to

get into the Met. Museum?
'' ^
Less than of the in the Modern
Art Sections are women, but
of the are female.
GIIEDDII I A filDI e
"^ l056CooperSto NY.NYI0276
UEKKILLAWIKUCONSQENCEOFmEAiiTWOIilD
465
Appropriation
in W ;i-.liiiii;l(iii t'ia. l4.4() 1. Tile cainpaiiiii liad lirni iiiarrcil

14.40 KrzysztofWodiezko, WORKS, October 25, 26, and 27, , .
, " .
'
inoo .L Lj LL w Lj LL J '<^ lu T I >t K f it sei 11 t'll t h sIlO Will U If

il I I
i
1 1
i-
I U ( '(
' (
t-
)t U i
1 1
i
1 a( ' K T
i
I
I
M\ c
l I
to the Hirshhorn Museum, Hirshhorn Museum and

r, 1 i L
1 988. Pro|ection on
J.
Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. iiani.-d W illie Horton and attein])ting to M'are the ]nil.li.- inlii
PhoiographbyLeeSiolsworih,i988 cKrzysziofWodiczko. I)elieviiig tluil llie Demorialir candidate would release

dangerouM riininal- tiimi ilic |pi i-mi^. In V( odiczko s projer-
lion one liandlield a cradle and die nilier a gnn. >\nnIiolizinK
lliniii:lil aliiiin die w mid.' Mil |ianicnlai . W ndic/ku inî^led lli<- ilieloiic iil li(i|ie and tear thai had chaiailerized the
thai "Iddav iiiiiri- than r\ei liehire. the ineaniiii: ul mii |
ire-iili'iH ial caiii| iait;n>.
nionniiii'iii~ dr|icnd^ on mil acli\ e ni!e in linnini; llieiii iiiln
nu'iiiuix an. cnlical evalnadmi n| lilMmv a- well a-

-lie-. ,,l I
RetUm tO thC Body

I
ilace- 111 jiiililic dixiiin -c and acl imi.
W ndii/kii Ijrd iii(:aiiada in l''~~aiid dieii. in \'K\.'<. | ii i he nineiio. (lie de-ire In celelirate the (.livei-.sity of'lunnan
moved III \i\\ ^mk. III- lie-i-known work iiiMiKi-- tlii' ii>e llieint;- — in coniia-.t to the homogeneous dead center at
ol hiijli-|Mi\\rnd lanii-in- In |inijeci exdcaiive iina;;e- mi which iiia>-- ad\erti-iiig aims — seems once again :•
[inlilic liinldini:-.. |iid\iikiiii; hi- laiL;el\ nmi-ari audience- a-cendance. Mmenx er. the codl. language-based m' n
into a lii'-li cue iiei w iih the |i.i|iiiial .mil -iicial Imce- (hat in tin- art wmld peaked in aiipropriation and r .ii\
linger liihind ilie-c -triictiire-. .In-i da\- helme llie P'oo ail i-ts -ecMii lo i)e returning to immediati'. liodiK i lence
pre-ideniial eleciimi. lur e.vamplc. W odic/ko projecieil an that leel- 'real "
again. The raw . v\itlieriiigK ilii iilinisin
mniiimi-pairorhand-on the llir-hhmii \lii-eiim on the M.ill ni Sue W illiani- lig. 1-t.4l . Im- example, ac cs its edge
466
' t\Y •MASTS J>
'fr:t-
Vh-J
^ ^ "51'
14.41 Sue Williams, La S/sfine, 992. 1 Acrylic on canvas,
5ft8in A4ftl0m(1.72 1.47m). '^ ^^^

Privole collection. Photograph courtesy 303 Gollery. New York.
IVaiikiif" aliiiiit tli.- Iioilv. Tlii- m;ii.ni-al [.re-eiice in

Iioni ii-
tlie-rulpnin- of Relief Mom ti-. \-{Al ami the iliM-oiiceii-
iiiii expres.-ionisiii of rhi- -ci of Innnaii liariii->~i-- in Mar\

'\r.i\nny'~lh,rn>ri,flhini,in \(;;l fiii. \-\A'-V Imili r.-lx on a
ImkK ,-iii|Kitli\ . Tlif (li-roncfinn- olij.-illi\ Rona Ptimlick
14.-H tiraw on ]inmal -i-n-alioii- llial f\i-l in llir
fil,'.
,-e,.esê- of iln- |i-\rlif. wliilf Kiki -milli fii:. H.4-) ami

.Andres Serrano ii-e more om-iiK i
v,-,i-ni/alil.- liodiU lin-
ages, proresses. aiul tluitU iliai make ilie \ie\\er nnalile lo
ili-.laii.-eliiin-elforliei-.flf from ilie nncomforlalile |.li\M.al .
realiu i>f wliai lliey are.

fliei-onceni willi normal ilioiii:li iiol onlmanK piililii'
liodilv function- n-ml- m l>e ^'ivai.-i- in iiirn-m iieifoiinam-e
art a- well. In a lv]M.al Karen finlev |

MTJoinianee. for
examjile. llie arli-l i- a|il lo renioxe her eloilie- and do

-omethiiiilllial eonfroin- die ii-iiall\ -mall aiidienci' w iili lier
muiilx ill an niieoiiiforlalile \va\ w liile \ erl.alK addiv—ini: il
wilh -lartlini: direeine- on -ulije.l- noi u-nalK di-cn-etl in
piililii . Tliee.xpliciiK -e.Mial ami ])olitical conienl of f iiile\ -
perforiiiaiues made her a larget forreiis()i>hip 1>\ rii:ln-\\ iiif:
exlremisi- in the U.S. Congress in the eighiie-. \ehenient

Misorship battles were fought in the eoiirts and pre-ifleni-
Reagan and Bii.-li even attempted to ili-maiille die Xalional 14.42 Renee Stout, Fetish No. 2, 1988. Mixed media (plaster body
Fndowineiil- on the -Vrts and Humanilie- a- a w a\ o| cost), 5ft 4in (1.62m) high.
Museum of Art. Metropolitan UfeFoundot.onPurchoseGronl, 1989.27.
Wilinin- the approval of the religion- ri^rl,,. Fh,. mo-,
Collact,o.,Dollos
467
Appropriation
14.43 (above) Mary Traynor, Honor of Human Need, 1
Metal and rubber, 14 ^ 80 88in (35.6 ;^ 203.2 - 223.5cm

Pnvote collection Photograph courtesy Hei ion Tesl-Site, Brooklyn, New York
14.44 (top, right) Rona Pondick, detail of L/ftle Safhers, 1990-1

Wax, plastic and rubber teeth, 31? x 3 4in (8.9 7.6 70.2cm) each
>: -
(500 pieces), dimensions variable.

Collection, More ond Livio Strous. Photograph by Jennifer Kotter, courtesy Jose Frene Fine
Art, New York,
14.45 (right) Kiki Smith, The Sitter, 1992. Wax, pigment, papie
mache,28x36-24in(71.1 91.4 . 61cm
Collection, Emily Fisher Landau, New York, Photograph courtesy Fowbush Gollery, New York
468
14.46 John Newman, Tourniquet (Bone of Contention), 1991-2, 14.47 Roxy Paine, Quiver, 1991. Wine bottles, springs, motor.
Gauze, steel cable, steel plate, and epoxy, 87 50 9in 1 steel, 96 ^ 7 x 23in (243.8 x 1 7.8 x 58.4cm).
(221 >^ 127 X 48.3cm). Collection, Ihe artist. Photograph by John Lamke.
Collection of Ihe artist, Photogroph by Pelko/Noble
\ i-lii-iiiriii lull Ic^ ii-iilri i-(l nil 1 iiilr\ , \iii lic» .'^ci I aim w lin icri in lini: |
ila\ nl a w luiiaii liiamlU i cai IIiil: W all \\ I in man >
jii\la|in--r(l lii^ iiw II lindiK lliiid- w nil -.\ iniiiiU 111 lii^ iclii:iniiN |
n i^r
i
|
n iriii> >( mi; i il \l\ ^rll ami BimI\ lire ii ic,
ilf\ iiliiiii. a- ill lii~ riMhiiinii- /'iss ( linsl . ami mi ilic I .\ i-ii ~(iinr ni i In- ail i~l^ w In i>i-
|
iiiiiiai\ imik ri ii ~i-i-iii^ d i
liiiiiiiiiTiiiic 11 II 1 1 fill ill llii- w 111 k- i>l Da \ 1(1 W ii|iiaiii\\ 11/ and lia\ c ii mrr m iln Willi ilii' laiii:iia:;r i>l new irclinnli i^s iiiakr
ijii- |iliolMi;ra|iliciH(iliiTI \la|i|ilflliui|M-, ii-r nl ilii^ -.(iiî- III Ih)(I\ iili'iinrii aliuii and |iir-riirr, Ihe
\nii llaniillMii inaki'~ liii:lil\ |
n-lî uial in^lallal n m-- llial \f\\ \i>v\< ^ciiliilnr jiiiiii Nrwinan, Ini r\aiii|ilr. llnfi-
lirint; limni- li-inini-l i-~ni-~ mi an i-xlirnirK |ili\~i(al and dinii-n-HMiali/i-- ui'i'iiu-rrir -iliniiaia iiim almn'-l laiinnn-
liiT'imal lr\rl. in \l<(liiliili(iii iii;. 1"),1 , li ir i\ain| ilr, ^lir like iiriiaiii^m- i-i>iiif In lilr. I li> ciliji-ci^ -.rem di^ninciTi iiii;l\
liilllilirliird llir i:i'iidci--nTi-(ii\ |M'(I ifdiiim and mrlancliiiK iral and mural al llir ânir iinir. a> iii ^n| ilnî icalrd
lit iliimr-lic wnik. I lir \ irw rr' ~li'|i|ird calf liilK lln iim:li a riini|>mri nnai:iliL: liii, I -t -td , lliiiii::li lii^ w i iik iir\ riilirlrs>
irallrrv ^trrwn willi ^lill rai;-, wriiiii: linni wa-liini: and i r|ir> i m a kind ul nnmriliai'x and |
ili\ îral rm|iaili\ lor if^
ocrasioiialK wine >iaiiirii. inin a riKun in wliicli lun- â\\ rllri l. In a iiimihi i/nl i iiii--ii nriimi i allril ('///re; Ii;:,l4.4~
Hailiillori sinilljrar a i'lrci(ir\ lalilr Înw l\ ami inriliiM|i( all\ li\ ilir HniokK n ai li~l linw I'aiiir, uiir ran Irrl iln- lidiilr-
takini: wads ol'l tread iliMii;ii I nun a Jarre Ihiw I, |ii r^în" llinii |ri k w lirn ilir innri -iiap^ nn and die nld iiihImi -liakr- ilir
iiilo llle U|i|)er |ialalr nl Ih-r inniidi. and ilirii |iiiiiinr dirm |ii nai inii^ r|a^^ i uliimn. I Irrr inn ilir arli^l ^rnn^ in lir
line liv one iiilii a w irkeiia-kri. >lir larrd a w all III lii'd Iiiirn~ making a I ind\ aiialn;^\ in lerm-- nl If ii-.rd inacliinr |iait-- ami
|>iled iiirji and ea-eadini: ilowii, while lirhiml ilir wall a di^rai di-d w inr I ml l le>.
469
Appropriation
14.48 (above) Jimmie Durham, Crazy lor Life, performance,

1990. Dance Theater Workshop, New York City.
Courtesy Nicole Klogsbrun Gallery, New York,
14.49 David Mammons, Higher Goals, 1 982. Poles, basketball

hoops, and bottle caps, 40ft (12.19m) high, shown mstalled in
Brooklyn, New York, 1986.
Photograph by Dowoud Bey.
Reclaiming Culture from the Media

an ariirlr mi ilii- .\aii\i- Viiinicaii arii^l .liinmii' lOiiiliain
III
li-. l-f.-f;; . HiclianI .-^liifl Inuk U|. tin- i~-llr nf lltiW
iiiaiii-l I i-ain riilliirc colonize- llir anh iininn m- im li\ iiliialitv
111 1 1 II- \aii\i- \menraii artisi w iili -iinnu |ir-. in w hiili ilir
ani-i i- riiiii|ii-lli'il to rf>])oiiil."' I Inwi'x i-r. ilir |iarailii:iii til>
II- all ill lili- lair iwrltlii-rll irllllllA a- cnllnir lircullli-- llliirr
ami iiiiiii' |iiT\a-i\rl\ In iiiiiiiii-iii/i-il. In ri--|ii iii-r. inaii\
aili-l- 111 ihi' niiii'lif- ilirnl lliriii-rl\ r- iml miK In tlif
iiiiiiii'iliacx 111 liiiiK •\|ii-rii-iiri' iml m riiinniiiniu -lia-nl

riilnii r.
1 III- in-lallaniin- and nliji-rili\ Hax nl I lainiiH m- 11;;.
l-f.-f'' . an Mriian- \iiii-riraii aili-l wlm li\i-cl in I larli-in.
Mill In-— I In- I II -r -I in I ill iln- -iri-n in I In- ri iinniiinilx .

470

471
Appropriation
'/'//('
nr/ iiiiiliciiri' is l/ic worst audience in the trorhl. Il 's
14.50 (opposite) Kit Blake, Title on Newspaper, 1987. Quartz
heating elements, steel, wood, newspaper, and oxygen, 36 ^ 7 ^ 3in
(iicrl\ rtliicdicd. it's ronsrrriilire. it's out to criticize iinl la
(91 .4 X 1 7.8 - 7.6cm). Photograph of the piece m flames, 1 992, by iini/ersliind and il U hysltniild I spend my
nerer/nis (tnrfiin.
Seth Rubin. luiie pliiyinij II, phiy with the street
ilmi (uidience'. . . I'll
iinihence. Thdl lUiiUence is much more hiniiiin. <uid iheir

oj in I II II I IS I nun I lie lieiirl. Thev (Ion t Innr iin\ en si in hi i
jilin ijiniies.''
Siriii' lii-- :ini\al in \i-\\ ^(llk in llir iniil sc'\ ciil ii-- liuiii
]4.51 Ebon Fisher, Socio/ Program for Humons. Linkage with S|ii iiii^lirlil, llliiiiiis \ ia 1,(1, Aiii^clr^ . lie lia- iiiailr iii^lalhi-
Distressed Human, initiated in Brooklyn, 1 992. Photographic print of
lioii^ ami iilijiTl, llial ileal iliirrlK Willi llir Miiraii-
computer-generated image, a behavioral inducement, to be
disseminated via fax, modem, computer disk, hordcopy, slide \niriiiaii r\|iiTirnc r, Mr iiiaLr, lii^ wnrk^ Iniiii Imiiiil
proiection, or video display. iiialriiaU Niich as hair i;allifiril IV ilir 11 dl Mark

liailirr --liii|is. Iinlllc raps anil wine liiilllrs loiinil mm llir
sliri'i. i;i'i-a--\ liails and liaiiii-i nr Ikiih-s a^ unc iiisiallal mn

was lallril , III III aniilliri wmk iliscaiili-il liiril rliickrii
|iails, I lis wiiik is a liiiiiiaiir Hi the Mack r(iniinunil\ and al
llir sainr iinir a dnrii i 'ra|>|ii'(>|)T'ialiiin nl llir mraiis nl
|i|imIiii lilt; (iilinir. I liric ^ iiotliJTli; iirL;ali\r alxnil our

iiiiat:rs. II all i lr|iriids n|Hiii who s seel Hi; il . \nd w r \ i- lirrn
ilr|irnilinL; mi sdinriinr risr s sigllt . . . wc ni'ril ni Iim ik auaiii

anddrrMlr." I ir has said.""
Kn Blakr s Tiilc III! \eirs/i(i/)er [fiii. l4.o() crcalo a
w ai III iirun Liliiw iiiidri ihr real estate section nl llir \eir ) ink
1 1 nil's ami dim ilir |ia|irr hursts into flames. 1 wo I'lirrrs. he
sa\s, air liaiisldniiiiiL: allriiiali\ r aits roniniiinilirs siirli as
dir iinr he inhaliils in \\ illianishini;. BruiikKii. '( )iir. ical

rsialr dr\ (l(i|iiiiriil. is a li iia I rci ii K ii ilic tactoi'." Tile ( idler' "is
a wiiildwidr |ilirmiiiirmiii ol Irchmilogiral inno\aliiin rii-
L:rndriiiiL; surial rliange. "

Blakr makes sciil|iliiir mil nl
|iarls liiiiii heairis and ropiei's and e.\|ierimenis widi lasers
and leii-es and die t;lili'lies dial |iriiil mil nl lax niarhines.
Ilis wmk MiMiUrs die inieilaee III media. leehniiliiLiX . and
industry witii llie hnniaii eiiviinnmenl of indi\ iduals. El)on
Fislier. anotiier aiiisi JKim W iilanislnng. is direeil\ infln-
eiieed h\ e\hei|iiiiik liiiion. sucli as William Gibson's 1984
mi\el \i-iiiiiiiiiniier. in whicli liumaus fuse with computers.
I ishei w riles I iiipian "si leial piogranis "
[fig. 14.51 which
he iiisiiiKis his \ieweis In aiisorb into memoiy as leiii-
plales Inr a new sncial nrder. Through commiiniu diased

cnhnial enleiprises and cnnsumei' technolog\ he aspiies In
reclaim die prndiiclimi nl ciillnie Irmii die mass maikiieis

and return il in each nl lis. mie |ieismi al a lime.
Mure than a llicuiâiid \i'ar~ -.tiin a ( liim-î' ciiiic named ( lianir
^<ll-\iiall lami'iili'd dial '

riiiiti-iii|iiiiar\ |iainliiii.''- ari' iliaolir
and niranini;lr--s, '
In ilir \car iil Kaiidiii-.k\ • lir-l ali-irail
|iaiiilinii- and llir nin-i lAiMTinn'iiial niunii-nl (il l'iia-~ii'-.
rnhi-ni. a Mnnicli crilic lunnt;!!! oul a Kook railed I'lic I )riilli of

I// III w liieli lie ei>iii|)lainec| ihni ail i- d\ iiiu ul die ma --e- and
III inaleriali'in . . . Inr die lirî lime «> lia\e enim-d a |ieri(id
willinnl diiceiiiin. wiilhuii an arli-ne -u le. will I a mpiiii;;

i'e\ iiliiliunaix i;ineralii 111.
I he ino-i iiii|Miriaiil eiiiiieiii|inrai\ ail lia^ |

ieiiia|i' alw a\ -
Ill-en dilliriill in reiiii:ni/e and iiiider-.iaiid. Il iei|iiire-. hard

uulL lliilli die êrioil~ \ie\\er. Il lialile-- |ieii|p|e. iiiake^ llieiii
mil iimluiiahle and aiit;r\ . il ••eem> |)eiiieliiall\ delealed li\ die
15
ii\ei\\ helming ills of e\»'n liistorieal ejxxli. and ii i--ii i e\eii
|iiililieall\ eiirreet. Bill il due- iilTer a niiii|ne kind nl liiilli.
emliiiiK iiit;aii iiiili\ iiliial - -iiiiL:i:le iiiiiime 111 lerm- w nil hiur
her inner iliiiiii:lil- and ideniiix in relalinn In die eiiii-lanlK
rliaiit;iii<: larl- nl e\i-li-iiee in die wnild.
II we eail imaijine niii-eKe- iiiln die e\| leiieiiee nl ihe
TO SAY THE THINGS aili-l. -n-|ieiid niir |iniiii nl
a— nine die aili-l - Iraiiie nl

\ iew Im die im
mind, we can iinder-land and
uneiii and alleiii|il In
leel
dial inilli and we ran u-e in iiiider-laiid niir-eKe- and mir
OWN
ii
THAT ARE ONE'S wnild. I.nnk al aii\ iii-|iiied jiaiiinii^.

mill a lejinrier Inr Tuih' iiiaLia/ine. "Ii - like a
I'liilip (iii>Inii
i:nii;; soimdiiif;:
once
it
j)iit>yi)ii ilia -late of reverheratiiin.

For all sincere artists, their an i> an e\nKini: [per-|peeii\e
on eMMiTs. and it i- wlm tlie\ are. i realized lliat 1 had lliinus in
iii\ head what had lieeii

lint like I taiidit. Georsia O'Keeffe
widte to her hiend \iiiia I'nilitzei. 'not like what 1 had seen —
shapes and idea- -n lamiliar in me dial it hadn't oerniTed to me
to put them dnwii. I deeided In -in|i ])aimiii;;. In pill awav
evefxthiiig 1 had ilmie. and In -larl In -a\ die diiiiL;- ilial wi'ic
*
iininvn.
In die -exenlie- and einhiie- iiianv rrilie- tell dial die
a\aiil-<iarde had reached the end ol the road heeaiise the
protest of the liistoiiral anint-o:(inh againsi art as an institu-
tion is aceejited as art '
now. eradiratiiii: it- jiosnire of
opjiosition anrl definiim il out of e.\i>leiiee. ( )ilier- have w oiried

that the power of coiiiorate iiiltiire has hiialK silenced di.s.M'iil.
But as Kieiid pointed out in ( iriliztilion and its Discontents." a

pennanent tension e\i-t- lietêeii the iiidi\idiial and society
and the alienation dial llii- len-inii engeii<lers per])eliiates an
a\anl-<rarde a- die e\pre--iiiii nl an eiidnrinii human need. \ri
conlrilmle- in die ideal- and mndrj- nl diiiikiiiL: almin

important is-ne- in a cult me. \\ e need in Innk lieNund niarkel
inniieiires and hevond intelleciiial fashions io see this -piriiiial
dimension hecaiise arii-t- enter their idea.- iiilo the world, nut
iiisi iiiin linnk- aiiil art lii-inn cla— es.
473
To Say the Things That Are One's Own
15.1 Ann Hamilton, Malediction. Gesture of filling, emptying the

mouth with raw bread dough, filling the wicker casket with the molds
of the mouth, performance and installation. Louver Gallery, New York,
December 7, 1 991 -January 4, 1 992.
Photograph by D. James Dee, New York, courtesy Sean Kelly, New York.
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NOTES
4. See by Jacinto Quirorte, "The Cootlicue in
articles m Progress," The Notion (June 10, 1944);
Exhibition Art
Chapter 1 Modern Mexican Pointing, " Research Center for the Arts reprinted Clement Greenberg, The Collected Essays
in
Review 9821 and Belly Ann Brown, The Past

5 (April 1 ond 1 Perceptions ond Judgements, 939-
Criticism, vol, ; 1
1 William Wor dsworlh, preface to Lyrical Ballads. 802, 1 in Idealized: Diego Rivera's Use of Pre-Columbian 1944 (Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 1986), 213.
Slephan Gill, ed., W,IUam Words^voffh, The Oxford Imagery," Diego (!ivero A Retrospective, 1986. 29. Robert Motherwell, m conversation with Jonathan
Aulfiors Edition (Oxford ond New York; Oxford University 5. Ernest Hemingwoy, A Farewell to Arms (New York; Fineberg, Jonuary 0, 1976, Greenwich, Conn.
1
Press, 19841,606, Charles Scribner's Sons, 19571, 30, 233. 30. Mark Tobey, in Dorothy C. Miller, ed.. Fourteen
2. Willem de Kooning, "ConlenI is Glimpse, excerpts from "
6 Williom Carlos Williams, "XXI The Red Wheelbarrow," in Americans (New York; The Museum of Modern Art, 1946),
on interview with Dovid Sylvester broadcast on the BBC, "Spring ond All," The Collected Eorlier Poems of Williom 70; cited in Williom C, Seitz, Mark Tobey, The Museum of
December 3. 960; published as o 1 transcript m location, Carlos Williams (New York; New Directions Publishing, Modern Art (Garden City, N,Y,; Doubleday, 962), 9, 1
vol. I, no, 1 (spring 1 9631; reprinted in Thomas B. Hess, 1966), 277.

Witlem de Kooning, exhibition catalog. The Museum of 7. George Biddle, letter to President Franklin Roosevelt, May
Modern Art (Greenwich, Conn.: New York Graphic 9, 1933; reprinted in Williom F McDonald, Federal Relief Chapter 3
Society, 1 968), 50, Cezanne olso used this term, see for
\ Administration and the Arts (Columbus, Ohio; Ohio State
example John Rewold, Pos(-/mpressiorosm, The Museum University, 1969); cited in Dore Ashlon, The New York I Ale.onder Colder, Colder an Autobiography with
of Modern Art (Boston: New York Graphic Society, 978), 1 School (New York Viking, ;
1 973), 46. Pictures (New York; Pantheon Books, 1966), 196.
454; quoted from Octave Mirbeau in Mirbeou et ol., 8. Thomas Hess, Sorneff Newmon (New York; Walker &
B. 2. Ibid., 54-5.
Cezonne (Pans: unpaginoled, 1914), 9. See also Richard Co., 1969); cited in Ashlon, The New York School, 44. 3. Thomas Wolfe, You Can't Go Home Again, book 1
Shiff, Cezonne and the End of Impressionism (Chicago: 9. Lee Krosner recalled seeing the collection there in an (GordenCity, NY; Doubleday, 1942), 273-82.
University of Chicogo Press, 984], in which the author 1 interview with Goil Levin. See Goil Levin, Miro, Kondmsky, 4. Colder, Colder an Autobiography with Pictures. 1 1 3,
discusses the meaning ond context of this phrase at ond the Genesis of Abstroct Expressionism The Formative 5. Ibid, 130,
consideroble length. Years, exhibition catalog (llhaco; The Herbert F, Johnson 6. Colder, "Wôl Absliocl Art Meons to Me," Bul/etmofThe
3. See Alfred North Whiteheod, Adventures ol Ideas (New Museum of Art, Cornell University; ond New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1 951 cited in Jeon Lipman, ;
York: The New Americon Librory, A Mentor Book, 1955), Whitney Museum of American Art, 978), 27. 1 Colder 's Universe, exhibition catalog (New York: Whitney
247, 1 0.Joseph Cornell, letter to Alfred Borr, November 3, 936, 1 1 Museum American Art, 976),
of 1 1
4. Gustave Courbet, ie Precvrseut d'Anvers. Antwerp, Archives of The Museum of Modern Art; cited in Down 7. Nicholas Guppy, "Alexander Colder, " Atlantic Monthly
August 22, 861 cited m Gerstle Mock, Gustove Courbet
1 ; Ades, "The Transcendenlol Surrealism of Joseph (December 1964); cited in Albert Elsen, "Colder on
(New York; Alfred A. Knopf, 1951 1, 89, Cornell," Kynaston McShine, ed., Joseph Cornell. Bolonce," Alexander Colder A Retrospective Exhibition,
5. Gustove Floubert, Style as Absolute," 1 852, cited in exhibition cotolog (New York: The Museum of Modern Museum of Contemporory Art (Chicago Museum of
Richard Ellmonn ond Charles Feidelson, Jr„ eds„ The Art, 1980), 19. Contemporary Art, 974), 6-1 7, n, 28. 1 1
Modern Tradition (New York; Oxford University Press, 1 1 Robert M. Cootes, "The Art Galleries," New Yorker 22, 8. Albert Elsen, "Colder on Bolonce," 8.
19651,126. no.7(March30,1946):83. 9. Lipman, Colder 's Universe, 262.

6. Clive Bell, "The Aesthetic Hypothesis," 1914, reprinted in 12. Crone Bnnlon, "Romanticism," in Paul Edwords, ed The , 10 Ibid, 172.
Francis Froscino and Chorles Harrison, eds.. Modern Art Encyclopedio of Philosophy, vol. 7 (New York Mocmillon :
I I Camilla Groy, The Great Experiment Russian Art 1863-
and Modernism A Critical Anthology (New York: Horper and Free Press, 1967), 206. See olso Nino Athonossoglou- 1922 (New York: Horry N. Abroms, 1962), 147
& Row, 1982), 69. Kollmyei, "Romanticism: Breoking the Canon," The Art 12. Lipmon, Colder 's Universe, 32.
7. Clement Greenberg, Avont-Gorde and Kitsch," 1939, Journal (summer 1993); 18. 13. Lipmon, Colder 's Universe, 15.
reprinted m Art ond Culture (Boston: Beacon Press. 1 961 ), 13. Harold Rosenberg, in conversation with Jonothon 14. Elsen, "Colder on Bolonce," 5,
5-6. See also Clement Greenberg, "Modernist Painting," Fineberg in 1977-8. 1 5. Lipmon, Colder's Universe, 222.
Arls Yeorbook4(1961): 109-16. 14. Horold Rosenberg, "The Herd of Independent Minds," 1 6. Katherine Kuh, The Artist's Voice; Talks with Seventeen
8. See Peter Burger, Theory of the Avant-Carde. trans. Commentary, 1948, in Discovenng the Present (Chicago Artists(New York and Evonston, III,: Harper & Row, 1962),
Michoel Shaw, Theory of Literature, vol.4 (Minneapolis: University of Chicogo Pi ess, 1 973), 9, 1 42
University of Minnesota Press. 1984); Jurgen Hobermos. 15, Harold Rosenberg, "The Americon Action Painters," 1 7 Sluon Dovis, letter to Henry McBride, reprinted in
"Modernity-An Incomplete Pro|ect,' in Hoi Foster, ed.. Artnews (1 952); in Trodifion of the New (New York; Creotive Art 6 (February 1930): supplement, 34-5; Stuart
The Anti-Aesthetic Essays on Postmodern Culture (Port Horizon Press, 1959). Dovis, cited in James Johnson Sweeney, Stuort Davis (New
Townsend, Wosh Boy Press, 1983); and Renoto Poggioli, 16. Jeon-Poul Sartre, Action (December 29, 1944). "En un York. The Museum of Modern Art, 1945), 23; cited in
The Theory ol the Avonf-Gorde, trans. Gerold Fitzgerold mot, I'homme doit creer so propre essence; c'est en se Diane Kelder, "Stuort Davis and Modernism: An
(Cambridge, Moss. Horvord University Press, 1968). letont dons Ie monde, en y souffront, en y luttont, qu'il se Overview, " in Lowei y Stokes Sims, Stuart Dovis Americon
9. Harold Rosenberg, The Tradition of the New (New York: definit peu d peu ..." Pointer (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art and
Horizon Press, 1959). 17. Soren Kierkegoard, "Two Notes About 'The Individuol,' Horry N Abroms, 1991 ), 26
10. Hal Foster, "The Crux of Mimmolism," in Howord in The Point of View Etc Irons Wolter Lowrie (London and
,
1 8 Hans Hofmonn, "The Search for the Reol in the Visuol
Singerman, ed.. Individuals A Selected History of New York; Oxford University Press, 1939), 130-1. Arts," Search for the Reol and Other Essoys, ed Saroh T.
Contemporory Art 1945-1986, exhibition catalog. 18. Fnedrich Nietzsche, "Schopenhauer OS Educator," 1874, Weeks and Bortlett H, Hayes (Combndge. Mass.: MIT
Museum Contemporary Art [Los Angeles: Museum of
of in Fnedrich Nietzsche, Untimely Meditolions, trons, R. J. Press, 1967), 40
Contemporary Art; New York Abbeville, 9861, 76. : 1 1 Hollingdole (Combndge and New York: Cambridge 19. Ibid., 64
1 1 For example, see Boudnllard, "Simulocro ond UniversilyPress, 1983), 129. 20. Maurice Denis, "The Definition of Neo-Troditionism,"
Simulations," trans. Paul Foss, Paul Patton, ond Philip 1 9.See Martin Heidegger, Being ond Time, trons. John Pons (August 23 and 30, 890) in Herschel
Art ef critique. 1 ;
Beitchmon, in Mark Poster, ed„ Jean Soudrillord Selected Mocquorne and Edward Robinson (New York: Horper & B. Chipp, Theories of Modem Ail (Berkeley; University of
Writings (Stanford; Stanford University Press, 1988). 166- Row, 1962) Colifornio Press, 1968), 94.
84. 20. Harold Rosenberg, "Introduction to Six Americon 21 Hofmonn, Seorch for the Reol, 43.
12. Claude Levi-Slrouss, TheSovoge Mind (London: Artists," Possibilities (New York: Wittenborn Schultz, 22 Clement Greenberg, Notion 60 (April 21 1 , 1 945) 469;
;
Weidenfeld&Nicolson, 1966), 16-36. 1947), 75. cited in Cynthia Goodmon, Hans Holmonn (New York:
13. Charles Boudelaire, "The Salon of 1859," in Art in Paris, 21 Robert Motherwell, "Symposium: What Abstract An Abbeville, 19861,9.
1845-1862 Solons ond other fxhibitions. Irons, and ed. Means to Me," Bulletin ol The Museum of Modern Art 1 8, 23 Cited in Cynthia Goodman, Hans Hofmonn, 49.
Jonothon Moyne (London and New York Phoidon, 1 965), :
no.3 (spring 1951): 12. 24 Kuh, The Artist's Voice, 124
156. 22 Cited in Ashlon, The New York School, 34 25 Hofmonn, Seorch for the Reol, 48,
14. Martin Heidegger, "The Origin of the Work of Art," 23. Robert Motherwell, in conversotion with Jonathan 26 Somuel M. Kootz, "Credibility of Color: Hans Hofmonn,"
1935-6 (revised 1950), in Poetry, Longuoge, Thought, Fineberg, Jonuory 5, 979, Greenwich, Conn.
1 1 ArtsMagazine 41 (February 1967); 38; cited in Goodman,
trons. Albert Hofstadter (New & Row, 1975),
York; Harper 24. Mark Rothko, introduction to the catalog of the Clyfford Hans Hofmonn, 9-10.
57. Still exhibition at the An of This Century Gallery, New 27 Hans Hofmonn, "The Color Problem Pure Pointing-Its in
1 5. To be persuasive you need force, from o Marxist point of York, February 12-March2, 1 946, unpoginaled; cited in Creative Origin, in Hans Hofmonn, exhibition catalog
"
view, 01 persuasion, occording to Mox Webei Irving Sondler, The Triumph of American Painting (New (New York: Kootz Gallery, 1955), unpoginaled, ciled in
16. See Gromsci's discussion of "hegemony" in Antonio York Praeger. 1970), 67. Goodman, Hons Hofmonn, 110-11.
Gromsci, The Prison Notebooks, with on mlioduclion by 25 Clyfford Still, from diory notes of Februory 1 1 , 1 956; 28 From "HonsHofmonnon Art," Art Journol 22 (spring
Joseph A. Buttigieg, ed (New York: Columbia University cited in Clyfford Slill. exhibition cotolog. Son Francisco 1963) 18, reprint of a speech delivered ot inauguration of
Museum of Art, (Son Froncisco; Son Francisco Museum of Hopkins Center, Dortmouth College, November 17, 1962,
Modern Art, 19761,122, cited in Goodmon, Hans Hofmonn, 111.
26 Letter of June 7, 1 943 by Mark Rothko ond Adolph 29 Horold Rosenberg, Arshi/e Gorky The Mon, the Time, the
Chapter 2 unacknowledged help of Bornett
Gottlieb (with the Ideo (New York: Horizon Press, 1962), 45; the personal
impressions below come chiefly from Rosenberg.
Newmon] in Edward Alden Jewell, "The Realm of Art A
Andie Bielon, Monifesle du surieolisme (Pans; Editions du
1 .
New Plolform and Other Matters: 'Globolism' Pops into 30. Ibid, 42.
Sofittaie, 924); cited in William S, Rubin, Dodo and

1 View," New York Times, June 13, 1 943, x9. Cited in Dione 31 See Nick Donle Voccoro, "Gorky's Debt to Goudier-
Surreolist Art (New York: Horry N Abroms, 1968), 121. Waldman,Mork Rothko, 1903-1970 A Retrospective Brzesko, " Art Journal 23 (foil 1 963) 33-4 :
2 Harold Rosenberg, in conversotion with Jonathan (New York: Horry N, Abroms, 1978), 39. 32 Ethel Schwobocher, Arshile Gorky, exhibition catalog,
Fineberginl976. 27. Elaine de Kooning, Fronz Kline Memorial Exhibition Whitney Museum of American Art (New York; Mocmillon,
3. Diego Rivero, My Art. My life, ed. Gladys March (New (Washington, D.C.; Washington Gallery of Modern An, 19571,62.
York: Citadel Press, 1960), 124; cited in Lindo Downes, 1962), 14; cited in Sandler, The Triumph of Americon 33 Stuort Dovis, "Arshile Gorky in the 930s, A Personol 1
"Introduction" in Diego Rivero; A Retrospective, Founders Pointing, 249, Recollection," Mogozine of Art44 (February 1951); in
Society, Detroit Institute of Arts (New York: W. W, Norton 28 Clement Greenberg, "A New Inslollotion ot the Dione Kelder, ed., Stuart Dovis (New York: Praeger,
and Company, 1986), 19. Metropolitan Museum of Art, and o Review of the 19711,178-9
482
Notes
three most importon.

Press, 1 984)
89.De Kooning ronked it os one of the
943- 984 (New York Hudson Hills shows for him. olong wi.h .he 1 927
Dudensing Gallery
group show ,n New
;
1 1
m Ihe calolog for Go-ky's .rs. to the illustration of retrospective ot The

62 Robert Molherwell, commen.ory
f
34 Noted show of Mo.isse and .he 939 Picosso 1
J* Po.nlers ond Sculptors Horvord Arneson,

York An E,h,bi(.on of Worts by Poncho Wllo, Deod ond Al.ve in H, Museum of Modern Art. Interview with the
ortis. by Solly
Age [New York^ The M"*/"'" °* York; Horry N. Abroms.
Under 35 Yeors of Robert Molher^vell, 2d ed, (New Yard on August 14.1 976; ci.ed in Yord, Willem de
Denn.son Tobok ,n her
Modern Art. 19301; c.led b, Liso "82), 105- ,,,-^
Arsh.le Gorky A ^ , .
o^î^
chronology for O.one Woldmon. Jonoôn F,neberg^« d«ussed_ê
speof. .y
,
by Solly Yord August 5,

co.olog. Guggenhe.n, Museun,
63- 90 jX'v?eJw,.h Elaine de Kooning
Refrospecffve. exh,b,t,on Kooning .he firsi, 181-
subieCmottei 979, Cl.ed in Yord, Wil/em de
- .- ' ,
, .,- -
.
" >,. Ih
, .
and Moternol
. 1
1
|NewYork;Horr>N.Abronns,I981),258. '
character."
, ,,- t , ,.
Willemde Kooning, 73.

,n Arsh./e 91 -Hess, ,.,.,„., ,„
35Accord,ngtoAI,ceBober, Gorky's Color, , joert Motherwell's April 24, 1981 ci.ed in
,
exh.b.hon cololog lAusl.n,

Love: PsycM _ ; ^
^•
9? In.er«iew wi.h Judith Wolfe on ;
Gorky Drow.ngs fo Po.nt.ngs, =- From 1951-1981,8

Wolfe Willemde Kooning Works
Art,- Artfori."- ';.-!'? i;-:- " '
of Texos ot Austin, Un.vers.ty Art Museum. corve-so..on with Jonothon excerpts

fex University 64 Robert Mo.he.well, .n ,s o Glimpse,
93- Willemde Kooning, "Con.en.
Joyner, The Drowrngs of 977, Greenwich, Conn,; see Sylves.er broodcos. on Ihe
1975) 74 She ctes Brooks Fineberg January 8, 1 from on in.erview wi.h David
lC°"ege Pork_Md^
Arshle Gorky, exh,b,.,oncotolog Fineberg, Deo.h ond Mo.ernol
Love, 55^
December 3, 960; published os a
BBC
.ronscnp. ,n
Deportmenl ond An Gollery, J.
1
IJn.vers.ly of Morylond An conversotion with E, A, Cormeon, m Hess,

65- Robert Mo.herwell, m no-l (spring 1963); reprin.ed
10; who .s quohng locotion, vol- 1,
1969|, Art o.Mid- Century
Mrllord Towes F.ne Ans August 17, 1977; cited m Americon
Center,
sl.ghtly r-'^leod.ng Willemde Kooning, 148-9,
Schwobocher, Arsh.le Gorky, but
.h,s .s (Woshington, D.C; Notionol Gollery with Artists (New York,
Subiects of .he Artist 94 Selden Rodmon, Conversohons
,n .ho. on poge 50,
Schwobocherso.d Gorky mode use of
of Art, 19781,98- Devin-Adoir, 1957), 102.
soys .hot Gorky hod Robert Mo.herwell:aconverso.ion ^ ^
wi.h Willem de Kooning,
.h,s Uccello ond elsewhere
- - .,
Boftle of Son
66 Robert Motherwell, 95 Harold Rosenberg, Interview
pho.ogrophs on ,he woll of Uccellos o. lunch,-An Exhibition of the Works of Robert Artnews (September 1972), 58;
reprin.ed m Rosenberg,
Ingres; .Ns not
Romono OS well OS o work or works by Mother%ve/l, Jonuory 10-28, 1963,
.0 occompony Ihe Firs.
Willem de Kooning, 48-9,
:- from her d.scuss.on ,f the M.rocle wos
on Gorky s Lec.ure, Jonuory 14,
..
Louise Linder Eos.mon Memonol 96- Horold Rosenbefg,
"In.erview wi.h Willem de Kooning,
unpogino.ed in Rosenberg,
1963 Nonhomp.on, Moss,, 1963, Artnews (Sep.ember 1972); reprin.ed
,e Woldmon. Arsh./e Gorky A RetrospeO.ve. 29-31 Mo.heiwell, m conversion wi.h
Jono.hon
67 Robert Willemde Kooning, 43,
Greenwich, Conn,; see poper reod in a
Fineberg, Jonuory 10, 1976, 97 Willem de Kooninq, in on unpublished
JnDov.s, Ar5h,leGorky,nthel930-sÂPersonol Jono.hon Fineberg, "Death and
Moterno Love 55 18, 1949 a. "Subiects
Sluort Dovis, 1 78-V
_
F^doy evening mee' ng on Februory
In Dione Kelder, ed„ commen.ory .0 .he illus.ro.ion of In School" ci.ed m Hess, Willem de
•
îlecl.on 68 Robert Motherwell, A New Art ;
nrny George, quoted In

Schwobocher, Arsh.le Gorky, Robert Motherwell, 180, of the Art's.;
.•
Plato's Cove m Arneson, Kooning, 15- ,«„=/>
69- Willemde Kooning,
"Content ,s o Glirnpse^ obslroc. expressionism as o
to Annews (Jonuor, 1949), ^""'''IL 98 Williom Sei.z asserted .ho.
39°Willem de Kooning, leHer Sylvester broodcost on the represen.o.ion ond
from on interview with David whole did no. distinguish between
Arshrle Gorky, 8. transcript in
cl.ed m Schwobocher, December 3, 1960; published OS o
BBC obs.roCion- See Williom C- Sei.z, Abstrocf Expressionist
The Man, 66, reprinted in Thomos B ° on the Work
40 Rosenberg, Arshile Gorky: Locotion, vol-l, no.l (spring 1963); Pom,°ng Amer.co An Introduction Bosed
C^Se.tz, Arshe Gorky, The
7. Juhen Levy, foreword to W,ll,om Modern An (Gorden Hess Willemde Kooning, exhibition co.olog ond Thought of Six Key Figures,
PhD. d.ss., Princeton
exh,b,..on co.olog. The Museum
of
Modern Art (Greenwich, Conn,;
New York
cited Museum of University, 1955,286-7,
7. As.m.lor remork .s
Cty NY.; Doubledoy, 1962),
GrophicSocie.y, 1968), 148. ISO Glimpse excerpts
Gorky ond wrote °b°"'^"' 99 Willemde Kooning, "Content
-Willem de Kooning
by most of those who knew 70 See for exomple. Edwin Denby, from on interview with Dovid
Sylvester broodcost on the
42 Ltenig Avedision. letter to
Mrs [Minno] Me.zger, Morch the Streets (New York^ .ronscnp. m
in Donee's, Buildings, and People in December 3, 1 960, published os o
BBC
of Americon Art ties,c.iea or the account by Elaine de
31 1949 Whitney Museum Horizon Press, 1965), 269-70,
Locotion, vol.1, no.l (spring 19631,
reprinted in Hess,
Impl.co.ion of Symbols
Horry Rono Arshile Gorky The Kooning in Hess, Willem de Kooning, 22,
Willemde Kooning, 149,
1981 74. .4.
rM;:.cloir N.J. Allenheld &
Schrom. ).
24.
71 Hess, W.llem de Kooning, 100 Hess Willemde Kooning,
25-
43, Arshile Gorky, ,n
Schwobocher. Arsh.le Gorky, 66. de Koon.ng, interviewed by Courtney S°le^ '^ o cited in Hess, W.llem de
Koon.ng,
72, W.llem 101 Horold Rosenberg,
Spring Arshile Gorky Kooning on de Kooning, New
:
44. Andre Brelon, The Eye film by Charlotte Zwerin, de

exhibi.ion o. .he Juhen 74-
inlroduCion to .he Arshile Gorky W.llem de Koon.ng, 74,
Tr.umph of 02- Hess,
,n Irving Sondler. The Willem de Kooning,
- 1
Levy Gollery 1945; ci.ed 73'Horold'Rosenberg, Interview with 103-Rodman, Conversol.ons w.th Art.sfs,
104,
Woshington; Proeger,
Amer.con Pointing (New York ond Artnews (Sep.ember 1972), reprin.ed
in Horold
104 Hess W.llem de Koon.ng,
77-8-
Rosenberg, Willem de Kooning
(New York; Horry N. is o Glimpse,
excerpts
Gorky, 1)8. 105 W.llem de Koon.ng, "Content
See Schwobocher, Arshile Sylves.er broodcos. on .he
45- he from on interview with Dovid
Vortoosh, April 22, 944, ,n Koon.ng Works Frorr. I95I-
I
46 Arshile Gorky, leHer .o os o .ranscnpt in

74 JudiTh Wolfe.'willemde BBC December 3, 1960; published
Letters of Arshile Gorky,- ed. ond trons Korlen Guild Hall Museum (Eos, reprin.ed in Hess,
Gorky, Arorot, 1981, exhibi.ion co.olog. Location, vol1 (spring 1963);
I, no,
"
A Soeciol on Arshile
KA^„,„A.r,r, in
Moorodion ,n m Issue
oper-iu' '^^"'^
^„„ and
nnA Hampton, NY; Guild Hall Museum, 1981), 7^ Koon.ng,
vol 1 2 INew York, foil
971 ); 32, cited in Jim Jordon with W.llem de
Horold Rosenberg, "Interview 10rw;emd';K:o"n^n"lterviewwi,hJudi.hWolfeApr,,
1
Arshile Gorky^ A 75,

reprin.ed in Rosenberg, Works from
Robert Goldwoler, The Poin.mgsof Artnews (Sep.ember 1972), 14, 1981 Wolfe, Willem de Kooning
Cl.ed in
(New York. New York University Press, ;
Oîcol Cotologue Willemde Kooning, 51. 195I-I9'8),14,

in Hess, W.llem de
Kooning,
76. Willem de Kooning, ci.ed in.erviewed by Cour.ney Sale, in o
Rond, Gorky 107 Willem de Kooning,
47' Th?s ic^nogmphy hos been discussed in
film by Chorlotte Zwerin, de
Kooning on de Kooning, .New
Impl.colion of Symbols, 183-4^ Abs.roct Art Means to Me,
77 Willem de Kooning, "Who. VnrL IQflO
According .0 Julien Levy, Arshile
Gorky (New York, Modern Art 18, no.3 (sprmg
48, Bulletin of The Museum of
ReprintedinHess,Wi/lemde Kooning, 145.
1951) 7
26, 1939, in "Toword Rosenberg, m ô^'S'ôhon w^h
49'rrthile''Gorky. leHer of September
Philosophy of Art- (selected from
o
leHers ond trons.
78, Recounted by Horold
Jonathan Fineberg, 1 976, Rosenberg
olso refers .0 .he Chapter 4
Korlen Moorodion), Arshile Gorky Drowings to
Gorky, 68, Modern Art USA: Man.
episode in Rosenberg, Arshile
in
excerps 1 Willem de Kooning, in Rudi Blesh,
is a Glimpse (New York; Alfred A,
"The UH-s 79 Willemde Kooning, "Con.en. Rebellion Conquest. 1900-1956
17, 947^ in
SoTsWe Gorky, letter of Jonuory Korlen 1
Sylvester broodcost on the
Moomdion in A from on in.erview with David
of Arshile Gorky," ed, ond
Irons, as o tronscnpt ,n Pollock by
- Arorot, vol.
2 (New
BBC, December 3, 1 960. published
Hess, 2
'
L::Cner" An interview wi.h Lee Krosner
Soeciol Issue on Arshile Gorky, (spring 1963); reprinted in
Locof.on, voLI, no.l ^K F?iedmon^- ^kson Pollock B/ack ond White,
Rond "Arshile Gorky
Ymk, foil 1971 ); 39, cited in Horry 147.
Willemde Kooning, exhibition cotolog
Morlborough Gallery,
(New York:
Growings to Pointings, interview wi.h Thrjmas Hess.
Iconogrophy- ,n Arshile Gorky; 80 Solly Yard, personol
(Austin, Tex,;
LxhibL'cotolog, University of Texos December 1977, cited m Solly Yard, W.llem de Mode Visible (New York;
Universihr An Museum,
5,
New York (New York, 3 B H. Friedman, Energy
University of Texos ot Austin, Koon.ng the first nventy-six yeors
in
Hort
Gorlond,1985),210,n,121- ^^ _ ^ , 'jockson Pollock ond Thomos
Vortoosh from Homilton
,„ „
in a
,
4 ^^'."e^he^'pol'can,'
Gorky, letter .0 interviewed by Courtney Sole 120-4-
51, Arshile 81 W.llem de Kooning, Ben.on" Arts (Morch 1979),
Gorky, o film by ChorloHe on de Kooning, New Mogozme
,
Virginio August 1 943, in Arshile by Chorlotte Zwerin. de Kooning

film ^ i„hn n Grohom Primitive Art ond Picosso,
Sandler,
Zwerin, New York, 1982. 980-
'
1937); 237-8; ci.ed in Irving
York, 1
if Art30 nO-4°(Apr!l
82, (New York; Proeger.
52 Schwobocher. Arshile Gorky, 82- Hess, Willemde Kooning, 47- ,u Tr'umph of Amer.con Po.nt.ng
?he
the Nework AirportÂn Volliere, '"'erview wi.h
.
53 Arshile Gorky. 'My Murols for 83- Willem de Kooning in JomesT- 1970), 106-
ed„ Art Fo, The
"lnC:te.o.,on,--|n Froncis V. O'Connor, Willem de Kooning "de Kooning on
Pollock, Partisan
New York Grophic Society, Yord, W.llem de Kooning
Mi/lions (Greenwich, Conn,; Review (foil 1967) 604, ci.ed m ^7^;:kt:p;^roTrrd°ot-e:;tî.^
Courtney Sole in Hess, Willem de Koon.ng, sî:^^^:;°r,r^sr^'S=d^gene
54, Agnes Mogruder, interviewed by 84' Wm'em dl^ Kooning quo.ed in
Arshile Gorky, a film by Chorlotte

Zwerin, York, New or Cotologue Ro'ônne
V.ctorThaw, Jackson Pollock A
wi.h Willem de Kooning, Other Works, vol-4 ,New
1982. ^ Q 85^Harold Rosenberg, "Inlerview Po.n.inqs Drowings, and
Seilz, Arshile Gorky. 9.
, , I
55 Juhen Levy, foreword to Artnews (September 1972], reprin.ed

m Rosenberg, Press, 1978), 249-50-
this to Jonathan Fineberg ir Hoven Yole University Mogozrne
reported
56. Horold Rosenberg Willemde Kooning, 43- 8-Vohn"D-Gth'om, "PriLtive ArtondPicosso," The
o conversation in 1975. Willem de Kooning, -Con.en. ,s o Glirrtpse "«'P'^ 1937); 237-8; citea in Sandler,
86- of Art 30, no, 4 (April
57. Robert Motherwell, m conversation with Jono.hon from on in.erview wilh Dov.d
Sylves.er broodcos. on Ihe
Triumph ofAmericon Pointing,
106,
Greenwich, Conn^
Fineberg, Jonuory 1 0, 1976 m o transcript ,n The
Jonomon BBC December 3, 1960, published os 9 See Will.omS, Rubin,
"Pollock os Jungion lllustrotor;
58 Robert Motherwell, m conversohon
wi.h reprinted in Hess, Port I, Art in Amer.co
Locotion, vol-l, no,l (spnng 1963); LimitTof Psychological Criticism,"
Greeriwich.Conn,
Fineberg, Jonuory 10, 1976 in
(Novemberl979):104-23,Portll,ArtinAmerico
"Prehminory Notice, Kohnweiler, Willemde Kooning, 148. .„„
interviewed by Courtney Sole^ " a
cu ex.ensive Ireolmen. ot
59. Robert Molherwell, 87, W.llem de Koon.ng, December 1979); 72-91 The most
Aronson (New York
The Rise of Cubism, .rons. Henry film by Chorlotte Zwerin, de
Koomng on de Kooning, iNev, work is Elizobe.h Langttorne
Jungion themes in Pollock's
Winenborn&Schul.z,1949),vi,, York, 1980- ., ^^., Jungion Interpretation of Jackson Pollock s Art Through
co.olog of on exhibi.ion,
TheSchor .1 GImpse exce ps -
'a
60. Robert Molherwell, Willemde Kooning. "Con.en. ISO of Pe"nsylvonio, 197/,
H.lls, Jonuory 1951
88. 946, Ph,D- diss,. University
Sylves.er broodcos. on the
1
of York," Perls Gollery, Beverly

New from on in.erview wilh Dovid W, Jockson Rushing, "Ritual and
Myth; No.ive
10 See
m Sondler, The Triumph of Americon os o .ronscnp. in Expressionism, in
unpoginoted: cited BBC Decen^ber 3, 1 960; published American Cul.ure and Abs.rac.
°°„, _,.,ng 1963); reprinted in Hess.
ond Judi Freemon, eds-. The Spintuol In
Maurice Tuchmon
6l''see Step^h°on,e Terenzio and
Doro.hy C, Belknap, The •
Wille
Prints of Robert Motherwell
A Cotologue Roisonne
483
Notes
Art Absfroct Pointing 1890-1985. Los Angeles County 48. Ibid., preface, Painting in Americo An Introduction Based on the Work
Museum of Art (New York: Abbeville. 19861. 285f(. 49. Robert Motherwell, in conversation with Jonothon ond Thought of Six Key Figures, Ph.D. diss., Princeton
1 1 Jockson Pollock, interviewed in An and Architecture Fineberg, Jonuory 1 5, 1979, Greenwich, Conn, ond Ashton, About Rothko. Both
University, 1955, 274-5;
(February 1944); citedElizabeth frank, Jockson
in 50. Williom Rubin, "Mork Rolhko 1903-70," New York Times discuss Nietzsche as on importont influence on Rothko.
Po//ock, 1st edition (New York; Abbeville, 1983), 55. (March 8, 1970), 21-2. 78. Friedrich Nietzsche. The Birth of Tragedy, Irons. Francis
12. Jockson Rushing mokes this Assertion m Rushing, "Ritual 51 Ashton, About Rolhko, 51
. GolHing (Garden City. NY.: Doubledoy, Anchor Books
ondMyth,-285ff. 52. Mrs. John de Menil, Address made at the opening of the edition, 1956), 19,
1 3. See Stephen Polcon, Abslroci fxpressionism ond the Rothko Chapel in Houston, February 27, 1971, 79. Mork Rothko, in Dorothy Sieberling, "Mark Rolhko," Life
Modem ^xpeneryce (Cambridge ond New York; mimeogroph distributed at Ihe chopel. (November 16, 1959): 82; ciled m Chove, Mork Rolhko;
Combridge University Press, 1 991 ), 248. 53. See Stephen Polcon, "The Intellectual Roots of Abslroci Subiecfs in Abstroclion, 25.
1 4. Interview with Lee Krosner by Courtney Sole in o film Expressionism; Mork Rothko," Arts (September 1979): 80. Mark Rolhko. "The Romonlics Were Prompted," 84.
Jocfcson Pollock: Porlroft by Charlotte Zwerin, New York, 124, 81 David Smith. "Who is the artist? How does he act?"
1984. 54. See the discussion of Rolhko's relolion lo these events in Everyday Art Quorterly. Walker Art Center, no. 23 (1 952).
15. Friedmon. Jockson Po//ock. 65. Ashton, About Rothko. Ciled in Jone Horrison Cone. Dovid Smith, exhibition
16. Jackson Pollock, in Friedman, Jockson Po//ock. 76 1 55. John Fischer. "The Eosy Choir: Mork Rolhko: porlroit of cololog (Combridge, Moss.; Fogg Art Museum. 966), 99, 1
17. Christopher B. Crosmon and Nancy E. Miller. 'Speoking the ortisl as on angry mon," Horper's, vol.241 no. 1442 , 82. David Smith, "Who is the ortist? How does he act?"
of Tomlin,' interview withJomes Brooks ond Ibrom (July 1970): 17. Everyday Art Quorterly, Wolker Art Center, no, 23 (1952).
Lassow, Alt Journal 39/2 (winter 1 979/80]; 114. 56. Mark Rothko, "The Portrait ond Ihe Modern Artist," in Art Ciled in Cone. Dovid Smith, 99.
18. Ibid., 114. in New York, o progrom on WYNC, New York, copy of 83. Smith file, reel 2, frame 578, 950-4; in Archives of 1
19. Jackson Pollock, "Unframed Space,' New Yorker, broodcost, October 13, 1943, pp-1. 2. 3; cited in Mounce American Art, Smithsonian Instituhon, Washington, D,C.
Augusts, 1950, 16. Tuchmon, New York School The First Generofion Ciled in Cleve Groy. ed.. Dovid Smith by Dovid Smith
20. Wossily Kondinsky, "Text Artisto; Autobiogrophy by (Greenwich, Conn.: New York Graphic Society. 1971 ), (New York: Holt. Rinehort, & Winston. 1968), 130.
Wossity Kondinsky, * in In Memory of Wossily Kondinsky, 139. 84 Dovid Smith, o paper delivered in The New Sculpture, o
exhibition cotolog (New York; Museum of Non-Objective 57. Mark Rothko, in Sidney Jonis, Abstroctond Surrealist Art symposium held ol The Museum of Modern Art, New York,
Painting, 19451,59. in Americo (New York; Reynol & Hitchcock, 1944). 1 8, 1 Februory 21,1 952; cited in Gornen McCoy, ed., Dovid
21 Jackson Pollock,
. "My Pointing," Possibi/ilies ? ; An 58. Letter of June 7, 943 by Mork Rothko ond Adolph
1 Smith (New York Proeger, 1 973), 84. :
Occasional Review (winter 1 947/8), in the series Problems Gonlieb unocknowledged help of Bornett
(with the 85. Art in America, no. 1 (1966); cited in Groy, Dovid Smith by
of Contemporary Art, no. 4 (New York; Wittenborn, Newmon] in Edward Alden Jewell, "The Reolm of Art: A Dovid Smith,') 6.
Schultz, 1947):79. New Plorform ond Other Motlers; 'Globolism' Pops into 86, Robert Motherwell, in conversohon with Jonothon
22. Horold Rosenberg, "The Americon Action Painters," View, " New York Times (June 1 3, 1 943), x9. Cited in Dione Fineberg, Jonuory 1 5, 1 979, Greenwich, Conn.
Artnews, vol. 51 no. 5 (September 1 952); reprinted in
. Woldmon, Mork Rothko, I903-I970 A Retrospective 87 Dovid Smith, "Economic Support of Art in Americo
Rosenberg's onthology of essoys. The Tradition of the New (New York; Horry N Abroms, 978), 39. 1 Todoy, speech delivered at Ihe American Federation of
"
(New York: Horizon Press, 959). 1 59. Letter of June 7, 943 by Mork Rothko and Adolph
1 Arts conference in Corning, New York, October 30, 1 953;
23. See Jean-Paul Sartre. Being ond Nothingness. Irons. Gottlieb (with Ihe unocknowledged help of Bornett McCoy, Dovid Smith. 107-8.
Hozel Barnes (New York; Pocket Books. 1956), 50. Newmon] in Edward Alden Jewell, "The Realm of Art: A 88, David Smith, "The New Sculpture," symposium held of
24. Jockson Pollock, rodio interview with Williom Wright, New Plorform ond Other Mollers: Globolism' Pops inio The Museum of Modern Art, Februory 21,1 952; ciled in
loped 1 950. in Francis V. O'Connor ' Documentary View, New York Times (June 1 3, 1 943), x9. Cited in McCoy, David Smith, 82,
Chronology" in O'Connor and Thaw, Jackson Pollock A Woldmon, Mork Rolhko I903-I970 A Retrospective, 39 89, Maude Riley, "Sewer Pipe Sculpture," Cue (Morch 16,
Catalogue Raisonne. 251 60. Dore Ashton, The New York School (New York: Viking, 1940), Cited in Stanley E, Marcus, David Smith The
25. Lee Krosner. quoted in Froncine Du Plessix ond Cleve 1973), 98, Sculptor and His Work (Ithoco, N,Y,: Cornell University,
Gray, "Who Was Jockson Pollock? " Art in Americo 61 Mork Rothko, "
Personol Slotement, in A Pointing 1983), 51.
(Moy/June 1967): 48-59; cited in Fnedmon, Jockson Prophecy— 950, exhibition catalog for o group show,
1 90, "Screw Boll Art," Time 35, no. 7 (April 22, 1 940), 70. )
Pollock, 88. Dovid Porter Gollery, Woshinglon, D.C, 1945. Cited in Cited in Morcus, Dovid Smith The Sculptor ond His Work,
26. 'Is Jockson Pollock the Greolest Living Pointer in Ihe Woldmon, Mork Rothko, 48-9, 51,
United States?" Life (Augusts, 1949); 42-5. 62. "The Possing Shows: Mork Rothko,' Artnews 43 (Jonuory 91, Dovid Smith, "On Abslroci Art," February 15, 1940,
27. "The Wild Ones," Time Magazine (February 20, 1956); 15, 1945): 27. lecture lo Locol 60 of the United Americon Artists, New
70-5. 63. According to Ernest Briggs (a student of Rolhko's in the York; cited in McCoy, Dovid Smith, 40
28. Richard ShiH, "Introduction," in John P. O'Neill, ed.. late forties),Borbora Shikler, interview with Ernest Briggs, 92 Dovid Smith, McCoy. Dovid Smith. 22.
c. 1 940; cited in
BorneltNewmon; Selected Writings and Interviews July 1 2 ond October 21,1 982, tronscript on file ol Ihe 93, ClemenlGreenberg,- Americon Sculpture ol Our Time-
(Berkeley ond Los Angeles: University of Colifornio Press. Archives of Americon Art, Smithsonian Institution, Group Show,' Notion 156, no, 4 (January 23, 943), 1
1992),xiv-xv. Woshinglon, DC, cited in Bonnie Cleorwoter, Mark 40-1 Ciled in Marcus, Dovid Smith The Sculptor ond His
1 ,
29. Barnelt Newman, "The New Sense of Fate. " 945, in 1 Rolhko Works on Poper (New York: Hudson Hill Press, Work, 63.
Thomos Hess. Bornett Newman, exhibition catalog (New Mork Rothko Foundotion, American Federation of the 94. David Smith eloboraled on this several limes, beginning
York: The Museum of Modern Art, 971 41 1 ), Arts, Viking Penguin, 1 984), 33-4. with o speech delivered at Skidmore College on February
30. Barnelt Newmon. "The Ideographic Picture.' cotolog 64. In letters written by Still to Betty Porsons; cited by Ashton, 7,
1 947. Cited in Rosalind E. Krouss, The Sculpture of
1
foreword, Belly Parsons Gallery, New York, 1947, cited in About Rothko, 103. David Smith A Catalogue Raisonne (New York; Gorlond
Harold Rosenberg, Bornett Newmon (New York: Horry N. 65. Ashton. About Rolhko. 112. Publishers, 19771,39.
Abroms, 1978),30. 66. Mork Rothko, "Stotemenlon his Attitude in Pointing," The 95- David Smilh, speech delivered on WNYC rodio. New
31. Bornett Newmon, "The Sublime is Now," The Tiger's Eye, Tiger's Eye, vol. 1 . no. 9 (October 949) 11 4.1 : December 30, 952; in Smilh file, reel 4, frome 363,
York, 1
no.6 (December 1948); 51 -3; cited in Sandler, Tnumph of 67. Letter of June 7, 1 943 by Mork Rolhko and Adoplh Archives of American Art, Smithsonion Institution,
in
Amencon Pointing. 149. Gonlieb ]wilh the unocknowledged help of Bornetl Washington, D C Cited in Marcus, Dovid Smith The
32. Bornett Newmon. quoted m A J. Lieblmg. "Two Newmon] in Edword Alden Jewell, "The Reolm of Art: A SculptorondHis Work, 117
Aesthetes Offer Selves os Condidotes lo Provide Own New Platform and Other Matters: 'Globolism' Pops into 96. Dovid Smith, interview with Kotherine Kuh, in Kotherme
New York World Telegrom
Ticket for intellectuals.' View," New York Times (June 13, 1943), x9. Cited in Kuh, The Artist's Voice (New York; Harper & Row, 1 960),
(November 4. 1 9331; cited in Hess, eornetf Newmon. 25. Woldmon, Mark Rothko, I903-I970 A Retrospective, 39. 229.
33. Ciled in Hess. Bornett Newman, 7-9. 68. Mark Rolhko. some notes on ort educolion in on 97. David Smith, notebook from the eorly fifties; cited in
34. Zohor (Book of Splendor), on eorly sacred book of Ihe unpublished notebook of Ihe lote thirties, collection of Ihe McCoy, Dovid Smith, 25.
Cobbolisis, cited in Hess, Barnelt Newman, 56. George C. Corson fomily; cited in Cleorwoter, Mork 98 Smilh wos quite fomilior with Ihem at leost since 1948.
35. Robert Motherwell, on interview with Mox Kozloff. Rothko Works on Poper, 36. when o reproduction of Giocometti's 1947 Mon Pointing
Artforum 4, no. ) (September 1965); 37; cited in Sandler, 69 Anno Chove. Mark Rolhko Subjects, exhibition cotolog. was featured in The Tiger's Eye along with o work ond two
Triumph of Americon Pointing, 1 56. High Museum of Art, Atlonto, October 5-Februory 26, 1 poems by Smith. See "The Ides of Art, 14 Sculptors Write,"
36. Bornett Newmon. 1 967; cited in Rosenberg. Bornett 1983, 21 She discusses the idea Ihot Rolhko intended the The Tiger's Eye (June 19481; 72ff.
Newmon. 27-8. color blocks OS disguised figures, entombment and pieto 99, David Smith, "Perception and Reality," o speech given at
37. According to Hess, Bornett Newmon. 58, scenes in this cotolog and in her Yole doclorol dissertation Willioms College, December 7, 1951 Cited in McCoy, 1 .
38. Ibid, 58. of 1981 published as Anno C Chove, Mork Rolhko

,
David Smith, 78.
39. See John P. O'Neill, ed., Bornett Newmon Selected Sub/ects in Abstraction (New Hoven ond London; Yole 100. According to Robert Motherwell (in conversation with
Writings and Interviews (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University Press, 1989). the author on Jonuory 5. 979, Greenwich, Conn.) 1 1
University of Colifornio Press. 19921, 216ff, 70 Dore Ashton, "Art: Lecture by Rothko," New York Times Clement Greenberg destroyed Ihem. However, Gornell
40. Cited in Hess. Barnelt Newman, 71 (October 31 1958), 26; cited in Cleorwoter, Mark Rothko
, McCoy (in o telephone conversotion with Ihe outhor
41. Ibid.. 73. Works on Poper, 28. February 989) recounted thai he also found a pile of
1 , 1
42. Newman himself commented on this; cited in Hess, 71, Mark Rolhko. 'The Romonlics Were Prompted," such photographs — perhops Ihe same ones oi another
Bornett Newmon, 93. Possibilities 1,84. stock —o short time loler and that Iro Lowe (onother of Ihe
43. Bornett Newmon. "Slalement," in Sarneft Newmon, The 72, Ibid. executors) wos there at the time and took the pictures
lemo sobochthom, prepared by
Stations of the Cross, Ashton. About Rothko, 1 54.
73, Cited in away with him.
Lawrence Allowoy (New York: Solomon R. Guggenheim 74 Mark Rolhko, statement delivered from Ihe flooi ol o 1 01 See for example Karen Wilkm, Dovid Smith (New York:
Foundotion, 1966),9. symposium at The Museum of Modern Art in New York, Abbeville, 1984), 99.
44. As suggested in Hess. Bornett Newmon, 98. published in "A Symposium on How lo Combine 102, Dovid Smith, New York Herald Tribune forum in April
45- Bornett Newmon, "The Ideogrophic Picture," foreword and Sculpture," Interiors, vol. 110,
Architecture, Pointing 1950- Smith file. Archives of Americon Art, Smithsonian
to on exhibition cololog. Belly Parsons Gallery, New York, no,10(May 1951): 104. Institution, Woshinglon, D.C; cited in Groy. Dovid Smith
1947; cited m Sondler, Triumph ol American Painting, 1 87. 75. Mark Rolhko. in Selden Rodman, Conversations with by Dovid Smith, 132.
46. Dore Ashton, "Art Lecture by Mark Rolhko," New York Artists (New York: Oevin-Adoir, 19571,93-4 103, Smith file, reel 4, frame 695-730, in Archives of
Times (notes by Ashton from o lecture delivered by Rolhko 76. Mrs. John de Menil. Address, unpoginoled. American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D-C;
at the Prolt Inslilutel, October 31,1 958, 26. 77. William Seilz osserted that abstract expressionism as a cited in Groy, Dovid Smith by Dovid Smith, 42,
47. Dore Ashton, About Rolhko (New York: Oxford whole did not distinguish between representation and 104, DovidSmith, "Report on Voltri," notes wrihen after
University Press, 1983), 20. abstraction. See Williom C. Seilz, Abstroct Expressionist 963; in McCoy, Dovid Smith, 1 62.
1
484
Notes
105. Dovid Smith, skeichbook 34, 1952, Smilh file, reel 3, Reality, 15. Harrison and Poul Wood, eds.. Art m Theory. 1900-1990
frome 74. in Archives of Amencon Art, Smithsonion
1 20 Jeon Dubuffet, Arnold Glimcher, September 1 5,
letter to (Oxford: Blockwell Publishers, 1992).
Institution, Washington, D.C., Cited in MorcuS, Dovid 1 969; cited in An Art on the
Rowell, 'Jeon Dubuffet: 3. Cited in Harold Rosenberg, Bomett Newmon (New York:
Smith The Sculptor ond His Work, 72. 1 Margins of Culture,' Jeon Dubuffet A Retrospective, 26. Horry N. Abroms, 1978), 27-9.
106. Smith file, reel •!. frame 484-6, 952-9; in Archives of 1 21 Jeon Dubuffet m Mox Loreou, Cotologue des troveoux de
- 4 EloinedeKooning. 'Subiecl: Whot, HoworWha?
American Art, Smithsonion Institution. Woshinglon, D-C. Jeon Dubuffet, vol.25, Arbres, Murs. Architectures Artnews (April 9551; cited m Irving Sondler, The New York
1
Cited in Groy, Dovid Smith by Dovrd Smith, 60. (Lousonne, 974): XVI, cited in Andreos Fronzke, Dubuffet
1 School The Pointers ond Sculptors of the Fifties (New
107. Dovid Smith, 'The longuoge Is Image, Arts ond ' (New York: Horry N. Abroms, 1 981 ), 59. 1 York: Harper & Row, 1978), 55.
Architecture (Februory 9521; m Cone, Dov.d Smith, 96.
1 22. Jeon DubuHet, 'Closene Folbolo ond the Cabinet 5- Fnedel Dzubos, stolement, in Irving Sandler, ' Is There o
108. Dovid Smith, -Aesthetics, the Artist, ond the Audience,- Logologique, prefoce to on exhibition catalog of 978;
' 1 New Academy?" Port II, Artnews (September 1959): 37.
speech delivered ot Deerfteld, Mossochusens, September trans. Joachim Neugroschel in Glimcher, Jeon Dubuffet 6- Clement Greenberg, "Amencon Type' Painting," Portison
24 1952. inMcCoy. Dovid Smith, 107. Towards An Alternative Reolity, 249. Review (spring 1955), reprinted in Clement Greenberg,
23. Jeon Dubuffet, letter to Arnold Glimcher, April 1 9, 985, 1 Artond Culture (Boston: Beocon Press, 1967). 208.
trons, Joochim Neugroschel, in Glimcher, Jeon Dubuffet 7. Borboro Rose, in William C. Seitz, moderolor. Art Criticism
Chapter 5 Towards An Allernolive Reolity, 301 in the Sixties, A Symposium of The Poses Institute of Fine
24. Alberto GiocomeHi, )etter to Pierre Matisse, 1 947; first Arts, Brondeis University (New York: October House,
helm Nietzsche, 'Schopenhouer as

.'. published in Exhibition of Sculptures. Pointings, Drowmgs 1967), unpoginoted.
Eaucatc;, cited in Wolter Koufmonn, Existentio/ism from (New York: Pierre Molisse Gallery, 1 948), cited in Alberto 8 Williom S. Rubin, "Younger American Painters," Art
Dosloyevslty to Sortre (New York: World Publishing Co., Giocometti, exhibition catalog, The Musuem of Modern /nternotiono/ 1 (1 960). 20, cited in Irving Sondler,
19561,104. Art(GordenCity,N Y Doubledoy, 1965), 16. Amencon Art of the 1960s (New York. Horper&Row,
2. Jean Dubuffet, Prospectus oux omoteL rs _if : .' ;e ^ 25 Alberto G ::?-=" "r s de4 heures," Mmotoure, 3-
-:
1988), 17.
4 (Pons. Deti •: -;: - = 9. Clement Greenberg, 'Modernist Pointing," Arts yearbook
IPorisGollimord, 1946). 17, cited in Pe-e ;,: '
of Jean Dubuffet iOorden City, N.Y.; Dc; 26 A)berlo C- - ; Pierre Motisse, 1947; first
- no. 4 (1961); reprinted in Gregory Botlcock, ed.. The New
NewYorktTheMuseurr 01 Moaer A- -:;
.
publisheo :-:,:S.iLiptures, Pointings, Drawir\gs Art (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1 966), 1 01-2.
3. Jean Dubuffet. Ant, : (New York: Pierre Moiisse Gallery, 1 948); cited in Alberto 1 0. Sandler, Amencon Art of the 960s, 1 1 B.
1
delivered OS olectu- 1 r if ;
Giocometti, 42-4. 11. Kenworth Moffett, "Pop Art:Two Views," Artnews (Moy
Chicogo. Decembe- . ciijurea from 27. Reinhold Hohl, ' Form and Vision: The Work of Alberto 1974): 31; cited in Sandler, Amencon Art of the 1960s, 127,
Dubutfel's French text cv jcoch.T Neu^'oscnei m Mildred Giocometti,' in Alberto Giocometti A Retrospective n.60.
Glimcher, Jeon Dubuffet Towords An Alfemalive Real:!y Exhibition, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum (New York: 12. in Williom C. Seitz, moderotor. Art
Michael Fried,
(New York. PocePubhcotions. Abbeville. 1987!. 127. Proeger, 1974i,23, unpoginoted
Criticism in the Sixties,
4.Jen-^ ^. -"• '.Ipr-T.- o ^B.» ~r.-«'--*Mv Work 28 Alberto Giocometti, letter to Pierre Matisse, 1 947; first 13. Michoel Fried, "Modernist Pointing ond Formalist
: -
-'Oi published in Exhibition of Sculptures, Pointings, Drawings Criticism, The American Scholar (autumn 1 964) 648;
-
:
(New York: Pierre Motisse Gallery, 948); cited in Alberto 1 cited in Sandler, American Art of the 960s, 50. 1
5.Je: -.'vWork Giocometti, 28. 14. Rosalind Krouss, "A View of Modernism," Artfonrm
29. Alberto Giocometti, cited ir .' - .
'
C- jzometti (September 972) 49-50, cited m Sandler, Amencon Art
1 :
Jeon Dubuffet, 102, Portroit (Gorden City, N.Y. : : 111. of the 1 960s, 48,
6. Jean Dubuffet, Apercevoir,' in Prospectus et tous ecrits 30. )bid.,23. 1 5. Sondler, Amencon Art of the 1960s, 128, n. 6)
suivonts, vol. 2 (Pons; Gollimard, 967|, 62; trans. Morgit 1 31. Ibid., 8. 1 6. He wos publicly token to task for this by mony historions
Rowell in Morgit Rowell. 'Jeon Dubuffet: An Art on the 32. Hohl, -Form and Vision: The Work or Aloe.-c and critics.For example, see Rosalind Krouss, "Chonging
Margins of Culture,' Jeon Dubuffet A Retrospective, Giocometti,' in Alberto Giocometti: A Retrospective the Work of Dovid Smith," Art ir} Anjertca (September/
(New York: Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, 1973). 1 5. Exhibition, 24. October 1974): 31-4.
7. Marcel Duchomp, interviewed by James Johnson 33. Alberto Giocometti, cited in Lord, A Giocometti Portrait, 1 7. Oione Upright Heodley, Morns Louis: The Moture
Sweeney in 'Eleven Europeons in America, ' Bulletin of 26. Pointings 1954- 1 962, Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan,
34. Froncis Bacon. October 1962, in Dovid Sylvester, 1 976, 50, n. 78; cited in Sondler, Amencon Art of the 1 960s,
The Museum of Modern An 3, nos. 4-5 ;New York, 1
1 946': 19-21; cited in Herschel B. Chipp, Theories of ;nter%iews with Francis Bocon (London; Thomes & Hudson, 140, n. 4.
Modem Art (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of 1975), 26-8. 18. Michoel Fried, "Some Notes on Morris Louis," Arts
Californio Press, 19681,394. 35. Froncis Bacon, October 1 973, ibid., 1 00. Magazine (November 1963): 25; cited in Sondler,
8. Andre Breton, les Pos perdus. Editions de lo Nouvelle John Russell, Froncis 8ocon
36. Froncis Bacon, cited in Amencon Art of the 960s, 29. 1
Revue Frani;aise, Pons (1 924|: 1 74; trans. Morgit Rowell in (Greenwich, Conn.: New York Grophic Society, 1971),20. 19. Michael Fried, "New York Letter," Art (nternotiono/ (May
Rowell. -Jeon Dubuffet: An Art on the Morgins of 37. Letterfrom Bacon, Jonuory 9, 1 959, in Ronold Alley ond 25, 1963): 69; cited in Sandler, Amencon Art of the )960s,
Culture,' Jeon Dubuffet. A Retrospective, 20. John Rothenstein, Francis Bacon (New York: Viking, 30.
9 Jeon Dubuffet. Ant,.Cu/furol Positions, originolly 19641,35. 20.Horold Rosenberg, conversation with the outhor in 1 977.
delivered os o lecture in English ot the Arts Club of 38. Aeschylus, The Eumenides, line 252, as tronsloted in a The quototion by itself later oppeored in Rosenberg,
Chicogo, December 20, 1 951 this version adopted from ;
book well known to Bocon: W. B. Stanford, Aeschylus m Bomett Newmon, 21
Dubuffefs French text by Joachim Neugroschel in his Style AStudy in Language ana Personality (Dublin: 21 Constant, cited in Jeon-Clorence Lambert, Cobra (New
Glimcher, Jeon Dubuffet: Towards An Altemalive Reality. The University Press, 1942); cited in Down Ades, "Web of York: Abbeville, 1984), 82.
131. Images, ' m Down Ades end Andrew Forge, froncis Bocon 22. Pierre Alechinsky, cited in Lombert, Cobro, 1 83.
1 0.Jeon Dubuffet, ' Honneur oux voleurs souvoges, ' in (London: Tote Gallery m association with Thomes & 23. Pierre Alechinsky, " Abstroction foite,' Cobra 10; cited in
Catalogue des frovoux de Jean Dubuffet, Mox Loreou, Hudson, 1985), 17. Lombert, Cobro, 1 86.
foscicule 6, Corps de domes (Pons and Lousonne: Jeon- 39. Froncis Bacon, October 962, 1 Sylvester, Interviews with 24. Lucion Freud, quoted in Lowrence Gowmg, Lucian Freud
Jocques Pouveri, 1 9651 1 09, cited m Reinhold Heller, ' A

.
Froncis Bocon, 11. (London: Thames & Hudson, 1 982), 190-1
Swon Only Sings at the Moment Disappears': Jeon It 40. Froncis Bocon, October 1 962, ibid., 23. 25. Robert Hughes, lucion Freud Pointings (New York:
Dubuffet ond Art at the Edge of Non-Art, ' in Jeon 41 Froncis Bocon, Moy 1966, ibid., 48. Thames & Hudson, 1987), 7.
Dubuffet Forty Yeors of His Art, exhibition cotolog 42. He hod seen the work only in reproduction, occording to 26. Elaine de Koonmg, "Subiect: What, How or Who?"
(Chicago: Smort Gallery, University of Chicogo, 1 984). Alley and Rothenstein, Francis Bocon, 13. He kept the film Artnews (April 955): 26 and 27 respectively; cited in
1
24. still from Potemkin in his studio; Froncis Bocon, May 1966, Irving Sandler, The New York School The Painters and
1 1 Jeon Dubuffet, ' Londscoped Tobies, Landscapes of the in Sylvester, Interviews with Froncis Bacon, 34. Sculptors of the Fifties (New York: Horper & Row, 1978),
Mind, Stones of Philosophy,* cotolog introduction, trans, 43. Francis Bocon, December 1 971 Sylvester, Interviews
, 96.
the artist ond Marcel Duchomp, Pierre Matisse Gallery with Froncis Bocon, 72. 27. He sow the work of the obstroct expressionists but he
(New York, 952); cited in Selz, The Work of Jeon
1
44. Froncis Bocon, in Andrew Cornduff Ritchie, ed.. The New never actually met Pollock or de Kooning, according to
Dubuffet, 63. Decade 22 European Pointers and Sculptors, exhibition Mme. Armande Trentinion (Director of the Fondotion
12. Ibid. 66. catalog (New York: The Museum of Modern An, 1955), Dubuffet, in on interview with Jonolhon Fineberg, October
63; cited in Hugh Dovies and Solly Yord, Froncis Bocon 1 987); his interests lay more with surreolists like Tonguy,
13. Andre Breton, 'Seconde momfeste du Surreolisme'
(1 929) in Andre Breton, Mon.festes du surreo/isme (Pans:
(New York: Abbeville, 1986), 109. whom he did meet ond with whom he become friendly.
Jeon-Jocques Pouvert, 1962}. 1 54; irons. Morgit Rowell in 45 Froncis Bacon, May 1966, m Sylvester, Inter^'iews with 28. Leon Golub, Bloomington. Indiono, Morch 1959, cited in
Rowell, 'Jeon Dubuffet: An Art on the Margins of Froncis Bocon, 30-2. Peter Selz, New Imoges of Mon, exhibition cotolog, The
Culture,' Jean Dubuffet: A Retrospective, 19. 46, Froncis Bacon, April 3, 973, interviewed by Hugh
1 Museum of Modern Art (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubledoy,
14. jeon Dubuffet, Note pour les tins-tetlres {Note for the Dovies, inDovies ond Yard, Francis Bocon, 106-7, n, 83. 1959), 76.
47. Froncis Bacon, October 1962, Sylvester, Interviews with 29. An idea frequently repeated by Rouschenberg, see for
G: Froncis Bocon, 12. exomple G. R. Swenson, " Rouschenberg Points o Picture,"
48 Francis Bocon, Moy 1966, ibid., 56. Artnews (April 1963): 46.
49, Froncis Bocon, October 1 973, ibid., 92.
50 F-orcis Bocon Moy 1966, ibid., 56.
Chapter 7
-ger-Verlog, 1972), 13.
:].,216. Chapter 6 : Ai:enGinsDerg How/ ond Other Poems (Son Froncisco:
7 ;n Dubuffet, ' Londscoped Tobies, Londscopes of the City Lights PocketBookshop, 956), 9, 4. 1 1
: Stones of Philosophy.' cotolog introduction, trons. . Antoni Tdpies, Memorto Personal (Borcelono: Editoriol 2. Lowrence Ferlinghetti, "Dog," in Lowrence Ferlinghetti, A
'artist ond Morcel Duchomp, Pierre Motisse Gallery, Crihco, 1977), 184; cited in MonuelJ. Bor|0-Villel, Coney island of the Mind (New York: New Directions,
: .e~ York, 1952, cited in Selz, The Work of Jeon Dubuffet, Fundocio Antoni Tdpies (Borcelono: Fundocid Antoni 1955), 67-8.
Topies, 1990).32. 3. Harold Rosenberg, "The Herd of Independent Minds,'
1 8.Jeon Dubuffet, 'Empreintes,' in Les Lettres Nouve/fes 5, >. Lucio Fonlono, Momfesto Blonco, Buenos Aires, 1946; Commentory (September 1948); reprinted in Horold
48 (Pons, April 1 957): 507-27; trons. Lucy R. Lippord, in citedm Yve-Aloin Bois, ' Fontono's Base Moteriolism, " Rosenberg, Discovenng the Present (Chicogo: University
Chipp, Theories of Modem Art, 61 3. m Amenco (April 1989): 244, The momfesto is ofChicogoPress, 1973),28.
19. Glimcher, Jeon Dubuffet Towards An Alternative onlholooizedos "The White Manifesto" in Charles 4. Marsholl McLuhon, The Mechanical Bnde, Folklore of the
485
Notes
Induilriol Man (New York: Vonguord Press. 1 951 ), v. (November 19881: 19-22. Center, 1975), 14.
5 Ibid., 3. 36, Robert Rouschenberg, talking about Broodcoslof 1959, 80, Cloes Oldenburg interview with Paul Carroll, August 22,
6. Ferlinghelli, A Coney Island of (he Mind. 1 955. in Swenson, "Rouschenberg Points o Picture,' 45, 1 968; in Cloes Oldenburg, Proposals lor Monuments and
7. Cited in many places; see for example Jill Johnston, 37,Tomkins, The Bride ond the Bachelors, 204, 232. Buildings 1965-9 (Chicogo: Big Toble Publishing Co.,
Tracking the Shadow." Art mAmerico (October 19871: 38, Robert Rouschenberg, interviewed in Rose, An Interview 1969). 14.
135. with Robert Rouschenberg. 85. 81 , Cloes Oldenburg, quoted in the St Paul Pioneer Press.
8. John Cage, on oddress to the convention of the Music 39, Robert Rouschenberg, in Robert Hughes, The Shock ol May 8, 974, 6; reproduced in Cloes O/denburg: Log
1 1
Teochers Notional Associolion in Chicago, 1957; the New (New York Alfred A Knopf, 1 981 ), 345; cited in
:
May 1974-August 1976 (Slutlgqrtand New York:
reprinted in Si/ence (Cambridge, Mass.; MIT Press, 1966). Mary Lynn Kolz, Robert Rouschenberg: Art ond Life (New Presslog, 1 976), unpoginated.
10. York: Horry N Abrams, 1990), 99, 82, The 'scripts" for this and other Oldenburg performances
9. John Cage, cited m Harvey Stein, Artists Observed (New 40, Robert Rouschenberg, interviewed in Rose, An Interview were published in does Oldenburg, Row Notes (Holifox,
York: Horry N. Abrams, 1 986|, 93. with Robert Rouschenberg, 74. N,S.: Press of the Novo Scotio College of Art and Design;
10. Merce Cunningham, Donee m Americo, tronscript of o 41 Robert Rouschenberg, cited in Swenson, "Rouschenberg distributed in US, by Joop Rietmon, 973), 1
program for WNET/13, New York, 1978, 2-3; cited by Points Picture," 67, 83, Marshall McLuhon, Understonding Medio The
Melissa Horns in a senior art history thesis on the Merce 42, Robert Hughes, "The Most Living Artist "
Time Extension of Man (New York: McGrow Hill. 1 965), 7,
Cunninghom Dance Company written under the direction (November 29, 1976), 54. 84, John Ciordi, How Does a Poem Mean? 2d ed, (first
of Jonolhon Fineberg at Yale University, April 1 982. 43 John Coge, an oddress to the convention of the Music published in 959) (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 975), 6.
1 1
1 1. Martin Dubermon, 6(ock Mountain An Exploration in Teachers Nalionol Association in Chicago, 957; 1 85, In particular see Joan Carpenter, "The Infra-
Community (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1 972), 277. reprinted in Silence, 12. Iconography of Jasper Johns," Art Journol, 36/3 (spring
12. Ibid., 278. 44 Richard Stonkiewicz, remarks mode on a panel ol "The 1977): 221-7.
13. Ibid. 352-4. Club, on Morch 25, 955 as recorded by Irving Sandler,
1 86, Jasper Johns in Wolter Hopps, "An Interview with Jasper
14. John Cage, quoted in Calvin Tomkins, The Bride ond the cited in Irving Sandler, The Nevv York School The Painters Johns," Artforum (March 1965): 33.
Bachelors (New York: Viking, 1965), 75. and Sculptors of the fifties (New York: Harper & Row, 87, Josper Johns interviewed by Leo Steinberg in Leo
15. William S. Burroughs, Noked Lunch (New York: Grove 1978), 147, Steinberg, 'Jasper Johns: the First Seven Years of His Art,"
Press, 1959), 221 45. For o fuller discussion of the lerm see William C Seilz, 1962; in Other Criferio (New York: Oxford University
16. Robert Rouschenberg, interviewed in Borboro Rose. An The Art of Assemblage, exhibition catalog. The Museum of Press, 1972), 32,
Interview with Robert Rouschenberg (New York: Elizobelh Modern Art (Garden City, N,Y : Doubledoy, 1 961 ), 93, 88, David Sylvester, "Interview," in Josper Johns: Drawings
Avedon Editions, Vintage, 1987], 72. 150, n. 5. (London: Arts Council ofGreot Britoin, 1974), 19.
17. Ibid., 53. 46 John Cage, on address to the convention of the Music 89 Jospei Johns, cited in "His Heort Belongs to Dado,"
18. Some art hove attempted to "read" these
historians Teachers Notional Association m Chicogo, 1957, Time, 73 (Moy 4, 1959): 58.
objects in Rouschenberg 's work as c systematic reprinted in Silence, 12. 90. Michael Crichlon, Josper Johns (New York: Horry N.
iconography Kenneth Bendiner, for example, argued in 47 Allan Koprow, "The Legocy ol Jackson Pollock," Abrams. 1977], 66, n 18
982 thol Canyon of 959 was o homoerotic
1 1 Artnews(October 1958) 26 91 Totyono Grosmon, cited in Crichlon, Josper Johns, 1 9.
reinterpretation of Rembrandt's Ganymede and in on 56-7
48. Ibid,, 92. Josper Johns, m Crichton, Josper Johns, 27.
orticle of 1977 Charles Stuckey turned oil the images m 49 Michael Kirby and Richord Schechner, "An Interview 93. Josper Johns in Vivian Roynoi, "Josper Johns: hove 'I
Rebus of 955 into words through free associotion ond

1 with John Cage," Tulone Droma Review, (winter 965) 1 1 attempted to develop my thinking in such o woy that the
then attempted to "reod them like a sentence Lisa 55; cited in Sandler, The New York School. 1 3, n, 37. work I've done IS not me,' " Artnews (March 1973): 22,
Woinwrighl has successfully followed specific trams of 50, Allan Koprow, cited m Michael Kirby, Hoppenings An 94 Entry of April 3, 1 970 in unpublished lournol by Roberto
association through sequences of permutations. See Anthology (New York E, P. Dutton, 965), 48.
Illustrated : 1 Bernstein, cited in Roberto Bernstein, Jasper Johns'
"
Kenneth Bendiner, "Robert Rouschenbeig's 'Canyon,' 51 Allan Koprow,
"
Happenings' in the New York Scene," Pointings and Sculptures 1954-1974 "The Changing
Arts Mogozine (June 1 982) 57-9; Charles F. Stuckey, Artnews(Moy 1961): 59. Focus of the Eye (Ann Arbor, Mich UMI Research Press,
'
'Reading Rouschenberg, "Art in America (March/April 52, Roy Folk, "Joponese Innovators," New York Times, 1985), 21
1977): 82-3; Liso Susan Wainwrighl, (heading Junk December 8, 1957, section 2, 24, 95, Josper Johns, cited in Crichton, Jasper Johns. 46,
Thematic Imagery m the Art of Robert Rouschenberg from 53,Cloes Oldenburg, transcript from o panel entitled "New 96, Jasper Johns in Hopps, "An Interview with Jasper
1952 to (964, unpublished doctoral disserlotion. Uses of the Human Image in Painting," Judson Gallery, Johns," 36,
University of Illinois at Urbona-Champoign, 1993. Two December 2, 959, Judson Memorial Church Archives,
1 97, Jasper Johns, in G, R. Swenson. "What Is Pop Art? Port II:
other provocative essays on the meomng of the imagery in NY., cited in Borboro Haskell. Blaml The Explosion of Jasper Johns, " Artnews, 62, no, 1 (February 1 964): 66.
Rouschenberg's work are: Roger Cronshow and Adrian Pop. Minimalism, ond Performance 1958-1964, exhibition 98, Richard S, Field, Jasper Johns Prints 1970-1977,
Lewis, "Re-Reoding Rouschenberg," Artscribe, no. 29 catalog, Whitney Museum of American Art (New York: exhibition catalog (Middlelown, Conn.: Wesleyon
(London, June 1981 ): 44-51 and Graham Smith, Robert ; WW. Norton and Co., 984], 27, 1 University, 1978), 33, n 14
Rouschenberg's 'Odolisque,' WoHroff-Richortz "
54 Hoskell, Blam' The Explosion ol Pop. 27. 99, ReneMogritte, "Les Mots et les images," 1929, cited in
Johrbuch, 44 (Koln, 983) 375-82, 1 : 55, Jim Dine, in Kirby, Happenings An lllustrofed Anthology, Suzi Goblik, Mogntte (Greenwich, Conn.: New York
19 Dorothy Gees Seckler, "The Artist Speaks: Robert 188, Graphic Society, 970), 38-40. 1 1
Rouschenberg," Art m America (Moy/June 1966): 81. 56 Cloes Oldenburg as cited in Tomkins, Off the Woll, 1 54 1 00 Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigotions,
20. See Lisa Susan Womwnght, Reoding Junk Thematic 57. Hoskell, Slam' The Explosion ol Pop, 64. trans, G E, M Anscombe (Oxford, 1953), 19e, no. 38;
Imagery in the Art of Robert Rouschenberg from 952 to 1 58 As reported by Hoskell, Blomi The Explosion of Pop, 53 cited in Bernstein, Jasper Johns' Poinhngs and Sculptures
1964. 59 George Segal, m Henry Geldzahler, "An Interview with 1954-1974 -The Changing Focus of the Eye ',94
21 Cited in Dubermon, Block Mounfoin, 346, George Segal," Artforum (November 1964): 26. 101 Ludwig Wittgenstein, The Blue and Brown Books
22. Seckler, "The Artist Speoks: Robert Rouschenberg," 76 60 Jim Dine, m John Green, "All Right Jim Dine, Tolkl" (Oxford, 1 958), 39; cited in Bernstein, Josper Johns'
23. Calvin Tomkins, Off the Wall Robert Rouschenberg ond World Journol Tribune, Sunday Mogozine, November 20, Pointings ond Sculptures I954-I974 'The Chonging
the Art World ol Our Time (Gorden City, NY. Doubledoy, 1966,34 Focus ofihe Eye", 94,
1980), 72. 61 Cloes Oldenburg, notebook entry of 1961 cited in ; 102, Sylvester, "Interview," m Jasper Johns Drowings, 16-
24. Robert Rouschenberg, quoted in Andrew Forge. Barbara Rose, Cloes Oldenburg, exhibition catalog. The 17.
Rouschenberg (New York: Horry N, Abrams, 972), 0. 1 1 Museum of Modern Art (Greenwich, Conn,: New York 103 Bernstein, Josper Johns' Poinhngs and Sculptures 1954-
25. Robert Rouschenberg, interviewed in Rose, An Interview Graphic Society, 19701,48. 974 'The Changing focus of the Eye ", 1 08
1
with Robert Rouschenberg, 50. 62, Cloes Oldenburg, cited in Rose, Claes O/denburg, 30. 104. Roger Cronshow and Adrion Lewis, "Re-Reoding
26. Seckler, "The Artist Speaks: Robert Rouschenberg," 76. 63. Cloes Oldenburg, notebook entry, December )-7, 960; 1 Rouschenberg," Artscribe, no 29 (London, June 1981): 49;
27. Robert Rouschenberg, statement, in Dorothy C, Miller, ciled m Cloes Oldenburg and Emmet Willioms, Store Doys they cite Johns as quoted in Brian O'Doherty, Americon
ed.. Sixteen Americons, exhibition catalog. The Museum of (New York Something Else Press, 967), 65. 1 Masters (New York Random House, 1 973), 202,
Modern Art (Garden City, N.Y Doubledoy. 1959), 58 : 64 Cloes Oldenburg, notebook entry, 1960; cited in Rose, )05 Hart Crone, "Cope Hotteras, " cited in Alan R. Solomon,
28. John Coge, an address to the convention of the Music Cloes Oldenburg, 62. "Jasper Johns," Josper Johns, exhibition cotolog, Jewish
Teochers Notional Association m Chicogo, 957; 1 65 Cloes Oldenburg, notebook entry, 1962; ibid., 92. 1 Museum (New York, 1964), 16,
reprinted in Silence, 12. 66 Cloes Oldenburg; ibid., 154 1 06. Philip Horton, Hart Crone The tile ol an Americon Poet,
29. Robert Rouschenberg,
on interview with Dorothy
in 67 Cloes Oldenburg, notebook entry, 1960; ibid,, 189, (New York :
Viking, 1957], 302, cited in Bernstein, Josper
Sekler, December 21,1 965, transcript from the Archives of 68, Cloes Oldenburg, ibid ,46, Johns' Poinhngs ond Sculptures 1954-1974 "The
Americon Art, cited in Liso Susan Wainwrighl, Reoding 69, Cloes Oldenburg, ibid.. 31 Chonging focus ol the Eye ", 1 09,
Junk: Themofic Imagery in the Art of Robert Rouschenberg 70, Cloes Oldenburg, ibid., 31, 107, Crichton, Jasper Johns, 50,
from 1952 to 1964, 16. 71 Cloes Oldenburg, "Extracts from the Studio Notes 108 Josper Johns, John Coplons, "Fragments According
in
30. Michael Newmon, "Rouschenberg Re-evoluoled," Art (1 962-64)," Artforum (Jonuory 1 966): 33; cited in Ellen H to Johns, An Interview wilh Josper Johns, " Print Collector's
Monthly(London,Junel981):9. Johnson, Cloes Oldenburg. Penguin New Art 4 (Baltimore, Newsletter, vol, 3, no, 2 (May/June 972): 29-32; cited in 1
31 Robert Rouschenberg, interviewed in Rose, An Interview 1971), 20. Field, Jasper Johns Prints I970-I977, 35, n, 27,
with Robert Rouschenberg, 96, 72, Claes Oldenburg, notebook entry; in Oldenburg and 109, Josper Johns, statement, in Dorothy C, Miller, ed.,
32. Robert Rouschenberg. cited in G. R. Swenson, Williams, Store Doys, 60. Sixteen Americans, exhibition cotolog. The Museum of
'Rouschenberg Points a Picture," Artnews (April 1963): 73, Claes Oldenburg, notebook entry, New York, 1 961 Modern Art (Gorden Cily, N.Y.: Doubledoy, 1959), 22,
46. cited in Coosie von Bruggen, Cloes Oldenburg Mouse 110- Sylvester, "Interview," m Josper Johns Drowings, 9.
33. Robert Rouschenberg, in Jeonne Siegel, Artwords Museum/Roy Gun Wing (Koln: Museum Ludwig, 979], 1 1 1 1 "Interview with Jasper Johns, " in Christian Geelhoor,
1
Discourse on the 60s ond 70s (Ann Arbor, Mich,: UMI 74, Cloes Oldenburg, cited in Rose, Cloes Oldenburg, 69 Jasper Johns Working Proofs (London: Petersburg Press,
Reseorch Press. 1985), 155 75, Cloes Oldenburg, summer 1 963; ibid., 92 1980), 39,
34. According to lleano Sonnobend, who was married to Leo 76, Cloes Oldenburg, notebook entry, 966; ibid., 89. 1 1 112, Sylvester, "Interview, ""
in Jasper Johns Drawings, 1
3-
Costelli at the time and later became Rouschenberg's 77 Cloes Oldenburg, " Amenco: War & Sex, Etc.," Arts 14.
deoler in her own gollery lleono Sonnobend, Mogozinelsummer 1967] 36 1 1 3. Marcel Duchomp, The Bride Stripped Bore By Her
conversolion with the author. September 8, 1 988, 78 Cloes Oldenburg, notebooks, in Oldenburg and Bochelors, Even, a typographic version by Richard
35. See Dore Ashton, Rouschenberg XXXIV Drawings for Williams, Store Doys, 62 Hamilton of Morcel Duchomp's Green Box, Irons. George
Dante's Inferno (New York: Horry N. Abrams, 1 964); ond 79, Claes Oldenburg; cited in Morlin Friedmon, Oldenburg H, Homillon, New York, 960, cited by Johns in o review of
1
Jerry Soltz, "

Notes on o Drawing, " Arts Magazine Six Themes, exhibition catalog (Minneopolis: Wolker Arts this book Josper Johns, "Duchomp's Green Box," Scrap I,
486
Notes
New York (December 23, 960) 4. 1 :

(London, 1987). 34, See Trevor Fairbrother, "Worhol Meets Sargent ol
114. Peter Fuller, "Jasper Johns Interviewed: Art 37. David Hockney, cited Morco
II,' in Livingstone, Dovid Whitney," Arts Mogozine, vol.61 (Februory 1987): 71
Monthly, no, 19. London (September 1978): 7; cited in Hockney (New York Thomes & Hudson, : 1 988), 40, n. 12
Mork Rosenthol, Jasper Johns: WorkSrnce 1974, 38.David Hockney, in Nikos Stongos, ed., Dovid Hockney Worhol,
35 Philosophy of Andy Worhol, 91
exhibition cotalog (Philodelphio: Philodelphio Museum of by David Hockney (New York: Horry N. Abroms, 977), 61 1 36 Worhol. Andy Worhol, unpoginoted.
Art, 1988), 60. 39.Dovid Hockney, m Stongos, Dovid Hockney by Dovid 37 Warhol, Philosophy of Andy Warhol, 146,
5 Judith Goldmon, Jasper Johns: The Seosons, exhibition Hockney, 93. 38 Warhol, Andy Warhol, exhibition catalog Kunsthaus
309 (New York: Leo Costelli Gallery, 1987), 40 Dovid Hackney, quoted in Lawrence Weschler, (Zurich, 1978): 106.
: .iginoled. Comeroworks: Dovid Hockney (New York: Alfred A, 39. Roy Lichtenstein, in Bruce Gloser, "Oldenburg,
^ ited in Jill Johnston, 'Tracking the Shodow," Arl m Knopf, 1984), 11. Lichtenstein, Warhol A Discussion," Artforum (February
«,.Terico (October 1987): 135. 41.GeitSchiff, "A Moving Focus Hockney's Dialogue With 1966): 22.
1 i 7- Sylvester, 'Interview,' in Josper Johns: Growings. 14. Picasso," Dovid Hockney A Retrospective, exhibition
in 40. Roy Lichtenstein, in Lawrence Allowoy, Roy Lichtenstein
cotoloq (Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Arl (New York: Abbeville, 1983), 105-6.
19H81 4 Roy Swenson, "What
1 Lichtenstein, in is Pop ArtZ " Port
Chapter 8 62.
I,
42. Roy Dione Waldmon, Roy Lichtenstein

Lichtenstein, in
"IS :s discussed in careful detail in Thomas McEvilley.
1
Chapter 9 (New York: Chelsea House, 1971), 25.
Yves Klein Conquistodor of the Void, Yves Klein 1928- 43. Roy Lichtenstein, in Allowoy, Roy Lichtenstein, 06, 1
1962 A Retrospective (Houston: Institute for the Arts, Rice 1 William Coming Aport An Informal History of
L. O'Neill, 44. Roy Lichtenstein, in Swenson, "What is Pop Art? " Port I,
LJniversity; New York Arts Publisher, 1982); and in his America the ?960s (Chicago:
in Quadrangle Books, 63.
'Yves Klein ond Rosicrucionism,' in the some catalog Sandler, American Art of the 45 Roy Lichtenstein, Gloser, "Oldenburg, Lichtenstein
1 977), 3; cited in 960s (New 1 in
2 Yves Klein, cited in McEvilley, "Yves Klein: Conquistodor York:Harpei&Row),81. Warhol: A Discussion," 23,
of the Void,' 48. 2 Claude Levi-Slrouss, "The Structural Study of Myth," in 46 James Rosenquisl, in Judith Goldman, Jomes Rosenquist
3. (New York
Pierre Restony, Yves Klein, trans. John Shepley Sfructurol Anthropology (New York: Basic Books 1963) (Denver: Denver Art Museum; New York: Viking Penguin
Horry N.Abroms, 1982), 22. 21 7 This IS also ot the heart of Levi-Strouss's critique of 1985), 13,
4. Yves Klein, cited in Restony, Yves Wein, 47 Sortre; see Claude Levi-Strouss, The Savoge Mind 47, Jomes Rosenquisl, in G, R, Swenson, "What Is Pop Art?"
5. Restony, Yves Klem, 49. (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, Port Artnews, vol.62 (February 1964); 63.
1 966), 253tf II,
6. McEvilley, 'Yves Klein: Conquistador of the Void, 50. 3 Allan Koprow, "Should the Artist Become a Man 48. James Rosenquist, in G R Swenson, "The new Americon
of the
7. Non Rosenthol. Assisted Levilotion: The Art of Yves Worlds- Artnews, vol.63 (October 1964)- 34 'Sign Painters,' "Artnews, vol 61 (September 1962): 61,
Klein, Yves Klem 1928-1962: A Retrospective (Houston: 4 John Corlin and Sheeno Wogstoff, "Beyond the Pleosure 49 James Rosenquist, in Goldman, James Rosenquist, 16.
Institute for the Arts, Rice University; New York Arts Principle Comic Quotation in Contempoiory American 50. Ibid 27-8. ,
Publisher, 1982), 119 Comic Arl Show, exhibition cotalog,

Pointing," The 51. Ibid., 35,
8. Yves Klein, "Truth Becomes Reality," trans. Thomos Whitney Museum of American Art (New York Jomes Rosenquist,
52. cited in John Rublowsky, Pop Art
McEvilley, in Yves Klein 1928-1962 A Retrospective Fontogrophics Books, 1 983), 55 (New York: Basic Books, 965), 93. 1
(Houston: Institute for the Arts, Rice University; New York 5 Tom Wesselmonn, in G. R. Swenson, "What is Pop Ar|2 53. James Rosenquist, "Art: Pop; Bing Bong Landscapes,"
Arts Publisher, 1982), 229-30. Part II: Jasper Johns," Artnews, vol.62, no, 10 (February Time, vol 28 (May 1965); 80, cited in Sondler, Americon
9 Yves Klein, cited in Restony, Yves Klein, 90 1964): 41. Art of the 1960s, 162.
10. Rotrout Klein-Moquoy, cited in McEvilley, "Yves Klein Time, vol.80 (October 54 H CWeslermonn.lettei
6. 1 Sidro Slich,
2, 1 962): 85; cited in to TomArmslrong, May 3,1978,
Conquistodor of the Void, " 62. Mode in U S A exhibition catalog. University Art
, in Bill Borietle, ed tetters ,
from H C Wesfermonn (New
1 Jean Tinguely, cited in McEvilley, "Yves Klein:
1
Museum, University of California (Berkeley ond Los York Timken, 1988), 163.
Conquistodor of the Void, " 48. Angeles University of Colifornio Press, 1 987), 89. 55 Peter Soul, letter to Allon Frumkin, Mill Volley,
12. Ibid, 27. AdomGopnik, "The Colifornio, 1 972; in Peter Soul New Poinhngs ond Works
7. Art World: The Innocent," New
13. Colvin Tomkins, The Snde ond the Sochelors (New York Yorker (Apiil 10, 1989). 109 On Poper (New York Allan Frumkin Gallery, 1 988),
:
Viking Press, 19651,173 8. Andy Warhol in Andy Warhol, exhibition cotolog unpoginoted
14. Ibid. 180. (Stockholm ModeinoMuseet, 1968), unpoginoted 56. Ibidunpoginoted. ,
1 5. Morcel Duchomp, cited in Tomkins, The Bride ond the 9. According to Ben|omin Buchloh, "Andy Warhol's One- 57 Ibid unpoginoted ,
Bachelors, 15. Dimensionol Art: 1956-1966," in Kynoston McShine, ed 58. Peter Soul, letter to Allon Frumkin, Mill Volley,
,
1 6. Joseph Beuys, cited in Caroline Tisdoll, Joseph Beoys, Andy Warhol A Retrospective, exhibition cotolog (New Colifornio, 1967; m Peter Soul New Paintings and Works
exhibition cotolog (New York: Solomon R. Guggenheim York The Museum of Modern Art, 1 989), 39 On Paper, unpoginoted
Museum, 1979), 21. 10 According to Warhol, in Borry Blindeimon, "Modern 59 Peter Saul, letter to Allan Frumkin, Mill Valley,
1 See John Anthony Thwoites, "The Ambiguity of Joseph
7. Myths An Interview With Andy Worhol," Arts Mogozine, California, 1 966, in Peter Soul New Pointings ond Works
' Art ond Artists, vol.6, no. 7, issue 67 (November
Beuys, vol.56 (October 1981): 145; cited in Marco Livingstone. On Paper, unpoginoted.
): 22; ond W/illoughby Shorp, "An Interview with
1971 "
Do Yourself: Notes On Warhol's Techniques, in
It 60. Peter Soul, letter to Allan Frumkin, Mill Volley,
"
Joseph Beuys," Art/orom 8 (December 1969): 43. McShine, Andy Worhol, 66 Colifornio, 1972; in Peter Soul New Pointings ond Works
1 8. Joseph Beuys, cited in Tisdoll, Joseph Beuys, 7. 1 1 1 Andy Warhol and Pot Hockett, Popism The Worhol 60s On Paper, unpoginated.
19. Joseph Beuys, in Nick Seroto, Joseph Beuys The Secret (New York Harcourt Brace Jovonovich, 1980], 7. 61 Whitney Holsleod, "Mode In Chicago," in Mode In
m Ireland, exhibition catalog
Block for o Secret Person 12. Cited m ibid., 16. Chicago, exhibition catalog (Washington, D C Nalionol :
(Oxford The Museum of Modern Art, 1974), unpogmoled 13 Ibid ,7, Collection of Fine Arts, Smithsonion Institution, 1974), 14.
20. Joseph Beuys, cited in John Russell, "The Shaman as 1 Andy Warhol, The Philosophy of Andy Warhol (New 62 Roger Brown, in Sidney Lawrence, Roger Brown,
Artist," New York Times Mogozine (October 28, 1979], 95 York: Harcourt Brace Jovonovich, exhibition catalog (Washington, DC: Hirshhorn Museum
975), 00-1 1 1
21 Joseph Beuys, cited in Tisdoll, Joseph Beuys, 1 8.

. 1 Kynoston McShine, "Introduction," in McShine, Andy
5 ond Sculpture Garden, Smithsonion Institution, 987), 93 1
22. Ibid., 7. Warhol,] A-] 5, 63. See Robert George Reisner, "The Porlonce of Hip," in
23. Joseph Beuys, cited in John Russell, "The Shomon as 16 Irving Blum gove on engoging account in Laura de The Jozz Titons (Garden City, NY.: Doubledoy, 1960),
Artist," 103. Coppet and Alan Jones, The Art Deolers (New York 156.
24. Beuys as o proctitioner of the occult ond in particular his Pohei, distributed by Crown, 984), 50-8. 1 1 64. Jess, cited in Michoel Auping, Jess: Posfe-Ups (ond
connection with Sterner has been explored at length (if not I 7 Isobel Eberstodl, in Jean Stem, ed. with George Plimpton, Assemblies) 1951-1983, exhibition cotalog (Sorosoto,
sympotheticolly) in J. F. Moffitt, Occultism in Avonl-Gorde fdie An American Biography (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Flo John and Mabel Ringling Museum of Art, 1 983), 1
:
0;
Art The Case of Joseph Beuys (Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI 1982), 208 cited in Slich, Made in U S A 1 47,
,
Research Press, 1988). 1 Andy Warhol, in Gene Swenson, "What Is Pop Art? " Part 65 Peter Voulkos, cited in Thomos Albright, Art m the San
25. Joseph Beuys, in George Jappe, "Joseph Beuys soil Artnews, vol. 62 (November 963) 26.
I, 1 : Francisco Bay Area 1945-1980 (Berkeley ond Los
gehen. Soil er2" FAZ (November 28, 1968); cited in Irene 1 Warhol, Andy Worhol, unpoginoted Angeles University of Colifornio Press, 1985), 135,
Von Zohn, "By Way of Introduction," in Some artists, for 20 Worhol, Philosophy of Andy Warhol, 7, 66 William Wiley, cited in Albright, Art in the Son Froncisco
example Joseph Beuys, exhibition cotolog (Riverside: 21 Worhol ond HockeM, Popism, 50. BoyAreo 1945-1980, 119.
University of Colifornio, 1 975), unpoginoted 22 Worhol, Andy Worhol, unpoginoted. 67 John Donne, Devotions upon Emergent Occasions
26. Joseph Beuys, cited in Tisdoll, Joseph Beuys, 94-5 23 Henry Geldzahler. in Stein, fdie, 201 |1624|,no,17,
27. Ibid., 23. 24 Warhol ond Hockett. Popism, 133. 68. See Graham W. J. Beol, "The Beginner's Mind, " in
28. Ibid., 7. 25. Emile de Antonio, in Stem, Edie, 239. Graham W, J Beol and John Perroult, Wiley Territory,
29. Ibid., 10. 26 Henry Geldzohler, in Patrick S. Smith, Worhol exhibition cotolog (Minneapolis: Walker Art Center,
30. Reyner Bonhom, The New Srufolism (New Yoi k, 9661 1 Conversations About The Artist (Ann Arbor, Mich UMI 1979), 25ff.
31 Lawrence Alloway, "The Long Front of Culture," Reseorch Press, 1988), 185. 69 Robert Arneson, in Chiori Santiago, "Portrait of Bob," in
Combridge Opinion, 7, 959, in John Russell and Suzi
1 1 27 Colvm Tomkins, Off the Wall Robert Rouschenberg and The Museum of Colifornio, vol. 1 0, no. 4 (Jonuory/Februory
Goblik, Pop Art Redefined (London, 1969) 41 the Art World of Our Time (Garden City, N,Y Doubledoy 1987) 6
32. Reyner Bonham, "Vehicles of Desire, Art, no. 1 1980), 261 70 Robert Arneson, tronscript of o tape-recorded
(September 955) 3; cited in Modern Dreams The Rise
1 : 28 Worhol and Hockett, Popism, 110 conversation with Moddie Jones, 1978, Archives of
and Fall of Pop, exhibition catalog (New York: The 29, Worhol, Philosophy of Andy Worhol, 92, American Arl, unpoginoted; cited in Neol Benezra, Robert
Institute for Contemporory Art, 988), 66. 1 30 Tomkins, Off the Woll, 260-1 Arneson A Retrospective, exhibition catalog (Des
33. Alison ond Peter Smithson, " But Todoy We Collect Ads, 31 Worhol ond Hockett, Popism, 24 Moines: Des Moines Art Center, 985), 23, 1
Ark, no. 18 (November 1956); reprinted in Modern 32 Brigid Polk, Time (October 17, 1969): 48. 71 Robert Arneson, telephone conversation with Jonothon
Dreams, 57 33 Andy Warhol, in Phyllis Tuchmon, "Popi Interviews with Fineberg, June 27, 1990.
34. Commentary by Richard Homilton, in Richard Homilton, George Segal, Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, James 72. Robert Arneson, tronscript of o tape-recorded
exhibition catalog (New York; Solomon R. Guggenheim Rosenquisl, and Robert Indiono," Artnews, vol. 73 (Moy conversation with Moddie Jones, 1 978, Archives of
Museum, 1973), 24. 1974): 26. See olso Livingstone. "Do It Yourself," 77, n. 9; American Art, 44-6; cited m Robert C Hobbs, "Robert
35. Richard Hamilton, note from 1 956, cited in Richord ond Warhol and Hockett, Popism, 248, in which Warhol Arneson: Critic of Vonguord Extremism," Arts Mogozine
Homilton, 24. exploins that his ossistont's remark was o deliberately (November 1987): 89
36 See Simon Frith and Howord Home, Art into Pop outrageous |oke. 73. Robert Arneson, telephone conversation with Jonothon
487
Notes
Fineber9,June27J990. Judd." Art/orum (June 1971): 49. Cloro Weyergrof, ed., RtcftordSerro: Interviews, Etc,
74. Robert Arneson, conversolion with Jonolhon Fineberg ot 22. Donold Judd, in Coplons, "An Inter. th Don Judd," 1970-1980 (Yonkers, N.Y.: The Hudson River Museum,
Yole University. February 3, 9811 40. 1980), 36.
75. Robert Arneson, quoted in Cecile N. McConn, "About 23. Tony Smith, cited in Morris, "Notes on Scul pture. Part II: 60, First published in Gr^goire Muller, The New Avont-
Arneson.ArtondCeromics.'Artweek (October 26, 1974): reprinted in Bottcock, Minimol Art, 228, 230. Garde: Issues for the Art of (he Seventies (New York:
]; cited in Benezro, Robert Arneson, A Retrospective, 93, 24, Carl Andre, in Phyllis Tuchmon, "An Interview with Corl Proeger, 1 Weyergrof, Richord Serro:
972); reprinted in
n.30. Andre," Artforum (June 1970): 61, Interviews, Etc 1970-1980,9-11.
76. This ond remarks come from o telephone
the following 25, Carl Andre, informal discussion with Jonothon 61 Richard Serro, "Ploy it Again, Sam," Arts Magazine
,
conversation between Jonathan Fineberg and the ortist on Fineberg's students ot Yale University in 1 981 (February 1970); reprinted in Weyergrof, Richard Serro:
June 27, 990, in response to the sources for the work put
1 26. Don Flavin, "... in daylight or cool white: on Interviews, Etc 1970-1980,18,
forward in Dennis Adrian, " Robert Arneson's Feats of outobiogrophicol sketch." Artforum (December 1965): 24, 62, Richord Serro, "Extended Noles from Sight Point Rood,"
Clay,' Art in America (September 1974): 81 27, For o detailed discussion of the dependence on in Richard Serro: Recent Sculpture in Europe 1977-1985
77. See Benezro, Robert Arneson A Retrospective, 53, 56. Duchomp see Mour ice Berger, tobyrmtlis Robert Morris, (Bochum, Germany: Golerie m, 1985), 2; cited in 1
78. As in the Romon posquinade. See Irving Lovm, Bernin. '

Minimalism, ond the 1 960s (New York Harper 8, Row,
:
Douglas Crimp, "Serro's Public Sculpture: Redefining Site
ondfhe Art of Social Satire," History of European Ideas, 1989). Specificity," in Rosolind Krouss, Richord Serro/Sculpture,
vol.4, no, 4 (Oxford ond New York: Pergomon, 19831, 28. Morris, "Notes on Sculpture," Port I; reprinted m exhibition catalog (New York: The Museum of Modern
365-420: reprinted with corrections from Irving Lovm el Bottcock, Minima/ Art, 226. Arl, 1986),47.
al.. Drawings by Gianlatenio Bernini from the Museum 29 Jonothon Fineberg, "Robert Morns Looking Bock An 63, Heizer's term. Telephone conversation with Jonathan
der bitdenden Kunsfe, Leipzig, exhibition cotolog Interview," Arts Mogozine (September 1980): 111, 114, Fineberg, October 18, 1993,
(Princeton: An Museum,
Princeton University, 1981) See olso Robert Morris, "Anti-Form," Artforum (April 64, Michael Heizer in o brochure for Golene H, Groz, 1 977,
79. Robert Arneson, telephone conversation with Jonothon 1968): 33-5, unpoginoted; cited in Sandler, Americon Art of (he 1960s,
Fineberg, June 27, 1990. 30, Sol LeWitt, "Poragrophs on Conceptual Art," Artforum 333,
80. Donald B. Kuspit. "Arneson's Oulroge, Art m America (summer 1967): 80, 65, Michael Heizer, "The Art of Michael Heizer," Artforum
(May "851 135
1 31, Ibid,, 80- (December 1969): 34; cited in John Beordsley, Probing The
32 For a more thorough discussion of minimalism and Earth Contemporary Land Projects, exhibition cotolog
critical theory see Roann Borris, "Peter Eisenmon and the (Woshinglon, DC: Hirshhorn Museum, Smithsonian
Chapter 10 Erosion of Truth," 20/ 1 Art ond Culture, vol. 1 no. 2 (spring , Institution, 1978), 10,
990): 20-37; ond Robert Morns, "Words ond Imoges in
1 66, Conversolion between Jonathan Fineberg and John
1 Borboro Rose, "ABC Art," Art in America Modernism ond Postmodernism," Criticol Inquiry 1 Weber in October 1982,
(October/November, 1965): 58. (winter 1989): 337-47. 67, Robert Hobbs, Robert Smithson Sculpture (Ithoco, N,Y.:
2. Donald Judd, "Specific Objects," Arts yearbooks (1965): 33, Robert Irwin, " Notes Toword a Model," from Robert CornellUniversityPress, 1981), 12.
74-82, reprinted in Donald Judd, Complete Writings iTOin, exhibition catalog (New York: Whitney Museum of 68, Robert Smilhson, "Entropy and the New Monuments,
1959-75 (Hoiifox: The Press of the Novio Scotia College American Art, 1977), 30, Artforum (June 1 966) 26-31 reprinted in Noncy Holt, ed..
, ;
of Art ond Design: New York: New York University Press, 34 Robert Irwin, cited in Jon Butterfield, "Robert Irwin: On The Writings of Robert Smi(hson (New York: New York
1975), 181-9, Robert Morris's teim "umlory forms" the Periphery of Knowing," Arts Mogozine (February University Press, 1979), 9-1 8,
conveyed roughly the some ideo: see Robert Morris, 1976): 74 69 Robert Smilhson, "Towords the Development of on Air
"Notes on Sculpture," Port Artforum (February 1966):
I, 35, James
Turrell, in Josef Helfenslein, "First Light and Colso Terminol Site," Artforum (summer 1967) 40, reprinted in
reprinted Gregory Bottcock, ed,, Minimol Art (New
in in James Turrell, First Light, exhibition cotolog
White," Holt, The Writings of Robert Smithson, 46,
York: Dulton, 19681,228,
E, P, Kunstmuseum, 1991), 11,
(Bern: 70, Tony Smith, in Samuel Wogsloff, Jr,, "Talking With Tony
3. LucyR. Lippord, "New York LeMer: Recent Sculpture as 36, James Turrell, "Interview with James Turrell," in Julio Smith," Artforum (December 1966): 19; reprinted in
Escope." Art Internofiona/ (February 20, 1966): 50, Brown, ed.. Occluded Front James Turrell, exhibition Bottcock, Minimol Art, 386,
4. Hoi Foster, "The Crux of Minimalism," in Howord cotolog [Los Angeles: Museum of Contemporory Art, 71, Robert Smilhson. in "The Symposium," Earth Art,
Singermon, ed,, Individuals A Selected History of 1985), 41, Andrew Dickson
exhibition catalog (Ithoco, N.Y,:
ContempororyArt 1945-1986, exhibition catalog (Los 37, Jomes Turrell, statement to Julio Brown, 1 985, cited in While Museum of Art, Cornell University, 1970),
Angeles: Museum of Contemporary Art, 986), 74. See 1 1 Josef Helfenslein, "First Light and Catso White," in James unpoginoted
also Anno Chove, "Minimalism and the Rhetoric of Turrell, First light, 14, 72, Robert Smithson, "The Spiral Jelly," in Gyorgy Kepes,
Power, " Arts Magazine (Jonuory 990) 56, 1 :
38, Ellsworth Kelly, in Harvey Stein, Artists Observed (New ed.. Arts o( the Environment (New York: George Broziller,
5. Donald Judd, "Kenneth Nolond," Arts Mogozine York, 1986), 46, 972), 231 n,
1 reprinted in Holt, The Writings of Robert
, 1 ;
(September 1963): reprinted in Judd, Complete Writings 39, Robert Rymon, cited in Noncy Grimes, "While Magic," Smithson, 115, n,1,
1959-75,93. Artnews (summer 1986): 87 73, As discussed by Hobbs, Robert Smithson Sculpture, 30
6. Morris, "Notes on Sculpture," Port reprinted in Bottcock, I; 40, Lynn Gumpert, Ned Rifkin, Marcio Tucker, Early Work 74, Eugenie Tsoi, "The Sci-Fi Connection: the IG, J. G.
Minimo/Art,224, Lyndo Benglis/Joon Brown/Luis Jimenez/Gory Stephon, Bollard, and Robert Smithson," in Modern Dreams: The
7. Clement Greenberg, "Recentness of Sculpture," in exhibition catalog (New York: New Museum, 1982), 8 Rise and Fall of Pop, exhibition cotolog (New York: The
Maurice Tuchmon, ed,, Amencon Sculpture of the Sixties, 41 Eva Hesse, cited in Lucy R Lippord, Eva Hesse (New Inslitule for Contemporary Art, 1988), 71-6,
exhibition catalog (Los Angeles: Los Angeles County York:New York University Press, 19761, 24-5. 75, Robert Smithson, "The Spirol Jetty," in Holt, The Writings
Museumof Art, 1967),25. 42, Tom Doyle confirmed that Hesse was impressed with of Robert Smilhson, 111, cited in John Beordsley,
8. Michoel Fried, "Art ond Ob|ecthood," Artforum (summer Ueckerond Beuys in Lucy R Lippord, fvo Hesse, 33. Eorthworks ond Beyond (New York Abbeville, 1 984),
1967), 20 43 As noted in Bill Borrelte, Eva Hesse Sculpture. Cotalogue 22,
9. Ad Remhordt, "Arl-os-Art," Art Inlernotional (December Roisonne (New York: Timken Publishers, 989), 62, 1 76, Ibid,, 22,
20, 1962); cited in Dorothy C. Miller, Americons 1963, 44, Eva Hesse, in Cindy Nemsei, "An Interview with Eva 77, Robert Smithson, 'The Spirol Jetty," m Holt, The Writings
exhibition catalog (New York: The Museum of Modern Hesse," Artforum (May 1970): 59, of Robert Smithson, 111,
Art, 1963), 82. 45 Evo Hesse, a sheet of pencil notes from her last year, in 78, Robert Smithson, "A Sedimentolion of the Mind: Forth
10. Ad Remhordt, "Twelve Rules for o New Academy," Lindo Sheorer, "Evo Hesse: Lost Works," m Robert Pmcus- Proiects," Artforum (September 1968). 50; reprinted in
Artnews (May 957) 38: excerpted in Dorothy C. Miller,
1 :
Witlen ond Linda Sheorer, Evo Hesse A Memoriol Holt, The Writings of Robert Smithson, 82, cited in
Americons 1963, exhibition catalog (New York: The Exhibition, exhibition cotolog (New Yoik: Solomon R Beordsley, Probing The Earth Contemporary Land
Museum of Modern Art, 1963), 83, Guggenheim Museum, 1972), unpoginoted, Proiects, 85,
1 1 According to Irving Sandler, Americon Art of the 1960s 46, Bill Borrette pointed out thof she even tilled hei one- 79 Michoel Heizer, "The Art of Michael Heizer," Artforum
(New York Harper & Row, 1 988), 21 person show ot the Fischboch Gollery in November 1 968: (December 1969) 37
1 2. Frank Stella, in William S, Rubin, Fronfe SfeHa, exhibition "Evo Hesse: Cham Polymers," See Borrette, Eva Hesse 80, They included Giovonm Anselmo, Alighiero Boetti,
catolog (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1 970), Sculpture, Catalogue Roisonne, 15. Luciano Fobro, Jonnis Kounellis, Mono Merz, Giulio
12, 47, Boi retle, Evo Hesse Sculpture, Cotalogue Roisonne, 218, Poolini, Giuseppe Penone, Michelangelo Pistoletto, and
13. Carl Andre, "Frank Stello," in Dorothy C. Miller, Sixteen 48 Borrette, Eva Hesse Sculpture, Catalogue Roisonne, 14; GilbertoZorio.
Americans, exhibition catalog (New York: The Museum of Lippard, Eva Hesse,115,210, 81 Jonnis Kounelhs, in Kothon Brown, Itolions ond American
Modern Art, 1959), 76, 49, Eva Hesse, in Nemser, "An Interview with Evo Hesse," 60 (Ooklond: Crown Point Press, 981 ),
Itolions 1
14. Brendo Richardson, frank Stella The Black Paintings, 50, Ibid., 63. unpoginoted, cited in Michoel Auping, "Primitive
exhibition catalog (Baltimore: Baltimore Museum of Art, 51 Bruce Noumon,
Willoughby Shorp, "Noumon
in Decorum: Of Style, Nolure, ond the Self in Recent Itolion
1976), 3-4. Interview," Arts Mogozine, vol.44, no. 5 (March 1970): 26 Art," in Neol Benezro, Affinities ond Inluitions The
15. Michoel Fried, "Frank Stella," TowardsoNew 52 Bruce Noumon, in Jone Livingston and Marcio Tucker, Gerald S Elliott Collection of Contemporary Art,
Abstraction, exhibition cotolog (New York: Jewish Bruce Noumon Works From 1965 to 1972, exhibition exhibition catalog (Chicago: Art Institute of Chicogo,
Museum, 1963), 28; and Michael Fried, "New York catalog (Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1990), 163.
Letter," Art International (April 25, 1 964) 59, :
1973), 10. 82 Mono Merz, in Germono CelonI, "The Orgonic Flow of
16. Wolter Darby Bonnard, "Presenl-Doy Art and Ready- 53, Bruce Noumon, in Shorp, "Noumon Interview," 27, Art, "Mono Merz, exhibition cotolog (New York: Salomon
Mode Styles," Artforum (December 966) 30; cited in 1 :
54 Brendo Richardson, Bruce Noumon Neons, exhibition R, Guggenheim Museum, 1 989), 1 5,
Sandler, American Art of the 1 960s, 19, catalog (Boltimore: Baltimore Museum of Art, 1 982), 1 7, 83, Mono Merz,
in Richord Koshoiek, "Interview With Mario
17. Fronk
quoted in Bruce Glaser (interviewer) ond
Stello, 55, Bruce Noumon, in Shorp, "Noumon Interview," 25, n, 5, Merz," Mario Merz, exhibition brochure (Minneapolis:
in
Lucy
Lippord (editor), "Questions to Stella ond Judd,"
R. 56, Robert Arneson, in conversolion with Jonathan Fineberg, Wolker Art Center, 1 972), 3; cited in Celont, "The Organic
Artnews (September 1966) 58-9; reprinted in Botlcock. Benicio, Cohfornio, February 19, 1989. Flow of Art, "29,
MinimolArt, 158. 57, Bruce Noumon, cited in Richordson, Bruce Noumon 84, Mono Merz, in Suson Krone, Mario Merz Pointings ond
18. See Chapter 9, note 8 Neons, 20. Constructions, exhibition cotolog (Buffolo; Albright-Knox
19. Borboro Haskell, Donald Judd. exhibition catalog (New 58 Jerry Saltz, "Notes on o Sculpture: Assoull and Battery, Art Gollery, 19841,6
York: Whitney Museum of Americon Art, 1988), 21 Surveillonce ond Captivity: Bruce Noumon's Rots and Bats 85,Mono Merz, in Jeon Chnstophe Ammonn ond Suzonne
20. Donold Judd, " In the Galleries: Frank Stella." Arts ILearned Helplessness in Rats) It, 1988," Arts Mogozine Page, "Enlretien ovec Mono Merz," in Mono Merz,
Magazine (September 1962): reprinted m Judd, Complete (April 1989), 13, exhibition cololog (Pans ARC/Museed'ArtModernedelo
Writings 1959-1975,57 59, Richord Serra, "Document: 'Spin Out '72-73 for Bob Ville de Pans; Bosel Kunsthalle, 1 981 ), cited in Celont,
21 Donold Judd, in John Coplons, "An Interview with Don Smilhson,' "
Avalanche (summer/fall 1973), reprinted in 'TheOrganicFlowof Arl," 35
488
Notes
ChristopherPhillips. 'Homogetoo Phontom Avant- 5. See Robert Farns Thompson, 'Betye & Renee. Priestesses
Chapter 11 Gorde: TheSituotionist Intemotionol,* Artm Amenco ofChance ond Medicine,' m The Migrohons of Meaning
(October 19891: 182-91 239; end Arts Mogonne , A Source Book, exhibition cotolog (New York: INTAR
tn Serti Siegloub. January 5- '
(January 1 989), which contoms four articles on Gollery, 19921,19-31.
3) r969 exhibrtion cotolog iNew York: published by *e Situodonism by Edword Boll, Bill Brown. Mynom D 6. Romore Bearden, m Charles Childs, 'Beorden:
oythor, 1969;; m
Lucy R- LtppoTi, S'« Yeors T>)e Mooyon, ond Kristine Stiles. ond Idenhty, ' Artnews 63 (October 1 964):
Identification
27. Christo. in on interview with Jonothan Fmeberg at the 24, 54, 61cited m Shoron F. Potton, 'Memory ond
demofeno/'zotion ot the art object from 1966 to 1977 ,
..New YoHc: Proeger. 1973). 74. University of Illinois at Urbono-Chompoign, 1977; cried m Metaphor: The Art of Romare Beorden,' in Kinshasho
2. Jon Dibbets, m U^sulo Meyef. Conceptual Art ;New YoHc:
Fineberg, 'Theatreof the Reol: ThoughtsonChristo,' Art Holman Conwill, Mory Schmidt Compbell. and Sharon F.
Dunon. 1972V 121,
E. P-
m An>enco [December 1 979): 96. Potton, Memory ond MeToohor: The Art of Romore
3. Lwcy R Lipporoand John Char>dler. 'The

28. Chnsto, unpublished interview with Jonathan Fmeberg at Bearden 1940-1987 New York: Oxford University Press
Demotenolizction o^ Art,' Art Intematfonat (Febnjory the University of Illinois at Urbono-Champoign, 1 977. ond the Studio Museum m Horlem, 991 38. 1 1,
29 Chr.sto, m on interview wrih Jonothon Fmeberg at the 7. Willem de Kooning, 'Whot Abstroct Art Meons to Me,'
196S': 31-6: or»d Lippord, Sm Yeors r+w demoreoolirofion
University of Illinois at Urtxjnc-Chompoign, 1 977; cited m 6u//e^n of The Museum of Moo'em Art 1 8, no. 3 (spring
of fheorr object rrom ? 966 to 7972 . .
4. Soi LeWitt. ' PorogropHs on Conceptual Art. Arrionim

* Fmeberg, 'Theatre of the Real; Thouohts on Chnsto/ 97. 19511; cited in Harold Rosenberg, Wil/emde Kooning
iJunel967),83. 30. ibid.. 98. ;New York: Horry N. Abroms, 1 9731, 146.
5. Cited in Lippard,Si« Years thedemotenoJ<rorionofrheoft
31 Robert Ameson,
. m conversotion with Jonothon Fmeberg, 8. Ano Mendieto in John Perreault, 'Eorth ond Fire;
ob/ectfrom 1966 to J972 ,179. 1981. Mendietos Body of Work,' in Ano Mendiefo A
6. For one aiscussion of this change, see Robert Morns,
32. Chnsto, m conversation with Jonothon Fmeberg, 1 983; Rerrosoective, exhibition catalog ;New York: New
'Words and Imoges m Modemism and Postmodernism,' cited m Meoning ond
'
Being in Christo's Surrourided Museum of Cortemporory Art. 1 987l. 1 0.
Crrfico/ inouiry 1 5 iwinter 1 989': 337-47. An emblemctic Is/onds. *

m Chnsto: Sunrjunded Islands (New York :
Harry 9. Richord Estes, quoteo m Horvey Stein, Artists Observed
exomple is Joseph Kosuth, 'A-^ After Philosophy," Srud.o N. Abroms, 1986), 27. (New York; Horry N. Abroms, 1 9861, 32.
Intemoriona/: Pel October 1969': 134-7: Por^ 1 11
33. See Chomg Jiunn Lee, Wofenng, Thot's My iih. The 10. Audrey Flock, Audrey Flack On Pointing (New York:
I
.-November 19691: 160-1: Port Ml ;December 19691; 212- Symbo'jsm and Sefi-!maging of Marcel Duchamp, Hort^N. Abroms, 19811,84.
unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Illinois at 1 1 Richord Hoos et ol, 'The Exuv.ae of Visions; Architecture
13.
7. DonoW Kuspit, The Cntic (s Artist [Ann Arix>r, Mich.: UMI Urbana-Chompaign, i993. Dr. Lee has shown thot OS o SuDiect for Art,' Perspecto; The Yo/e Architecfurol
Reseorch Press. 1 984). A poroHel phenomenon existed Duchomp's entire oeu^-re after 912 centered on the 1 Joumon8i,1982i;95,
omong Irtercrv citics of the eighties such os Horold Bloom prochce of Ch'on Buddhist and Tcoist ohilosophy. 12. See Mortin Filler, 'The Wnting on the Woll. Richard Hoos
ona the oecorstnjctionists. Although the many artists influenced by Duchomp's work ondthe Art of Architecture,' in Richord Hoos
over the course of the tweniieth centu-^ appear to hove Architecn/ro/PrO/ec»5 1974-1988. exhibition cotolog (New
8. Joseph Kosuth, 'Art After Philosophy.' Srudfo
hod no inkling of this (with the possible exception of John York; Brooke Alexander; Chicago; Rhono Hoffmon
Inremot'oncl October 1969^: 135.
9. Lowrence Werner, in 'Art Without Spoce, ' o symposium Cogei they aid 'ecogmze that his use of o discourse Gallery, 19881,5
on WBAUFM. New York. November 2, 1 969, moderated among real obiects to provoke enigmatic, conceptual 13- Jockie Ferrora, in conversation with Jof>othon Fineberg,
experiences was his characteristic mode of interacting October 4, 1986.
by Seth Siegloub with Lawrence Wemer. Robert Barry.
Jackie Ferrorc, letter to Jonothan Fineberg of October
Douglas Heubler, and Joseph Kosuth; cried m Lippard.Sir with the viewer. 14.
34. Neil Postmen, Amusing Ourse'v-es ro Death Public 27, 1993,
Years the demoteno/irofton of the an object from 1 966 to
T972 IX- .
Discourse m the Aae of Show Business ;New York. IS.See 'Interview,' in Mike Koike, Motoi Mosoki.Makoto
10. T>>e quotations f-om Vrio Acconci in this end the next
Penguin Books, 1 986;. 99-100. 1 1 0; cited m Mor^m Murotc, eds., Tadashi Kawamoto [Tokyo;
three porographs come from o conversation with students Heifermcn, 'Everywhere, Allthe Time, for Everybody,' m Gendo.kikokushitsu Publishing, 1987). 37.
Marvin Heifermar ond Lisa Phillips, Image Worid Ariand 16. Mory Miss, m Deboroh Nevins, 'An Interview with Mory
ot the Pierson College Master's Residence, Yole
University. Jcnucry 25, 1982. Media Cultvre, exhibition cotolog ,New York: Whihiey Miss,' The Pnncefon Joumo/; Themotic Studies in
Museum of Amenccn Art, 1 989) 27. See also Enk Archirecftire2 19851; 99.
1 1. RoseLeeGoldOerg, 'Performance: The Golden Years,*
.
in Gregory Bcncock and Robert Nickos. eds.. The Art of

Bomouw, Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of Ameficon 17. As stated by the artist in MAmencons Direcrionsof the
Periomonce A Critical Anthoiogy (New York: E- P. Te/ev-.s.on (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), i970s (New York; Michael Blockwood Films, 1 980).
Di/tton. 1984, 87
114. 1 8.See Charles Simonds, 'Microcosm to
35. Robert Storr, 'PolkesMmd lottoos,' Artm Amenco Mccrocosm/Fontosy World to Reol World, ' Aiiiorym
12. Jar>e! Kordon, Loune Arrderson Works From 7969 to
1983. exhibition cotolog iPhilodelphio: InshTuteof December 1992): 71. Wim Beeren, 'On the (February 1974): 36-9.
ContemporcyArt. University of Pennsylvoma, 1983), 25. W'erkgruppe', three paintings bySigmor Poike in the 19. Ibid., 38.
13. Michel Series and Craig Owens m: Craig Owens, 'Sex collection of the Boymans-vcn Beunmcen Museum,* in 20. Gordon Motto-Clork, interview with Donald Woll,
end Lcnguoge: In Between,' m Kordon, Loune Anderson: S,'gmcrPo(te, exhibition cotolog '.Ronerdom: Museum 'Gordon Motto-Clark's Building Dissections, ' Arts
Works From 7969^0 7983. 55. Boymons-von Beunmgen, 1983; Bonn: Stcdt^sches Mogozine, 50 (May 1976); 79.
14. P.ero Monron. ' L-berc dimenstone, ' Azimt,^, 2 Kunstmuseum, 1 984). 1 6, referred to the relationship of the 21 -Gordon Motto-Clarke, in Joon Simon, 'Gordon Motto-
prepnnted imoges to the ones created by the crtists cs Clark 1943-1978.' Art in Amenco (November/December
tJonucry i960 crteo in Giuliano Bngonh, 'Cultural
;
Provocation: Italian Art of the Early Sixties,' m Emily 'haIlucir>a1ory.' John Caldwell went still further. 1 9781 : 13.
Broun, ed., ftaôn Art ,n the 20tt\ Cenrvry Painting and proposing a literol reoding oi Alice m Wonderland OS 22- Gordon Matto-Clork, cited in Mory Jane Jacob,
Sculoture 7900-798S (Munich: Prestel Verlog; London: referring to wotching TV sports on a drug high, in John "Introduction and Acknowledgements,' Gordon Motta-
Royal Acodemy of Arts, 1989), 302. Ccldwell. 'Sigmcr PoIke,' in S<gmor Po7ke, exhibihon Oorte:A Retrospective, exhibition cotolog (Chicogo:
15. Hcroid Rosenoerg. TheDe-Definrhonof Art (New York: cotolog ;Scn Francisco; Son Francisco Museum of Museum of Cortemporory Art, 19851, 8.
Macrr.ilicn.1973
." ModemArt. 1991 1,11. 23. Ibid., 8.
16. Brendo Richardson, Gilbert and George, exhibihon 36. See Graf>dvilte, Un Atrtre Monde jPons: H. Foumier. 24. Suson Rothenberg. cited m Joon Simon, 'Inte-views,'
cctclog Baltimore: Bol^moê Museum of Art, 1984:, 12- 1844!; cited in Gary Gcrrels, 'Mrs. Auhjmnand HerTwo Gordon Moffo-C/ohke; A Retrospective, exhibition
Douohters, ' in Sigmor Po.'lte. exhibriion catalog cototoo iChiccgo; Museum of Contemporary Art. 1 985),
1 7. Helen Mover Hamson and Newton Harrison, in Michel
.Amsterdam,; Stedeii|k Museum, 1 9921. 68. 73.
de Certeau Pay Attention To Moke Art, * m Helen Mover
,
*
:
Hc"'SOP cno Nevsôr Hcmson. The Logoon Cyc'e,

37" Gerhard RicHter m Dorothea Dtetnch, 'Gerhord 25. RomcreBecrden, in M. Bunch Woshington, The Art of
exhiDition cotclog .Ithocc. N.Y_: Heroert F. Johnson
R.chter: An interview." Fne Pnnr Co//ecfor's News'etter. Romore Beoro'en; The Prevalence of Ritvol (New York:
Museum of Art. Cornell Ur.vers.ry, 1 985;, 19. vol. 6 September October 1 985l: 1 28; cried m Seen
1 ,
Horry N, Abroms, 1972), 9.
Rombird. 'Vanations on a Theme; The Pomhng of 26. PoSon, 'Memory and Metophor:TheAnof Romore
18. Norn June Poik, cried in Douglas Davis 'Electronic .
Gerhord Richter. ' Gerhard Richter, exhibihon cotolog Beo'den.' See also Mory Schmidt Campbell, 'Romore
Wallpoper,' Newsweek ,Augusi24, 19701: 54.
^London: Tate Gollery. 1 991), 11 Bearden A Creative Mythology,' Ph.D. diss. (New York;
1 9. Daniel Buren. ' Is Teoching Art Necessary? ' June 968, 1
Gerhard Richter. letter to E. de Wilde, February 23, 1 975, Syracuse University, 1982), 50-3.
unpoginated; cried m Lippord, Six Years the 38,
denTCtenoIirohonoftheartob/ectfrom I966to 7972 in Gemard Richter, 1 1 2. 27- Pciton, 'Memory ond Metophor: The Art of Romore
39- Gerhard Rolf Schon. 'Interview. ' Gerhord
Richter, m Beorden,- 22
53.
Richter, exhibition cotclog [Venice: 36th Biennole, 1972|, 28. Romcre Beorden, in Potton, 'Memory ond Metaphor:
20. There occount of the episode m Jock Bumhom,
is c full
'Hans Hcockes Cancelled Show ct the Guggenheim,* 23; cited in Anne Rorimer, Gerard '
Richter: The Illusion TheArtof Romore Beorden,' 40.
Arrorum June 1971 1: 67-71. and Reality of Pcinhng,' Gerhard Rfchter Pointings, 29. Ibid., 39.
21 Jecn DuDuffet. Rough Droft for a Popular Lecture on

.
' exhibriion catalog , New York: Monon GoodrrK3n Gallery 30. Ibid., 38.
and Speror-e Westwater, 1987;, unpagmoted. 31. Romore Bearden, Mory Schmidt Campbell, 'History
Pointing,' 1945. trcns. Jocchim Neugroschel m Mildred
in
Glimcher. Jeon Duburiet. Tov>rards An Ahemative Rea/rty 40. John Bcidessori cited m Coosie von Bruggen, John ond the Art of Romare Bearoen, in Kmshosho Holmon '
Scfdesson New York: Rizzoli. 1990], 19. Conwill, Mory Schmidt Campbell, ord Sharon F. Potton,
[New York: Poce Pubiicotions, Abbeville. 1 987), 46.
22. Willemde Kooning, 'Whot Abstroct ArtMeanstoMe
'
1,35. Memory ond Metophor Fne Art of Romcre Beorden 1940-
1 987 (New York: Oxford University Press ond the Studio
Su/iehnofTheMuseumof ModemAftlS. no.3 ;spnng
1951 }: 7; reprinted m Thomas B. Hess. Wi//em oe Koon-;
Museum in Horlem, 1 991 ), 9.
New York. The Museum of Modem Art, 1968;. 145-6. Chapter 12 32. Alice Aycock. 'Alice Aycock, Reflections
Interview with Jonothon Fineberg,* in
on Her Work.
Complex
23^ Yves Klein, cried m Pierre Restony, Yves KJem ;New York
At
Horry N. Abroms, 1982), 8. 1 . Robert Motherwell, quoted in Groce Glueck, Visions; Sculpture ond Drowings fay Alice AyccKk,
'Mottle-well, at 61 Puts 'Bemol' Quality Into An.' New exhibition cotolog IMountoinville, N,Y.: Storm King Art
24. Joseph Beuys m Willoughby Shorp. 'An Interview wrih ,
York T.mes February 3, 1976). 33. Center. 1990), 16-1 7-

Joseph 3euys.*Artfoa;m November 1969!; cited in
2 CclvinTotpkms, 'The Art Scene, ' NewYoHcef IMoy 19. 33. Alice Aycock. "Canverschon Between Alice Aycock,
Lippc-o SiTf Yecrs the demotenolirction of theartob/ect
from 966 to 7972
i 121. 1980; 134-6. Tilmor Osterwold and Ardrecs Vowinckel, ' Alice
Bortxjrc Rose. A/nencon Pointing: The fjghries, etthibiHon Aycock: Retrospektive der Proiekte und Ideen 1972-1983.
25. Presioe-rDw.ghtDcvid Eisenhower, 'Forewell Rodio 3.
cotolog New York: Grey Art Gallery, New YoHt Installation undZeichnunger}. exhibition cotolog
or»d Tele^ sion Address to the Amertcon People,' January
Unve-lity, 1980;. vStuttgort: Wurttembergischer Kunstverem, 1983),
17, 1961. ir Robert L Bronyon and Lowrence H. Lorsen.
eds.. The fI5^howef Administration 1953-7967, vol.2 i. Rotoel Fer'er, m Kim Levin, 'Rofcel Ferrer: InTheTomd unpoginoted.
*NewYork,K'' 1:1375. Zone. * in Rafael Ferr&r: Impasstoned Rhythms, exhibition 34. Alice Aycock, 'Work 1 972-74.' m Alon Sondheim. ed.,
cotolog (Austin, Tex.: Logutxi Glono Art Museum, 1982), If>dnriduals. Post-Movement Art in America (New York:
26- See Guy Debc -d. Tne Society of the Spectode, revised
E. P. Dutton, 19771,106.
£r.atish edrtion .Jetrori: Black or>d Red, 1983), 12.
489
Notes
35. She talks about such experiences in: Ahce Aycock. cotolog (New York: Poce Gollery, 1990), 10; ondMorielte York, Apriin, 1986,
Proiecl entitled The Beginnings oi o Complex [New ' Josephus Jitto, "Drowings: A. R. Penck," Tefteningen A. R 30. Joon Simon, Susan Rothenberg (New York: Horry N.
York: Lapp Princess Press and Printed Matter, 1977), Penck (The Hague: Gemeentemuseum, 988), 80. 1 1 Abroms, 19911,33.
unpaginoted. 5. Donold Kuspit, "Flak From The -Rodicols-: The Cose 31. Ibid, 24.
36. Alice Aycock, lecture to students ot Yole University, 1 981 Against Current German Pointing," in Jock Cowort, 32. The details of Rothenberg's personal life come from
37. Alice Aycock, in Margaret SheHield, 'Mystery Under Expressions: New Art from Germany, exhibition catalog Simon, Susan Rothenberg, unless otherwise noted.
Construction,- Artlorum (September 1977): 63. (St. Louis; Saint Louis Art Museum ond Munich: Prestel 33. Susan Rothenberg, Simon, Suson Rothenberg, 79.
38. Alice Aycock, "Alice Aycock, Reflections on Her Work, Verlog, 1983). 34. Ibid., 88.
An Interview with Jonolhon Fineberg," 13. 6. Siegfried Gohr, "The Difficulties of German Pointing with 35. Joel Shopiro, tope-recorded interview with Richord
39. Ibid, 13. Us Own Tradition," in Cowort, Expressions New Art from Morsholl, Moy 3 and 6, 1 982, in Richord Morsholl and
40. Alice Aycock, Conversation Between Alice Aycock, Germany, 35. Roberto Smith, Joel Shapiro, exhibition cotolog (New
Tilmon Osterwold ond Andreas Vowinckel.^ 7. Anselm Kiefer, quoted in Axel Hecht, "Mocht der Mythen," York: Whitney Museum ol Americon Art, 1982), 96.
unpoginated, Art: Dos Kunsfmogozin, Wiesboden (March 1984); 33; 36. Alice Aycock, m conversotion with Jonolhon Fineberg in
41 Alice Aycock, Âlice Aycock, Reflections on Her Work,
. cited in Mark Rosenthal, Anselm Kiefer, exhibition catalog her studio, July 9, 1992,
An Interview with Jonolhon Fineberg," 13. (Philodelphio: Philadelphia Museum of Art; Chicogo: Art 37. Elizabeth Murray, in Deborah Solomon, "Celebrating
42. Ibid, 30-2. Institute of Chicogo; Munich: Prestel Verlog, 1 987), 26. Point," New York Times Mogozine (March 31, 1991), 40.
43. Ibid., 9. 8. Anselm Kiefer, interview with Mork Rosenthal in April 38. Elizabeth Murray, m Koy Larson, "One From the Heart,"
44. Lecture at the Cooper Union, Morch 1 974. Cited in Dore 1986; cited in Rosenthol, Anselm Kiefer, 95. New York Magazine (February 1 0, 1 986), 43.
Ashton, Yes, but.,A Critical Study of Philip Guston (New 9. As Mork Rosenthal notes in o footnote to his discussion of 39. Elizabeth Murray, quoted in Roberto Smilh, "Motion
York: Viking, 19761,1. o pointing by this title, the connection to the lily of the Pictures." in Kothy Holbreich ond Sue Graze, Elizofaeth
45. Horold Rosenberg, "Liberation from Detachment: Philip valley and the rose may come from Roland Borlhes, Murray Paintings and Drawings (New York: Horry N.
Guston, The De-Definifion of Ar» (New York: Collier Michelet, par lui-meme (Pons: Editions de Sevil. 1 965), Abroms, 1987), 13.
Books, 1973), 132-40. 110-11; see Rosenthol, Anselm Kiefer, 11 9, n. 14. 40. Ibid., 122.
46. Philip Guston, letter of October 1 974 to Dore Ashton; 10. Froncesco Clemente, in Gioncorlo Politi, "Francesco 41- Elizabeth Murroy, in 14 Americans Directions of the
cited in Muso Mayer, Night Studio: A Memoir of Pfii7ip Clemente, " Flosh Art 1 7 Apnl/Moy 1 984) 1 7; cited in
1 ( : 1970s (New York: Michoel Blackwood Films, 1980).
Guston fay His Daugfiter (New York Viking Penguin,
: Michoel Auping, "Primitive Decorum: Of Style, Nature, 42. Elizabeth Murray, in Holbreich ond Graze, Elizofaeth
,104, ondlheSelf in Recent Itolion Art," in Neol Benezro, Murroy Pointings and Drawings, 44.
47. Ashton, Yes, but , A Criticof Study of Philip Guston, 87 Affinities ond
Intuitions The Gerald S fl/iott Collection of 43. Ibid, 42.
48. Peter Schieldohl, Philip Guston," in Art of Our Time The ContemporaryArt, exhibition cotolog (Chicago: Art 44. Ehzobelh Murroy, in Richord Morsholl. 50 New York
Saalchi Collection, vol.3 (New York: Rizzoli, 1985), 12- Chicogo. 1990), 164.
Instituteof Artists (Son Froncisco: Chronicle Books, 1986), 82.
13. 1 Sondro Chio in conversotion with Michael Auping, April
1 45. Elizabeth Murray, in Holbreich and Groze, E/izobeth
49. Mercedes MoMer, interview with Muso Moyer, 1987; 12, 1 989; cited in Auping, "Primitive Decorum: Of Style, Murroy Pointings and Drawings, 127.
Moyer, Night Sfud/o, 65-6.
cited in Noture, and the Sell in Recent Italian Art," 66. 1 46- Elizabeth Murray, m Paul Gardner, "Elizabeth Murroy
50. Philip Guston, cited in Ashton, Yes, but A Critical , 12. Froncesco Clemente, in Donold Kuspit, "Clemente Shapes Up," Artnews, vol.83 (September 1984): 55.
Study of Philip Guston, 74. Explores Clemente," Contemporoneo, vol.2, no. 7 47. Elizofaeth Murray, in Holbreich ond Groze, Elizabeth
51 Philip Guston, in Philip Guston A Life Lived, o 16 mm. (October 19891: 40; cited in Raymond Foye, "Modros," in Murray Paintings ond Drowings, 130.
film (Michoel Blackwood Films: New York, 1982). Ann Percy and Raymond Foye. Francesco Clemente Three 48. Elizabeth Murray, from conversotions with Richord
52. Philip Guston, "Philip Guston's Ob|ect: A Dialogue with Worlds, exhibition catalog (Philodelphio: Philodelphio Armstrong, excerpted in the brochure for the exhibition
Horold Rosenberg," Philip Guston Recent Paintings and Museum of Art; New York Rizzoli. 1990], 51 Elizobeth Murroy Poinhngs and Drowings (New York:
Drawings, exhibition catalog (New York: The Jewish 13. Michael Auping, tape-recorded conversation with Whitney Museum of Americon Art, 1 988)
Museum, 1966), unpoginated. Clemente, May 11 ond 12, 1984; cited in Michael Auping, 49. Elizabeth Murray, in Holbreich and Graze, Ehzobeth
53. Philip Guston, in William Berkson, "Dialogue with Philip "Fragments," Froncesco Clemente, exhibition cotolog Murroy Paintings ond Drawings, 1 1 8.
Guston, November 1, 1964." Art ond Literature An (Sarasota, Wash: John ond Mobel Ringling Museum of 50. Elizofaeth Murroy, in Defaoroh Solomon, "Celebrating
International Review? (winter 1965): 66; cited m Robert Art, 1985). 18. Pair "46
Storr, Philip Guston (New York Abbeville, 1986), 43. 14. Kothy Halbreich, Culture ond Commentary An Eighties
54. Philip Guston, cited in Ashton, Yes, but A Critical , Perspective, exhibition catalog (Washington, D.C.
Study of Philip Guston. 154. o more complete version of Hirshhorn Museum. Smithsonion Institution, 1990), 38 Chapter 14
the statement is reprinted in Mogdoleno Dobrowski, The 1 5. See Roiner Crone and Georgio Morsh, An Interview with
Drawings of Philip Guston, exhibition catalog (New York: Froncesco Clemente (New York: Vintage, 1987). 1 Lisa Phillips, "The Sell Similor," in Liso Phillips, Terry
The Museum of Modern Art, 1 988), 29. 16. Ibid., 42. Winters (New York: Whitney Museum ol Americon Art,
55. Ashton, Yes, but , A Critical Study of Philip Guston. 1 See Jonolhon Fineberg, "New Art from the Soviet
7. 1991), 17.
156. Union," Slavic Review (fall 1979), 540-1 2. Tony Crogg, cited in Tony Crogg (London; Tote Gollery,
56. "Philip Guston Talking," o lecture given by Philip Guston 18. Ilyo Kobakov. in Kotrina F. C. Cory. "Ilyo Kobokov: 1989), 11-12.
ol the University ofMinnesota in March 1 978, edited by Profile of o Soviet Unofficial Artist, Art ond Auchon 3. Julian Schnobel, cited in Jeonne Siegol, "Julian
Renee McKee m Philip Guston Pointings 1969-80, (Februory 987) 86-7; cited m Robert Slorr, Dislocotions,
1 :
Schnobel. " Arts Mogozme (June 1 983) 1 5. :
exhibition catalog (London: Whitechopel Art Gollery, exhibition cotolog (New York The Museum of Modern
:
4. Julian Schnobel, "Writings," November 21 1 985; in ,
1982). 52. Art, 1991), 22. Thomos McEvilley and Lisa Phillips, Julion Schnobel
57. Philip Guston, in Phihp Guston A Life Lived (New York: 1 Kobokov, Ten Characters, text occomponying on
9. Ilyo Poinhngs J975-I987, exhibition catalog (London:
Michael Blockwood Films, 1982). instollotion ot Ronold Feldmon Fine Art, New York, 1988; Whitechopel Art Gollery; New York; Whitney Museum ol
58 "Philip Guston Talking, o lecture given by Philip Guston
'
cited in Dovid Ross, ed.. Between Spring and Summer American Art, 1987). 104
otthe University of Minnesota in March 1978, edited by Soviet Conceptuol Art m the Era of Late Communism 5. See. for exomple, Robert Hughes, "Careerism and Hype
Renee McKee in Philip Guston Pointings 1969-80,52. (Boston: Institute of Contemporary Art, Tocomo, Wosh.: Amidst the Image Haze, " Time (June 17.1 985) 81 :
59. Philip Guston, in Philip Guston A Life Lived (New York: Tocomo Art Museum; Cambridge, Moss, and London: 6. Elizabeth Murray, quoted in Roberto Smith, "Research
Michoel Blackwood Films, 1982). MIT Press, 1990,25-7. and Development. Anolysis ond Tronslormotion, " in Jerry
60. He mode reference to this in Philip Guston's Object: A
"
20. According to Colvin Tomkins, "Profiles: Getting Solz, Beyond Boundories (New York: Allred Von der
Dialogue with Harold Rosenberg, " unpoginated. For a Everything In," New Yorker (April 15, 1985): 55; reprinted Morck Editions, 1986), xiii; cited in Lisa Phillips, "Blind
golem see Gerschom G Scholem, The
discussion of the in Morge Goldwoter. Roberto Smith, Colvin Tomkins, Dole with History," McEvilley and Phillips. Julian
Kofafaoloh ond Its Symbolism (New York Schocken Books, Jennifer Bortleft, exhibition catalog (Minneopolis: Wolker Schnofael Pointings 1975-1987,99.
1969), 158-204, and Jorge Luis Borges, Seven Nights Art Center; New York: Abbeville, 1 985). 7. Julion Schnofael, "Writings." July 11, 1986; in McEvilley
(New York: New Directions Books. 980), 95-1 06; cited in 1 21 . As pointed out in Morge Goldwoter, "Jennifer Bortlett: and Phillips, Julion Schnobel Pointings 1975-1987,104
Robert Slorr. Philip Guston, 60 On Land and At Seo," Goldwoter, Smith, and Tomkins, 8. Julion Schnobel, conversation with Jonolhon Fineberg
61 Philip Guston, in Philip Guston A Life Lived (New York: Jennifer Bortleft, 75, n. 3. and o lew of Fineberg's Yale University students in
Michoel Blockwood Films, 1982). 22. Michael Hurson, "Thurmon Buzzard- An Essay on Schnobel's studio. New York, loll 1 981
62. Philip Guston; cited in Ashton. Yes, but A Critical , Scenes and Conversations
Fiction," Artists' Architecture 9. Julian Schnobel, "Writings, " Irom the Modrid notebooks,
Study of Philip Guston, 177. (London: Institute of Contemporary Art, 1983), 69. 1 978; in McEvilley ond Phillips, Julian Schnobel Pointings
63. RossFeld, "Philip Guston: on essay," in Phi7/p Guston, 23. Michoel Hurson, in conversation with Jonolhon Fineberg 1975-1987,104.
exhibition catalog (New York; Son Francisco Museum of oboutthe "New Image Painting" show, Chicogo, 10. Eric FischI, in Donald Kuspit ond Erich FischI, "An
Modern Art and George Broziller, 1980), 29; also cited in September 1979. Interview with Erich FischI," in Fischf (New York: Vintage,
Moyer, Night Studio, 182. 24 Neil Jenney, in Richard Morsholl, New Image Painting, 1987), 62.
exhibition catalog (New York; Whitney Museum of 1 1 Eric FischI, in Noncy Grimes. "Eric Fischl's Noked
American Art, 1978), 38. Truths," Artnews (September 1986): 72
Chapter 13 25. Neil Jenney, unpublished transcript of o symposium held conversotion with Jonathan
12. Rofaert Colescott, in
ot the Brooklyn Museum, 974; cited in Mork Rosenthal,
1
Fineberg,Chompoign, Illinois, February 17, 1992.
1 Pomelo Kort, Jorg /mmendorff Early Works and lid), Neil Jenney Pomlings ond Sculpture 1967-1980, 13. Jonolhon Borolsky, in Joon Simon, "An Interview with
exhibition cotolog (New York; Gallery Michael Werner, exhibition cotolog (Berkeley: University Art Museum, Jonolhon Borolsky," Artm Americo 69 (November 1981);
1991 ), unpoginoted. 1981), 47. 157-64.
2. Jorg Immendorff, Here and Now To Do What Hos to Be 26. See Lindo Shearer, "An Interview with Robert 14. Jonolhon Borolsky, in Kothy Holfareich, Jonolhon
DonelHierundJetzl Das tun, woszutumsll (Kolnond Moskowitz," in Ned Rifkin, Robert Moskowitz, exhibition Borofsky An Instollotion, exhibition brochure
New York: Gebr. Kpnig, 1973), republished in cotolog (Woshington, DC Hirshhorn Museum ond (Combridge, Moss, MIT Press, 980), cited in Mork
:
1
Immendorffs Hondbuch der Adademie fur Adier (Koln. Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution), 51 Rosenthal, "Jonathan Borolsky's Modes of Working,"
WolterKonig. 1989). 27. Susan Rothenberg, in conversotion with Jonathan Mork Rosenthal and Richord Morsholl. Jonothon
3. Trans, from Pomelo Kort, Jorg /mmendorff Wonted to 8 /
Fineberg in her studio. New York, April 986. 1 1 , 1
Borofsky, exhibition cotolog (Philodelphio: Philadelphia
on Artist 1971-1974 (New York: Gallery Michael Werner 28. Suson Rothenberg, in conversation with Jonolhon Museum ol Art; New York : Whitney Museum ol Americon
1991), unpoginated. Fineberg in her studio. New York, April 1 986. 1 , 1
Art, 1984], 14,
4. See Thomos McEvilley, "The Work of 'Georg Boselitz'?,' 29. This IS the woy Susan Rothenberg explained the work in o 1 5. Jonothon Borofsky, note to the illustrotions, in Rosenthol
Georg Boselitz The Women of Dresden, exhibition conversotion with Jonathan Fineberg in her studio. New ond Morsholl, Jonothon Borofsky, 106.
490
Notes
^^n Corlin, 'Bombing History: GroHtti ond Art of the 45. Ibid, 94.
poper reodanhe meeting of the
lies.' unpublished 46. Christion Boltonski, interview with Jocques Cloyssen,
Art Associoiion m Boston in
legeArtAssociolionm
lege m IVO987 1 Idenfite/ldentificofions, exhibition catalog (Bordeaux;
'"
does Oldenburg, quoted in the New V Centre d'Arts Plosliques Contemporoins, 1976), 24; cited
cited by John Corlin, 'Bombing History L- in Nancy Mormer," Boltonski: The Uses of Contfodiction,"
the Eighties,' unpubhshed poper reod a' Art in America (October 1 989): 75. 1
loston m >
the College Art Association in Boston ] 47. Cindy Sherman, in Morsholl, 50 New York Artists, 1 09.
Borry, Blmdermon,
^. „„,
IB. „ ,
"CI-- Iters with the Third
,
'^
48. The Storn Twins, quoted m Robert Pincus-Witten, "Being
Mind.' in Barry Blindermon, Keith Hormg, Future Twins The Art of Doug ond Mike Storn," Arts Mogozine
xhibitioncotQlog(Nori _, _ (October 1988): 75.
: leries, Illinois State University, t990). 18. 49. Ibid, 76
d.,16. 50 The Storn Twins, in Nancy Stopen, "Still-Rising Storns,
'.
tliom S. Burroughs, Naked Lunch (New York, 1959), Artnews (February 1988): 111.
51 Nairn Steinboch, in Gory Garrels, New Sculpture: Robert
2 1 .See Richard Morsholl. " Repelling Ghosts, " in Richard Gober, Jeff Koons, Haim Steinboch (Chicago; The
Morsholt. Jean Michel Bosquiof, exhibition cotolog (New Renoissonce Society ot the University of Chicago, 1 9B6),
>o-l A'-.r-e, .V^set- c'Ar-eiCT-A-l ond Horry N. unpoginoted.
chronology otthe 52 Hoim Steinboch, in Peter Nagy, moderator, "From
Criticism to Complicity," Flash Art 1 29 (summer 1 986) 46, :
Veffr. n. 1.
53. See Roberta Smith, "Rituals of Consumption," Art m

23. RoDert Forns Thompson, Royalty, Heroism, and the Americo (Moy 1988). 164-71.
"
Streets: The Art of Jeon-Michel Bosquiot, " in Richord 54. Jeff Koons, in Alan Jones, "Jeff Koons, 'El qui libre,'
Morsholl, Jeon. Michel Bosquiof, 32. Galleries Magazine (November 1986); 94.
24. bell hooks, 'Altars of Sacrifice: Re-Membenng 55. Jeff Koons, m
Gioncorlo Politi, "Luxury and Desire; An
Bosquiot.' Anin America (June 1993), 72. Interview with Jeff Koons, " Flosh Art (Februory/Morch
25. Henry Geldzohler, ' Art: From Subways to Soho, Jeon- 1987): 71.
Michel Bosquiot,' Interview, 13 (Jonuory 1983): 46; cited 56. Ibid., 72.
in Robert Farris Thompson, Royolty, Heroism, and the
'
57. Tim Rollins, cited in Williom Olander, "Motenol World,"
Streets: The Art of Jeon-Michel Bosquiot," in Richord Art in Americo (October 989) 1 24. 1 :
Marshall, Jeon-Michel Bosquial, 32. 58. Tim Rollins, quoted in Suzi Goblik, "Report from New
26. Robert Forns Thompson, "Activotmg Heoven: The York; The Graffiti Question," Art in America 70 (October
Incontotory Art of Jean-Michel Bosquiot,' in Jeon-Michel 1982). 37.
Bosquiof, exhibition catalog (New York: Mary Boone ond 59. See Ben H. Bogdikion, The Medio Monopoly (Boston:
MIchoel Werner Gallery, 1985), unpoginoted. Beacon Press, 987) 4; cited in Marvin Heifermon,
1 ;
27. Jeon-Michel Bosquiot. m Robert Forns Thompson,

'
Everywhere, All the Time, for Everybody, " m Morvm

'Royalty, Heroism, The Art of Jeon-Michel
and the Streets: Heifermon ond Lisa Phillips, Imoge World Art and Media
Bosquiot, " m Richord Morsholl, Jeon-Michel Bosquiol, 32 Culture, exhibition cotolog (New York Whitney Museum:
28. See David Woinorowicz. Memories That Smell Like of American Art, 1989), 32.
Gasoline :San Francisco: Artspace Books, 1992) and 60. C. Brower, eds.. Making
See Rondy Rosen and Cothenne
David Woinorowicz, Close to the Knives: A Memoir of TheirMark (New York Abbeville. 989).
:
1
Disinfegrohon (New York: Vintage, 1991). 61 Wodiczko (with Douglas Crimp, Rosolyn
Krzysztof
29. David Woinorowicz, m Barry Blindermon, 'The Deutsche, ond Ewo Loier-Burchorth), "Conversation with
Compression of Time: An Interview with Dovid Krzysztof Wodiczko," October 38 (winter 1986): 39; cited
Woinorowicz,' in Borry Blindermon, ed., Dovid in Peter Boswell, " Krzysztof Wodiczko: Art and the Public
Wo/norowicz Tongues of Flame, exhibition catalog Domain," Public Address Krzysztof Wodiczko
(Normal, 111.: Universif/ Golleries, Illinois State University, (Minneopolis: Wolker Art Center, 992), 3. 1 1
19901,49. 62. Peter Boswell has also cited the Situatiomst Internotional
30. Dovid Wojnarowicz, in Lucy R. Lippord, " Out of the OS on important source. See Guy Debord, The Society of
Safety Zone, ' Art m America 78 (December 1 990) 1 34. :
the Spectacle, revised English edition (Detroit: Block and
31 See Walter Robinson and Corlo McCormick, Report
.
Red, 1983), unpoginoted; Jonathan Crory, "Spectocle,
from the Eost Villoge: Slouching Toward Avenue D. Art in Counter-Memory," October 50 (foil 989), 97-
Attention, 1
Americo (summer 1984): 160. 106; and Ken Knobb, ed., Situotionisl Internotional
32. Dovid Woinorowicz, in MoHhew Rose, " David Anthology (Berkeley: Bureau of Public Secrets, 981 ); oil 1
Wojnarowicz: An Interview," Arts Mogozine 62 (Moy cited in Boswell, " Krzysztof Wodiczko: Art and the Public
1988): 62. Domoin," 19,
33. Dovid Woinorowicz, in conversotion with Jonathan 63 Krzysztof Wodiczko, in Krzysztof Wodiczko: WORKS,
Fineberg in Wojnorowicz's studio. November 3, 987. 1 1 exhibihon brochure (Washington, D.C; Hirshhorn
34. Dovrd Woinorowicz, Close to the Knives. A Memoir of Museum ond Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution.
Disinfegrotion, 1 14. 1988), unpoginoted; cited in Boswell, "Krzysztof
35. Rolond Barthes, 'The Deolh of the Author," in Image Wodiczko: Art and the Public Domoin," 19.
Music-Text, trans Stephen Heath (New York; Hill & Wang 64 See Richord Shiff, "The Necessity of Jimmie Durham's
1977), 143, 146. Previously published os "Lo mort de Jokes, Art Journol (foil, 992) 74-80. 1 ;
louteur,' ManfeioS, 1968. 65 David Hommons, interviewed by Kellie Jones, Reol Life,
36. Rolond Borthes, "The Death of the Author," in Imoge- no. 16 (autumn 1986); 8; in Tom Finkelpearl, Dovid
Music-Texl, trons. Stephen Heoth (New York; & Wong,
Hill Hommons Rousing the Rubble (New York: Institute for
1977), 142-3, 146-7. Previously published os "Lomortde Contemporory Art; Cambridge, Moss MIT Press, 991 ), :
1
MonfeioS, 1968.
I'ouleur," 28.
37. John Corlin, Pop Apocalypse, exhibition brochure (New 66. Ibid, 34.
York: Grocie Mansion Gollery, 1988), unpoginoted. 67, Kit Bloke, "Meloculture," in Fineberg, Out of Town the
38. Thomas Lowson, ' Lost Exit; Pointing.' Artforum (October Williamsburg Paradigm, unpoginoted.
1981): 42.
39. Peter Schieldohl, 'An Interview With Dovid Solle, ' m
Solle (New York: Vintage, 1987), 48. Chapter 15
40. Richord Morsholl, 50 New York Artists,
David Solle, m
(Son Francisco; Chronicle Books, 1 986), 96. 1 Chang Yen -yuan, c. 847, Li-toi-ming-huo-chi, 1 /6; see
41 Lisa Phillips, 'His Equivocal Touch in the Vicinity of
.
William Acker, Some T'ong ond Pre-T'ong Texts on
Histoi7,' in Jonet Kordon, Dovid Solle (Philadelphia; Chinese Pointing (Leiden: E J. Brill, 1954), 149.
Contemporary Art, 1 986), 22.
Institute of 2 Victor Aubertin, Die Kunsf Slirbl (Munich, 191 1); cited in
42. See Jonathan Fineberg, "A longlimeagoinagaloxy for, Klous Lonkheit, ed.. Blue Rider Almonoc (New York;
far owoy "in Jonathon Fineberg, ed.. Out of Town:
'
Viking, 1974), 11.
The Williomsburg Paradigm (Chompoign, III.: Kronnert Art Guston, Time (January 7. 1 952); cited in Muso
3. Philip
Museum, 1993), unpoginoted. Mayer, Night Studio A Memoir of Philip Guston by His
43. Richard Prince, letter loCroig Owens, 1 982, cited m Liso Daughter (New York; Viking Penguin, 1988), 63, and in
Phillips, 'People Keep Asking: An Introduction," Liso Dore Ashton, Yes, but A Criticol Study of Philip Guston
,
Phillips, Richord Prince (New York: Whitney Museum of (NewYork: Viking, 1976), 105
American Art, 1992), 33. For on interesting 4 Georgia O'Keetfe, writing to Anito Pollitzer from South
outobiogrophicol account see J. G. Bollard's interview Corolino in the teens, cited m Dons Bry, Georgio
with Pnnce. published in Punch mogozine OS "Extra- O'Keeffe: Some Memories of Drawings (Albuquerque;
ordincy, ' September ) 967, revised from Bollard's notes New Mexico Press, 1 988). unpoginoted.
University of
by Prince and published in ZC. reprinted in: Vicente 5. Peter Burger, Thieory of the Avant-Corde trons. Michoel
Todoli, Spirifuol Americo: Richord Prince (Volencio, Show, Tf]eory of Literature, vol.4 (Minneapolis; University
Spain; Instituto Volenciono de Arte Moderno, 1 989). of Minnesota Press, 1984), 53.
44. Richord Pnnce, m Jeffrey Rion, "An Interview with 6. Sigmund Freud. Civilizotion and its Discontents (London:
Richord Prince," Art in Americo (March 1987); 90. Hogorth Press, 1930).
INDEX
Abrohom (B. Newmon) \ 03, 4.1 Asphalt Rundown (R. Smilhson) 329 Bermon, Wallace (1926-76) 279 Cafe Deutsch/ond 11/ (Immendorff) 407-8,
obslroct expressionism 1 8, 3) 32, 33, 38,
, assemblagesl86, 188, 194-5 Beuys, Joseph (1921-86) 191 231-4, 236, ,
13,4
U8, 162, 180, 259,299 Ass to Ash (Arneson) 293 312, 31 349, 360, 404, 406, 407, 417,
8, Cage, John (1912-92) 70, 78, 153, 154,
obslroclion, 19805 434, 438-9 Astral Chemical Goddess (Beuys) 231 8.10 , 8.15; Aslrol Chemical Goddess 231 8.10; ,
1 74-5, 1 76, 1 77, 1 79, 1 86, 1 88-9, 1 92,
Abstraction - Creation group40,46 At Five in the Afternoon (Motherwell) 28, 70, The Chief-F/uxus Chant 233-4, 8.1 3; Fat 208, 221 244, 327, 348, 360; 4'33" 1 75;
,
Abstract Pointing (Reinhardl) 56, 297. 6.13 I 3.33 Choir 232, 8.12; How to fxploin Pictures to Music of Chonges 1 75; Perilous Night 1 74;
Acconci.Vilolb. 1940)341-2,384; Atkinson, Terry (b. 1939)336 o Deod Hore 234, 404; Infiltration- Silence 1 54; Theater Piece * 1 1 75-6, 1 89;
Following Piece 341 1 1 .6; Seedbed 342; , A209 Zogg (Ferroro) 380, 381 , 12.21 Homogen for Grand Piono 234, 236, O'O" 175
re//ingSecfels341 Aunt Bessie and Aunt f dith (Ringgold) 371 The Pacit 234, 8.14; Show Your Wound Cohill,Holger27
According to Wtiot (Johns) 209, 216, 217, 12.1 236, Stog Hunt 232, 8,11 Colder, Alexonder (1 898-1 976) 41 42, ,
7.49 oulomatism 20, 34, 35, 68, 86, 90, 1 0, 1 1 1 1 , 1 Bickerton, Ashley (b, 959) 459, 460 1 45-6, 48-51 69, , 1 Bougamvil/ea
39, 3.3;
Achi/Zes (B. Newmon) 103, 105 Automobile Tire Print (Rauschenberg) 77 1 B.ddle, George (1885-1973) 26-7 50, 3.1 Circus 42, 45, 46, 3.3; The Circus
1 ;
action pointing 35, 36, 38, 39, 189, 398 Autumn Rhythm (Pollack) 246 Bidio, Mike (b. 1953)455 (drowings) 48, 3.9; Constel/otion 50, 3.10;
Ado (in Black Sweater) (Kalz) 66, 6,28 1 avant-garde, the 17 Birth of Death (Compoli) 6.35 Fishbowl with Crank 45, 3.4; Flomingo 51
Adhesiveness (Hockney) 241 8.20 , Avery, Milton 1 893-1 965) 1 08, 1 1 7; Interior
( Bischoff, Elmer (1 91 6-91 ) 1 69, 280; Two 3.12; Little Boll with Counterweight 46;
A(ricono,Nicholos(b, 1948)422 with Figure 108, 4.22 Figures ot the Seashore 6.31 Non-Ob|echve 46, 49, 50, 3.8; Ob/ect
Atrum (Turreil) 307 Aycock, Alice (b, 1 946) 384, 388, 390, 395, Block Form on Groy Squore (Tdpies) 6.5 inY46, 3.6, 3.7, Only Only Bird 3.2;
Agee, James: Let Us Now Proise Fomous 428; The Angels Continue Turning the Block Manhattan (Beorden) 388, 1 2.32 Performing Seal 45, 3.1 The Pistil 46; ;
Men 255-6 Wheels of the Universe 390-1 1 2,35; , Block Monk, The (Gorky) 67 A Universe 46, 48, 3.5
Ahearn,John(b 1951)463 Circ/ing 'Round the KoBo 392, 395, 12,38, Block Mountain College 70, 78, 84, 1 58, 1 75, Calendars, The (Gorky) 61 67, 3,29 ,
Airtlow (Oldenburg) 201 12.39; How to Catch ond Monufocture 176,177 Campbell's Soup Cans (Warhol) 252, 9.9
Albers, Josef ( 1 888-1 976) 70, 78, 84, 1 56, Ghosts 391 12.36; Low Bui/ding with Dirt
, Bloke, Kit (b. 1 958) 471 , Title on Newspaper Camp Good Times (Oldenburg) 204-5
1 58, 1 75, 1 76, 1 77; "
Homage to the Roof 390: The Mochine That Mattes the 471,14.50 Compoli, Cosmo (b, 1 922) 171; Birth of
Squore- series 156, 158,6.12 World 390; Moze390; Pro/ecf Entitled Bloke, Peter (b, 1 932) 240; Sergeant Pepper's Deoth 6,35
Alechinsky, Pierre (b, 1 927) 1 58, 1 60; Deoth "The Beginnings ofo Complex 390, Lonely Hearts Club Bond 239, 8.19 Con one chonge anything with these?
ondtheMoiden 161,6.19 1 2.33, 1 2.34; A Salutation to the BlomlLichlenstein) 260-1,9,18 (Immendorff) 406, 13.2
Alice m Wonderland (Poike) 361 1 1 .31 , Wonderful Pig of Knowledge ,391-2, Blue Pointing Lesson, The (Motherwell) 72, Conto XXXIII (Rauschenberg) 180, 182,7.7
Alifgalor with Pibonocci Numbers to 377 12.37; Tree of fife Fonfosy 395. 12.40 3.36 Canyon (Rauschenberg) 1 77, 215, 7.5
(Merz) 334-5, 10.55, 10.56 Slue Poles, Number 1 1 (Pollock) 28, 86, Capillary Action (Rosenquist) 264, 9,23
Allowoy.Lowrence (1926-90) 236, 237 Bochelord.Goslon (1884-1962) 160, 226 97-8,4,10 Cardfile (Morris) 304
Amary//is(T, Smith) 301, 10.8 Bacon, Froncis (1 909-92) 28, 42-4, 1 1 Blum, Irving 252 Coro, Anthony (b, 1 924) 1 54, 1 55, 1 86, 345,
"American Abslroct Artists" 41 58 ,
146-7, 272, 5.18, 6.21 The Crucifixion ; Blume, Peter (1906-92) 28 Middoy7.16
Amencon Gothic (Wood! 24 143-4; Pointing 144, 5.21; Self Portrait Bochner,Mel(b 1940)309,313 Coslelli. Leo 82, 21 2, 246; Gallery 1 55, 1 80,
Anderson, Lourie (b 1947) 343-4; Duets on 1 42, 1 46, 5.23, Study After Veldzquez's body, orl ond the 465-6, 468 211, 228, 251 , 256, 266, 297, 303, 313,
Ice 343-4 United States Port 344. 1 1 .9
; 1 Portrait of Pope Innocent X 1 42, 1 43, 1 46, body ort 342-3 454
A^d/âlf(Noland) 156,6.11 5.22; Three Studies for Figures at the Base Boltonski, Christian (b, 1944) 456-7; Reserve Coshng (Serro) 320
Andre, Carl (b, 1 935) 294, 297, 301-3, 304, of o Crucifixion 144,5.19; Three Studies of of Deod Swiss456, 14.26 Cothedra/(B, Newmonl 105
312-13,319,330; lever 302: Pyre 301, Figures on Beds 1 46-7, 5.24; Wound for a Booster (Rouschenberg) ) 86, 7,1 Cathedral (Pollock) 28, 78, 86, 89, 92, 4.1
302, 10.9; Sp;H 303, 304; Steel Magnesium Crucifixion 144 Borofsky, Jonothon (b. 1942) 443-4; Covalli(Kounellis) 331, 10.52
P/oin 302, 10.10; Stone fie/d Sculpture Bod Boy (FischI) 441, 14.11 Inslollolion at Paulo Cooper Gollery Celonl, Germono 331 Arte Povero 331 ;
303,10.11 Baldessari, John (b 1 931 338, 365, 454, ) 444-5, 14,13; Installation ot Philadelphio Celine, Louis-Ferdinond (1894-1961) 197
Angels Continue Turning the Wheels 7he , 455; Heel 11,35 Museum of Art444, 14.12 Central Avenue (Guston) 398, 401 ,12.45,
(Aycock) 390-1, 12.35 Boldwin,Michoel(b. 1945)336 Boshier, Derek (b. 1937)240 12.46
Angry Young Machine (H. C. Westermonn) Bo/ubo ttl (Tinguely) 228, 8,8 Boston Architecturol Center (Hoos) 379, Cesar (Cesar Boldoccini) (b, 1921 228 )
277, 9.40 Bonhom, Peter Reyner (1922-88) 236, 237, 12.18,12.19 Cezanne, Poul (1 839-1 906) 28, 52, 54, 57,
"Anthropometries" (Klein) 225-6, 228, 8.3, 238 Bougoinvi/leo (Colder) 50,3.11 61 , 62, 86, 428, 432, MontSoinle-Victoire
8.5 Bannord, Walter Darby (b 9341 54, 58, 1 1 1 Boulder — Underground/Overground Seep 3.14
Antigone (Rothko) 08, 1 1 1 3, 4,23 299 (N. and H M. Harrison) 347, 11.12 Chagall,Marc (1 887-1985) 20, 69
Appel, Korel (b. 921 1 ) 1 58; Questioning Boptismol Scene (Rothko) 00, 0, 4.24 1 1 1 Bourgeois, Louise (b. ) 91 1 31 1 Double ) ; Chamberlain, John (b. 1927) 186,230;
Children 6.16 Borr, Alfred 30, 42, 89 Negative 10.26 HAWK 186,7.13
opproprialion 454-5; political 461 , 463-5 Borthes, Rolond (191 5-80) 8, 454 1 Box With the Sound of Its Own Making Chorlene (Rouschenberg) 179
Archipenko,Alexonder (1887-1964) 139 Bortlelt, Jennifer (b. 94 422, 429; Folcon 1 1
) (Morris) 304 Charles the First (Bosquiot) 450, 451, 14.18
Armon (Armond Fernondez) (b. 1928) 228; Avenue 422, 13.22, Rhapsody 422, Boy and Dog in a Johnnypump (Bosquiot) Charred Beloved (Gorky) 67
Lorge Bourgeois Refuse 228, 8.7 13.21; Volvo Commission 422, 13.23 449-50, 14.17 Che Foro Senzo Eurydice (di Suvero) 1 86,
Arneson, Robert (1930-921 286, 288-91 Boselitz, Georg (Georg Kern) (b 1938) 408, Broncusi, Conslantin (1 876-1 9571 28, 4 1 7.14
293, 357; Ass to Ash 293, Oossicot 409, 410; Lote Dinner in Dresden 13.5 139,302,439 Chio,Sondro(b. 1946)414,415; The Woter
Exposure 290, 9.66; The Eye of the Boskin, Leonard (b. 1922) 162 Breaking (Murray) 43) Bearer 41 5, 13.12
Beholder 291 9.69; Fragment of Western
, Bosquiot, Jean-Michel (1 960-88) 443, Breoking of the Vessels (Kiefer) 412,414, Chicken (Kaprow) 189,7.18
Ovi/izotion 290, 9.67; Head Eoter 293; 448-51 463, 14.19, Boy and Dog in o
. 13.11 Chief(Klinel 39,2.19
Holy War Head 293, 9.70, John with Art Johnnypump 449-50, 14.17; Chorles the Brecht, George (b. 1925) 191 Chief The (Beuys) 233-4, 8.13
,
288, 9.58, 9.59; Klown 290-1 9.68; No , First450, 451 1 4.18; Piscine Versus the
, Brenner, Anita: TheWind Swept Over CHILD, THE (Conner) 279, 9.43
Deposit, No Return 286, Smorgi-Bob, The Best Hotels 450-1 Mexico 69 Childbirth (Dubuffet) 131,197,5.4
Cook 289-90, 9.65; The ortisf m his Bottle of Fishes(Masson) 20, 2.4 Breton, Andre (1896-1966) 20, 30, 31 35, 61 ,
Childs,Lucindo(b 1940)191,343
studio 289, 9.64; Tooster 288-9, Toilet
, Baudeloire, Chorles (1 821-67) 8, 69, 60 1 1 65,68,132,139,160 Chrislo (Christo Jovacheff) (b, 1935) 203,
288; Typewriter 289. 9.63 Boudrillard, Jean (b, 1929)17,214 Broodwoy Boogie Woogie (Mondrian) 40 228, 350-1 , 353, 355, 357, 359, 365,
Arp, Jean (Hans) (1 887-1 966) 30, 31 4 46, ,
1 , Boziotes, Williom (191 2-63) 30, 68, 70, 89, Broken Kilometer (De Mono) 339, 1 1.4 Dockside Packages 350-1 357, , 1 1 .16;
49 165; Green Form 2.13 Bronx Floors (Matto-Clork) 382, 1 2.27 5,600 Cubicmefer Pockoge 353, 1 1 .23,
Art and Architecture 90 Be (B.Newman] 102,103
I Brooks, Jomes (1 906-92) 94, 397 Pockoge on o Whee/borrow 351 , 1 1.17;
Artoud, Anionin 896-1 948) The Theater
( 1 : Beorden, Romore (1 91 1-88) 371 384-5, , Brown, Ear)e(b, 1926)175 The Pont Neuf Wrapped 350, 351 359, ,
ond Its Double 175 388; Bloclr Monhotton 388, 12.32; The Brown, Joon (1938-90) 279, 280, Portroit of 8, 1 1 .20, Running Fence
1 1 .1 350, 351
0rtbrutl34,237 Dove 386, 388, 1 2.30; Prevalence of Bob for Bingo 280, 9.47; Self Portroit with 355, 357, 1 1.19, Surrounded Islands
arte povero 331 332, 41 2, 4 4, 426, 1 Ritual Baptism 388, 12.31 Fish 280, 9.48 351 , 357, 359, 1 1 .25-1 1 .27; Two Lower
Artforum mogozine 54, 306, 326, 327 1 Beats, the 41, 172,179,278-9 Brown, Roger (b. 1941)277, Tropica/ Storm Monhotton Wrapped Buildings 353,
Art Front (lournol) 108 Becher, Bernhord (b. 1931 ond ) Hillo 277, 9.42 11.21; The Umbrellas 359-60,11.1,
ortinformel 150, 152,224,231 (b. 1934) 340; Watertowers 11.5 Brown, Trisha(b. )936) 191,343 1 1 .28, Wrapped Coost 353, Wrapped
Artist and His Mother, The (Gorky) 61 62, , Bechlle, Robert (b1932)376 Bunnies (Poike) 361, 11,30 Kunstholle, Bern 353, 11.22; Wrapped
Beckett, Samuel (1906-89)278 Burden, Chris (b, 1946) 342; Tronsfixed 342 Reichstog 357, 11.24
Artists' Union 108 Beckmon, William (b. 1942): Double Nude Buren, Daniel (b. 1938)349 Ciardi, John (1 91 6-86) : How Does o Poem
Art Journal 106 376,12,12 Burliuk, David (1882-1967) 61 MeonJ205
Art News 111, 153, 196,211 Beckmann, Max (1 884-1 950) 28, 272, 397, Burning Building, The (Grooms) 1 90, 1 92, Circe (Grosz) 385, 12.29
Art of This Century gollery (Peggy 408 198,7.20 Circling 'Round the Ko'So (Aycock) 392, 395,
Guggenheim) 30, 31 , 57, 68, 69, 76, 89, 90, Bed (Rouschenberg) 1 76, 1 77, 7.4 Burn, Alberto (b 1 91 5) 1 52; Wheat 6.6 12.38,12.39
91,97,111 Bell, Larry (b 1939) )58 Burroughs, WilliomS (b 1914)172,344, Circus (Colder) 42, 45, 46, 3,3, drowings 48,
Artschwoger, Richard (b. 1 924) 377; Toble Bellomy, Richard 264 361 , 446, 448, Naked Lunch 76, 278 1 3.9
and Choir 250, 9.5 Bells (Serro) 318-19, 10.36 Burton, Scott (1 939-89) 377, Two-Port City Square, The (Giocometti) 101, 142,
Arts of the West,
The (Benton) 24, 88, 2.7 Benglis, Lynda (b, 941 31 1 )
1 ; Untitled 31 1 Choirs' Obtuse Angle 12.16 5.17
Art Students League 45, 53, 88, 1 00, 1 07-8, 10.25 Bury, Pol (b 1922)227 Clark, James O. (b 1948) 434, 439; Hermes
117,177,263,385 Bengston, Billy Al(b. 1934)281 Business Prospers (DubuHell 1 37, 1 97, 5,1 434,14.2
Ashbery.John(b, 1927)172 Benton, Thomos Hort (1 889-1975) 26, 33, 88, Butler, Reg (1913-81) 162 Classical Exposure (Arneson) 290, 9.66
Ashlon, Dore 1 06, 07, 80, 395, 399, 403 1 1 89, 91 98; The Arts of the West 24, 88, 2,7
, BuHerfield, Deboroh (b 1949) 286 Clemente, Francesco (b. 1 952) 41 4, 41 5,
492
Index
417-18; He Teaches Emotions with (movie) 330; The tightmng Field 325-6. The King Ploying with the Queen 1 1 5, 4.31 Freud, Sigmund 856-1 9391 1 8, 34, 1 09,
1 1
Feelings 41 7, 13.16: M>'nods416-17. 331 10.47; The New York Forth Room 325,
, Totem ond Toboo 2.2 110, 111,118, 160,196,244,472
13.15. Unfitled418, 13.17 331, 10.46 Ve" ;;j' la-''^ K.lometer Aberre (DubuHet]
Erre et 1 37, 5.1 Fried, Michoel 55, 56, 296, 299
1 54, 1 1
• lns;Gotlery224,226 339-4C Estes,Richard (b 1936) 374; Telephone Friedrich, Cospor Dovid 774-1 840) Monk i
1 :
•> Chuck (b. 1940) 374. 376-7; Se/f deMenil ; Booths 12.10 fay the Seashore 99, 4.12
—o-J-'iS 12.14 DemulhAr-:. '

.e (Indiono) Etude for Pionafo(te(Paik) 191-2.348 From the Series Entitled How lo Colch ond
:: ?P4 7.38 264, 9.24 Excovolion (W. de Kooning) 78-80, 3.44 Monufocture Ghosts- (Aycock)391,
Denis, Maurice [1870-19431 54 exislentiolism 1 8. 36. 1 28, 1 36. 1 39, 1 40, 12.36
Derrido, Jacques (b, 1 930) 1 8, 21 170-1 Frumkin, Allon: Gallery 271 272, 273 ,
Deschomps, Gerord (b. 1937) 228 Experiments in Art and Technology 1 85-6 Fuller. R, Buckminster (1 895-1 983) 78, 1 75,
-25'441, Grondmo De Stoebler, Stephen 9331 281 (b. 1 Eyegloss Pointing # I (Hurson] 422, 424, 244,434
J41, 443. 14.10 Detroit Industry (Rivera) 26, 2.8 13.24 •fun art-ond Fun Gollery 448
5 58,154,156,158 Device Circle (Johns) 211,212, 7.41 Eye of the Beholder, The (Arneson) 291 9.69 , funk ossemblogists 41, 279-80
co-cec>jcl .-!• Jj«, 341 368, 374, 377
J.is , Dibbets.Jonib, 19411336
Conner, Bruce 9331 279; THl CHILD
|b. 1 Dick T.-ocy (Warhol) 251, 9.6 F- III (Rosenqu.st) 266-7, 9.27 Gobo, Mourn (1 890-1 977! 28, 30
279, 9.43, SENORITA 279, 9.44 Die (T. Smith) 301, 10.7 Face in the Abyss. The (Jess! 280, 9.46 Goloxy (B. Newmon) 102, 4.14
Conspirators (Guslon) 396-7, 402, 12.42 Diebenkorn, Richard (1922-93) 169-70; The 256, 257
Factory. Gorden Courtyard (Ferroro) 380, 12.22
Constant (Constant A, Nieuwenhuysl Girl Looking at landscape 6.32; "Ocean Foclum ond II (Rouschenberg)
I 1 79 Gorden in Sochi (Gorky) 61 62, 64-5, 3.26 ,
(b, 1920)158, 160; The titl/etoc/der 6.18 Pork- series 170,6.33 Foinlness (Mothieu) 6.3 Gehry, Frank (b, 1929) 204, 205
Consfef/ohon (Colderl 50. 3.10 Diller, Burgoyne (1906-65) 40, 88; Third FolconAvenue (BortleH) 422, 13.22 Geldzohler, Henry 252, 256, 264, 450; Henry
Construction on o Fuknjm |D. Smith) 1 1 7-1 8, Theme 2.16 Falconer, James (b, 1943) 275; see also Geldzahler and Christopher Scott
4.33 Dine. Jim (b. 1935) 190, 194, 195, 196, 199; HoiryWho (Hockneyl 242, 8.22
Construction with o Forged Neck (D. Smith) Five Feel of Colorful Tools 194, 7.25; The False Start (Johns) 211,215, 7.42 Geometric Mouse (Oldenburg) 203-4, 7.36
113,123,4.38 Hou ?190 Fomily, The (Morisoi) 192, 7.22 Get Out of My Mind Get Out of This Room
Continuous and Related Activities: Dirt Pointing: ForJohn Cage (Rouschenberg) Fontosia(Hofmann)55, 3.17 (Naumanl318
Discontinued by the Act of Dropping (Le 177 Foshion/Moda461,463 Ghosi Forking Lot (SITE) 379. 12.20
Vo) 304, 10.15 Disploced-Reploced Moss (Heizer) 322. FatChair(Beuys) 232, 8.12 Giocometli, Alberto (1901-661 30, 101, 118,
Cooper, Pouio: Gollery 306, 422, 429, 324 331.10.42-10.44 Foutrier, Jean 1 898-1 964) Nude 1 32, 5.5
( : 124, 28, 38-40, 1 42, 5.1 3, The City
1 1
444-5.14.13 di Suvero, Mork (b 9331 86: Che Foro 1 1 Federal Art Proiect (F.A.P) 24, 27, 76, 88, 89, SquoreSl, 101, 142,5.17; FigurelSl, 101,
Corneille (Cornells von Beverloo) (b. 1922) Senzo furydice 7.14; Mohicon 7.15 108 140,5.15. Mon Pointing 81, 101, 140, 5.16,
158 DiverlJohnsi 214-15,7.47 Feldmon, Morton (b. 1 926) 1 75 The Poloce ol 4 o m 50, 1 1 5, 1 39-40, 1 42,
Cornell, Joseph (1903-72) 30; Untitled {The Diver, A (Hockney) 242, 8.23 feminism 373-4, 465-6 5.14, Womon with Chariot 1 40 1
Hotel Eden) 30, 2.11 Diving to the Bottom of the Ocean Ferber, Herbert (1906-91): The Flome 115, Giop Igloo IMerz) 334, 10.54
Comer Prop (Serra) 320, 10.40 (Stonkiewiczl 186,7.12 4.32 Gibson, William (b, 1948): Neuromoncer
Corpse and Mirror (Johns) 21 7-1 8, 7.50 Dockside Packages (Christo) 350-1 357, . Ferlinghetti,Lawrence (b, 1 91 9] 1 72 471
Cottinghom, Robert (b, 1 935) 376 11.16 Ferroro.Jockie(b, 19291379-81,384; Gideon, Sigfried: Mechonization Tokes
Courbel, Gustove (1 819-77) 1 6-1 7, 1 9; Doesburg. Theo van (1 883-1 931 45 ) A209Zogg 380,381, 12.21; Garden Commond237
Stonebreakers 16, 1.3 Dormeyer Miners (Oldenburg) 201-2, Courtyard 380. 12.22 Gift for Apollo (Rouschenberg) 1 80
Cragg. Tony (b. 1949) 438, 439; Green Uof 7.30-7.33 Ferrer, Rafael (b, 1 933) 368; My Faraway Gilbert ond George (Gilbert Proesch,
438,14.5 Dosloyevsky. Fyodor (1 822-8) 36, 59 ) Southern Lond 371 12.3; Puerto Ricon Sun
, b 1 943, and George Possmore, b. 942) 1
Crane, (Harold) Hort (1 899-1 932) 21 5-16, Dotremonl, Christian (1922-79) 158, 161 368,12.2 345, The Singing Sculpture 345, 11. 11
'Cope Hotteros' 21 Double Igloo (Merz) 332-3, 10.55 Ferus Gallery, Los Angeles 252, 284 Gilhooly, Dovid (b. 1943) 286; Mao Tse
Crazy lor (.lie (Durhom) 469. 14.48 Double Negative (Bourgeois! 31 10,26 1 Fetish No 2 (Sloutl 466, 14.42 Tood on o Ming Base 9.61
Crucifixion, The (Bacon) 143-4 Double Negative (Heizerl 324, 10.45 Fifties, The (Polkel 360-1, 11.29 Ginsberg, Allen (b, 1926) 41, 172; Howl 172,
Crumb, Robert (b, 9431 273, 282; 'Mr
1 DoufaleNude (Beckman) 376, 12.12 Figure I IGiocomeni] 101,140,5.15 278, 280
Natural and Flakey Foont in 'A Curl in Double Time (Hudsonl 279, 9.45 Figures by the Sea (Picosso) 65. 70. 80. 1 1 8, Girl and Doll (Jenney) 424, 13.25
Hotponfs" 283,9.51 Dove, The (Beordenl 386, 388, 12.30 144.5.20 Cirl Looking at Landscape (Diebenkorn)
Cubi XVH (D. Smilhl 23. 1 24, 26, 4.40, 4.41
1 1 Do women hove to be naked to get into the Finger Gloves (Horn) 343. 11.8
Cubi XXMI (D. Smith) 1 3, 127, 4.43 1 Met Museum! .Guerrilla Girls) 464, 14.39 Finley, Karen (b 1956)466,468 Gloss, Philip (b. 1937)316,343
CucchI, Enzo (b. 1950) 414,415-16; It Must Drawings (McColluml 460, 14.34 IstAction(Nitsch] 342 11.7 Gogh, Vincent von (1853-90) 28; Three Pairs
Not Be So.d 13.13 Drowning Cirl (Lichlenstein) 260-1 263, ,
Fischer, Konrod see Lueg. Konrod ofShoes 14,1,1
Cunningham, Merce (b. 91 9) 70, 1 75, 1 1 89. 9.19,9.20 FischI, Eric (b, 1 948) 441 Sod Boy 441 , Goings, Ralph (b. 1928) 376; Moby Truck
191; Donee Co. 185,215 Dubuffet, Jeon (1901-85] 128, 131-2, 14.11; Sleepwalker 441 12.11
Cup We All Race 4, TJie (Peto) 213, 7.46 134-8, 1 60, 1 70-1 1 79, 1 86, 1 88, 1 97, , Fishfaowl with Cronk (Colder! 45, 3.4 Golden Wall, The (Hofmonn) 57, 3.20
349: Business Prospers 1 37, 1 97, 5.1 1 Ebon (b 1959) 471 Sociol Program
Fisher, ; Gold Marilyn Monroe (Worhol) 253, 9.1
Doll,Solvodor (1904-89) 20,30, 139 Childbirth 131, 197, 5.4, ErreetAberre 137, forHumons 471,14.51 Golub, Leon (b, 1922)171
D'opres la marquise de la Solano (Morden) 5.12; tondscope with Drunkords 134. 5.7; Vernon (b 1943! 457, Show ond Tell
Fisher, Gonzolez,Julio(1876-l942l 117, 118
310,10.24 landscape Two Personoges 35,
with 1 1 37, 457-8,14.28 Goode, Joe (b, 9371 284; Small Space 284,
1
Davis, Stuort 1 894-1 964) 27, 59-60, 6 1 76,

( , 5.9; lorge Sooty Nude 1 32, 1 34, 5.6. Five Feet of Colorful Tools (Dine) 1 94, 7.25 9.55
88, 1 08, 1 1 7; House ond Street 52-3, 3.1 Le Mefofisyx 81,1 34-5, 5.8; Ploce for FiveHot Dogs (Thiebaudl 70, 6.34 1 Good GovernmenI (Winters) 402, 434, 14.3
Down's Wedding Chopel II (Nevelson) 54, Awakenings 36, 5.1 0; The Squinter 1 35,
1 5.600 Cubicmeter Package (Chnsiol 353, Gorky, Arshile (1 904-48] 27, 30, 31 33, 34, ,
186,7.17 5.1 11.23 35, 59-62. 64-7, 76-7, 88, 1 7, 3.21; The 1
Day Before One, The [B. Newman) 105 Duchomp, Morcel (1 887-1 968] 30, 31 46, , Flack, Audrey (b. 1931 ] 377; Mor.lyn Artist and His Mother 61 62. 3.23; The ,
Doygo (Turreil) 307-8, 10.20 68, 1 31-2, 1 54, 1 74, 1 79, 21 2, 21 6, 21 8, (Vonitos,! 377, 12.15 Calendars 61 67, 3.29; Chorred Beloved
,
Day One. The (B. Newman) 105 230, 304, 360, 371 388, 391 Fountain 288; , ; Flame. The (Ferber) 115.4.32 67; Garden in Sochi 61 62. 64-5, 3.26; .
Deacon, Richard (b. 1949) 438 In Advance of the Broken Arm 360, 7.2. Flame m Spoce and Nude Woman (Mirol 65, Lost Pointing (The Block Monk; 67; The
De Andrea, John (b. 1941)376 Large Gloss 218; Rotory Demisphere 30; 70,118,3.27 Liver IS the Cocks Comb 61 65-6, 3.28; ,
Deoth and the Maiden (Alechmsky) 161, Three Stondord Stoppages 212; Tu'm 215 Flomingo 'Colder) 51, 3.12 Nighttime. Enigmo. ond Nostolgio 61
6.19 Duels on Ice Anderson) 343-4
I
Flotlonds [Guslon] 399, 402, 12.47 3.22; The Opaque 67; Orgonizolion 61
Deoth of American Spirituality, The Dulrene, Froni;ois (1 930-82) 228 Floubert, Gustove (1821-80) 17 62, 3.24
[Woinorowicz) 454, 14.22 Durham, Jimmie (b. 1940) 469; Crazy for Life Flovin, Don (b, 933) 294, 303-4; Monument
1 Gotham News (W, de Kooning) 84, 3.48
Death Ship Run Over by o '66 Lincoln 14.48 forV Tallin 303-4, 10.13; Untitled 303, Gonlieb, Adolph (1 903-74) 31 33, 35, 39, ,
Continental (H, C. Weslermonn) 270, 9.32 Dwelling (Simonds) 382, 12.26 10.12 108, 109, 110, 121; Romonesque Fofode
Debord. Guy (b. 1931)350 Dyn(|Ournall 170,278 Floor. The (Guslon) 403, 12.49 2.1
de Chirico, Giorgio (1 888-1 978) 61 396, , Dynoton pointers 278, 284 Floor Coke (Oldenburg) 199,7.29
398 Fluxus 1 91-2, 233, 304, 325, 343
Echo (Number 25, 1951) (Pollock) 28, 86, 97, Following Piece (Acconci) 34 1 1 1 .6 , 90, 108, 117
De Forest, Roy (b. 1930) 286; W,se Horses 113,4.9 Fontono.Lucio (1899-1968! 152,344; Grohom, Martha: donee co. 41 50, 75 , 1
Dream 9.60 Eddie Diptych (Lichlenstein) 260, 9.17 Spatial Concept, 60 48, 1 960 6.1 Grondmo and the Frenchman (Colescott)
de Kooning, Elaine (1 91 8-89] 35, 39, 78, 81 Edelson, Mory Beth (b. 1933) 373 Fool's House (Johns] 213, 214, 7.45 441,443,14.10
84,153,175,3.47 Egon, Chorles 78, 246; Gallery 76, 78. 84, Ford. Charles Henry 30 Groves, Morris (b. 19101278
de Kooning, Willem (b, 1904) 14, 18, 27, 31 398 For the light (Rolhenbergi 426, 1 3.28 Groyed Roinbow (Pollock] 98
33, 34, 35, 36, 41 , 58, 59, 61 , 62, 67, 68, 70, Eight Student Nurses (Richterl 364, 11.33 Forti,Simone(b 1935:191 Greot Americon Nude «57 (Wesselmonn)
74, 76-85, 89, 1 1 3, 1 1 7, 1 53, 1 54, 1 62, 1 75, Einstein, Albert (1879-19551 46, 48 Foucoult, Michel (1926-841 18 248, 250, 9.4
1 82, 209, 21 2, 246. 349, 371 3.47; Attic 78; Einstein on the Beoch (R, Wilson] 343 Fountain (Duchomp) 288 Greatest Homosexual, The (Rivers) 166
Ercovotion 78-80, 3.44; Gothom News 84, electronics, art and 347-8 Four Color Frame Painting rt I (Mangold] Green, Art (b. 1 941 275, see also Hairy Who ]
3.48; Pointing 28, 78, 3.43, P.nk Angels Elegy to the Spanish Republic, No 78 309,10.21 Green ond Tangerine on Red (Rothko] 106,
77-8, 3.42; Seofed Womon 77. 3.41 IMothervvell) 28, 71,3.34 Fourteen Etchings 5 (Winters) 434, 14.4 4.20
Seofed Womon on a Bench 85, 3.50; Still Eliot, IS 11888-1965)109 Fragment of Western Civilization (Arneson) Green Angel (Johns) 221 7.53 ,
Life 76, 3.40; Two Figures 85, 3.49. Enterprize Encountenzed By the Spydor 290, 9.67 Greenberg, Clement (1 909-94) 1 7, 1 8, 40,
Woman I 74, 80-1 , 82, 84, 3.45; Womon People (Nilsson] 273, 9.36 Francis, Sam
1923)150 (b 54, 58, 72, 76, 84, 89, 1 1 9, 1 54, 1 55, 1 56,
Acobonic 85; Womon ond Bicycle 74, Entombment, The [Rothko] 1 09, 1 3, 4.26 1 Fronkentholer, Helen (b- 928) 72, 1 1 54, 1 55, 1 58, 1 65, 296, 345; Art and Culture 1 54,
80-1 3.38, 3.39 Erased de Kooning Drawing (Rouschenberg) 156; Mountoins ond Sea 55, 6.9 1 336
De Mono, Walter (b. 1935) 191, 325, 330; 182 Freud, Lucion (b. 1922) 162; Francis Socon Green Form (Boziotes) 2.13
The Broken Kilometer 339. 11.4; Hardcore Ernst, Mox (1891-19761 20. 30, 31, 68, 128, 6.21; Naked Girl 6.22 Green Leof(Cragg) 438, 14.5
493
Index
Grooms, Red (b. 1937) 190. 195, 196, 199; Adhesiveness 241 8.20; A Diver 242, 8.23; , four f oces 21 1 ; Torget with Plaster Costs Locon, Jacques (1901-81) 18
The Burn.ng Bu.Wing 190, 192, 198, 7.20; Henry Celdzahler and Christopher Scott 207. 209, 213, 7,39; Thermometer 21 1-12, Lake City (Stella) 1 56, 297, 299, 10.4
One Woy 192, 7.23 242, 8.22; Nicho/'s Canyon 242, 8.24, 7.43; Three flogs 207-8, 209, 7.40; Lorn, Wifredo (1902-82) 68
Grosmon. Tolyono (1904-82) 183, 208, 21 Emphasizing Stillness 241 8.21
Picture , Unhtled217; Whileflog209 Landscape (Hofmann) 55, 3.1 5
Grosz, George (1893-1959) 385; Gfce Hodicke, K.H. (b. 1938)409 Johnson. Lester lb. 1919)192 Londscape/Body/Dwelling (Simonds) 382
12.29 Hofmann, Hans (1880-1 966) 30, 31 , 32, 33, Johnson, Philip(b, 1906) 113 Landscape with Drunkords (Dubuffet) 134,
Group Motenal 46), 463 34, 35, 40, 4 1 , 52, 53-5, 57-8, 89, 96, 99, John with Art (Arneson) 288, 9.58, 9.59 5.7
G<jord/ons of (he Secrel (Pollock) 89 1 1 7, 1 53, 1 55, 1 62, 1 86, 1 92; Fontosio 55, Jonas, Joan (b. 1936)426 Londscope with Two Personages (Dubuffet)
Guernrco (Picasso) 28, 32. 53, 77, 86, 88, 2.10 3.1 7; The Golden WoH 57, 3.20; Jones, Allon(b. 1937)240 135,137,5.9
Guerrillo Girls 464; Oo women have to be Londscope 55, 3.1 5; The Third Hand 57, Jorn, Asger (1 91 4-73) 1 58, 60; A Soul 1 for Lone, Lois 1948)422
(b,
naJced fo gef tnfo fhe Met. Museum? 464, 3.18 Sale 6.1 Longe, Dorothea (1895-1965): White Angel
14.39 Holy War Heod (Arneson) 293, 9.70 Joyce, James (1882-1941) 94, 109, 174 Breadline, Son f roncisco 27, 2.9
Guggenheim, Peggy 30, 45, 90; see o/so Art Holier. Jenny (b. 1 950) 463-4; Truisms 463, Jubilee (Johns) 21 Large Bourgeois Refuse (Armon) 228, 8.7
of This Century gallery 14.37 Judd, Donald (1928-94) 294, 296, 299-300, torge Sooty Nude (Dubuffet) 1 32, 1 34, 5.6
Guggenheim Museum 28, 349, 398 Homoge to New Vorlt (Tinguely) 230, 8.9 304, 315, 377; Untitled (1967) 299, 10.3, Lorge Trademork with Eight Spotlights
Gugl.elmi, Louis ()906-56) 28 Homage to the Square" series (Albers)
"
1 56, 11969)300,10.6 (Ruscha) 284-5, 9.56
Guston, Phihp (191 3-80) 33, 41 88, 1 53, , 158,6.12 Judson Dance Theater 91 304, 325, 343 1 , Lassow,lbram(b. 1913)94, 115
395-9, 401-3, 472; Centrol Avenue 398, Horn, Rebecco (b. 1944) 343; finger Gloves Jung,Carl(1875-1961)34, 108, 111 Lost Pointing (The Slock Monk) (Gorky) 67
401 2.45, 1 2.46; Conspirotors 396-7,
, 343, 11.8; Unicorn 343 iunk sculpture 186, 188 Late Dinner in Dresden (Boselitz) 409, 13.5
402, 12.42; flat/onds 399, 402, 12.47; The Horror of Humon Need (Traynor) 466, 14.43 Just whot is it that makes today's homes so Lathom, John (b, 1921)336
F/oor403, 12.49; Head and eoftle 403, Horsemon (Morini) 6.20 different, so appealing? (R. Hamilton) Lo Villegle, Jocques de (b, 1926] 228
12.48; Moon 403, 12.50, Oasis 1 53, 398, Horses, The (Storn Twins) 459, 14.31 238-9,8.17 teop into fhe Void (Klein) 227, 8.6
6.8; The Porch 397-8, 402, 12.43; The Hotel Eden, The (Cornell) 30, 2.1 1 Le Corbusier (1887-1 965) 45, 237
Studio 395, 401 2.41 Winter 398, 1 2.44
, , / hourloupe style 137-8 Kobokov, llyo (b. 1933) 420; The Man Who Lee (Quinones) (b. 1959): Stop the Bomb
Gutoi Theater artists 1 90, 1 96 House, The (Dine) 190 flew Info Spoce 420,13,20 446,14.14
House ond Street (Davis) 52-3, 3.1 3 Kolko, Franz (1 883-19241 35, 36, 60 Leger, Fernond (1881-1955) 20, 28, 45, 50,
Hoaclce, Hans (b. 1936)349 How fo Catch and Manufacture Ghosts Kondinsky, Wossily (1866-1944) 20, 28, 53, 61 69, 85, 128, 238, 441 443; Ballet
, ,
Haas, Richard (b. 1936) 377, 379; Boston (Aycock)39I 32-3, 34, 40, 52, 53-4, 55. 57, 61 66, 76, , mecanique238
Architectural Center 379, 12.18, 12.19 How fo Explain Pictures to a Dead Hare 94, 96, 128; Sketch I for Composihon VII Leiris,Michel 139
Hams, Roymond(b. 1926)228 (Beuys)234,404 32,57,3.19 Le Vo, Sorry (b, 1 94 1 290, 304, Continuous )
Hairy Who 271 275-7; Hoiry Who

, Hudson, Robert (b. 938) 279, 281 Double 1 ; Kapoor, Anish(b, 1954)438 and Related Activities Disconhnued by
(cot-o/og) 275-6, 9.37 Time 279, 9.45 Koprow, Allan (b 1927) 188-9, 194, 195, the Act of Dropping 304, 10.1 5
Hall and Holt (Rothenberg) 428, 3.30 Hudson River tondscope (D, Smith] 20-1 1 96, 246; Chicken 89, 7.1 8; Eighteen
1 1 Lever (Andre) 302
Halley, Peter(b. 1953)459 4.36 Hoppenings in 6 Ports 89; Fluids 90 1 1 Levine,Sherrie(b. 1947)455
Homada,Sho|i (1894-1978)281 Huebler, Douglas (b. 1924)336 Korp, Ivan 264 Levi-Strouss, Cloude (b, 908) 1 1 8, 31 , 244
Hamilton, Ann (b. 956) 468; Ma/ed/clion1 Hurson, Michoel (b, 941 422, Eyegloss 1 ) Katie and Anne (Porter) 6.24 Levy, Julien 62, 67, Gallery 30
468,15.1 Painhng # I 422, 424, 1 3,24; Red ond Blue Kotz, Alex 927) 1 62, 1 66,
(b, 1 1 92; Ada (m LeWitt, Sol 928] 294, 306, 313, 330, 336,
(b. 1
Hamilton, Richard 1922) 236-7, 238, 239,

(b. 424 Black Sweater) 166,6.28 443; Wad Drowing # 306, 10.19, I
Jusi what IS It thof moires today's homes so Husserl, Edmund (1859-1938] 18 Kowomota, Tadoshi (b, 1 953) 381 ; Spui Wall/Floor Piece #4 306, 10.18
different, so appealing! 238-9, 8.1 7; Pioiecf 382, 12,23 Lichlenstein,Roy (b. 1923] 199,240,246,
pavilion (with McHale and Voelcker) 238, Immendorff, Jorg (b. 1945) 231 404, 406-8; . Kelly, Ellsworth (b, 1923) 158, 263, 309, 247, 251 259-61 263, 361 Blom 9,18;
, , ;
8.18 Cofe Deutschlond III 407-8, 1 3.4, Can one Three Panels Orange, Dork Gray, Green Drowning Girl 263, 9.19, 9.20, Eddie
Hammons, David (b, 1 9431 469, 471 ; Higher change anything with these? 406, 1 3,2 309, 10.22 Diptych 260, 9.17; tittle Big Pointing 263,
Gools 14.49 Imprisoned Figure (Liplon) 1 1 5, 4.30 Kei ouoc, Jock 922-69) 41 72, 278 ( 1 , 1 9.21; Stonding Rib 259-60, 9.1 6
Hand Catching Lead (Serro) 321 In Advance of the Broken Arm (Duchamp) Key, The (Pollock) 91-2,4.3 Life mogozme 49, 97, 1 79, 1 90, 7,6
Hanson, Duane (b, 925) 376; Woman 1 with 174,360,7.2 Kiefer, Anselm(b. 1945)231,410,412,417; Lightand Spoce movement 307-8
Dog 376, 12.13 Independent Group 236-8, 239, 240, 246 Breaking of fhe Vessels 41 2, 41 4, 13.11; lightning field. The (De Mono) 325-6, 331
happenings 188-91.259,260 Indiana, Robert (b. 1 928) 257, 264; The The flood of Heidelberg 410; Ouoternily 10.47
Hare,David(1917-91131, 70,115 Demuth American Dream #5 9.24 410, 13.9; Woylond's Song (with Wing) Lipchitz,Jacques (1891-1973) 20, 69
Haring, Keith (1958-90) 271 446, 448, 449, , Inerlio of Night, The (Parr) 4 8, 1 3.1 8 1 4 1 0, 4 1 2, 1 3.8; The Women of fhe Lippard, Lucy (b. 1937) 294, 313, 336
463; black light installation 448, 14.16; (nfiltrofion-Homogen for Grand Piano Revoluhon412, 13.10 Lipstick (Ascending) on Caterpillar Tracks
subway drawing 446, 14.15 (Beuys) 234, 236 Kienholz, Edword (1927-94) 279,284; The (Oldenburg) 204
Harlem Artists' Guild 384 Ingres, Jeon Auguste Dominique Waif 284, 9.54 Lipton, Seymour (1 903-86] 5, Imprisoned 1 1
Harrison, Newton (b- 1932) ond Helen (1780-1867): Modome de Houssonvi/le Kierkegaard, Soren (1813-55) 36, 74 figure 11 5, 4.30
Mayer (b. 1 929) 345; Bou/der 347, 62 Kiesler, Frederick (1890-1965)45 Lissitzky, El (1890-1941) 28, 128
11.12; 'LogoonCycle' 345, 347 In Memory of My Feelings (Johns) 212-13, King Ploying with the Queen, The (Ernst) 1 1 5, tittle Bothers (Pondick) 466, 14.44
Harligan, Grace (b. 1922) 162; River Bothers 215 4.31 little Big Pointing (Lichtenstein) 263, 9.21
6.23 In Plofo's Cove No (Motherwell) 72, 3,37I Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig 880-1938) 28; Erich (1 tittle todder. The (Nieuwenhuys) 6,18
Hartung. Hans (1904-89) 150 Institute of Contemporary Arts, London 236 Heckel and Otto Muller Ploying Chess tivei IS fhe Cock's Comb, The (Gorky) 61
Holro I 156,297,299,10.5
(Stella) Inferior with Figure (Avery) 1 08, 4.22 407,13.3 65-6,3.28
HAWK (Chomberloinl 186, 7.13 l™in, Robert (b, 1946)307 Kitoi, Ronald (b. 1932)240 "Living Brush" pointings (Klein) 224-5, 226,
Heod and Bottle (Guston) 403, 12.48 (Shame Myself (Motto) 115, 128,5.3 Klee, Paul (1879-1940) 28, 57, 69, 128 8.4
Head Eatei (Arneson) 293 Ishtor (Hesse) 31 2, 10.29 Klein, Yves (1 928-62) 222, 224-8, 231 349; , Long, Richard (b. 1 945) 335, Red Slate Circle
Hecke) and Otto Mullet Playing Chess Is Jim Crow Really Deod? (Soar) 371 ,12.4 Anthropometries 225-6, 228, 8.3, 8.5, 335,10.57
(Kirchner) 407, 13.3 Isle of Colifornio (Los Angeles Fine Arts Leap info the Void 227, 8.6; " Living Brush Longo, Robert (b. 1 953) 441 Notional Trust ;
Hedrick, Wally(b. 1928)279 Squad) 377, 12.17 paintings 224-5, 226, 8.4; Unhtled224, 441,14.9
Heel (Baldessori) 365, 11.35 Isolated Moss/Orcumflex (Heizer) 330 8.2; Untitled Blue Monochrome 222. 8.1 Lorca. FedericoGorcio (1899-1936) 70-1
Heidegger, Martin (1889-1976) 18,36, 140 If Must Not 8e Sold (CucchI) 41 5, 3.1 3 le Vide 224 Los Angeles Fine Arts Squad (Victor
Heindel, Max: to Cosmogonie des Rose- Kline, Franz (191 0-62] 33, 35, 39-40, 84, Henderson and Terry Schoonhoven) 377,
Croix222 Jackson, Martha Gallery 1 90, 1 91 246 ; , 1 05, 1 53, Chief 39, 2.1 9; Untitled 2.1 8 Isle of California 377, 12.17
Heizer, Michael (b, 1944) 322, 324, 325, 338, Jameson, Fredric 17 Klown (Arneson) 290-1 9.68 , Louis, Morris(1912-62) 154, 155-6, 158,
Disp/oced-Reploced Mass 322, 324, 331 Jams, Sidney: Gallery 84, 199, 246, 247 Kluver, Billy 185 296; Tet 156, 6.10
10.42-10.44; Double Negotive 324, 10.45, Jaspers, Karl (1883-1969] 36 Koberling, Bernd(b. 1938)409 tow Building with Dirt Roof (Aycock) 390
Isolated Moss/Circumf/ex 330 Je m home (Motto) 1 1 5, 28, 5.3 1 Komor, Vitoly (b. 1943) and Melomid, Lueg, Konrad (Konrad Fischer) (b. 1939) 360
Helmholljion tandscope (D, Smith) 9, 4,34 1 1 Jenney, Neil (b, 1 945) 422. 424, 425; Girl ond Alexonder (b, 1 945) 419, 420; Stolin ond Lupertz, Morkus (b. 1941)409
Hemingway, Ernest (1 899-1 961 26 ) Doll 424, 13,25 the Muses 419-20, 13.19
Henri, Robert (1865-1929) 52 Jess (Jess Collins] (b. 1923) 279-80; The Koons, Jeff (b, 1955)459,461; "The New" McCollum, Allan (b. 1944) 460; Drawings
Hepworth, Sarboro 903-75) 236 (
1 Foce in fhe Abyss 280, 9.46 460-1; Pink Panther 14.33 460, 14.34
Here 1(8, Newman] 105,4.18 Jef'oimeNo 2 (Motherwell) 71 , 3.35 Kootz, Somuel 57, 69, 246; Gallery 385 Mochine Thof Mokes the World, The
Hermes (Clark) 434, 14.2 Johns, Jasper (b, 1 930] 98, 53, 1 54, 1 56, 1 Kosuth, Joseph (b, 1 945) 339, 384, One and (Aycock) 390
Her Story (Murray) 432, 13.35 171, 179, 182, 183, 194,205,207-9, Three Hammers (English Version) 339, Mociunos, George (1931-78) 191,348
Hess, Thomos40,81,84, 105 21 1-1 8, 221 234, 240, 244, 263, 284, 297,
, 11.3 Mock, Heinz (b. 1931)231
Hesse, Eva (1936-70) 311-14, 319, 425, 426, 300, 319, 320, 336, 339, 360, 395, 425, Kounellis, Jonnis (b, 1 936) 331 , Covolli 331 McLean, Bruce (b, 1944)345
10.27, /shlar312, 10.29, Severol312, 10.1, According to What 209, 21 6, 21 7, 7,49, 10.52, Untitled 331-2, 10.53 McLuhan, Morsholl (1911 -80] 72, 74, 205; 1 1
Untitled 31 3, 10.30, 1 0.31 ; Untitled (Rope Corpse and Mirror 217-18, 7.50; Device Kouros(Noguchi)41,2.21 The Mechonicol Bride 79, 205, 1
Piece) 314, 10.32 Circle211,212,7.41, Diver 214-1 5, 7.47; Kozloff, Joyce 1942) 373, Plozo Los
(b, Understanding Medio 205
He Teaches Emotions with Feelings Folse Sforf 21 1,215, 7,42, fool's House fuenfes 379, 12,6 MogozineofArtSS
(Clemenlel417, 13.16 213,214,7.45; Green Angel 221, 7,53; In Krosner, Lee (1 908-84] 27, 33, 35, 54, 55, 68, Mogntte, Rene (1898-1967) 30, 214; This is
Higgins, Dick(b. 1938)348 Memory of My feelings 21 2-1 3, 21 5, 86,89,91,97; White Squares 2.15 Not a Pipe 21 4; The Voice of Spoce 20, 2.5
Higher Gools (Hammons) 469, 14.49 Jubilee 211, Out the Window 21 5, 21 7; Krauss, Rosolindl54, 155 Mailer, Norman (b. 923) 41 72 1 , 1
High Swan Dive The Seo of Cortez (H C. Pointed Bronze 212, 252, 7.44, Pomhng Kruger, Borboro (b. 1 945) 339, 464, Untitled Mole ond femole (Pollock) 68, 86, 89, 1 1 3,
Weslermann) 271, 9.33 with Two Bolls 212; Perilous Night 209, (You Rule fay Pothehc Disploy] 464, 14.38 2,12
His Broin (Salle) 455, 14.23 218, 221 7.51 Periscope iHort Crane)
, , Kusomo, Yoyoi (b. 1 929): Naked Event 338, Mofedichon (A, Hamilton) 468, 15.1
Hobo (Murray) 433, 13.1 21 5-16, 221 7.48; "The Seasons series
,
"
11.2 Mangold, Robert (b. 937) 309; four Color 1
Hockney, Dovid (b. 1937) 240-2, 21 6, 221 7.52; Tango 209. 21 3; Torget with Kuspil, Donald 293, 339,408 frome Pomhng ffl 309, 10.21
494
Index
New York Times 39, 09, 1 1 1 1 90, 1 96, 250, Palodino,Mimmo(b, 1948)414,415-16;
Figure 49, 127,4.44 1 ,
Man Poinl.ng (GiocomeHI) 101, 140, 5.16 368,471 Sull'orlodella Sera 13.14
Moorman, Chorlolle (1 940-94) 348
Man Who Flew Info Space From His Nichol's Conyon (Hockney) 242, 8.24 Poncho Villo, Dead and Alive (Motherwell)
Morris, Robert (b. 1 931 1 91 290, 294, 296,
Apotmeni, The (Kobokov) 420, 13.20 ) ,
68,69,2.14
304 306 3 13, 330, 390; Box with the Sound Nicholson, Ben (1894-1982) 30, 236
Monzon. P,ero (1933-631 224: Sodedu Ponter, Gory (b. 1950) 455-6, Untitled 14.24
of Own Making 304,
Cardfile 304, Nietzsche, Fnedrich (1844-1 900) 36, 108,
Monde Pedestol ioi the World) 344. 1 1 .1
I
lis
Poolozzi, Edouordo (b. 924] 236, 237, 238, 1
Monzu.Giocomo (1908-91) 162 Untitled 306, 10.17; Untitled

(fell) Cf 115,128,232,282,412
Reol Gold 8.16
beoms) 304, 10.14, Unhtled (Ihteodwasle) Nieuwenhuys see Constant
MooTseTood. (Gilhooly) 9.61
Poper Clip (Rosenquist) 267-8. 9.28
304,10.16 Nighttime, Enigmo. ond Nostalgio (Gorky)
Moo Tse-lung (Worhol portroilsl 257, 259 Pork, Dovid (191 1-60) 69; Stonding Couple 1
Moscoso,Victor(b. 1936)282 61,3.22

Mopplelhorpe, Robert (1946-89) 468 6.30
Moskowitz, Robert (b. 1935) 422, 424; Nilsson,Gladys (b. 1940) 275, Enlerpnze
Morden, Br.ce 938) 310, 429, 430;
(b. 1
Parker, Charlie (1920-55) 450, 451
Skyscroper 2 424, 13.26 Encounterized By the Spydor People 273.
O'opres 'o marquise de la Solono 10.24 Parr, Mike (b, 1 945) 418, The Inertio of
Mothe.^vell, Robert (1915-91) 30, 31 33, 34, 9.36; see olsoHoiry Who
Âar•lyn iVon.losi (Flock) 377, 12.15
,
Nine Evenings Theoter ond Engineering Night 13.18

Monni.Marioo (1901-80) 1 62; Horsenion 35. 38, 40, 41 42, 53, 67-72, 89, 102, 107,
,
(Rouschenberg) 185 Persons. Betty, Gollery 91, 97, 99, 103, 105,
1 6. 368, 3.31 At Five m the Afternoon 28.
.
6.20 246
70, 3,33; The Blue Pointing lesson 72, 3.36; Nitsch, Hermann (b. 1938)342; 1st Action
Morisol (Morisol Escobor) (b. 1930) 192; The Portison Review 40, 70
Dodo Pointers ond Poets (anih.l 1 88; Elegy 11.7
fom.ly 192, 7.22 Poschke, Ed 939) 277; Romiod 277, 9.41
n to the Sponish Republic No 7828,71, No Deposit, No Return (Arneson) 286 (b, 1
Morlhr"""':^- Gallery 5, 402

Poscin, Jules(1 885-1 930) 45, 53
-'^ 14.7 3.34 In Plato's Cove No I 72, 3.37; Je Noguchi, Isomu (1904-88) 41 69, 382; ,
Marc -
Posiphoe (Pollock) 90
foime- series 71 3.35; Opens" 71-2, Kouros 41 2.21; Woter Gorden 41 2.22
, ,
MoF' a Squalor. The ,
Possion of Socco ond Vonzetti, The (Shohn)

Poncho Villo, Dead ond Alive 68, 69, 2,14; Nolond, Kenneth (b. 1924) 154, 155, 156,
(Stel . -; .-- .- 10.2 24, 2.6
Tobacco Roth-Hondle 69, 3.30; Untitled 158, And Holf 156, 6.11
Marsh, Rea.nola 1898-1954)260 Potient ond the Doctors, The (Schnobel) 432,
70, 3.32
Nomad (Rosenquist) 264, 9.26
Mon.n.Agnes (6.1916)158 440,14.8
Mountains and Seo (Fronkenlholer) 55, 6.9 1 Non-Ob/ective (Colder) 46, 49, 50, 3.8
Mo5on,Johnib, 1927) 281, 286 New Jersey (R. Smithson) Pearlslein, Philip (b. 1924) 162, 166. 169,
Mr. Noturol (Crumb) 283, 9.51 Nonsite, Fronklin,
Mosson, Andre (1 896-1 987) 20. 30, 3 1 , 35, . . .
250; Two Femole Models 6.29

Mrs Autumn and Her Two Doughters (Poike) 327,329,330,10.49
50 68, 1 39; Boft/e of f .shes 20, 2.4 Pedestol for the World (Monzom) 344, 1 1 .1
361,364,11.32 Nosei,Annina449
Molhieu, Georges (b. 1 921 ) 1 50, 190, 222; Pelican [Rouschenberg] 183,7,9
Muller, Jon (1922-58) 162; The Temptation Nouveou Reolisme (New Realism) 1 99, 228,
Foir s6.3 Penck, A, R. (Roll Winkler) (b 1939)408,409,
of Somf Anthony 6.25 230, 247, 350
Motisse. Henr, (1869-1954) 28, 34, 53, 69, 410, Sfondort 409-10, 13.7, Untitled
(b, 1951)278
Number (Pollock) 28, 78, 86, 92, 105,4,6
1
1 28; Promenade Among the

Olive Trees Mullicon, Lee
Number 22 (Rothko) 0, 3, 4,27 1 1 1 [Group of Friends) 13.6
55,3.16; TheRedSiud:ol11 Mural (Pollock) 90-1, 96, 98, 4.2 1
Number 27 (Pollock) 28, 78, 86, 97, 4.7, 4.8 performance art 340, 343-5
Matisse, Pierre 50; Gallery 30, 50, 64, 81 Murols for Holyoke Center (Rothko) 114,
1 938! 275, 276; Miss Sue Port
Nutt, Jim (b- Performing Seal (Colder) 45, 3.1
140 4.28
276-7, 9.39; see also Hoiry Who Perilous Night (Johns) 209, 218, 221 7.51 ,
MoHo (Roberto Motto Echaurren) (b. 191 1 Murray, Elizabeth (b. 1 940) 428-9, 440,
Periscope (Hart Crone) (Johns) 21 5-1 6, 221
1 3.36; Breaking 431 Her Story 432, 3.35,
20, 35, 66, 68, 69, 383; Je m'honte (/ Shome
;
Oasis (Guslon) 153,398,6.8 7.48

MyselOllS, 128, 5.3 Hobo 43, 13.1 Pointer s Progress 431 ;
Pelo,John Frederick (1854-1907) 213, The

13.34 Tempesf429-30. 431, 13.33; Obiect in Y (Colder) 46, 49, 3.6. 3.7
Motto-Clark, Gordon (1945-78) 382-4, Cup We All Roce 4 213,7,46
Tomorrow 432-3, 13.37 'Oceon Pork" series (Diebenkorn) 170, 6.33
426; Bronx Floors 382, 1 2.27; Spl/ftmg 1939)240
Phillips, Peter (b.
Museum of Modern Art 28, 30, 48, 50, 61 69, Odolisk (Rouschenberg) 79-80, 7.1 1
Four Corners 384, 12.28

,
O'Hora, Frank (1926-66): In Memory of My photorealism 374, 376-7

Matulka,Jon (1890-1972) 117 84,105,107,111,115,118,123,158,185,
Feelings 21 2, portrait (Rivers) 1 65-6, 6.27 Picobio Froncis (1879-1953) 53,360
Moze (Aycock) 390 230,241,297
O'Keeffe, Georgio (1 887-1 986) 26, 472 Picosso Poblo (1 881-1 973) 20, 24, 28, 32,
Museum of Non-Ob|ective Pointing 96
Meon Clown (Noumon) 318 Oldenburg, Cloes(b. 1929) 154, 190, 191, 53 61 69, 79, 86, 88, 90, 1 08, 1 28, 1 74,
Meef.ng (Turrell) 308 Muybridge, Eodweord (1 830-1 904) The
208 242, Figures by the Sea
:
65, 70, 80,

1 94, 1 95, 1 96-9, 201-5, 330; Airflow 201
Melamid, Alexander see Komor, Vitoly Xumon figure in Mohon 47, 5.25 1
Guemico 28, 32, 53, 77, 86,
Camp Good Times 204-5; Clothespin 204, 1 1 8, 1 44, 5.20:
Melchert,Jomes(b. 1930)288 My Bones (Rolhenberg) 426 88 2.10, The Minotaur Moves his House
My Faraway Southern Lond (Ferrer) 371 7.38; Dormeyer Mixers 201-2, 7.30-7.33.
MemonoltotheldeaofMon (H.C.
221 The Shodow 221 The Studio 53, 62,
12.3
Empire Roy Gun 196,7.26. Floor Coke , ;
Weslermonn) 269-70, 9.30, 9.31 77,3.25

Myriods (Clemenle) 41 6-1 7, 1 3.1 199 7.29. Geometric Mouse 203-4, 7.36;
Mend.ela, Ano (1948-851 373; Tree of Life
Emphosizing Shllness (Hockney) 241,
Lipstick 204, Pie o lo Mode 197, 7,28, Picture
Series 373, 12.7
Nogle, Ron (b. 1939)281,238 Proposed Colossal Monument Teddy 8.21
MenoH,,Gion-Carlol24 Mode (Oldenburg) 97. 7.28
Bear 202-3, 7,35; Sewing Mochine 1 97, Pie a la 1
Merz. Mono (b. 1925)320,331, Naked Event (Kusomol 338, 1 1 .2

7.27; Snapshots from the City 1 98; The Piene, Otto (6.1928)231
332-5; All.golorwith Fibonacci Numbers Noked Girl (L.Freud) 6.22
Angels (W, de Kooning) 77-8, 3.42
Nomulh, Hons (191 5-90) 81 97, 3.47, 4.5 Street 190, 196-7.7.19; Womon figure Pink
to 377 334-5, 10.55. 10.56; Double Igloo
,
with Meduso Ornoments 202, 7.34 Pink Ponther(Koons) 14.33

332-3, 0.55, Giop Igloo 334 1 0.54 Notion 40, 1 1
Place for Awokenings (Dubutfel) 1 36, 5.10
,
Olitski, Jules (b, 1922)154,155

Metofisyx. Le (DubuHet) 81 ,134-5, 5.8 Notional Trust (Longo) 441 14.9
Plozo Los Fuentes (Kozlotf) 373, 379, 12.6
,
Omen of the Eagle (Rothko) 109

Mexican murolisls 24, 26, 88, 89 Noumon, Bruce (b. 1 941 286, 311,315-16, )
Poliokoff. Serge (1900-69) 150

31 8, 31 9-20, 390; Get Out of My Mind One ond Three Hommers (English Version)
Mickey Mouse Vs The Japs (Soul) 272, 9.34 Polke. Sigmor (6. 1941 360, 361 454, 455; )
(Kosuth) 339, 11.3
,
M,ddoy(Coro) 186,7.16 Get Out of This Room 318, Mean Clown

OnemenI (B.Newmonl 100-1,212,4.13 Alice in Wonderlond 361 1 1 .31 Bunnies
Half of My
, ;
Mike Goes Bock to T (Show) 9.62 318, Neon Templotesoffhe Left I
Mrs
One Woy (Grooms) 192,7.23 361. 11.30: The Fifties 360-1. 11.29;
Miller, Henry (1891-1980) 172 Body 316, 10.35; Self Portrait OS o
Only, Ortly Bird (Colder) 3.2
Autumn ond Her Two Doughters 361 .
364,
minimalism 1 54, 294, 296, 300-1 306, 311, fountoin 316, 10.34; Separote Touch ond
,
Onslow-Ford, Gordon (b, 91 21 278 11.32

Sound316; Unfitled315,10.33; Window
1
330,368 Pollock Jockson 91 2-561 24. 26, 27, 30,

orWollSign316 Opoque, The (Gorky) 67 1 1
Minotoure (magazine) 35 31 33 34 35,36,40,42,54-5,58,61,67,

neo-expressionism: Americon 439-41 oport 158
Minotaur Moves his House, The (Picasso) 68 76, 78-9, 86, 88-94, 96-8, 1 05, 8, 1 1
443-5; German 408-10, 412, 414; Itolion Opera Sextronique (Poik) 348
221 342, 384, 21 53, 54, 62, 82, 1 89, 1 96, 291 , 293,
414-18 Oppenheim, Dennis (b. 1938) 330, 1 , 1 1 1 1
Mirb Joon (1 893-1983) 30, 31 35, 45, 50, ,

396 397, 4.5, Autumn Rhythm 246; Blue
Neon Templotes of the Left Holf of My Rocked Circle. Feor342
62 69 76,88,91,111,118,139,276; Poles 28 86, 97-8, 4.1 0; Cathedral 28, 78,
(Nauman) 316, 10.35 Organization (Gorky) 61 62, 3.24 ,
f lome in Space ond Nude Womon 65, 70, Body

86, 89, 92, 4.1 Echo 28. 86, 97, 1 1 3, 4.9,
Orozco, Jose Clemenle (1883-1949) 24, 90,
.
Still Life with Neri, Manuel (b, 930) 280, 281 286; 1
118, 3.27; Pointing 28, 5.2; Grayed Roinbow 98, Guordions of the
,
1
Untitled 280, 9.49 396, 397

on Old Shoe 64 1942) 463, 14.35, 14.36 Secret 89 The Key 91-2, 4.3: Mole and
Beo 1946) 373-4; Suzonno Otterness,Tom |b,
Miss, Mory 1944) 382; Pool Complex
(b. Nettles, (b.
Femole 68, 86, 89, 1 1 3, 2.1 2; Murol 90-1
Surprised 374, 12.8 Out the Window (Johns) 215,217
Orchord Volley 382, 12.24, 12.25 69, 96 98 4.2 Number 28, 78, 86, 92, 05, 1 1
Neumann, J, B. 28, 108

Ozenfont,Amedee (1886-1 966) 20,
Missing Children Show, The (Woinorowiczl 4,6; Number 27 28, 78, 86, 94, 97, 4.7, 4.8:
Nevelson, Louise (1900-88) 53, 186; Down's Foundations of Modern Art 237
453,14.21 Posiphae 90: Portrait ond a Dream 98.
Miss Sue Port (NuM) 276-7, 9.39 Wedding Chapel II 54, 7,1
Scent 98: The She- Wolf 89;
4.1
Poolen, Wolfgong (1 905-59) 278 1 :
^New Imoge Pointing" 422, 424-6, 428

Mitchell, Joon (1926-92) 35 Shimmering Subslonce 91 92, 4.4; White .
Newman Pock, The (Beuys) 234, 8.14

MM (Sonnier) 320, 10.38 Bornett (1905-70) 27, 31 , 33, 34,
Pockoge on a Wheelbarrow (Christo) 351, Light 98
Moby Truck (Goings) 376, 12.11 35 58 70,76,98-103,105-6,108,110,
Polynesion (Wegmon) 374. 12.9
113 128,153,154,208,218,221,299,301; 11.17
Mohicon(diSuvero) 186,7.15 Pondick, Rono (b. 1952): Little Bathers 466,
Abrohom 03, 4.1 5; Achilles 03, 05; Be 1 I Poik, Nom June (b. 1 932) 191, 347-8; Etude
MahO'vNogy.LoszIo (1895-1946); The 1 1
14.44
102 103; Cathedrol 105; The Day Before for Pionoforte 1 91-2, 348; Exposition of
Music-Electronic Television 348; The Pont Neuf Wrapped. The (Christo) 350, 351
Mr ^ -"-1944)20,28,30,32, One 05; The Doy One 05; Goloxy 02,
1 1 1
359,11,18,11.20
Moon Is the Oldest TV 348; Opero
57,69,76,85,91,99. 4.14, Here 105, 4.18; OnemenII
00-1 1 1
; :: 4
Pool Complex Orchord Volley (Miss) 382,
-. ;
21 2 4.13; Onement 01 Stolions of the Sextronique 348, Robot K-456 348; TVBro
',
ij ô 5,0, juu, 398, Broodwoy Boogie II 1 ;
12.24.12.25
for Living Sculpture 348, 1 1 ,1 3, TV Buddho
,
Woogie40 Cross 106,4.19; Unhlled(Number 4)

Poons, Lorry (b- 1937) 158
105, 4.17; V.rHeroicusSublimis 103, 105, 348 TV Clock 348; Video F,sh348, 11.14
Monk, Meredith (b. 1943) 316, 343 pop ort 1 3 98, 1 54, 1 88, 238, 239, 240, 241
4.16 Poine, Roxy (b. 1966): Quiver 468, 14.47
Monk fay the Seoshore (Fnedrich) 99, 4.12 244 246-8, 250, 284-5, 311, 360, 455
Newman, John (b, 1952) 468; Tourniquet Pointed Bronze (Johns) 21 2, 252, 7.44
Monroe Morilyn 253,255,377; Gold Porch, The (Guslon) 397-8,402, 12.43
468, 14.46 Pointer's Progress (Murray) 431, 13.34
Morilyn Monroe (Warhol) 253, 9.1 1 Porter, Foiriield (1 907-75) 76, 1 62, 1 66;
New Reolism see Nouveou Reolisme Painting (Bocon) 144, 5.21
Marilyn Monroes tips (Worhol] 253. 255, and Anne 6.24
Kotie
New York Eonh Room, The (De Mono) 325, Pomting (W, de Kooning) 28, 78, 3.43
9.10
Poinhng (Miro) 128,5.2 Portroit ond o Dream (Pollock) 98. 4.1
MonlSointe-Wctoire (Cezonne) 3.14 331,10.46
Portrait of Bob for Singo (J. Brown) 280, 9.47
Newyorker32.368 Painting (Wols) 6.4
Monument for V Totlin (Flovin) 303-4, 10.13 Portroit of Frank OHoro (Rivers) 1 65-6, 6.27
New York School 20, 24, 27, 30, 31 32-5, 36, Pointing with Two Balls (Johns) 212
Moon(Guston| 403,12.50 ,
70
Moon Is The Oldest TV, The (Poik) 348 40-1 50 53,61,67,68,70,94,97,102, Poloce 014 om . The (GiocomeHi) 50, 1 1 5, Possibilities (lournol)
139-40,142,5.14 postmodernism 360

Moore, Henry (1898-1986) 236; Reclining 108 115,153,174,179,208
495
Index
poststructuralism 18,454 35, 36, 38, 40, 59, 60, 62, 70, 74, 76, 83, 84, Serpentine (Zorio) 332, 10.51 Stag Hunt (Beuys) 232, 8.11
Prevo/ence of Riluo): Bopdsm (Bearden) 388, 89, 96, 1 53, 1 55, 1 58, 1 72, 1 89, 344-5, 395 Serra, Richard (b, 1939)311,318-21,384, sloin pointing see color field poinling
12.31 Rosenquisl, James
933) 1 99, 240, 246, (b, 1 429, 10.39; Bells 318-19, 10.36; Costing Stolin and the Muses (Komor and Melomid)
Price, Ken (b. 19351281,288 247, 263-4, 266-8; Copillory Action 264, 320, Corner Prop 320, 10.40; Hand 419-20,13.19
Prince, Richord 949| 455, 456; Untitled (b. 1 9.23; p. n
266-7, 9.27; Nomod 264, 9.26;
I Catching Leod 321 Splashing 320, 321 , Slomos, Theodoros (b, 1 922) 99
(Three Women 456 14.25 ! Poper Clip 267-8, 9.28; The Promenade of 10.37; Tilted Arc 321, 10.41 Stondord Station, Amorillo, Texos (Ruscha)
Prinzhorn, Hons: A- '•.'.•. r.liylll . Merce Cunninghom 264, 9.25; Through the Serrano, Andres (b. 1950) 466, 468 285, 9.57
134 Eye of the Needle to the Anvil 268, 9.29; Several (Hesse) 312, 10.1 Stondort (Penck) 409-1 0, 3.7
Pro/ecfEnliHed'T-- White Cigarette 263-4, 9.22 SeviHonoslVoulkos) 281, 9.50 Standing Couple (Pork) 6.30
Complex,. (Aye- • 1233 12.34 - Roszok, Theodore 1 907-81 1 1 1 ] Sewing Mochine (Oldenbuig) 97, 7.27 1 Standing Rib (Lichlenstem) 259-60, 9.16
Promenode Among fhe Oli.e Frees .Molisse) Rotary Demisphere (Duchomp) 30 Shodow, The (Picosso) 221 Stonkiewicz, Richard (1922-83) 186, 230;
55,3.16 Rotella,Mimma(b,1918)228 Shohn, Ben (1898-1969) 26; The Passion of Diving to the Bottom of the Ocean 7.12
Promenade of Merce Cunningham, The Rolhenberg, Suson (b, 945) 384, 422, 1 Socco ond Vanzetti 24, 2.6 Storn Twins (Mike and Doug) (b. 1961 458; )
(Rosenquisl) 264, 9.25 424-6, 428, 3.29; For the Light 426, 3.28; Shapiro, Joel (b, 1 941 ) 428, 429; One Hand The Horses (ICA Edition) 459, 14,31
Proposed Co/osso/ Monument Teddy Half and Half 428, 1 3.30; My Bones 426; Forming/Two Honds Forming 428; Untitled Stotions of the Cross (B. Newmon) 106, ,
Bear (Oldenburg) 202-3, 7.35 Two Tone 425, 13.27 (1973-4) 428, 13.31, (1980-1) 428, 13.32 4.19
public sites, orl in 379-82 Roihko, Mark (1 903-70) 27, 30, 31 33, 34, , Shaw, Richard (b. 1941 286; Mike Goes ) Steel Magnesium Plain (Andre) 302, 10.10
Puerto Ricon Sun (Ferrer) 368, 12.2 35, 38, 39, 70, 99, 1 00, 1 06-1 1 1 1 3-1 5, , Bock to T 9.62 Steinboch, Haim (b. 1 944) 459; Ultro Red 1
Puryeor, Mortin (b. 1 941 439; Moroon ) 1 4.7, 1 53, 1 54, 208; Antigone 1 08, 1 1 3, 4.23; Sherman, Cindy (b, 1954) 458; Untitled * 119 14.32
To Transcend 14.6 Boptismol Scene 1 00, 1 1 0, 4.24; The 458,14.30; Unfilled Film Still #3 458, 14.29 Stella, Frank (b, 1 936) 58, 1 55, 1 58. 294, 296,
Pyre (Andrei 301, 302, 10.9 Entombment 1 09, 1 1 3, 4.26; Green ond She-Wolf, The (Pollock) 89 297, 299, 300, 302, 304; Hotro 1 56, 297, 1
Tangerine on Red 1 06, 4.20; Houston Shimmering Substonce (Pollock) 91 92, 4.4 , 299, 10.5; Loke City 1 56, 297, 299, 10.4;
QuongDuc9.1 Chapel murals 115; murals for Holyoke Show ond Tell (V, Fisher) 457-8, 14.28 Morrioge of Reoson and Squolor 1 56, 297,
Quoternity (Kiefer) 41 0, 1 3.9 Center 114, 4.28; Number 22 110, 113, Show Your Wound (Beuysl 236 10.2
Questioning Children (Appel) 6.16 4.27; Omen of the Eogle 1 09; Subway Simonds, Charles (b, 945) 382, Birth 382; 1 Stevens, Wallace (1 879-1 955) 26, 221
Quiver (Pome) 468, 14.47 Scene 08, 4.21 Untitled
1 (1 949) ; 1 1 0, 1 1 1 Dwelling 382, 12.26; Still, ClyHord (1 904-80) 30, 31 33, 38-9, 70, ,
4.25,(1969) 115,4.29 Londscope/Body/Dwellmg 382 99, 11 1,1 54; Untitled 38, 111,2.17
Rainer,Amulf(b. 1929)342-3 Rououll, Georges (1871-1958) 53 Singing Sculpture, The [Gilbert and George) Still Life (W. de Kooning) 76, 3.40
Roiner, Yvonne (b, 1934) 191,321 Running Ooughter (D, Smith) 23 1 345,11.11 Shil Life » 2 (Wesselmonn) 247-8, 9.3
1
Rommellzee (b, 1960) 446, 448 Running Fence (Christo) 350, 351 355, , Siqueiros, David (1896-1974) 24, 88, 96, 396 Still Life with on Old Shoe (Miro) 64
Romrod(Paschke) 277, 9.41 357,11.19 Sistine,Lo(S, Williams) 465, 14.41 Stirling, James (1926-92) 236
Rouschenberg, Robert (b, 925) 1 1 7, 70, 79, Ruscha, Ed (Edward Ruscho) (b, 937) 284, 1 SITE Proieds 379; Ghost Forking Lot 379, Slockhousen,Karlheinz(b, 1928) 192
1 54, 1 71 , 1 74, 1 76-7, 1 79-80, 1 82-3, 285; Lorge Trademark with Eight Spotlights 12.20 Stone, Allan 264
185-6,188,199,205,208,209,211,212, 284-5,9.56; Twenty SIX Gosoline Stations site-specificarl322 Sfonebreokers (Courbet) 16, 1.3
230, 234, 246, 247, 344, 440, 7.3; 285, 9.57 Sitter, The (K, Smith) 466, 14,45 Stone Field Scutoture (Andre) 303, 1 0.1
Automobile Tire Print 1 77; Bed 1 76, 1 77, Rymon, Robert (b 1 930) 58, 310; Untitled *2 Sketch I for Composition VII (Kondinsky) 32, Stop the Bomb (Lee) 446, 1 4.1
7.4; Booster 186, 7.11; Conto XXXIII [The 10.23 57,3.19 Store, The (Oldenburg! 197-8
Inferno] 1 80, 1 82, 7.7; Conyon 1 77, 21 5, Skulls (Worhol) 259, 9.1 Storm Door (Worhol) 251 9.7 (1 960], 9,8 ,
7.5; Chorlene 179; Dirt Painting For John Soar, Betye (b. 1 926) 371 ; Is Jim Crow Reolly Sky, Alison (b, 1946) see SITE (19611
Cage 1 77, Erased de Kooning Drawing Deod?371,12.4 Skyscraper 2 (Moskowitz) 424, 3.26 Stout, Renee jb, 1958); Fetish No 2 466,
1 82; Factum and II 1 79; Gift tor Apollo
I Soge.Koy (1898-1963) 50 Skyway (Rouschenberg) 1 83, 1 85, 7.10 14,42
1 80; Nine Ei'enings 1 85; Odolisk Sainl-Pholle, Niki de (b. 1930) 228 Sleepwalker (Fischl) 441 Street,The (Oldenburg) 1 90, 1 96-7, 7.1
1 79-80, 7,1 Pelican 1 83, 7.9; Rebus 21 5,
; Salinger, J, D, (b. 1 91 9): Catcher in the Rye Smoll Spoce (Goode) 284, 9.55 structuralism 18,360
Reservoir 1 82, 7.8; Skywoy 1 83, ) 85, 7.10; 278 Smith, Alexis (b, 1949) 457; White Christmos Studio, The (Guslon) 395, 401 12.41 ,
Warhol 255-6; "While

portraits Salle, Dovid (b. 1 952) 271 455; His Brain , 457,14.27 Studio, The (Picasso) 53, 62, 77, 3.25
Pointings- 175,176,177 14.23 Smith, David (1906-65) 27, 31 33, 34 35, 41 , Studio, The (Rivers) 165, 6.26
Roy, Mon (Emanuel Rudnitsky) (1890-19761 Solufofion to the Wonderful Pig of 61 71 76, 1 08, 1 1 5-24, 1 27, 1 54, 1 55, 1 86,
, , Studio Magazine 1 43
45,316 Knowledge , A (Aycock) 391-2, 12,37 300, 4.35; Construction on o Fulcrum Study After Velazquez's Portrait of Pope
Roy Gun (Oldenburg) 196,7,26 Somoros, Lucas (b. 936) 1 94, 1 1 95, 1 96, 1 99, 1 1 7-18, 4.33; Construction with o Forged lnnocentX142, 143, 146, 5,22
Roysse, Mortiol(b, 1936)228 311; Untitled Box No 3 7.24 Neck 11 3, 123,4.38; Cubi" 113,123,124, Subwoy, The (Segol) 192, 7.21
Real Gold (Paolozzi) 237, 8.16 Sarel,Alan(b, 1944)384,426 1 26-7, 4.40, 4.41 4.43; Helmholtzion
, Subway Scene (Rothko) 08, 4.21 1
Rebus (Rouschenberg) 21 Sartre, Jeon-Paul

(1 905-80) 8, 36, 50, 1 1 1 1 londscope 119, 4.34, Hudson River Sull'orlo dello Sera (Poladino) 4) 5, 13.14
Reclining Figure (Moore) 49, 1 27 4.44 128,136,140,278;Bein9ond Nothingness tondscope 120-1,4.36; Running Summer (Johns) 21 6, 221, 7.52
Red Slote Circle (Long) 335, 10.57 96, 140, The Wall 36 Daughter 23; Tonkfofem 1121, 4.37; Voltn
1 surrealism 20, 24, 28, 30, 32, 34, 35, 50, 66,
Red Studio, The (Matisse) 1 1 Soturday Disaster (Warhol) 255, 9.12 XII1 124, 4.39; Zig Will 26, 4.42 68, 89, 90, 1 00, 1 01 , 1 08, 1 1 0-1 1 , 1 1 8, 1 28,
regionolism24,26 Soul, Peter (b, 1934) 272-3, Mickey Mouse Smith, Gale, portrait (Worhol) 259, 9.14 132,139,140,147
Reich, Steve (b, 1936)316 Vs The Jops 272, 9.34; Typical Soigon 273, Smith, Kiki 1954) 466; The Sifter 14,45
(b, Surrounded Istonds (Christo) 351 , 357,
Reinhordt, Ad 91 3-67) 41 99, 06,
( 1 , 1 1 56, 9.35 Smith, Leon Polk (b, 1906) 158 359,11.25-11.27
1 58, 65, 294, 296-7, 300; Abstract
1 Scent (Pollock) 98 Smith, Richard (b, 1931)240 Sutherland,Graham (1903-80) 236
Point,ngl56, 297, 6.13 Schapiro, Meyer (b. 1 904) 40, 68 Smith, Tony (1912-81) 70, 1 05, 294, 300-1 Suzonna Surprised (Nettles) 374, 2.8
Reserve of Dead Swiss (Bollonski) 456, 14.26 Schapiro, Miriam (b, 1923) 373; 326, 327, 377; Amoryllis 301 , 1 0.8, Die Sweeney, James Johnson 89
Reservoir (Rouschenberg) 1 82, 7,8 Wonderlondl2.5 301,10.7
Reslony, Pierre 222, 224, 227, 228 Schorf, Kenny
(b. 1958)449 Smilhson, Alison (b, 1928) 236, 237, 238 Toble(Ucker) 10.28
Rexroth, Kenneth (1905-82) 172 Schnobel, Julian (b, 1 951 ) 432. 439-41 , The Smilhson, Peter (b, 1923) 236, 237, 238 Toble ond Choir (Artschwoger) 250, 9.5
Rhapsody (Bortlett) 422, 13,21 ond the Doctois 432, 440, 14.8
Patient Smilhson, Robert (1 938-73] 313, 31 9, 325, Idchisme 150,231
Richier,Germoine (1904-59) 162 Schneemonn, Corolee (b 939) 373 1 326-7, 329-30; Asphalt Rundown 329; Tango (Johns) 209, 213
Richler,Gerhard (b, 1932) 360, 364, Eight Schonberg, Arnold (1 874-1 951 74 ) 1 Nonsile, Franklin. NJ 327, 329, 330, 10.49; Tanguy, Yves 1 900-55) 20, 30, 50, 68;
(
Student Nurses 364, 11.33; Untitled 364, Schonebeck, Eugen (b 936) 409 1 Rock Salt ond Mirror Squore 329, 0.50; Through Birds, Through Fire, But Not
11.34 Schoonhoven, Terry (b, 945) see Los 1 Spiral Jetty 330, 331, 10.48 Through Gloss 2.3
Rickey, George (b. 1 907) 1 58; Two Open Angeles Fine Arts Squod Smorgi-Bob, The Cook (Arneson) 289-90, Tonkord's Avoil (Wiley) 283, 9.53
Rectangles Excentric VI, Squore Section Schuize, Wolfgang see Wols 9.65 Tonklofem I (D- Smith) 121,4.37
6.15 Schwartzkogler, Rudolf (1940-69) 343 Snapshots from the City (Oldenburg) 198 Tapie, Michel (1909-87) 150
Riley,Terry 1935)316 (b. Schwitlers, Kurt (1 887-1 948) 208, 238 Sociol Program for Humans (E Fisher] Tdpies, Antoni (b, 1 923) 50; Block Form on 1
Rilke, Rene Mono (1 875-1 926) 36 Screamin' J Hawkins (Wirsum) 276, 9.38 471,14.51 Groy Squore 6.5
Ringgold, Faith (b, 930) 371 Aunt Bessie 1 ; "Seasons, The" (Johns) 21 6, 221 7.52 , Socle du Monde (Monzoni) 344, 1 1.10 Target with Four Foces (Johns) 21
ondAunt Edith 371, 12.1 Seoted Woman (W, de Kooning) 77, 3.41 Solomon, Holly 384; Gallery 373 Target with Plaster Costs (Johns) 207, 209,
Rivera, Diego (1 886-1 957) 24, 26, 27, 88, Seoted Woman on o Bench |W, de Kooning) Sonfist, Alon (b, 946); Army Ants 345, Eorth
1 213,7.39
108, Detroit Industry 26, 2.8 85, 3.50 Monument to Chicogo 345 Tollin,Vlodimir (1885-1952) 49, 299,303
River Bathers (Hortigon) 6.23 Sedgewick,Edie256,257 Sonnobend, lleono264 Toylor, Paul (b, 1930)185
Rivers, Lorry (b. 1923) 165, 166,241; The Seedbed (Acconci) 342 Sonnier, Keith (b, 941 320, 429, )iNeon ) MM Telephone Booths (Esles) 374, 12.10
Greatest Homosexuol 1 66; Portroit of Segal, George (b, 1 924) 1 89, 1 92, 1 94, 1 95, Wropping light Bulbs) 10.38 Telling Secrets (Acconci) 34
Fronk O'Horo 1 65-6, 6.27; The Studio 65, 1 196, 199; The Subway 192,7,21 Souloges, Pierre (b- 1919] 150,6.2 Tempest (Murray) 429-30, 431 13.33 ,
6.26 Seitz, William 158 Soul for Sole, A (Jorn) 6.1 Temptation of Soint Anthony, The (Muller)
Robbe-Grillet,Aloin(b, 1922] 197 Self Portrait (Bacon) 142, 146,5.23 Spohol Concept, 60048. I960 [Fonlono] 6.1 6.25
Robot K-456(Paik) 348 Self Portroit (Close) 376, 12.14 (Andre) 303, 304
Spill "Ten, The" 108
Roclred Circle Fear (Oppenheim) 342 Sell Portrait (Warhol) 256, 9.13 5pinozo,Boruch (1632-77) 100-1 Tet (Louis)156,6.10
Rockefeller, John D, 108 Self Portrait os o Pountoin (Naumon) 3 1 6, Spirol Jetty (R, Smilhson] 330, 331 1 0.48 , Thank You Hide (Wiley) 282, 9.52
Rock Salt ond Minor Square (R, Smilhson) 10.34 Splashing (Serro) 320, 321 ,10.37 Thermometer (Johns) 21 1-12, 7.43
329,10.50 Self Portroit OS a Slot (Parr) 4 8, 1 3.1 1 Splitting Four Corners (Malta-Clark) 384, Thieboud, Wayne (b, 920] 70, 286; Five 1 1
Tim (b. 1955)463

Rollins, Self Portroil with Fish (J, Brown) 280, 9.48 12.28 Hot Dogs 170, 6.34
Romanesque Pofode (Gottlieb) 2.1 Seligmann, Kurt (1 900-62) 20, 68 Spoerri,Doniel(b, 1930)228 Third Hand, The (Hofmann) 57, 3.18
t33 SENORITA (Conner) 279, 9.44 Spui Pro/ect (Kawamolo) 382, 1 2.23 Third Theme (Diller) 2.16
Roosevelt, Franklin D. 26, 27 Seporofe Touch ond Sound (Naumon) 316 Squinter, The(Dubuffet)135,5.1 This IS Not o Pipe (Mogntte) 214
Rose, Barboro 294, 368 Sergeant Pepper (album cover) (P, Bloke) stabiles 46, 51 Three Flogs (Johns) 207-8, 209, 7.40
Rosenberg, Harold (1 906-78) 1 7, 1 8, 31 , 34. 239,8,19 Sloel, Nicholas de (1914-55) 150 Three Pairs of Shoes (von Gogh) 1 4, 1.1
496
Index
Three Panels Orange. Dark Gray, Green Tyler. Ken (b. 1931)242 Wagner, Richord (1 81 3-83) 4 Beach 343
1
(Kelly) 309, 10,22 Typewriter (Arneson) 289, 9.63 Woil, The (Kienhob) 284, 9.54 Wilson,S. Cloy (b. 1941)273,282
Three Standard Stoppages (Duchamp) 212 Typicol Soigon (Saul) 273, 9.35 walk. in paintings 192, 194 Window or Wall Sign (Nouman) 31
Three Sfudies for Frgures at the Base of a Wall Orowing * (LeWill)306, 10.19
I Wines. James (b, 1932] see SITE
Cruoh,/on (Boconl 144,5.19 Uccello, Paolo (1396/7-1 475); Mirocleolthe Wall/Floor Piece »4 (LeWitt) 306, 10.18 Winter (Guston) 398. 12.44
I
Three Studies of Figures on Beds (Bacon) Host 61 Warhol, Andy (1928-87) 18. 183, 199.240, Winters, Terry |b. 1949) 434, 438, 439;
146-7,5.24 Ucker.Guntei (b. 1930)231,3)2; Tob(el0.28 246, 247, 250-3, 255-7, 259, 299, 344,- Fourteen Etchings 5 434, 14.4; Good
Through Srrds, Through Fire, Buf Not Through Ultro Red I (Steinboch) 459, 14.32 425, 449; Compbells Soup Cons 252, 9.9, Government 402, 434, 14.3
Gloss (Tonguy) 2.3 Umbrellos, The (Chnslo) 359-60, 11.1 The Chelsea Girls (movie) 257; Cow Wirsum, Korl (b, 1939) 275, Screomin' ]
Through the Eye of the Needle fo the Anvil 11.28 Wollpoper 256-7, Dick Trocy 251, 9.6, Eot Hawkins 276, 9.38; see olso Hoiry Who
(Rosenquisl) 268, 9.29 United Slotes Part (Anderson) 344, 1 1 .9
I (movie) 257; Empire (movie) 257, 321 Wise Horses Dreom (De Forest) 9.60
T;gers Eye. The (lournol) 1 1 Universal Field (Tobey) 2.20 Gold Morilyn Monroe 253, 9.1 1 Monlyn , WiHenborn, George 70
Tlllich.Pool (1886-19651 171 Universe, A (Colder) 46, 48, 3.5 Monroestips253, 255, 9.10; Willgenslein.Ludwig (1889-1951) 18,214
Tilson, Joe (b, 1928)240 Untitled (Benglis) 311, 10.25, (Clemente) Rouschenberg portraits 255-6; Saturday 316,339
Llfed Arc (Serro) 321, 10.41 418, 13.17; (Flavin) 303, 10.12, (Hesse) Disaster 255, 9.1 2; Self Portrait 256, 9.1 Wodicjko, Krzysztof (b, 1943) 464-5,
3;
Time magazine 98, 11 8. 208, 250 313, 10.30,10,31, (Johns) 21 7, (Judd) 299, Skulls 259, 9.15; Sleep (movie) 257; Gole WORKS 465, 14.40
Times Square Show- (1980)463.14.35, 300, 10.3, 10.6, (Klein) 224, 8.2, (Kline) Smith 259, 9.14; Storm Door 251 9.7 , Woinarowicz, Dovid (1954-92) 443, 451-2,
14.36 2,18, iKounellis) 331-2, 10.53; (Morris) (19601,9.8(1961) 453-4, 468, The Death of American
Tinguely, Jeon (1 925-91 227, 228, 230;
) 304, 306, 10.14, 10.16, 10.17, (Motherwell) Woter(Woinorowicz) 452-3, 454, 14.20 Spirituality 454, 14.22; Instolahon 453,
Bo/ubo III 228, 8.8; Homoge to New York 70, 3.32, (Naumon) 315, 10.33, (Nen) 280, Water Beorer, The (Chia) 415, 13.12 14.1, The Missing Children Show 453,
230, 8.9 9.49, (Ponter) 455, 14.24; (Prince) 455, Woter Garden (Noguchi) 41, 2.22 14.21, Woler452-3, 454, 14 20
on Newspaper (K. Bloke) 471 14.50
T.rle , 456,14.25; (Richler) 364, 11.34; (Rolhko) Wotertowers (B, and H, Becher) 340, 11.5 WolH, Christian (b. 1934) 174, 175
Tooster (Arneson) 288-9 110,111,115, 4.25, 4.29; (Shopiro) 428, Woylonds Song (with Wing) (Kiefer) 410, Wols (Wolfgang Schuize) (19)3-51)1 50,
Tobocco Roth. Handle (Motherwell) 69, 3.30 13.31,13.32, (Slill) 38, 111,2.17 412,13.8 231, Pointing 6.4
Tobey, Mork (1890-1976) 41 , 278; Universal (Twombly) 152,6.7 Webei, Max (1881-1961) 108 Woman I (W. de Kooning] 74, 80-1 82, 84,
,
field 2 JO Untitled (Group ol Friends) (Penck) 13.6 Wegmon, Williom (b. 1 942] 374, Polynesion 3.45
288
Toilet (Arneson) Unhtled (Hotel fden) (Cornell) 30, 2.1 374,12.9 Woman Acabonic (W, de Kooning) 85
Tomorrow (Murray) 432-3, 13.37 Untitled (Rope Piece) (Hesse) 314, 10.32 Weiner, Lawrence 1940) 339 (b. Woman ond Bicycle (W, de Kooning) 74,
Totem and Taboo (Ernst) 2.2 Untitled (You Rule by Pathetic Display) Wesselmann,Tom(b. 1931 196, 247, 248, ) 80-], 3.38, 3.39
To Transcend (Puryeor) 439, 14.6 (Kruger) 464, 14.38 Great American Nude #57248, 250, 9.4, Woman Figure with Medusa Ornaments . .
Toulouse-Loutrec, Henri de 864-1 901 28 ( 1 ) Untitled #2 (Rymon) 310, 10.23 Shil life #12 247-8, 9.3 (Oldenburg) 202, 7.34
Tourniquet (J. Newmon) 468, 14.46 Untitled (Number 4) (B. Newman) 1 05, 4.1 Westermonn, H, C (Horoce Clifford Womon with Chonoll (Giocometti) 140
Tronsfixed (Burden) 342 Untitled 119 (Sherman) 458, 14.30
ft Weslermonn) (1922-81 171, 269-71 ]
Woman with Dog (Honson) 376, 12.13
Troynor, Mary (b, 1955): Horror ol Humon Untitled Blue Monochrome (Klein) 222, 8.1 Angry Young Mochine 277, 9.40, Deoth Women of the Revolution, The (Kiefer) 412
Need 466, 14.43 Untitled Box No 3 (Samaras) 195, 7.24 Ship 270,9.32; High Swan Dive 271, 13.10
Tree o? Life Fantasy (Aycock) 395. 12.40 Untitled Film Still #3 (Sherman) 458, 14.29 9.33; Memoriol to the Ideo of Mon Wonderland (Miriam Schopiro) 12.5
Tree o( Life Series (Mendieloj 373, 12.7 269-70,9.30,9.31 Wood, Grant (1892-1942); American
Tropicol Storm (R, Brown) 277, 9.42 Voismon, Meyer (b. 1 960) 459, 460 Whe )6.6 Gothic 24
True, Dovid (b, 1942)422 Valley Curtain (Chnslo) 355 White Angel Breadline. Son Fioncisco Woodrow,Bill (b 1948)438
Truisms (Holzer) 463, 14.37 von Gogh, Vincent see Gogh, Vincent von (Lon9e)27,2.9 WORKS (Wodiczkol 465, 14.40
Tudor, Dovid (b. 1926) 175, 189, 192 Vorese, Edgard 1 883-1 965) 1
( 1 Whilechapel Gollery, London 85, 238 1 Woiks Progress Administration (W.P A) 27,
Tum(Duchompl215 Vosorely, Victor (b 1 908) 1 58, VEGA PER While Christmos (A. Smith) 457, 14.27 33,61,76,89,384,397
Turrell. Jomes (b, 1 943) 307, 308, Alrum 307, •6.14 White Cigarette (Rosenquisl) 263-4, 9.22 Wound foi o Crucifixion (Bocon) 1 44
Doygo 307-8, 10.20; Meeting 308 Vedovo,Emilio(b. 1919)152 White Flog (Johns) 209 WPA see Works Progress Adminislrotion
TV Bra for liying Sculpture (Poik) 348, 11.13 VEGA PER (Vosorely] 6.14 White tight (Pollock) 98 Wrapped Coast (Christo) 353
n/Buddha(Poik)348 Venturi, Robert (b, 1925)237 White Squofes(Krosnerl 2.15 Wrapped Kunslhalle. Bern (Christo) 353,
TVCIocli(Paik)348 Verlicol Eorth Kilometer (De Mono) 339-40 Whitmon, Robert (b 1935) 189, 194, 196 11.22
Two Female Models with Drawing Table Vide, le (Klein) 224 Whitman, Walt (1819-92) 241 Wropped Reichstog (Chnslo) 357.
(Peorlslein) 166,6.29 Video Fish (Poik) 348, 11.14 Whitney Museum 313, 422 11.24
Two Figures (W. de Kooning) 85, 3.49 View (mogozine) 30-1 Wiley, William T (b. 937) 271 273, 282,
1 ,
Two Figures ot the Seashore (BischoK) 6.31 Vir Heroicus Sublimis (B Newmon) 103, 105, 283, 286; Tankards Avail 283, 9.53; Thank Yoshido, Roy (b, 1930)277
Twombly, Cy (b. 1 929) 1 52-3, 1 79, 41 5, 4 1 7, 4.16 You Hide 282, 9.52 Young, Lo Monte (b. 1935) 175,316
450; Untitled 152, 6.7 Voice ol Space, The (MogriMe) 20, 2.5 Wiike, Hannah (1 940-93) 373
Two Open Rectongles Fxcentnc VI, Square Voltri XIII (D Smith) 124,4.39 Willord, Morion 118, 119 Zokonilch, Robert (b. 1935) 373
Section (Rickey) 158,6.15 Volvo Commission (BortleH) 422, 13.23 Willioms, Sue (b 1954] 465, Lo Sistine Zero Group, the 224, 231
Two Por» Choirs' Obtuse Angle (Burton) Vostell,WoH(b. 1932) 191 14.41 Zig vm(D Smith) 126,4.42
377, 12.16 Voulkos, Peter (b. 1 924) 281 , 286, Sevillonos Williams. Williom Corlos (1 883-1 963) 26, Zono, Gilberto (b 1944) 332; Serpentine
Tworkov, Jock (1900-82) 53 281,9.50 31 ; The Red Wheelbarrow 26 332,10.51
Two Tone (RothenbergI 425, 13.27 VW(mago2ine)30, 31 Wilson, Robert (b, 1 941 ): Einstein on the Zucker, Joe(b, 1941)422

Jonathan Fineberg - Art Since 1940 - Strategies of Being-Harry N. Abrams (1995)

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Jonathan Fineberg - Art Since 1940 - Strategies of Being-Harry N. Abrams (1995)

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ART SINCE 1940^

Prenti<e Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. 07458

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

Copyright >C) 1995 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

Passages from William S. Burroughs, Naked Lunch (New York, 1959)

Passages from "Dog," in Lawrence Ferlinghetti, A Coney Island of the

Excerpt from "Howl" from Collected Poems 194 7-1980. Copyright©

Passages from Ernest Hemingway, A Farewell to Arms reprinted witfi

renewed 1 957 by Ernest Hemingway.

"The Red Wheelbarrow," William Carlos Williams, The Collected

Front cover Clockwise from upper left: Elizabeth Murray, 1 991

1 994); Ann Hamilton, 1 991 (© D. James Dee, New York, courtesy

(photographer unknown); Robert Arneson in front of C.E.O a ,

large painting of 1990 (©James Woodson); Robert Rauschenberg

Frontispiece Willemde Kooning, Wonian, 1961. Pencil on paper,

ISBN 0-1 3-045469-9

This book was designed and produced by

Design and cover by Ricfiard Foenander

Paiiiiinii is a slate of l)eing

-.1 \( K>()\ P()I,l-()( K

\|.|.rM,irlinii: \ii ;,- ., \|, nlr ,,1 rh.,ni:lii U

'l'li.-(.nliral I'min o| \ i.u ,,| iliiOJ.u.k 17

2 New York in the Forties 20

.\merican Prairiiiitii^in ami -ucial Relexance 24

CONTENTS Tlu' \vailal.ilu\ nl r,mM|„.anM.MlrnH-iii

The SeiiMMifa .\e\\ Mommih-hi in \i-\\ \ ork ."51

Cioinmonaliiies ami Dit'ti-rrmr-. ViiKnit; tlu' \rii-t-. nl iln

\.-\vV,>rk •>,li..,,| ;V2

Auiiiiiiau^iii ami Vclimi in tin- An nt ihi- New \ ink

Acrioii aiiil E\i--tfnliali-ni ."56

Frienils In ami Vrniiml llu- \i-\\ \nvk >ihiMil 40

3 A Dialog with Europe 42

1 laii~ 1 Inlniann •>2

Stylistic Le---iin- I'nnn F.iiro|ii' 02

Hofmanns Painiiiii; .')4

Robert NIotlien\ ell (»7

Intellectual At't'iniiii- wiili dir Knrn])fan MimIihi- ()8

RecuningTIienu- in \liiilien\eir> Vi nrk 6Q

Will.nMl.-K.M.iiin.; 74 An l,ii(OUiilei \\ iih llie l'h\>i(aht\ ot the Nhilerials in

Dv Kddiiini; > Training; ami Flarly (Career 76 Km-ope 148

De Kooiiiiii.'- AbstractioiiMit tilt- Fil'lio 84 llie(;ieenl)eigS,h(M,| |.-)4

.New lnia::es ol \lan in I Jir,,|„- ainl \in,-ii,a lo8

The "Stations of the ("toss" 106 H,>I„TI Raiis,l„.nl.erg 176

Decade 123 Clai's Oldenburg 196

Emotion and Distance 208

Direr of VHrl 214 W.-M C.a.l P..p 278

^\(•^ KIriri - l^iinianliir^ui 222 rilrToll.-|> 280

liilr.is|M-,li,,ii \ la P..ll.i.k 2'>;{

|{i-\ i-aliiii; llir \iiinii>in In \anirc 2."{ I

lli.-K.-\ 1 xliihiii.Mi. 2;57 Dan 1 hiMii :i(i;{

l'a.il.i//i anil I lamiil.in a- \ilis|, 2."{8 Roh.-n Moms ;{04

A Idciison Surface Hanilling in Painting ."{lO

Eva Hesse 311

I he Eie.-ininic tionseioiisness ami N.-w \ Hrk Pii|i 244

Ri)\ i,i. Iiii-n^i.-iii 25'*

1 1 Politics and Postmodernism: The Transition to

the Seventies 33()

H.C. \\e>tennann. Peter Saul, and i

-llair-\ Who 264 R,-Ra.li,ali/iii- lh.- Avant-Canl.- 33()

Bu(l\ An 342 Fraiicesci) ('leiiiente 416

l)iic( I I'oliliciil ( oiiiiHcMil .{4'l ami >(nl[iliiie 422

Fli/alieth \luiia\ 428