LECTURE # 2

FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

1. Definitions

1.1 Foundation

It is the bottom most structural element of the substructure which transmits the
structural load including its own weight on to and /or into the soil(s)
underneath/surrounding without causing shear failure or bearing capacity
failure (sudden collapse) and excessive settlement.

1.2 Foundation Engineering

This is an art that deals with:

(i) determining the ability of the earth to support the load

(ii) designing the proper transition member to transmit the super structure
load into the ground safely.

1.3 Contact Pressure

The pressure generated by the structural loading and the self-weight of the
member on to or into the soil immediately underneath is called contact
pressure (o).

Q = 1,000 kN

Figure 1
Q 1,000
o    4,000 kPa
A 0.25

GSL

0.5 m

0.5 m A = X-sectionl area

Sectin A-A
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The contact pressure is independent of soil parameters; it depends only on

the load and the x-sectional area of the element carrying the load.

1.4 Super-structure and sub-structure

That part of the structure which is above the GSL and can be seen with naked
eye is called as super-structure. That part of the structure which is below the
GSL and cannot be seen with naked eye is known as sub-structure.

Q = 1,000 kN

Column 0.5m x 0.5 m

Figure 2 Super-structure
GSL
Sub-structure
Df

BxL (2x2.5 m2)

1.5 Foundation Depth (Df)

It is the depth below the lowest adjacent ground to the bottom of the
foundation.

2. Need or Purpose of a Foundation

As stated under 1.1, a foundation is needed to transfer the load to the

underlying soil assuming safety against bearing capacity failure and excessive
settlement. This can be achieved by reducing the contact pressure such that it
is either equal to or less than the allowable bearing capacity (ABC) of the soil
i.e. o  qa.

In Figure-1, the contact pressure under the concrete column is 4000 kPa
which is much less than 21 MPa (crushing strength of concrete) but much
greater than 200 kPa (ABC) of soil and need to be reduced prior to transfer it
to the soil underneath the column. The reduction can be achieved by:
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 Lateral spreading of load using a large pad underneath the column (Figure
2)
 = 1,000/5 = 200 kPa = ABC

This large pad is called a “Spread Footing”.

 Balance partly or completely the load added, to the load removed, due to
excavation i.e. provide basement(s). This is called a floating foundation.
 Extend the foundation well below into the underlying soils so that load is
reduced by lateral spread and/or vertical spread. This arrangement is
known as pile foundation (Deep Foundation).

Q = 1,000 kN

Figure 3
Qs

PILE

Qb

3 Types of Foundations

Foundations may be characterized as being either “Shallow” or “Deep”

Shallow foundations are those located just below the lowest part of the
super-structure which they support (and get support from the soil just beneath
the footing) and a least width generally greater than their depth beneath the
ground surface, i.e. Df/B  1 (after Terzaghi) Df  3 m (generally)
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Deep Foundations are those which extend considerably deeper into the
earth (and get support from the side friction (skin friction) and/or bottom (end
bearing) and generally with a foundation depth to width ratio (D/B) exceeding
five. (Figure-3)
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COMPARISON OF SHALLOW AND DEEP FOUNDATIONS

Description SHALLOW DEEP

Depth Df/B  1 Df/B  4+

Load Distribution Lateral and/or vertical spread
Lateral spread
- For end bearing lateral spread
- For frictional vertical spread
- Generally both
Construction - Open pit construction - In hole or driven
- Easy control and the best QA/QC - Difficult QA/QC
- Less skill labour required - Very skilled labour is required
- Min. disturbance - Max. disturbance
- During construction dewatering is required for shallow GWT - Dewatering may or may not be required
Cost Less as compared with deep Usually 3 times or more costly than shallow.
Structural Design Flexural Bending Axial Compression.
Consideration
Settlement More than that for deep foundation Usually 50% of the shallow foundation for
similar loading
Environmental Does not suit to all environments specially for offshore sites Suits to all environments including offshore
Suitability
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TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

Shallow foundations may be classified in several ways as below:

1. Spread footings or Individual footing

This type of footing supports one column only as shown below. This footing is
also called as Pad footing or Isolated footing. It can be square or rectangular
in shape. This type of footing is the easiest to design and construct and most
economical therefore.

For this type of footing, length to breadth ratio (L/B) < 5.

Column

PLAN

Footing

GSL

ELEVATION
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Column

Footing
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ISOLATED FOOTING

2. Continuous Footing

If a footing is extended in one direction to support a long structure such as a

wall, it is called a continuous footing or a wall footing or a strip footing as
shown below. Loads are usually expressed in force per unit length of the
footing.

For this type of footing, length to breadth ratio (L/B) > 5.

A strip footing is also provided for a row of columns which are so closely
spaced that their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other. In such a
case, it is more economical to provide a strip footing than a number of spread
footings in one line.
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Retaining wall

RC Wall Footings

RC WALL FOOTING

3. Combined Footing

A combined footing is a larger footing supporting two or more columns in one

row.

This results in a more even load distribution in the underlying soil or rock, and
consequently there is less chance for differential settlement to occur.

While these footings are usually rectangular in shape, these can be

trapezoidal (to accommodate unequal column loadings or close property
lines).
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4. Strap Footing

Two or more footings joined by a beam (called a strap) is called a strap

footing. This type is also known as a cantilever footing or a pump-handle
foundation.

This form accommodates wide column spacing or close property lines.

Strap is designed as a rigid beam to withstand bending moments, shear

stresses. The strap simply acts as a connecting beam and does not take any
soil reaction. To make this sure, soil below is dug and made loose.
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Q1 Q2

1 2
S

STRAP

x e R1 S' R2
L1 /2
Alternate for large
moment gradient from
column 1 to 2.

STRAP

(a)

Strap
Strap

(b) (c)

Common arrangement of strap

Strap footings

(d)
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5. Mat or Raft Footing

A large slab supporting a number of columns not all of which are in a straight
line is called a mat or raft or mass foundation.

These are usually considered where

 the base soil has a low bearing capacity and/or

 column loads are so large that the sum of areas of all individual or
combined footings exceeds one half the total building area (to economize
on framework costs).
 there is a large variation in the loads on individual columns.
Advantages

 reduces the differential settlement on non-homogeneous soils.

 for basement at or below the GWT it provides a water barrier.
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SELECTION OF FOUNDATION TYPE

The selection of the type of foundation for a given structure-subsoil system is largely
a matter of judgement/elimination based on both an analysis of scientific data and
experience. It is not possible to establish rigorous regulations and detailed
recommendations for the solution of all foundation problems, as the planning and
designing of foundations for structures is more of an art than a science.

The type of foundation most appropriate for a given structure depends on several
factors but commonly the principal factors are three which are as follow:

1. The function of the structure and the loads it must carry

 Purpose of the structure i.e. residential, office, industrial, bridge etc.
 Service life
 Loadings, number of stories, basement
 Type i.e. framed RCC, masonry, column spacing etc.
 Construction method and schedule
2. Subsurface conditions
 Thickness and sequence of soil strata with subsoil parameters
 GWT position and fluctuation limits
 Presence of any underground anomalies
3. The cost of the foundation in comparison with the cost of the super-structure
i.e. funds availability for the construction of foundations

Other considerations that may enter into the selection of the foundation types are as
follows:

a) For members carrying only axial loads or axial load combined with bending
moments that can change the direction, a square footing is desirable.
b) For members carrying only axial load combined with bending moments that do
not change the direction, rectangular footing is more suitable than a square
footing.
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c) If the edges of the isolated pads are too close along a line of columns, it is cheaper
to excavate the complete strip and form a strip/combined foundation.
d) If all the pads are too close in both directions, it is more economical to excavate
the whole area and construct a flexible raft.
Another important consideration is the question of differential settlement. With
isolated pads or a combination of pads and strip foundation, the differential settlement
could be excessive. In this case, a rigid raft foundation should be constructed.
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Foundation possibilities for various subsoil conditions

Foundation Possibilities
Subsoil Conditions Light Flexible Structures Heavy Rigid Structures
Euro code, for 2-storeys column load
is 250 kN and 100 kN/m for wall
loads
Deep compact or stiff soil Footings 1. Footings
2. Shallow mat
Deep compressible strata 1. Footings on compacted granular 1. Deep mat with possible rigid
pad construction in basement
2. Shallow mat 2. Long piles to bypass the
3. Frictional piles week soil
3. Frictional piles
Soft or loose strata 1. Bearing piles 1. Bearing piles
2. Footings with ground 2. Deep mat
overlying firm strata
improvement
3. Shallow mat
Compact or stiff layer 1. Footings 1. Deep mat (floating)
2. Shallow mat 2. Long piles to bypass the soft
overlying soft deposit
deposit
Alternating soft and stiff 1. Footings 4. Deep mat
2. Shallow mat 5. Piles or caissons
layers

100 kN

1x1 m
Safe B.C = 20 kPa

Replace upto 1.5 m depth by

compacted granular base