CELL 2 Types of Cell

A cell is chemical system that is able to maintain
its structure and reproduce. Cells are the fundamental
unit of life. All living things are cells or composed of
cells.
People who were important in early cell discovery:
Eukaryotic Cellsand Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic cells lack a defined nucleus, but have a
region in the cell, termed the nucleoid, in which a single
chromosomal, circular, double- stranded DNA
molecule is located.

Zacharias Jannsen (1590) Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that lack

— Helped invent the First compound microscope
Robert Hooke (1665)
 Observed dead cork - called them “cells“
organelles or other internal membrane- bound
structures. Therefore, they do not have a nucleus, but,
instead, generally have a single chromosome: a piece of
circular, double-stranded DNA located in an area of the
cell called the nucleoid.

 Compound Microscope Prokaryotic Cell Structure

Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (1674)

 Living cells in pond water; one celled organisms

-- animalcules

Robert Brown (1831)

Identifies the nucleus of a cell

Matthias Schleiden (1838)

Stated that plants are made up of cells

Theodor Schwann (1839)

Prokaryotes
Stated that animals are made up of cells
 Single cell organisms
Rudolph Virchow (1858)  No nucleus, no compartments
 Peptidoglycan cell walls
Studied the pathology of cells. (Ability to cause  Binary fission
disease)  For energy, use organic chemicals, inorganic
chemicals, or photosynthesis
Cell Theory
Plasma Membrane
All living things are composed of one or more cells
Selective barrier that allows passage of oxygen,
Cells are the fundamental building block of life nutrients, and wastes for the whole volume of the cell.
All cells arise from pre-existing cells (life begets life) Flagella and Pilli
Cellular Functions Responsible for locomotion
 Movement Ribosomes
 Secretion
 Reproduction Responsible for protein synthesis
 Protection
 Transport
 Food Production
Eukaryotic Cell Structure
Nucleus
 The nucleus averages about 5 microns
 In diameter.
 The largest organelle within a
Eukaryotic cell.
 The nucleus often called the control center of a
cell, where it contains the most of the cell`s
genetic material.
 Where the double membranes are fused, a
nuclear pore complex allows Large
macromolecules and
 Particles to pass through.
 Nucleolus - a darkened region
where ribosomal RNA is synthesized
 Contains chromosomes - consist of DNA
wrapped around proteins
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesized in the
nucleolus
 In the nucleolus, rRNA is synthesized and
assembled with proteins from the cytoplasm to
form ribosomal subunits. The subunits pass from
the nuclear pores to the cytoplasm where they
combine to form ribosomes. Nuclear envelope – a
double membrane that surrounds the nucleus
Ribosomes
 Most common organelles in almost all cells.
 Some are free in the cytoplasm; others line the
membranes of rough endoplasmic reticulum
(rough ER).
 Particles consisted of proteins and ribosomal
RNA (rRNA)
 Free ribosomes- synthesize proteins
 used in the cytoplasm
 Ribosomes attached to the ER- used
 to synthesize: Secreted proteins
 Integral membrane proteins
 Lysosomal proteins
Endoplasmic Reticulum
 ER consists of a network of membranous
tubules and sacs called cisternae. (cisterna = a
reservoir for a liquid)
 The ER membrane is continuous with
 the nuclear envelope
 Segregation of newly synthesized proteins from
the cytoplasm
 Lipid synthesis
Two classifications of ER:
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Ribosomes are attached to the outside.
Abundant in cells that secrete protein
 Synthesis secretory proteins, cell membrane
protein and organelle protein (proteins are
targeted to determined
 It is an extension of the outer membrane of the
nuclear envelope, so allowing mRNA to be
transported swiftly to the 80s ribosomes, where
they are translated in protein synthesis.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Synthesis of lipid (oils, phospholipids, and
steroids)
 Glycogen metabolism in the liver cells
Detoxification of drugs and poisons Store
calcium for muscle contraction
 Detoxification (liver) Steroid synthesis (gonad,
adrenal)
GOLGI APPARATUS –known as the post office of the cell
1. The Golgi apparatus is the processing,
packaging and secreting organelle of the cell, so
it is much more common in glandular cells.
2. The Golgi apparatus is a system of membranes,
made of flattened sac- like structures called
cisternae.
3. It works closely with the smooth er, to modify
proteins for export by the cell.
Refines, stores and marks molecules for shipment
called the cell “Post office” because it marks and
directs products in the cell. Major sites for
carbohydrate synthesis
 Lysosome – “suicide sack”
Functions
 Digest food vacuoles
 Digest invading bacteria
 Digest old organelles
 Heterophagy – digestion of extracellular
material
 Autophagy – digestion of intracellular
organelles
Genetic disorders
o Ex. Tay Sachs
 Lipids aren’t broken down
 Build up occurs
 Eventually causes death
 Usually in before age 5
Mitochondria – “power house of the cell”
Site of cellular respiration
Conversion of food into energy (ATP) ATP is what
cells use to make things happen (drive chemical
reactions)
• contains some of its own DNA (amount varies
within organisms)
• believed to evolved from a primitive cell
engulfing it and creating a symbiotic
relationship
• DNA in mitochondria obtained only from
mother of organism.
• Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic
respiration, in which energy from organic
compounds is transferred to ATP. For this
reason they are sometimes referred to as the
‘powerhouse’ of the cell.
• Mitochondria are more abundant in high energy
cells such as muscle and liver cells.
Cell Membrane
 -double layer of phospholipids
 -various proteins are attached to it
 -carbohydrate side chains are found only on
the outer surface of plasma membrane
 Function of plasma membrane = selective
barrier that allows passage of oxygen, nutrients,
and wastes for the whole volume of the cell.
 The cell membrane is a complex barrier
separating every cell from its external
environment.
 This "Selectively Permeable" membrane
regulates what passes into and out of the cell.
CILIA AND FLAGELLA
1. Cilia and Flagella are structures that project
from the cell, where they assist in movement.
2. Cilia (sing. cilium) are short, and numerous and
hair-like.
3. Flagella (sing. flagellum) are much longer,
fewer, and are whip-like.
4. The cilia and flagella of all Eukaryotes are
always in a ‘9 + 2’ arrangement that is
characteristic
5. Protista commonly use cilia and flagella to move
through water.
6. Sperm use flagella (many, all fused together) to
swim to the egg.
7. Cilia line our trachea and bronchi, moving dust
particles and bacteria away from the lungs.
Plant Organelles
1. Most of the organelles and other parts of the
cell are common to all Eukaryotic cells. Cells
from different organisms have an even greater
difference in structure.
2. Plant cells have three additionalstructures not
found in animal cells:
• Cellulose cell walls
• Chloroplasts (and other plastids)
• A central vacuole.
Chloroplasts
 2. Fungi such as Mushrooms and Yeast also have
cell walls, but these are made of chitin.

3. The cell wall is freely permeable (porous), and

so has no direct effect on the movement of
molecules into or out of the cell.

4. The rigidity of their cell walls helps both to

support and protect the plant.

1. A characteristic feature of plant cells is the

presence of plastids that make or store food.

2. The most common of these (some leaf cells

only!) are chloroplasts – the site of
photosynthesis.

3. Each chloroplast encloses a system of flattened,

membranous sacs called thylakoids, which
contain chlorophyll.

4. The thylakoids are arranged in stacks called

grana.

5. The space between the grana is filled with

cytoplasm-like stroma.

6. Chloroplasts contain CCC DNA and 70S

ribosomes and are semi-autonomous
organelles.

7. Other plastids store reddish-orange pigments VACUOLES

that color
1. The most prominent structure in plant cells is
the large vacuole.

2. The vacuole is a large membrane-bound sac

that fills up much of most plant cells.

3. The vacuole serves as a storage area, and may

contain stored organic molecules as well as
inorganic ions.

4. The vacuole is also used to store waste. Since

plants have no kidney, they convert waste to an
insoluble form and then store it in their vacuole
- until autumn!

5. The vacuoles of some plants contain poisons

Cell wall (e.g. tannins) that discourage animals from
eating their tissues.
1. One of the most important features of all plants is
presence of a cellulose cell wall.
 6. Whilst the cells of other organisms may also
contain vacuoles, they are much smaller and
are usually involved in food digestion.
The best hypothesis for the origin of eukaryotic cells
was proposed by Lynn Margulisin. Symbiogenesis, or
endosymbiotic theory, is an evolutionary theory of the
origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic organisms,
first articulated in 1905 and 1910 by the Russian
botanist Konstantin Mereschkowski, and advanced and
substantiated with evidence by Lynn Margulis in 1967.
CELL TYPES AND CELL MODIFICATIONS
Some of the cell surfaces are modified for adaptive
purposes.
These include:
 Cilia
 Flagella
 Microvilli
Cilia (singular: cilium)
 Are microscopic, hair-like structures that extend
outward from the surface of many cells.
 A typical cilium is between one and ten
micrometers long and usually less than one
micrometer wide.
2 Types of Cilia
Motile cilia – present on cell’s surface in large
number and beat in coordinated waves. Example: lining
of trachea and fallopian tubes
Non motile cilia – one cilium per cell. Example:
sensory organ like nose
Function of Cilia
In humans
 Mechanoreceptors. Example: lining of kidney
tubules that monitor the flow of fluid through
tubules, cilia in the cochlear of the inner ear,
that contribute in detection of vibration caused
by sound
 Chemoreceptors – detect odors
 Photoreceptors – outer segment of the rods in
the retina
In protists such as Paramecium
 for locomotion (through liquids)
Flagella - ´Tail-like projection that protrudes body of
from the cell
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic functions in locomotion.
1. Monopolar – flagellum at one end
2. Bipolar – flagella are at both ends
3. Peritrichous – flagella are around the bacterial
cell
Flagella versus cilia
Though eukaryotic flagella and motile cilia are
ultra-structurally identical, the beating pattern of the
two organelles can be different. In the case of flagella
(e.g. the tail of a sperm) the motion is propeller-like.
Beating of motile cilia consists of coordinated back-and-
forth cycling of many cilia on the cell surface.
Microvilli

´Are microscopic cellular membrane protrusions that

increase the surface area of some epithelial cells.

´Examples:

 Small intestinal enterocyte

 Kidney proximal tubule.

 In sensory cells of the inner ear (as stereo cilia),

 In the cells of taste buds.

 In olfactory receptor cells.

 Microvilli are covered in plasma membrane, which

encloses cytoplasm and microfilaments.
 These are cellular extensions; there are little or no
cellular organelles present in the microvilli.
 Each microvillus has a dense bundle of cross-linked
actin filaments, which serves as its structural core.
20 to 30 tightly bundled actin filaments are cross-
linked by bundling proteins fimbrin and villin to
form the core of the microvilli.

CELL TYPES /ANIMAL TISSUES

The Characteristics of Life

1. Organization

2. Energy use (metabolism)

3. Growth and Development

4. Reproduction

5. Response to environment

6. Adaptation
Tissue - is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily
identical, but from the same origin, that together carry
out a specific function.

Four types of animal tissues

Epithelial tissue

 Epithelial tissue or epithelium covers every

exposed body surface to form a barrier to the
outside world and controls absorption.

 Epithelium forms the surface of the skin, and the

lining of the intestinal, respiratory, and urogenital
tracts.

Epithelial tissue can be divided in to two types:

1. Covering and lining epithelium that forms the

outer layer of the skin and some organs and

2. Glandular epithelium that constitute the

secreting portion of glands.

1. Covering and lining epithelium

 The arrangement of covering and lining

epithelium reflects its location and function.
The classification of the epithelium types
are done according to the shape of the cell
and the number of cell layers
Three shapes of the cell exist:

 Squamous (flat) epithelium

 Cuboidal epithelium

 Columnar epithelium
Three types of layers exist.
 Simple epithelium - only one cell thick
 Stratified epithelium - with two or more
cells thick
 Pseudo-stratified columnar epithelium –
with only one layer, but giving the
appearance of many layers
Simple epithelium
Simple epithelium can be subdivided into three types
according to the shape and function of its cells.
A. Simple squamous epithelium
a. Morphology: composed of thin, flat cells.
b. Locations: lining of the lung, kidney,
blood vessels, heart and mouth
c. Functions: adapted for diffusion and
filtration.
B. Simple cuboidal epithelium
a. Morphology: cells are roughly square or
cuboidal in shape with a spherical nucleus
in the center.
b. Location: found in glands, lining of the
kidney tubules and the germinal
epithelium of ovaries and testes.
c. Functions: adapted for secretion and
absorption.
C. Simple columnar epithelium
This epithelium exists in two forms:
(a) Non ciliated simple columnar epithelium
Morphology: cells are elongated and column-shaped
with elongated/oval nuclei located near the base of the
cells. These cells contain microvilli and goblet cells
Location: lines most of the alimentary canal
Functions: Microvilli increase the surface area of the
plasma membrane for absorption and goblet cells
secrete mucus to serves as a lubricant to protect the
epithelium.
(b) Ciliated simple columnar epithelium
Morphology: Columnar epithelial cells have cilia on
their free surfaces
Location: Usually found in the air passages in the nose
region and in fallopian tubes of females
Functions: Cilia beat in a certain direction causing the
mucus to flow in that direction to propel foreign
particles trapped in mucus, and to propel ova to uteri
Stratified Epithelium
Have at least two layers of cells. The name of the
specific kind of stratified epithelium depends on the
shape of the surface cells.
A. Stratified squamous epithelium
Morphology: With many layers of cells and the topmost
layer is made up of squamous cells looking like "piles of
tiles", top cells are flat and scaly and it may or may not
be keratinized (hardened with a tough, resistant protein
called keratin).
Location: Skin is an example of dry, keratinized,
stratified epithelium; lining of the mouth cavity, throat
and esophagus have keratinized, stratified epithelium.
Function: Protection
B. Stratified cuboidal epithelium
Morphology: Several layers of cells in which the top
layer is cube-shaped
Location: It lines larger excretory ducts such as salivary
glands, mammary glands, sweat glands, and pancreas.
Function: Absorption and secretion
C. Stratified columnar epithelium
Morphology: Many layers of cells and the topmost layer
is made up of columnar cells
Location: Male urethra and vas deferens, parts of the
pharynx
Function: Protection and secretion
C. Pseudo-stratified columnar epithelium
Morphology: Only one layer, but gives the appearance
that it has many layers, looks as though some of the
cells are not in contact with the basal lamina, and the
nuclei are at different levels
Location: Lines larger excretory ducts, this epithelium
with goblet cells, lines most of the major airways.
Function: Protection as well as secretion

2. Glandular epithelium

 Glands are made up of single or a mass of epithelial Muscular Tissue

cells.
Muscle cells are elongated and referred to as
 Columnar and cuboidal epithelial cells often muscle fibers. Muscle cells have four main properties:
become specialized as gland cells which are capable
of synthesizing and secreting certain substances  Excitability (ability to respond to stimuli),
such as enzymes, hormones, milk, mucus, sweat,  Contractibility (ability to contract),
wax and saliva.
 Extensibility (ability to be stretched without
 Unicellular glands are present as single, isolated tearing) and
glandular cells such as the goblet cells.
 Elasticity (ability to return to its normal shape).
Connective Tissue

The most abundant and most widely distributed

tissue in the body is connective tissue. It mainly binds
structures together, forms a framework and support for
organs and the body as a whole, protects and insulates
internal organs and compartmentalizes structures such
as skeletal muscles and nerves. Blood, a fluid connective
tissue, helps to transport substances and protects the
body against disease, while adipose tissue store fat.

Nervous Tissue

 This tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and

nerves and consists of only two principal kinds of
cells, neurons and neuroglia.
 The cells in nervous tissue that generate and
conduct impulses are called neurons or nerve cells.
They are highly specialized cells that are sensitive to
various stimuli. They convert these stimuli into
nerve impulses and conduct them to other neurons,
muscle fibers or glands. These cells have three
principal parts: the dendrites, the cell body and one
axon.
 • Other specialized function such as aeration
(parenchyma) provides buoyancy and helps
aquatic plants in floating.

B. Collenchyma cells

• Collenchyma tissue is composed of elongated

cells with irregularly thickened walls. They
provide structural support, particularly in
Overview of Plant Structure growing shoots and leaves.
The vegetative body of a plant is composed of three
C. Sclerenchyma
organs…

 LEAF • Sclerenchyma is the supporting tissue in plants.

 STEM Two types of sclerenchyma cells exist: fibers
 ROOT and sclereids. Sclerenchyma cells are the
principal supporting cells in plant tissues that
Three major tissue systems are found in all plant
have ceased elongation. Sclerenchyma fibers
organs!
are of great economic importance, since they
1. DERMAL TISSUE constitute the source material for many fabrics
2. GROUND TISSUE (e.g. flax, hemp, jute, and ramie).
3. VASCULAR TISSUE
Vascular tissue is a complex conducting tissue, formed
Dermal tissue - functions to protect the plant from of more than one cell type, found in vascular plants. The
water loss. Dermal tissue covers the outside of the primary components of vascular tissue are the xylem
plant, except in woody shrubs and trees, which have and phloem. These two tissues transport fluid and
bark. The most common cell type in dermal tissue is the nutrients internally.
epidermal cell. Generally, a thin, waxy layer called a
cuticle covers the epidermal cells and protects them. Xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue in
Other cells in the dermal tissue are guard cells that vascular plants; the basic function of xylem is to
surround the stomata, which are openings in the leaves. transport water from roots to shoots and leaves
Gases and water enter and leave the dermal tissue Phloem is the living tissue that transports the soluble
through the stomata. organic compounds made during photosynthesis, in
Ground Tissue particular the sugar sucrose, to parts of the plant where
needed.
A. Parenchyma Cells

• In leaves, they are responsible for

photosynthesis and the exchange of Storage of
starch, protein, fats, oils and water in roots,
tubers (e.g. potatoes), seed endosperm (e.g.
cereals) and cotyledons (e.g. pulses and
peanuts)

• Secretion

• Wound repair and the potential for renewed

meristem tic activity