GRAPHICAL METHODS IN PHYSICS:

The presentation of experimental results or theories in the form of a graph has two main
advantages:

(i) the variation of one quantity with another may be seen easily, and
(ii) the average value of a constant may be determined from the graph.

Before looking at graphs in detail you should realize that certain guidelines should be followed
when plotting graphs.

(i) The axes should be labeled with both the quantity and units
(ii) The graph should be given a title.
(iii) It should fill the space available on the graph paper or page as far as possible
(iv) Suitable scales should be chosen – something like 5 squares to 10 units, not 7
to 3!
(v) The points should be plotted accurately and clearly.
(vi) The best fit line to the points should be drawn clearly but finely.

Probably the most useful form of graph is one in the form of a straight line and so we will begin
by considering this type.

y = mx + c (Eqn.1)

Equation 1 is the general equation for a straight line, where y and x are variables and m and c
are constants. A general example of the graph produced by such an equation is shown in figure
1. You should notice the following points:

(a) When x = 0 the intercept on the y-axis is c.

(b) When y = 0 the intercept on the x-axis is –clm.
(c) The slope of the line (the change in y with x (dy/dx) is m.
y

C
x
m

Figure
Fig. 1 1

There are of course a large number of graphs but we will consider just a few other basic types.
The equations and the relevant graphs are shown below.

y = mx2 + c (Eqn. 2)
This is a basic quadratic; if c = 0 the graph passes through the origin. An example of this would
be the variation of the kinetic energy of a body with its velocity.

x
Figure
Fig. 22

𝒚 = 𝒌𝒆𝒙 (Eqn. 3)

This shows an exponential increase in y with respect to x; k is a constant. An example of this

would be the increase in the pressure of air with depth.

x
Fig. 3
Figure 3

𝒚 = 𝒌𝒆−𝒙 (Eqn. 4)

This shows the exponential decrease of y with respect to x. Once again k is a constant. This
equation applies to radioactive decay the discharge of a capacitor and many other physical
phenomena.
 y k

FigureFig.
4 4

It is much more useful to plot the results of an experiment in the form of a straight line and so
a means has to be found by which the equations above can be altered to give a linear relation
between function of y and a function of x. This is quite simply done:

Reducing Quadratic and exponential to Linear form

For y = mx2 + c (Eqn. 2) : plot y against x2 (Fig. 5). The slope is m and the intercept is c.

x2

Figure 5 Fig. 5

For y = kex (Eqn. 3): plot y against e x (Fig. 6). The slope is k and the intercept is zero.
 y

ex

Figure 6
Fig. 6

For y = ke- x (Eqn. 4): plot y against e - x (Fig. 7). The slope is k and the intercept is zero.

Fig. 7

For y = ke- x: plot y against e - x (Fig. 7). The slope is k and the intercept is zero.

For 𝒚 = 𝒌𝒆𝒄𝒙 (Eqn. 5)

Here c and k are constants. Taking logs (ln) gives:

𝒍𝒏(𝒚) = 𝒍𝒏(𝒌) + 𝒄𝒙
Plotting ln(y) against x gives a straight line with slope c and intercept on the y axis of ln(k).

Fig. 9

Notice that if we have an exponential decrease, c is negative. An alternative method is to take

logs of both sides of the equation; this is also useful when one is attempting to derive an
unknown equation form a set of experimental results. We will consider first two versions where
the equation is known and then one where it is not.
Consider 𝒚 = 𝒌𝒙𝟐 (𝐄𝐪𝐧. 𝟔)

Taking logs gives:

log y = log k + 2 log x

Plotting log y against log x (fig. 10 ) will give a straight line of slope 2, with intercept on the
log y axis of log k.

log y

gradient = 2

log k

log x

Figure 9
 Fig. 10

Consider 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 𝒃 (Eqn. 7)

Here ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants but both are unknowns. Once again take logs of both sides
log y = log a + b log x
Plotting log y against log x will give a straight line of slope b and intercept on the y-axis of log
a. Hence both ‘a’ and ‘b’ may be found and the form of the equation determined since the
values will be known.

log y

gradient = b

log a

log x

Figure 10

Fig. 11
 GRAPH PROBLEMS

1. In a test on a piece of wire values of load L, and extension Y were found. (Some of the
values are missing).

L/Kg 3.1 - 10 13 15 18

Y/mm 0.950 1.28 2.27 2.95 - 3.85

The equation connecting Y and L is of the type Y = aL + b.

Find graphically
(i) the values of a and b and
(ii) the missing values in the table.
(iii) The errors in a and b.

2. The quantity of the common salt (w/ grams) which would dissolve in a fixed volume of
water at temperature t/°C given in the table below.

W/g 27 29 30 31 33 35 37

t/°C 10 20 25 30 40 50 60

It is known that
W = mt + c.
Find graphically the:
(i) values of m ad c.
(ii) errors in m and c.

3. In a heat transmission experiment the following results were obtained for the temperature
difference T and the time t.

T/K 12.6 16.1 22.0 31.6 39.8 56.3 63.2

t/s 1.00 1.76 4.27 10.2 17.9 40.0 56.2

It is known that the relationship between T and t is of form

𝑇 = 𝐴𝑡 𝜔
Determine graphically the:
(i) values of A ad 𝜔
(ii) errors in A and 𝜔
4. The following table gives the relationship between barometer readings and altitude

Barometer readings /mm 76.2 63.5 52.1 43.2 36.8 30.5

Altitude /m 0 1500 3000 4500 6000 7500

Represent the readings graphically and from your graph suggest a possible relationship
between barometer reading and altitude.

5. The following set of results was obtained from an experiment to determine the
acceleration due to gravity g using a simple pendulum bob swinging from a rigid support.
The length of the string is represented by l and is measured in metres, t represents the
time for 30 oscillations in seconds.

l /cm 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46

t/s 19.5 24.0 27.6 29.3 30.1 30.6 36.0 37.5 38.9 42.8

It is known that the relation between (T) the periodic time and (l) the length of the
string is of the form:

𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ (1)
𝑔

(i) Plot a suitable log graph from which g can be calculated.

(ii) Calculate the value of g.
(iii) Determine the relative error in g.
(iv) What is t when l = 20 cm from your graph.
(v) What is l when t = 35 s.

6. Sketch the graphs that would be obtained by plotting y against x for each of the following
equations (k, c and m are constants):

(a) y = kx + m (b) mx = k – y

(c) ky = c – mx (d) xy = c

(e) y = x2 – k (f) y = mex

 (g) y = ke-mx (h) yx2 = k

For all linear graphs state the gradient . If the graph is not linear state which two
variables must be plotted on the two axes to obtain a straight-line graph?

7. The following equation is suggested for the variation of two quantities x and t:

𝐹 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑏
Where a and b are constants. Use the data below to plot a suitable linear graph and
hence determine the values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ and the errors in ‘a’ and b’.

F/N 1.86 2.45 3.16 4.07 5.37 6.61 8.71

t/s 1.60 2.50 4.00 6.40 10.0 15.9 25.1

8. The following set of data was obtained from a radio-active decay experiment

N 6630 3650 2000 1000 600 330 165 90 50 30

T 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

N is the number of counts per second and t is the time in seconds. The equation for
such decay is:

𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

Where N0 and N represent the initial activity and the activity after a time t, and k is a
constant
Plot a suitable graph hence determine the time taken for the activity of the source to fall
to half its original value (the half-life of the source). Also determine the value of the
constant k.

9. A 120 F capacitor is charged and then allowed to discharge through a large resistor
(R) and the voltage (V) across it is recorded every five seconds. The following set of
results was obtained.

Time/s 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Voltage/V 9.0 6.9 5.0 3.7 2.6 2.0 1.4 1.05 0.8

The voltage across a capacitor during discharge is given by the equation:

V = V0e-(t/RC)

Where V0 is the initial voltage at a time t = O and C is the capacitance of the capacitor.
Plot a graph of the voltage against time and use it to find the time for the voltage to
decrease to 0.367 V0 (the time constant (T) for the circuit). Since T = 1/RC, determine
the resistance of the resistor (R).

Also plot a graph of 1n V against t and determine the value of R from this graph.
Compare your two values of R.

10. The following readings are taken for the thickness of a single sheet paper, using a
micrometer accurate to 0.01mm. Calculate the mean value and the maximum error in
your answer.

Reading 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Thickness/mm 0.11 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.11 0.09 0.11

11. It has been suggested that the variation of refractive index (n) with wavelength (  ) is
B
given by n  A  , where A and B are constants for a given material.

 /(m) 4.52 × 10 -7 5.10 × 10 -7 5.45 × 10 -7 6.06 × 10 -7 6.48 × 10 -7
n 1.633 1.630 1.627 1.625 1.623

(a) Plot a suitable straight-line graph to determine the constants A and B.

(b) Determine n when  = 6.25 × 10 -7 m.
(c) Determine  when n = 1.58 Ω.