(Criminalistics)

PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

Fingerprint Identification (sometimes referred to as Dactyloscopy) is the process of

comparing questioned and known friction skin ridge impressions from fingers, palms, and toes
to determine if the impressions are from the same finger (or palm, toe, etc.) The flexibility of
friction ridge skin means that no two finger or palm prints are ever exactly alike (never identical
in every detail), even two impressions recorded immediately after each other. Fingerprint
identification (also referred to individualization) occurs when an expert (or an expert computer
system operating under threshold scoring rules) determines that two friction ridge impressions
originated from the same finger or palm (or toe, sole) to the exclusion of all others.

The History and Development of Fingerprint:

Personal Identification can be traced to the earliest dared prints of the ridged skin on
human hands and feet were made about 4,000 years ago during the pyramid building era in
Egypt. In addition, one small portion of palm print, not known to be human, has been found
impressed in hardened mud at a 10,000 year old site in Egypt.

In the East, it was common practice for the Chinese to use inked fingerprints on official
documents, land sales, contracts, loans and acknowledgments of debts. The olds existing
documents so endorsed dates back from the third century BC. Even though it is recorded that
the Chinese used their fingerprints to establish identity in court litigation over disputed business
dealings, criminalists and researchers fail to agree as to whether the Chinese were fully of the
uniqueness of a fingerprint or whether the physical contact with documents had some spiritual
significance.

The first documented interest in the skin’s ridges in the western world, a paper written in
1684 by an Englishman, Dr. Nehemiah Grew, was mainly of an anatomical nature. A small
number of other academics from various European countries also made anatomical studies of
the skin.

Professor Marcello Malphigi, a plant morphologist at the University of Bologna,

performed study similar to Grew’s and published similar findings in his 1686 publication De
Externo Tactus Organo. This anatomical treatise, though less detailed about the surface of the
hand than that of Dr. Grew, probed further beneath the surface. Malphigi’s anatomical work was
so outstanding that one of the layers of the skin was named: stratum Malphigi” after him. It was
not until 1798, however, that J C Mayer of Germany theorized that the arrangements of friction
ridges were unique.

In 1823, Professor Johannes Evangelist Purkinje published the most detailed description
of fingerprints to have appeared anywhere up to that time. Professor Purkinje’s thesis entitled A
Commentary on the Physiological Examination of the Organs of Vision and the Cutaneous
System describes, with illustrations, it can be seen that the Latin classifications refer to what
Henry would later name arches, tented arches, lops, whorls and twinned loops. Purkinje’s
research was purely anatomical, and he made no mention of individuals being identified by the
patterns that he described. However, he recommended further study, and others soon took up
his challenge.
 It was not until 1858 that the first practical application of the science was made, when Sir
William Herschel an English administrator in India, commenced placing the inked palm
impressions and, later, thumb impressions of some members of the local population on
contracts. These prints were used as a form of signature on the documents because of the high
level of illiteracy in India and frequent attempts at forgery. Herschel also began fingerprinting all
prisoners detained in jails.

The significant advances in fingerprint science in the late 19 th and early 20th centuries
were made by Dr. Henry Faulds, a Scottish missionary doctor of the United Presbyterian
Church. After careful experiment and observation, he became convinced that fingerprint
patterns did not change, that the fingerprint patterns on the fingers were highly variable and that
surface or superficial injury did not alter them, they returned to their former design as the injury
healed.

He further described the pattern formations on the fingers, referred to “loops” and
“whorls” and stating how good sets of fingerprints may be obtained by the use of a common
slate or smooth board of any kind, or a sheet of thin, spread over very thinly with printer’s ink.
This technique, still in use today, appears to be a botanical technique called nature- printing. His
most important conclusion was that fingerprints do not changed and that latent prints left on
objects by bloody or greasy fingers “may lead to the scientific identification of criminals”.

Herschel’s main role as a fingerprint pioneer lies in the area of the immutability of the
ridged skin. Throughout his life, Herschel took his own fingerprints and noted that no change
had occurred in them in over 50 years. He also had a small collection of about 20 sets of
fingerprints and used his technique of hand printing to detect forgeries of legal documents. The
fingerprints taken from prisoners were also of great interest to him, and he had no opportunity to
see the same prisoners fingerprinted several times over a number of years with no change
occurring in their fingerprints.

In 1892, Sir Francis Galton, a noted English scientist published an accurate and in-depth
study of the fingerprinting science that included an attempt at a system of fingerprint
classification to facilitate the handling of large collections of fingerprints. Although Galton’s work
proved to be sound and became the foundation of modern fingerprint science and technology,
his approach to classification was inadequate, and it was to be others who were to successfully
apply his work.

Juan Vucetich, an Argentinian police officer, researched the science of fingerprints which
correspond with Galton. He then devised his own system of fingerprint classification, which he
called”icnofalagometrico”. This system was put into practice in September 1891, and in March
1892, Vucetich opened the first fingerprint bureau at San Nicholas, Buenos Aires. Within a short
time of the bureau being established, the first conviction by means of fingerprint evidence in a
murder trial was obtained. In June 1892, at Necochea, Francisca Rojas claimed that she had
been brutally attacked and her two children murdered by a neighboring ranch worker named
Velasquez. Velasquez was arrested but refused to confess to the murder of the two children.
Nine days after the crime, a search of the crime scene was carried out and a number of
fingerprints in blood were found on a door post of the woman’s hut. The post was taken to the
fingerprint bureau for comparison with the inked fingerprint impressions of Velasquez. They
were not identical, but the blood impressions were found to be identical with those of Rojas.
When confronted with this evidence, Rojas confessed to the murder of her children, and in July
1892 she was found guilty of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment.
 An Englishman, Sir Edward Henry, who had been given instruction in fingerprints by
Galton, devised a workable classification system and implemented it in India in 1897. In 1900,
Henry published his book Classification and Uses of Fingerprints. In 1901, Henry as appointed
Assistant Commissioner of Police at New Scotland Yard and began to introduce his fingerprint
system into that institution. By the end of that year, the Fingerprint Office at New Scotland Yard
was fully functional, the first British court conviction by fingerprints was obtained in 1902.
Approximately 10 years after the publication of Henry’s book, his classification system was used
by the police forces and prison authorities throughout the English-speaking world.

Modern Use of Fingerprints:

As crime-detection methods improved, law enforcement officers found that any smooth,
hard surface touched by a human hand would produce fingerprints made by the oily secretion
present on the skin. When these so-called latent prints were dusted with powder or chemically
treated, the identifying fingerprint pattern could be seen and photographed and preserved. Law
enforcement agencies can also use computers to digitally record fingerprints and to transmit
them electronically to other agencies for comparison. By comparing fingerprints at the scene of
a crime with the fingerprint record of suspected persons, police investigators can establish
absolute proof of the presence of a person to the crime scene and identify the individual.

Law enforcement agencies are now in the process of transferring all its fingerprint
records onto a computerized system known as the Integrated Automated Fingerprint
Identification System (IAFIS). IAFIS will scan fingerprint cards electronically, store fingerprint
data digitally, and automatically search the database to match fingerprints.

PRINCIPLES OF FINGERPRINT:

Fingerprints never change. Small ridges form on a person’s hands and feet
before they are born and do not change for as long as the person lives.

No two fingerprints are alike. The ridges on the hands and feet of all persons
have three characteristics (ridge endings, bifurcations and dots) which appear in
combinations that are never repeated on the hands or feet of any two persons. A
ridge ending is simply the end of a ridge. A bifurcation is a Y-shaped split of one
ridge into two. A dot is a very short ridge that looks like a “dot”.

The uniqueness of a fingerprint is a working hypothesis which in the mathematical sense

is difficult (if not impossible) to prove. The opposite is more provable, namely finding two
identical fingers. Until now, no two fingerprints from different fingers have been found
which are identical. This holds true even for identical twins, between right and left fingers
and can be anticipated also for clones.

Are fingerprints inherited… are they more similar between family members than
between strangers? The general shape or overall pattern of finger and palm prints can
be inherited. Family members will often have similar patterns or designs (whorls, loops,
etc) on the same fingers of their hands. The tiny details in the fingerprint ridges,
however, are not inherited and are different between all friction skin areas of all
persons… even between twins.
 Fingerprint patterns are inherited and thus non-fingerprint experts looking in a
police fingerprint file must be careful not to confuse fingerprint records of close relatives
based on fingerprint classification.

Likewise, a National Crime Information Center Fingerprint Classification Code

(FPC) may be very similar for close relatives. The actual finger and palm print detail
used to effect identification is not inherited and experts have no problem differentiating
even identical twins. Only the overall whorl, loop, etc., pattern are inherited.

The actual finger and palm print detail used to effect identification is not inherited
and experts have no problem differentiating even identical twins. Only the overall whorl,
loop, etc., patterns are inherited. The police might confuse your fingerprints with your
twin brother’s…for about ten seconds. The moment they put a magnifying glass on them
they will see obvious differences.

Fingerprint Pattern Classification: The classification of fingerprints into distinct

groups based on general similarities allows the fingerprint examiner to search for an
unidentified fingerprint within a specific section of the fingerprint file rather than having to
search the whole file.

There are various fingerprint classification systems in use throughout the world
today. These systems are all based in three primary or fundamental ridge
formations depicted by Purkinje, Galton, Vucetich and Henry. They are the arch,
the loop-radial and ulnar, and the whorl.

Basic Classification Patterns:

ARCHES: Arches represent only about 5 per cent of the fingerprint patterns encountered. In
arch patterns, the ridges run from one side to the other of the pattern, making no backward turn.

There is ordinarily no delta, but where there is the appearance of a delta, no

recurving ridge must intervene between the core and delta points.

Kinds of arches: Arches come in two types, plain or tented. Arches by definition
have no deltas. If the pattern has a delta then it is a loop and if it has more than
one delta it is a whorl. In plain arches it is evident that there is no delta and no
significant core.

By comparison of plain arch and tented arch, a plain arch is that type of pattern in
which the ridges enter upon one side, makes a rise or wave in the center, and
tend to flow or floe out upon the opposite side; while a tented arch refers to that
type of pattern which possess either an up thrust, an angle or two of the basic
characteristic of a loop.

The technical definition is that a tented arch has a “significant up thrust” where a
plain arch does not.

LOOP: Loops constitute or make up between 60 and 70 per cent of the patterns encountered. In
a loop pattern, one or more of the ridges enters on either side of the impression; crosses,
recurves or touches the line of the glass running from the delta to the core, and terminates or
tends to terminate on or in the direction of the side where the ridge or ridges entered. There is
one delta.

By definition the existence of a core and one delta makes this pattern a loop.
Loops are classified not only by the fact that they have one delta and one core
but also by a ridge count.

Loops are of two kinds:” radial and ulnar”, named after the radius and ulna, the
two bones in the forearm. The radius joins the hand on the same side as the
thumb, and the ulna on the same side as the little finger.

Kinds of loops distinguished: The distinction between Ulnar and Radial Loops
depends on which the loop is found on. Ulnar loops, are manifested when the
downward slope of the ridges about the core is from the direction of the thumb
toward the little finger; while radial loops, occurs when the downwards slope of
the ridges about the core is from the direction of the little finger toward the
thumb. To make the distinction between these two types of loops you have to
know on which hand they appear because if a loop pattern is an ulnar loop on
the right hand, then by default it will be a radial loop.

If found on the left hand. Radial loops are not very common. Most of the time if you find
a radial loop on a person it will usually be on the index fingers. An impression to be
considered as a loop must own the following fundamentals:

1. It must possess a delta.

2. It must have core.

3. It must possess a recurving ridge that passes between the delta and the core.

4. It must have at least one ridge count.

Ridge counting is the method of counting the ridges that cross or touch an imaginary line drawn
between the delta and the core of a loop. A white space must always ensue between the first
ridge to be counted and the delta.

Rules in Ridge Counting:

1. First pinpoint the exact site of the core and delta.

2. Count all ridges which cross or touch an imaginary line drawn between the core and
delta.

3. Do not include delta and the core in the ridge count.

4. Never count incipient ridges, no matter where they may appear. In order to be counted,
the width of a ridge must be equal to the width of the other ridges in the pattern under
scrutiny.
Ridges subjected to ridge counting with given numerical values are as follows:

1. A ridge island or dot is given one ridge count.

2. A long ridge is given one ridge count.

3. A short ridge is given one ridge count.

4. An abrupt-ending ridge is given one ridge count.

5. A bifurcating ridge where the ridge bifurcates or branches into two across the imaginary
line, the count given is two. Should the imaginary line cross only the bifurcation directly
at the point of forking, it is given two ridge counts. If the imaginary line does not cross
the point of forking or falls short of touching it crosses only one ridge and the count is
given as one.

6. Ridge enclosures are counted as two ridges.

7. Criss-crossing ridges or meeting of two ridges is counted as two ridges.

WHORLS: Between 25 and 35 per cent of the patterns encountered consist of whorls. In a
whorl, some of the ridges make a turn through at least one circuit.

Any fingerprint pattern which contains 2 or more deltas will be a whorl pattern. In the
scheme of classification you can make the assumption that if a pattern contains no
delta’s then it is an arch, if it contains one (and only one) delta it will be loop and if it
contains 2 or more it will always be a whorl. If a pattern does contain more than two
deltas it will be an accidental whorl.

Plain Whorls: As with any whorl, there must more than one valid delta or else it is a loop.
A plain whorl consists of one or more ridges which tend to make or make a complete
circuit, with two deltas, between which when an imaginary line is drawn at least one
recurving ridge within the inner pattern area is touched or cut.

Elements of the plain whorl:

A complete circuit,
Two deltas
At least one circulating ridge is crossed or touched by an imaginary line passing
through the two deltas.

Central pocket loop whorls: A central pocket whorl consists of at least one recurving
ridge, or an obstruction at right angles to the line of flow, with two deltas, between which
when an imaginary line is drawn, no recurving ridge within the pattern area is cut or
touched.
 Elements of a Central Pocket Loop:

At least one obstruction ridge or recurving ridge at right angle;

Two deltas; and
No recurving ridge within the pattern area is crossed or touched by an imaginary line
drawn between the two deltas.

Double loop whorls: A double loop whorl consists of two separate and distinct loop
formations with two separate and distinct shoulders and two deltas.

Accidental Whorl: It consists of a combination of two different types of pattern with the
exception of the plain arch, with two or more deltas, or a pattern which possess some of
the requirements for two or more different types or a pattern which conforms to none of
the other definition of patterns.

Types of core formation which are not classified as a double loop whorl: The interlocking
type core:”S” type core and the formation of a loop inside another loop.

COMPOSITES: Composites include patterns in which combinations of the tented arch, loop and
whorl are found in the same print, also patterns where the majority of ridges are loops and a few
ridges at the center or side are whorls.

Composites are subdivided into central pocket loops, double loops and accidentals.

Central Pocket Loop. Central Pocket Loops are differentiated from whorls by placing the line of
the glass across the two delta points. This line must not touch or cross any ridge formation
within the inner area of the pattern. (The inner pattern is that portion of the print contained inside
both deltas.)

Double Loop- Double Loop patterns consist of two separate loop formations, with two separate
and distinct sets of staples and two deltas. They include the lateral pocket loop and twinned
loop types. Only those patterns with well-defined loops come within this category. In cases
where the two sets of staples are joined but where there is a definite recurving ridge forming
each staple, the pattern is classed as a double loop, the presence of a well-defined loop does
not affect the pattern.

Lateral pocket and twin loops: Henry described lateral pocket loops as patterns whose
core points have their exist s on the same side of none of the deltas. In twin loops the
ridges containing the core points have there exists on different sides.

Accidentals- Under this heading is the relatively small number of patterns too irregular in outline
to be grouped with central pocket loops and double loops. They have two or more deltas and a
combination or fusion of two or more types of patterns not including the plain, radial or ulnar
arch. This category also includes any freak pattern or accidental formation that does not
conform to any conventional type.
WHORL TRACINGS: There are two components of a whorl classification. The first is the whorl
pattern such a plain, double, central pocket and the second is the tracing.

To determine the tracing we must first identify the left delta we will follow the first line
blow the delta across the print until we reach a point that is directly below the right delta.
Once these lines stop the point where the intersecting lines are counted.

There are three types of tracings, outer, meet and inner. Outer means that there are
three or more intersecting lines and they are outside of the pattern area.

If the number of intersecting lines had been three or less, then this would have been a
meet tracing.

If there is more than three and this time the intersecting point is inside the pattern area.
This makes this an inner tracing.

If the imaginary intersecting line is within three intervening lines of the right delta when
counting across an imaginary line, then it would be a meet tracing.

More than three to the inside of the pattern area makes it an inner tracing and more than
three outside the pattern area make it an outer tracing.

Fingerprint Identification: Identification by fingerprints relies on pattern matching followed by the

detection of certain ridge characteristics, also so known as Galton details, points of identity, or
minutiae, and the comparison of the relative positions of these minutiae points with a reference
print, usually an inked impression of a suspect’s print.

There are three basic ridge characteristics, the ridge ending, the bifurcation and the dot
(or island).

Ridge Characteristics: The most common ridge characteristics which are used as points to
identify are as follows:

Short ridge- A ridge of limited,

Ending ridge-Terminus of a long or short ridge,

Dot ridge-Refers to ridge which resembles a point,

Ridge bifurcation- The forking of single ridge into two or more branches,

Island ridge- A single ridge which splits into two branches flowing side by side toward
the same direction at a certain point met forming the original ridge.

Friction Ridge Skin: Only the hairless parts of the body –the inner surfaces of the hands and the
soles of the feet__are covered with patterns formed by raised ridges of skin known as friction or
papillary ridges.
The study of fingerprints, or dactyloscopy, friction or papillary ridges is the more widely
used section in practice even though prints from the soles of the feet are as characteristic as
fingerprints; they are less often used for identification purposes due to their low rate of
occurrence. The patterns formed by the papillary ridges are important since they are already
formed in the fetus by the fourth month of pregnancy and they do not change until death. These
patterns cannot be altered, except by accident, mutilation, or very serious skin disease, as they
are formed in deep layers of the dermis.

The skin is made up of two main layers: the outer skin or epidermis, and the inner or true
skin, known the dermis. The epidermis is regularly being worn away and replaced by new skin
generated by the upper layer of the dermis- a papillary layer (stratum mucosum) which is the
source of the ridges known as ‘papillary ridges’.

The sweat glands, to be found in the dermis, discharge sweat at the skin surface through
sweat at the skin surface through sweat pores found at the top of the ridges. Such pore holes
are significant to the production of latent prints since sweat reaches the surface of the hand and
efficiently coats the tops of the fingerprint ridges with sweat.

Sweat glands serve as small chemical reservoirs and contain an assortment of water-
soluble chemical compounds, produced or stored by the body. The dermal layer of the skin also
contains the nerves of touch which terminate at the underside of the epidermis. The epidermis
contains no nerves but does contain nerve endings.

Fingerprint patterns are not formed at the surface of the skin but are determined by the
arrangement of various elements, such as sweat glands, nerves, and blood vessels found below
the surface of the skin. Sebaceous glands and hair follicles are found in the dermal layer of
other skin surfaces but are absent in friction skin.

In case the top layer of skin suffers any injury, the ridges grow back after healing in the
exact pattern they had before. Superficial cuts or abrasions alter fingerprint characteristics only
temporarily. If the injury reaches deep into the dermis and destroys the dermal papillae, then
growth of new epidermal cells is impaired and a permanent scar is created.

Fingerprint detail is unique and individual for a given finger, the detail in a fingerprint is
formed in an accidental manner during gestation. The ridge characteristics that make
fingerprints unique are known as minutiae, Galton points, characteristic points or points of
identification.

General Fingerprint Rules: Within the pattern area of a whorl and loop type fingerprint
enclosed by type lines are found fixed focal points known as core and delta. Delta location and
formation will be taken first then followed by core formation. These focal points are used in
classifying fingerprints.

The word delta was of Greek origin, its literal meaning in English is a deposit of earth at
the mouth of a river.

In dactyloscopy, a delta refers to the point on the first ridge formation located directly at
or in front of and nearest the center of the divergence of the type lines.

Delta formation as a physical feature of a river, which is an island that is formed due to
the increased deposit of soil which rises above the surface making an island or
obstruction and delta formation in fingerprint patterns are quite similar.
 In fingerprint the ridges forming type liens swerve, similar to the banks of a river when a
delta is reached. Just like the river banks, the type lines of a fingerprint run parallel and
abruptly diverge when they reach a delta.

Basic Delta Formation:

Delta as an ending ridge,
Delta as a bifurcating ridge,
Delta as a short ridge,
Delta as a point on a long ridge,
Delta as a converging ridge and
Delta as a dot.

Rules Governing the Choice between Two or More Possible Deltas:

The delta may not be located at a point of a bifurcation which does not open
towards the core. To be a delta, a bifurcation must be the initial ridge formation in
front of the divergence of the type lines and the bifurcation must open up toward
the pattern area.

A bifurcation is at all times chosen as a delta, if there is another type of delta

formation just equally close to the point of divergence of the type lines.

When a pattern illustrates a series of bifurcation opening toward the core at the
point of divergence of the type lines, the bifurcation nearest to the core is
selected as the delta.

Delta location is relatively confusing when several bifurcating ridges opening

toward the core, but the delta are located at the point of the first bifurcating ridge
just in front of the divergence of the type lines.

Two legs of a bifurcation will serve as type lines when it opens towards the core, but is
should be so far outside the pattern area that the legs of the bifurcation run parallel
some distance before they diverge. In this case, a bifurcation is considered as a type
line.

Core Formation: The core is referred to as the inner terminus and the delta is often times called
the outer terminus. The core approximates the center of a finger impression. The core is the
heart of a pattern. Since we put our attention only on the details inside the pattern area
surrounded by the type lines, we must find the core somewhere in the center or as near the
center as practicable.

The core then is a point on a ridge formation most of the time located at the heart or
center of the impression.
 Rules in Core Formation:

Cores in a loop pattern are created in a variety of ways, but are always located on or
within the innermost recurving or looping ridge.

When the innermost recurving ridge has no ending ridge or rod rising as high as the
shoulders of a loop, the core is positioned on the shoulder of the loop farthest from
the delta.

When the innermost recurving ridge contains an uneven number of rods rising as
high as the shoulders of said recurving ridge, the core is positioned upon the end of
the center rod, whether it touches the looping ridge or not.

When the innermost recurving ridge contains an even number of rods mounting as
high as the shoulders of said recurving ridge, the core is positioned upon the end of
the farthest one of the two center rods, the two center rods being treated as though
they were connected by a recurving ridge.

Fingerprint Classification and Identification:

Class characteristics of friction ridge prints refer to those characteristics that can be
possessed by more than one print. The class characteristics of friction ridge skin extend to
many factors other than digit or palm, or toe or sole, and the definable pattern type.

Patterns of the same type, by definition, may appear quite diverse. The individualizing
characteristics of friction skin are those features of the ridges which make it possible to
characterize or identify a specific print as having been made by a specific person. These
characteristics are considered with respect to their location, general appearance, orientation
and interrelationship when comparison is made between two prints.

In fingerprinting, classification and identification are separate concepts. The two

functions may and often are performed by different personal. In some police departments, the
division of labor may be so sharp that a person skilled in fingerprint classification may not be
qualified to identify suspects based on fingerprint examinations.

The examination may be conducted manually or by computer (AFIS) followed by visual

comparison. The Automated Fingerprint Identification System is a biometric identification
methodology that uses digital technology to obtain, store and analyze fingerprint data. Originally
used by the FBI in criminal cases, it has gained favor more general identification and fraud
prevention application. A more sophisticated advanced form of AFIS uses a process called plain
impression live scanning.

The (IAFIS) Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System is an enhancement

of the (AFIS) it provides to local, national criminal justice agencies access to electronic ten-print
identification services, subject search and criminal history database, latent fingerprint database,
document and fingerprint services and remote search service.

Fingerprint classification is a technique to assign a fingerprint into one of the several pre-
specified types already established in the literature which can provide an indexing mechanism.
Fingerprint classification can be viewed as a coarse level matching of the fingerprints. An input
fingerprint is first matched at a coarse level to one of the pre-specified types and then, at a finer
level, it is compared to the subset of the database containing that type of fingerprints only.

The Henry Classification System- developed by Henry in the late 1800’s.

Icnofalangometric System- the original name of the system developed by Vucetich.

Dactyloscopy-the new name of the system developed by Vucetich.

The Oloriz System of Classification- developed by Oloriz. Identakey-developed in the

1930’sby G.Tyler Mairs.

The American System of Fingerprint Classification- developed by Parke in 1903.

The Conley System. The Flak-Conley System developed in 1906 in New Jersey, an
improved Conley System.

NCIC Fingerprint Classification System. Collins System- a classification system for

single fingerprints used in Scotland Yard in the early 1900’s.

Jorgensen System- a classification system for single fingerprints used in early 1900’s.

Battley System –a classification system for single fingerprint used in the 1930’s.

Outline of the Fingerprint Classification Formula:

Primary Classification: attained by using the four stages. The primary represents the total
numerical value of the even numbered fingers plus one over the total number of numerical value
of the odd numbered fingers plus one. It is the first step in the fingerprint classification formula.

Secondary Classification: Refers to the part of the formula after the primary, appearing just to
the right of the primary. It is the only portion of the formula which indicates fingerprint pattern
types only. Capital lettered group and small lettered group.

The third phase is the sub-secondary classification: Undertaken by ridge counting of loops on
index, middle and ring finger using the letter symbols I, M, O.

The following is the breakdown for ulnar loops:

Index fingers 1-9 (Inner) 10 or more (Outer)

Middle fingers 1-10 (Inner) 11or more (Outer)
Ring finger 1-13 (Inner) 14 or more (Outer)

Major Divisions: Letter symbols S, M, and L for ridge count of loop on thumbs; I, M, O for ridge
tracing of whorls. This indicates the classification of the thumb prints on the fingerprint card, and
it appears showing the right hand over the left hand. It is placed just to the left of the primary.

The following represents the table for major division of loops:

Left thumb Right thumb

Denominator Numerator
1-11, inclusive S (small) 1-11, inclusive, S
12-16 inclusive,M
17 or more ridges, L

1-11, inclusive,S
12-16, inclusive, M (medium) 12-16, inclusive, M
17 or more ridges, inclusive, L

1-17, inclusive, S
17 or more ridges, L (large) 18-22 inclusive,M
23 or more ridges, L

Final Classification: Exhibiting of numbers as a result of ridge count of loops on little finger.

Key: Exhibiting of a number indicating the result of the ridge count of the first loop in a set of
prints. This count starts with the right thumb and excludes the little fingers. The key is always
situated in the extreme left of the numerator of the classification.

Under the index finger the proper capital letters should be placed for every pattern with
the exception of the ulnar loop.

Under all other fingers the proper small letter should be placed for every pattern except
the ulnar loop and the whorl as follows:

Arch= a
Tented Arch= t
Radial Loop= r

Ulnar loops in any finger are represented by the letter “U”.

Making of latent fingerprint evidence:

All such evidence should be marked in a unique manner, such is the case with any other
type of physical evidence, not to damage or destroy potential latent fingerprints.

Lifted, developed latent prints should also be marked or sealed in distinct envelopes.

Photograph-developed latent print with and without identifying markings and scale.
Preservation of Fingerprint Evidence:

The major precaution in all cases is the prevention of adding fingerprints to evidence or
of destroying those already present.

Most fingerprints submitted will be on paper, glass, metal or other smooth surfaced
objects. When articles containing latent must be picked up, touched as little as possible,
and then only in areas likely to contain identifiable latent, such as rough surfaces.

While gloves or handkerchief may be used to pick-up such exhibits, any unnecessary
contact should be avoided. Although using a cloth may prevent leaving additional prints
on such articles, it may smear or wipe off prints originally present unless great care is
taken.

Large articles containing latent prints should be placed on wood or heavy card board
fastened down with string to prevent shifting and contact with other objects in transit.

Papers and documents containing latent prints should be placed individually in a

cellophane or manila envelope. Such a container can be sandwiched between two
sheets of stiff cardboard, wrapped and placed in a box for mailing.

Classification of Amputations, Missing at Birth and of Scarred Patterns:

In cases wherein one or more amputation appears on a fingerprint card, it may be

separately filed from those having no amputations to facilitate searching. If one finger is
amputated is amputated, it is given an identical classification with that of the opposite
finger, including among other patterns, ridge count or tracing, and referenced to every
other possible classifications.

If two fingers are amputated, they are given the same classification of the opposite
finger, with no additional tracings. In case wherein both amputated fingers are opposite
each other they are both given the classification of whorls with meeting tracings.

If in case all fingers are amputated or missing at birth the classification would be:

M 32 W MMM
M 32 W MMM

If both hands are amputated and missing at birth, footprints are to be taken

For scarred patterns:

When an impression is moderately scarred, the impression should be given the primary
value of the pattern of the corresponding finger and its sub-classification value as indicated by
the ridges of partially scarred impressions.

When an impression is partially scarred and the general type of pattern may be
determined with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges could not be counted or traced as to fall
within appropriate sub-secondary classification, the impression should be given the ridge count
or tracing value of the corresponding finger of the other hand, in case the corresponding is not
of the same general type, the scarred impression should be given the probable value and
referenced to all thee possibilities.

When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor ridge count
or tracing may be determined with reasonable accuracy, the impression is given the general
type value and the sub-classification value of the corresponding finger of the other hand. In case
the opposite or corresponding of the other hand is similarly scarred, both patterns are
designated with the arbitrary value of whorls with meeting tracings.

For bandaged or unprinted fingers:

In case the injury is temporary and if possible the prints should be taken after the
wounds have healed. However, if the fingers are injured to the extent that it may not be
possible to obtain inked impressions by special inking contrivances, the unprinted
fingers are given classifications identical with the classification of the opposite fingers.

If only one finger is lacking, reference searches should be made in every possible
classification. If more than one finger is lacking, they ought to be given the
classification of the opposite fingers but no reference searches may be conducted. In
case there are two lacking opposite each other, they should be classified as whorls
with meeting tracings.

Fingerprint Matching: Among all biometric techniques, fingerprint based identification is the
oldest method which has been successfully used in numerous applications. Everyone is known
to have unique, immutable fingerprints. A fingerprint which is made up of a series of ridges and
furrows on the surface of the finger, this individuality of a fingerprint can be determined by the
pattern of ridges and furrows as well as the minutiae points. Minutiae points are local ridge
characteristics that occur at either a ridge bifurcation or a ridge ending. Fingerprint matching
techniques can be categorized into two: minutiae-based and correlation-based.

Minutiae-based technique is used by first locating the minutiae points and then mapping
their relative placement on the finger. This method does not take into account the global pattern
of ridges and furrows. The correlation-based method is able to overcome the limitation
mentioned using the minutiae-based approach. However correlation-based technique requires
the precise location of a registration point and is affected by image translation and rotation.

Other means of Identification:

Poroscopy- refers to the examination of the shape, size and arrangement of the small
opening on friction ridge through which body fluids are secreted or released. (pores)

Podoscopy- a term coined by Wilder and Wentworth which refers to the examination of
the soles and their significance in personal identification.

Cheiloscopy- refers to the examination of lip prints which may serve to identify an
individualize persons.
 Chiroscopy- it is the examination and thorough study of the palms of the human hand
as a point in identifying persons.

Edgeoscopy- the study of the morphological characteristics of friction ridges; shape or

contour of the edges of friction ridges.

PART II
(CRIMINALISTICS -2)
POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

A technique of producing permanent images on sensitized surfaces by means of the

photochemical action of light or other forms of radiant energy, photography plays important roles
as information medium, as a tool in science and technology, and as an art form, and it is also a
popular hobby.

It is essential at every level of business and industry being utilized in scientific research,
advertising, documentation, photojournalism, and many other applications. In the 19 th century,
photography was the domain of a few professionals because it required large cameras and
glass photographic plates. During the first decades of the 20TH century, however, with the
introduction of roll film and the box camera, it came within the reach of public as a whole.

Photography is a significant tool for a law enforcement investigator. As an instrument, it

enables him to record the visible and in many cases, the invisible evidence found at the crime
scene. Special procedure employing infra-red, ultra violet and x-ray radiation enable him to
record evidence which is naked to the human eye. The photographic evidence may store
indefinitely and retrieved when needed. There is no other method which can search, record,
remember, and recall criminal evidence as well as photography.

Photographs are means of communication. It is a language sometimes defined as “the

most universal of all languages”. Photography has an advantage as a language because it does
not rely upon abstract symbols, words. Photography is more direct and less subject to
misunderstanding. As a communication medium it has few if any equal method.

Photography is an art or science that deals with the duplication of images through the
action of light, upon sensitized materials (paper or film) with the aid of the camera and its
accessories, and the chemical processes involved therein. A photograph is both a chemical and
mechanical product of photography. To create a photograph, light is needed aside from
sensitized materials, light radiated or reflected by the subject must reach the film while all other
light are excluded.

The exclusion of all other lights is achieved by placing the film inside the light tight box of
a camera. The effect of the light on the film after the development changes with the quantity or
quality of light that reached the emulsion of the film. The amount of light reaching the film would
rely upon many factors such as lighting condition, lens opening used, shutter speed, filter used,
etc.,

Police Photography: Refers to the art or science that deals with the study of the
principles of photograph, the preparation of the photographic evidence, and its application to
police work. The first application of photography in law enforcement was limited to personal
identification.

Presently photography is used in making a permanent record of the crime scene which
makes possible the preservation of perishable evidences. Photography provides a technique in
making visible things and minute details not perceptible to the naked eye. In court proceedings it
is useful in the determination of the truth respecting a matter of fact. In order to be admissible as
evidence, it must be a faithful representation of the original which means that the same likeness
must be accurately replicated.

Photography was not discovered by one man. It was the consequences of the
observation made by chemist, physicists and scientists. However, the basis of modern
photography was introduced in 1839by Fox Talbot. Since then everything can be photographed
and permanently recorded. The photographic evidence may store indefinitely and retrieved
when needed. There is no other method which can search, record, remember and recall
criminal evidence as well as photography.

Historical Development

The term camera derives from camera obscura, which is Latin for “dark chamber”. In
1700, the Camera Obscura was designed by Leonardo Da Vinci with accurate scale and
perspective. In 1725, the chemicals with light sensitivity such as silver nitrate and silver chloride
was discovered and used for development. The original camera obscura was a darkened room
with a tiny hole in one wall. Light entering the room through this hole projected an impression
from the outside on the opposite, darkened wall. Although the image formed this way as
inverted and hazy, artists used this device to sketch by hand scenes projected by the “camera”.
Over the course of three centuries, the camera obscura evolved into a handheld box, and the
pinhole was built in with an optical lens to sharpen the image.

18th Century

The photosensitivity of certain silver compounds, mostly silver nitrate and silver chloride,
had been known for sometime before British scientists Thomas Wedgwood and Sir Humphry
Davy began experiments late in 18th century in the recording of photographic images. Using
paper coated with silver chloride, they accomplished producing images of paintings, silhouettes
of leaves and human profiles. These photographs were not permanent, because the entire
surface of the paper blackened after exposure to light.

19th century

The earliest photographs on record, known as heliographs, were made by French

physicist Joseph Nicephore Niepce. In 1818, France, Niepce obtained camera images on paper
sensitized with silver chloride solution; however, the fixation is only partial. Niepce regarded the
results as “imperfect failures” because they are reversed in tonality (negatives). In 1826 in
France, Niepce achieved the first permanent photograph in a camera on a plate coated with
light gray bitumen. After an 8-hour exposure, a direct positive image results when oil of lavender
dissolves away unexposed, unhardened bitumen to let the dark metal plate represent shadow
area which Daguerre forms a partnership with Niepce to perfect this invention. In 1833, Niepce
died, Daguerre took over the actual experimentation.

About 1831, French painter Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre prepared photographs on
silver plates coated with a light-sensitive layer of silver iodide. After exposing the plate for
several minutes, Daguerre used mercury vapors to acquire a positive photograph image. These
photographs were not permanent because the plates gradually darkened, wiping out the image.
In the first enduring photographs made by Daguerre, the developed plate was coated with a
strong solution of ordinary table salt.

In 1835, England. W.H.F. Talbot obtains negative images on silver-chloride paper by

long” printing out” exposures in a camera obscura; they are imperfectly fixed. In France,
Daguerre discovered that mercury fumes will develop an invisible (latent) image on a silver plate
that is sensitized with iodine fumes before exposure.

In 1839, England, William H. Fox Talbot, points out the basis of modern photography: A
negative on suitable material (such as paper) can be used to produce as many positive copies
as desire by contact printing.

Sir John F.H. Herschel coined the word “ photography” (suggests “negative” and
“positive” in the following year), and points out that images can be made permanent by
dissolving away unexposed silver compounds with a solution of hyposulfite of soda (hypo or
sodium thiosulfate), which he had discovered in 1819. He was considered as the “Father of
Modern Photography”. Photography was derived from the Greek word “phos” which means light
and “grapho” which means to draw.

Talbot pioneered methods of developing paper-negative images that greatly reduces the
exposure required in the camera. This fixing process, originated by British inventor William
Henry Fox Talbot, rendered the unexposed silver-iodide particles insensitive to light and
prevented complete blackening of the plate. The Daguerre method produced an irreproducible
image on the silver plate for each exposure made.

While Daguerre perfected his process, Talbot developed a photographic method

involving the use of a paper negative from which an indefinite number of prints could be made.
Talbot had discovered that paper coated with silver iodide could be made more sensitive to light
if dampened prior to exposure by a solution of silver nitrate and Gallic acid, and that the solution
also could be used in developing the paper after exposure. After development, the negative
image was made permanent by immersion in sodium thiosulfate or hypo. Talbot’s method, called
the calotype process, requisite exposures of about 30 seconds to produce an adequate image
on the negative. Both Daguerre and Talbot make known their process in 1839.Within three
years the exposure time in both processes had been reduced to several seconds.

In 1840, U.S. J.W. Draper is one of the first to produce photographs portraits using a
lens with a diameter of five inches and a focus of seven inches. At about the same year in
Austria/Hungary, J.M. Petzval designs the first lens specifically for photographic use; its
maximum aperture of 3.6 makes possible portrait exposures of less than one minute launching
the most widespread use of the Daguerreotype. The lens is produced the following year by
Vioglander for use in the fist all-metal, utilized camera.
 Major achievements with the paper-negative process were made in 1841-1848 by Hill
and Adamson, and by various photographers on the Continent, beyond the reach of Talbot’s
legal agents. In 1842, England, Herschel invented the ferroprusiate (blueprints, cyanotype)
process.

In the calotype process, the grain structure of the paper negatives emerged in the
finished print. In 1847, French physicist Claude Felix Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor developed a
method of using a glass-plate negative. The plate, which was coated with potassium bromide
suspended in albumin, was prepared before exposure by immersion in a silver- nitrate solution.
The glass-plate negatives provided excellent image definition but required long exposures. Abel
Niepce De Saint-Victor perfected the use of albumin to hold light-sensitive compounds on a
glass plate to make negatives on an absolutely smooth and transparent material-the two major
qualities lacking in a paper negative.

In 1850, France, L.D Blanquart-Evrard invents albumen high resolution obtainable with
glass-plate negatives. Gustav Le Gray invents the waxed paper process, which treats paper (to
make it nearly transparent) before sensitized and exposure, rather than after as is the common
practice.

In 1851, British sculptor and photographer Frederick Scott Archer introduced wet glass
plates using collodion, instead of albumin, as the coating material in which light-sensitive
compounds were suspended. Because these negatives had to be exposed and developed while
damp, photographers needed a darkroom close at hand in order to prepare the plates before
exposure and to develop them immediately after exposure. Using wet collodion negatives and
horse-drawn mobile darkrooms, photographers on the staff of American photographer Mathew
B. Brady took thousands of photographs on battlefield sites during the American Civil War
(1861-1865).

In 1852, U.S., Collodion direct positives-like ambrotypes, but produced on dark metal-
are introduced as ferrotype; they are commonly called tintype because of the thin metal base
material. In 1853, England, J.B. Dancer makes the first model of a twin-lens camera for stereo
photography, working from designs suggested in 1849 by Sir David Brewster; production begun
in 1856.

In 1859, by Roscoe and Bunsen, William White suggests the use of a stern of
magnesium powder constantly igniting in a gas to form a continuous high intensity artificial light
source. The idea is finally commercially exploited in 1883 with the introduction of flash powder.

In 1862, U.S. Reversal process to obtain positive images is first demonstrated by

bleaching out the negative, and then exposing developing previously unused halides in
emulsion.

Because use of the wet collodion process was limited mainly to professional
photography, various experimenters attempted to perfect a type of negative that could be
exposed when dry and that would not require immediate development after exposure.
Progresses were made by British merchant Richard Kennett, who supplied dry-plate negatives
to photographers as early as 1874. In 1878, British photographer Charles Bennett produced a
dry plate coated with an emulsion of gelatin and silver bromide, which was similar to modern
plates.
 While experiments were being performed to intensify the efficiency of black-and-white
photography, preliminary efforts were made to use the coated-plate emulsions to produce
natural color images of photographic subjects. In 1861, the first successful color photograph
was prepared by British physicist James Clark Maxwell, who used an additive-color process.

In 1868, France, Ducos da Hauron publishes methods for both additive and subtractive
color synthesis of images by photography and suggests the use of a three color monopack
plate; he demonstrates some results obtained by diffraction and interference effects.

In 1871, England, Richard Leach Maddox invents the first truly practical dry plate
negative process, using gelatin in place of collodion to bind silver halides to glass plate.

In 1872, U.S. Edward James Muybridge makes the fist attempts to photographically
analyze a horse’s gallop, for Leland Stanford. Result are imperfect because collodion wet plates
do not permit short enough exposures. He resumes motion study for Stanford in 1877 and
achieves excellent results in the next two years, using a battery of cameras to make sequence
photographs on gelatin dry plates.

In 1873, Germany, Professor H.W Vogel discovered the use of dye substances to extend
the sensitivity of photographic emulsion from the blue into the green region of the spectrum
making possible orthochromatic plates (meaning”correct color,” although they are still red-blind).

In 1875, England, Leon Warnerke invents a roll holder for use with studio and field (view)
cameras; a roll sensitized paper provides for up to 100 exposures.

In 1880, England, Sir William Abbey discovered the use of hydroquinone as a

developing agent. In 1882, he produced silver chloride gelatin emulsion for printing-out paper; it
took more than ten years for this and similar materials to supplant albumen paper.

About 1883, American inventor George Eastman created a film consisting of a long
paper strip coated with a sensitive emulsion. In 1889, Eastman produced the first transparent,
variable film support, in the form of ribbons of cellulose nitrate. The invention of roll film marked
the end of the early photographic period and the beginning of an era during which thousands of
amateur photographers became interested in the new process.

20th Century

In 1884, U.S. Eastman negative paper is introduced; it consists of a light-sensitive

emulsion or paper which, after development is made transparent enough for printing by treating
it with hot castor oil. In 1888, U.S. John Carbutt manufactured the celluloid-base sheet film. The
Eastman Dry plate and film Company introduced the number one Kodak camera, the first self-
contained roll-film camera. It is small enough (6 ½ “x 3 ½ 3 ½ ) to be hand-held and is easy to
operate: A fixed-focus ( 3 ½ feet to infinity) lens, single stop and single speed (about 1/40 sec.)
producing 100 exposures, 2 ½ inches in diameter without the need for technical skill. This
simplicity couple with the developing and printing service offered by the manufacture, ushers in
the era of amateur photography on amass scale.

In 1889, U.S. The first commercial transparent roll film, perfected by Eastman and his
research chemist, is put on the market. Using a flushable base of cellulose nitrate, the film is
coated on glass-topped tables 200feet long. The availability of this flexible film makes possible
the development and achievement (1891) of Thomas Edison’s motion-picture camera and
projector.

In 1895, U.S., Reverend Hannibal Goodwin is granted a patent covering roll film
composed of silver-bromide gelatin emulsion on a celluloid base.

In the early 20th century, commercial photography grew swiftly while enhancement in
black-and-white photography opened the field to individuals lacking the time and skill to master
the earlier and more complicated processes. The first commercial color-film materials, coated
glass plates called Auto chromes Lumiere- after the process developed by French inventors
Auguste and Louis Lumiere-became commercially available in 1907. During this time, color
photographs were produced with the three-exposure camera.

In 1904, Germany, B. Homoka and E. Konig who had studied with H.W. Vogel, invented
dye sensitizers that extend emulsion sensitivity into the yellow and red regions of the spectrum.
Written and Wainwright begun commercial production of panchromatic(“all-color”) plates two
years later in England.

In 1907, France, M. Lumiere color process, the Auto chrome plate, became the first
commercially manufactured practical color process in photography; it is an additive process
using a panchromatic emulsion coated over a layer of red, green and blue dyed starch grains on
a glass plate.

In 1910, France, Dioptichrome color materials are produced based on patents of Louis
Dufay. Later products based on similar principles include Dufaycolor.

In 1912, Germany. Friedrich Deckel invented the compound shutter, which use gears to
control slow speeds and a clock work movements to control fast speed. It is a great
improvement over his compound shutter.

In 1914, U.S. Eastman Kodak Company introduces a two color subtractive process
called kodachrome, it is dropped after a few years, but the name is use again, 21 years later for
a trea-color process based on different principles.

In the 1920s development of photochemical processes used in printing created a great

demand for photographs to illustrate text in newspapers and magazines. The demand for
photographic images with printed materials established the new commercial fields of advertising
and publicity photography. Technological advances, which simplified photographic materials and
apparatus, encouraged the widespread acceptance of photography as a hobby or a vocation by
great numbers of people. In 1921, U.S. Radio transmitional photograph is demonstrated it was
eventually used widely as photo telegraphy (“wire photo”) invented in 1904.

The 35-millimeter camera, which used small-sized film designed initially for motion
pictures, was introduced in 1925 in Germany, and because of its compactness and economy, it
became fashionable with both amateur and professional photographers. During this time, finely
powdered magnesium was used by professional photographers as synthetic illuminant.
Sprinkled in a trough and fired with a percussion cap, it produced a brilliant flash of light and a
cloud of acrid smoke. In the 1930s the photographic flashbulb replaced magnesium powder as a
light source. In 1934, Holland the first wire-filled flashbulb is introduced by Philips.
 The advent in 1935 of Kodachrome color film and in 1936 of Agfacolor, both of which
produced positive color transparencies, or slides, set off the popular use of color film. Kodacolor
negative color film, introduced in 1941, gave further stimulus to its widespread use.

In 1939, U.S., a gas-discharge tube emitting white light is introduced for electronic flash
photography. In Germany, negative, positive subtractive color cine materials are developed
using agfa tripack emulsion; they are first used for a full length picture in 1941.

In 1942, U.S. Kodacolor negative film is introduced. In 1942, England, a new developing
agent, phenidone, is patented by Ilford; it is similar to metol, but much more active and makes
possible a new class P-Q (phenidone hydroquinone) of developers.

Many photographic processes that were developed for military application during World
War II (1939-1945) were released for commercial use at the end of the war. These
improvements included new chemicals for film development and fixing. The perfection of
electronic computers significantly facilitated the solution of mathematical problems involved in
lens design, and many new lenses became available, including interchangeable lenses for
existing camera types.

In 1947, the Polaroid Land camera, based on a photographic process devised by

American physicist Edwin H. Land, added to recreational photography the appeal of prints that
could be developed and finished in the camera immediately after exposure. The introduction of
Polaroid “one step photography” was made possible with a self-processing black-and-white film
that yields a positive print by the diffusion transfer reversal method.

During the 1950s, innovative manufacturing processes greatly increased the speed, or
light sensitivity, of both black-and-white and color films. Black-and-white film speeds increased
form a maximum of about ISO 100 to a theoretical maximum of about ISO 5000, and color film
speeds amplified tenfold. This decade was also made distinct by the introduction of electronic
device called light amplifiers, which intensify dim illumination, making possible the recording on
photographic film of even the faint light of very distant stars. Such advances in mechanical
devices methodically raised the technical level of both amateur and professional photography.

A film called Itek RS that uses relatively low-cost chemicals such as zinc, cadmium
sulfide, and titanium oxide instead of the more expensive silver compounds was also introduced
in the 1960s. A new technique called photopolymerization made viable the production of contact
prints on ordinary, unsensitized paper.

In 1963, U.S. the loading of film in still cameras is greatly simplified with the production
of a film cartridge made with a built-in pre-threaded take-up spool, and a family of Kodak
Instamatic cameras is designed especially to hold this cartridge. The camera is loaded by
simply dropping the cartridge into the back of the component.

Modern technologies are beginning to make indistinct the lines between photography
and other image-making systems. In some new forms of still photography, silver-halide
emulsions have been replaced by electronic techniques of recording visual information. The
Sony Corporation has developed a still- video camera called the Mavica, unlike the conventional
video camera, which uses magnetic tape; the Mavica records visual data- light reflected from
objects in the scene photographed-on a floppy disk. The images are viewed on a monitor
connected to the Mavica’s playback component.
 Canon U.S.A has also entered the still-video camera market by introducing the RC-470
camera which requires a still-video player for viewing, but the Xap Shot, which records 50 still
images, with 300 to 400 lines of resolution, on a 5-cm (2-in) floppy disk, does not require any
special equipment. It can be connected directly to a television unit. Paper prints of recorded
images can also be prepared, using a special, laser-driver computer printer.

Digitization of photographic images has begun to revolutionize photography, giving rise

to a specialized field known as image processing. Digitization of the visual data in a photograph
(conversion of the data into binary numbers using a computer) makes it possible to manipulate
the photographic image by means of specially developed computer programs.

The Scitex image-processing system, the commercial and advertising industry standard
in the late 1980s, facilitates the operator to move or erase elements in a photograph, to change
colors, to fashion composite images from several photographs, and to adjust contrast or
sharpness. Other less complex systems, such as Macintosh’s Digital. Darkroom, allow similar
operations. The quality of computer-generated images was, until recently, substandard to strictly
photographic images. Most non-industrial color printers and laser printers cannot yet generate
images with the tonal range, resolution and saturation of photographs. Some systems, however,
such as Presentation Technologies’ Montage Slidewriter and the Linotronic system, are capable
of fabricating magazine-quality images.

Functions of Photography:

1. Identification
criminal
missing person
lost and stolen properties
Civilian

2. Communication and Microfilm Files

Transmission of photos ( wire or radio photo)
Investigative report files

3. Evidence

a) Recording and Preserving

Crime scene
Vehicular accidents
Homicide or Murder
Robbery cases
Fire or Arson
Object evidence
Evidence traces

b) Discovering and Proving

By contrast and control ( lightning, film and paper, filter)
By Magnification (photomicrography)
By invisible radiation (infrared, ultra-violet, x-ray)

4. Action of offender (Recording)

 Surveillance
Burglary
Confession
Re-enactment of crime

5. Court Exhibits
Demonstration enlargement
Individual photos
Projection slides
Motion pictures

6. Crime Prevention
Security clearance
Security survey
Risk Analysis Assessment

7. Public Relation

8. Police training concerning investigative work.

9. Reproduction and copying

Photographs
Official records

Elements of photography are a must to be present to produce a photograph. Light

reflected by the subject or objects must affect the sensitized materials and all other lights
must be excluded. Placing the sensitized materials inside the camera can exclude all other
lights. This light can be visible or invisible. If the light can be detected by the naked eye, the
light known as visible light and if the light is either too short or too long in wave length to
excite the retina of the eye, the light is known as invisible light.

The formation of the images of the objects in the sensitized material can be ascertained.
When more light reach the sensitized materials, it would produce a darker images and
when lesser light reached the sensitized materials, it would produce a lighter images.

Developed sensitized material is known as the negative. The white portion of the objects
will be black and the black portion of the objects will be white. In the succeeding
procedures, the printing process, the appearance of the original will come out and such
result is known as the photograph.

There are many factors that affect that affect the exposures of the light sensitized
materials. Some of them are: lens aperture, shutter speed, filter, film, film sensitivity and
intensity of light.

Types of Photographic Rays:

X-rays- Are radiations or electro-magnetic energy having a wave length between 10

to 30 nanometer or milli-microns. They are produced by passing an electric current
through a special type of vacuum tube. Opaque objects to the naked eye can be
penetrated by using X-rays.
 Ultra violet rays- Are radiations having a wave length of 30 to 400 milli-microns
divided into near and far ultra violet ranges. It is used to photograph fingerprints on
multi-colored background, documents that are altered chemically, or over writing,
and detection of secret writing.

Visible light rays – Are rays having a wavelength of 400to 700 milli-microns. The
range of visible light are interpreted as colors to the human eye which consists of
mixture of light of various wave lengths. When light falls on any object, it may be
reflected which affects the human eye; absorbed producing darkness; or transmitted
when light strikes a transparent material.

The change in the direction of light is irrefutable whenever light passes from one
medium to another; this phenomenon is known as refraction. When light reaches an
opaque object, it is rebounded or deflected; the angle of deflection depends upon the
angle of the rays of light. When the rays of light bends around a sharp edge object; this
phenomenon is known as diffraction.

Infrared rays- Are radiations having a wave length of 700 to 1000 milli-microns.
It is used in taking photographs of obliterated writings, burnt, or dirty documents,
or blackout document. Infrared is an invisible ray which is adjoined to the red
spectrum.

Light is known to everyone. It excites the retina of the eye and makes things visible. The
speed of light is always constant. The average speed of light is 186,000 miles per second.
However, the wave length of the rays of light may vary considerably. Light must be regarded in
broad sense, as including not only what is apparent to the naked eye, but all energy radiated in
the form of electromagnetic vibration must also be considered without unnecessary complication
of the matters, then it may be said that such vibration are usually defined by their wave length.

On 1666, Isaac Newton proved that the light men see as white is a mixture of all colors
of the spectrum. When he passed a beam of sunlight through a glass prism, it produces the
rainbow array of hues of the visible spectrum.

The colors from top to bottom are red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet. The wave
length of the visible spectrum is from 400 to 700 milli-microns. One milli-micron is equivalent to
one millionth part of a millimeter.

The light that can not be detected by the naked eye is the invisible spectrum. The left
region of the visible light is called the ultra violet region; the wave length of it is from 200 to 400
millimicrons. The right of the visible light is called infrared region which are too long in wave
length to excite the retina of the eye. It is detected by the skin as heat. When light falls on any
material, these things occur:
the light is reflected
the light is absorbed
the light is transmitted

The reflected light rays are the one that affect the eyes. The object is seen as white
when all the various wave length of the visible light was reflected. When there is no reflection of
the object and all of the various wave length of the visible rays were absorbed, it will produced
black or darkness. When red light strikes on white material, the materials appear red when
green light strikes a white material, the material appear green, when blue light strikes the white
material blue. Such materials show it’s non- absorption characteristics.

If white light strikes a material, they appear red under white light because the red light of
the material is reflected and all other wave length are absorbed. Such material shows its
selecting absorption characteristics.

When light rays of light strikes a transparent material, the rays of light is said to be
transmitted on the other side. However, the rays of the light will be reflected due the sudden
change in the velocity of light. The changes in the direction of light are conclusive whenever
light passes form one medium to another. This is known as the phenomenon of refraction.

When the rays of light reach opaque materials, the rays will be rebounded or deflected.
The angle of reflection depends the angle of the rays of light. When the rays of the light bend
around the object especially if the object has a sharp edge, the incidence is known as the
phenomenon of diffraction.

The ultraviolet light is divided into the near and far ultraviolet and ranges from about 200
to 400 millimicrons wave length. This ray of light is invisible like the infrared. The position of the
ultraviolet region falls between the shortest rays visible to the human eye and the x-ray region of
longest wave length. The reaction of the constituents under the ultraviolet light is underlying
notion in ultraviolet photography.

Infrared light are lights having wave lengths greater than 700 millimicrons. Its wave
length ranges from 700 to 800 millimicrons. Infrared is not a color or any kind of red. It is an
invisible ray. As already stated herein, the infrared is detected by the skin as heat. It is so called
infrared because they adjoin the red spectrum. Infrared meaning below the red.

These rays of light although invisible are important in law enforcement photography
because it permits result to be obtained which are not possible with only visible light present.
Some substances luminescence in the invisibles infrared region of the spectrum when strikes by
blue-green light.

X-rays are electromagnetic energy having wave length that ranges between 10 to 30
millimicrons. Objects which are opaque as seem by the naked eye can be penetrated by x-rays.
To produce a shadow photograph of one internal structure of solid objects, x-rays is suitable.

There are two sources of light, they are known as the natural and artificial. Natural light
are light which come to existence without the intervention of man and artificial lights are light
which are man-made.

In photography, natural light is used for outdoor photography and artificial lights are
utilized in indoor photography to augment the adverse lighting condition.

The source of all daylight is the sun, the combination of color and contrast ascertains the
quality of the daylight. The lighting contrast depends upon the sunlight available in the daylight,
when the sun is not covered by clouds. Then, the contrast is high; on the contrary, if the sun is
covered by clouds the contrast is low.

Some of the factors affecting the color of the day light are:
 atmosphere vapor,
atmospheric dust and
reflected light reached the objects and not directly coming from the source

Daylight may be classified according to its intensity. They are:

Bright sunlight
Hazy sunlight
Dull sunlight

These classifications are modified by the film manufacturer, like:

open space bright sunlight
under shade bright sunlight
hazy sunlight
cloudy bright sunlight
cloudy dull sunlight

In bright sunlight, the subject will produce a strong shadow, because the source of light
is not covered and objects or subjects appear glossy in open space due to direct sunlight and
reflected lights coming from the sky which act as reflector.

In hazy sunlight, the sun is covered by the clouds and the shadow appears bluish
because of the decrease of light falling on the subjects in open space. The shadow cast is
transparent to the eye and more details are visible under this lighting condition than in bright
sunlight.

In dull sunlight, the sun is totally covered by thick clouds. No shadows are seen, due to
the uniform illumination of lights all around the subjects in open space.

In the absence of sufficient sunlight, photographers use artificial light to illuminate

scenes, both indoors and outdoors. The most universally used sources of artificial illumination
are the electronic flash, or “strobe”; tungsten lamps called photofloods; and quartz lamps.
Another once- popular light source, the flashbulb, a disposable bulb filled with oxygen and a
mass of fine magnesium alloy wire that fired only once, is largely obsolete, having been
replaced by inexpensive, economical electronic flash units. Almost all artificial light sources can
be used in photographing of objects, as long as the light is capable of exposing the sensitized
materials (film).

The electronic flash is made of a glass quartz tube filled with an inert gas- a halogen- at
extreme low pressure. Electronic flash produces light by instantaneous electrical charges
between two electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. The electrical energy for the discharge is
kept in capacitor or condenser. The function of light of the electronic flash unit usually ranges
between 1/300 second and 1/500 second, and because of this, subject in fast motion can be
arrested or stopped in the photographs. When high voltage is applied to the electrodes sealed
at the ends of the tube, the gas ionizes and produces an intense rupture of light of very short
duration referred to as a “flash”. Although large, special- purpose units can generate a flash of
about 1/100,000 of a second, nearly all produce flashes lasting from 1/5000 to 1/1000 of a
second. Flash units must be synchronized with the shutter of the camera so that the burst of
light covers the complete scene. Synchronization is accomplished through an electrical
connection between camera and flash unit either a bracket mounted on the top of the camera,
called a hot shoe, or a cord called a synch cord that runs from the camera’s synchronization
socket to the flash.
 Automatic flash units are equipped with sensors, photocells that without human
intervention adjust the duration of the flash for a particular scene. The sensor, which measures
the intensity of the flash as it occurs, cuts off the light when sufficient illumination is obtained.
The dedicated flash, a more advance type of automatic flash is designed to function a unit with
a particular camera. The electronic circuitry of the flash and camera are built-in. The sensor is
located inside the camera and gauges the amount of light at the film plane, allowing more
accurate dimension of flash intensity.

Flash units differ in size from small camera mounted units to large studio units. As a rule,
the larger the unit, the greater the intensity of light produced. Camera- mounted flashes re
adequate for illuminating small area, but to light up a large scene evenly, and with a single burst
of light, a powerful studio unit is needed.

Photoflood lamp is also known as reflectorized light or spot light because, this type of
lamp needs a reflector to focused the light on the subjects. It can be a bulb with a built-in
reflector or bulb which needs a reflector. Usually the life span of this bulb is seven to eight hours
when used in intermittently. The common wattages of this lamp are 50 watts. Photofloods are
incandescent bulbs with filaments thinner than those used in ordinary light bulbs, provide
continuous light. For normal color performance in color photography, photofloods must be used
with either tungsten-balanced film or a light-balancing filter. Quartz lighting, the standard of the
television industry because of the great intensity of light produced and relative longevity of the
bulbs when compared to tungsten sources, is also popular among still photographers.

Flash bulbs are chemical lamps, as it generates lights by the rapid combination in metal
in oxygen. The bulb can be used only once as the bulb is busted when fired electrically. There
are thin filaments inside the bulb with two electrical contacts, when the current flows through the
filament, it becomes incandescent and ignites the explosive primer that ignites the aluminum foil
that burns, giving a flash of intense light.

Fluorescent lamps are tube lamps wherein the walls are coated by materials capable of
fluorescence. Both end has a terminal and commonly mounted into a holder that serves as the
reflector. This type of lamps is commonly used by anybody and not merely in photography.

Infrared lamp is a special type of artificial light that is capable of producing infrared
radiation. Flash bulbs designed to give a high intensity of infrared light was made and can be
used conveniently with a flash gun. This type of bulb is useful in photographing the objects or
subjects at dark places.

Ultraviolet lamp is a gas lamp burning carbon disulphide vapor in oxygen or nitric oxide.
It was followed by several lamps designed to produce ultraviolet radiation, light, the mercury
vapor lamps, the electric discharge lamps and the commercial lamps. Bulbs of high temperature
discharge lamp are made of glass transparent to ultraviolet light which fits into an ordinary
electrical socket. This type of bulb is common to all people as black light.

Light is the indispensable ingredient in photography. Practically all forms of photography

are based on the light-sensitive properties of silver-halide crystals, chemical compounds of
silver and halogens (bromine, chlorine, or iodine). When photographic film, which consists of an
emulsion (a thin layer of gelatin) and a base of transparent cellulose acetate or polyester, is
exposed to light, silver-halide crystals suspended in the emulsion undergo chemical
transformation to form what is known as a latent image on the film. When the film is processed
in a chemical agent called a developer, grains of metallic silver form in areas that were exposed
to light. Concentrated exposure causes many particles to form, while weak exposures causes
few to form. The image created in this manner is called a negative because the tonal values of
the subject photographed are reversed-that is, areas in the scene that were relatively dark
appear light, and areas that were bright appear dark. The tonal values of the negative are
reversed again in the photographic printing process or, when preparing color transparencies, in
a second development process.

Photography is based on chemical and physical principles. The sensitivity of silver

halides to light is the most important chemical principle. The physical principles are governed by
the physics of light. The basic term light refers to the visible portion of a broad range of
electromagnetic radiation, which includes radio waves, gamma rays, x-rays, infrared and
ultraviolet rays. The human eye is perceptive to only a narrow band of electromagnetic
wavelengths, called the visible spectrum. The spectrum comprises the full range of color tones.
To the human eye, the longest wavelength register as red, the shortest as blue.

Primary colors of light:

Blue = 400 to 500 millimicrons

Green = 500 to 600 millimicrons

Red = 600 to 700 millimicrons

Surface sensitive to light is a material which is easily affected once exposed to light at a
given time. The surface which is capable of retaining a latent image is called as emulsion. The
emulsion which contains grains of silver salts suspended in animal gelatin is very thin and
fragile, and must therefore be coated in glass plate or celluloid or paper.

There are two kinds of surface sensitive to light, they are:

the film that produces the negative after chemical development and
the photographic paper that produces a photograph or positive print after the printing
and chemical development process

Film contains minute grains of silver halide suspended in animal gelatin and coated on
celluloid material. It has two parts, the emulsion and the base.

Actually, there are various layers of film, they are:

the thin coat of animal gelatin
the emulsion
the base
the anti-halation backing

To protect the emulsion from abrasion, the thin coat of clear gelatin is essential. The anti-
halation backing is necessary to prevent halation and the base acts as the support of the
emulsion.

Films are classified according to its form and types and are commercially available today
are in various forms. Such as rolls in cartridges and cut sheets.
 Light sensitivity of the film can be ascertained thru its various types. The film can either
be a fast sensitive material or slow sensitive material. It can be sensitive to all colors or
especially prepared for certain use or purpose. Light sensitivity of the film is also known as the
speed of the film. Such speed of the film is determined thru its ASA numbers or DIN numbers
given by the film manufacturers. Film is classified by speed as well as by format. Film speed is
defined as an emulsion’s degree of sensitivity to light, and it determines the amount of exposure
required to photograph a subject under given lighting conditions.

Fast speed film contains numerous numbers of large grains of silver halide that usually
develop in group. When the available light is dim, this type of film is the best choice because of
low reflecting power of the subject against a reflecting background low in contrast but high in
brightness.

The manufacturer of the film designate a standardized numerical rating in which high
numbers correspond to “fast” emulsions and low numbers to “slow” ones. The standards set by
the International Standards Organization (ISO) are used throughout the world, although some
European manufacturers still use the German Industrial Standard or Deutsche Industie Normen
(DIN). The ISO system evolved by combining the DIN system with the ASA (the industry
standard previously used in the United States). The first number of an ISO rating, equivalent to
an ASA rating, correspond to an arithmetic measure of film speed, whereas the second number,
equivalent to a DIN rating, represents a logarithmic measure.

Low-speed films generally are scaled from ISO 25/15 to ISO 100/21, but even slower
films exist. Kodak’s Rapid Process Copy Film, a special process film, has an ISO rating of 0.06/-
12. Films in the ISO 125/ 22 to 200/24 range are rated as medium speed, while films above ISO
200/24 are considered fast. In recent years, major manufacturers have introduced super fast
films with ISO ratings higher than 400/27. And some films can be pushed well beyond their
ratings by exposing them as though they had a higher rating and developing them for a greater
length of time to make up for the underexposure.

DX Coding is a contemporary innovation in film and camera technology. DX-coded

cartridges of 35-millimeter film have printed on them a characteristic panel equivalent to an
electronic code that tells the camera the ISO rating of the film as well as the number of frames
on the roll. Many of the newer electronic cameras are equipped with DX sensors that
electronically discern this information and automatically adjust exposures accordingly.

Differences in sensitivity of a film emulsion to light depend on variety of chemical

additives. For example, hyper sensitizing compounds boost film speed without affecting the
film’s color sensitivity. High-speed film can also be manufactured by raising the concentration of
large silver-halide crystals in the emulsion. In recent years, a generation of faster, more
sensitive films has been created by changing the shape of crystals. Flatter silver-halide crystals
provide greater surface area. Films incorporating such crystals, such as Kodak’s T-grain
Kodacolor films, have a correspondingly better sensitivity to light.

The grain constitution of faster films is generally heavier than that of slower films. Grain
structure may give rise to a spotted pattern on prints that have been greatly enlarged.
Photographs taken with slower –speed film come out less grainy when enlarged. Because of the
small size of their silver-halide grains, slow-speed films normally have a higher resolution – that
is, they can render fine details with greater sharpness- and can produce a broader range of
tones than fast films. When tonal range and sharpness of detail are not as significant as
capturing a moving object without blurring, fast films are used.
 Panchromatic film is sensitive to all colors, especially to blue and violet. It is suitable for
general use in the preparation of black and white photographs. In panchromatic film, the next
major improvement, red-toned dyes were added to the emulsion, making the film sensitive to all
visible wavelengths. Although slightly less sensitive to green tones than the orthochromatic type,
panchromatic film is enhanced to reproduced the entire range of color tones. Most films now
used by amateur and professional photographers are panchromatic.

There are three classes of panchromatic film, they are: a) process panchromatic film
which is low in speed and high in contrast, b) fine grain panchromatic film which permits short
exposure under average lighting condition and c) high speed panchromatic film which was
designed for photographing an object or subject under adverse lighting condition.

Infrared film is a special type of film which is sensitive to infrared radiation. It is also
sensitive to violet and blue-green.

Color film is the mixture of the three basic color of the visible spectrum. The hue dyes
are coated to the emulsion of the film and each hue is separated by the secondary colors that
will absorb the unwanted primary colors. In between the blue and the green hues, yellow gelatin
is placed so that the blue rays of light would not affect the green hue and in between the green
and the red dye, magenta gelatin is placed so that the green rays of light would not affect the
red hue dye of emulsion.

Film which is sensitive to all colors except red is called orthochromatic film. This type of
film is popular in the market as the Kodalith film.

X-ray film is a material which is sensitive to x-ray radiation of the electromagnetic

spectrum.

Blue sensitive film is a film especially treated that makes it more sensitive to blue rays of
light.

In the preparation of the photographic papers, there are three important factors to be
considered. They are as follows:
the type of emulsions,
the contrast rays and
the physical characteristics

Each type of emulsion has its own substances and uses in the preparation of
photographs. The types of emulsion are:
silver chloride emulsion,
silver bromide emulsion,
silver chlorobromide emulsion

The emulsion that contains silver bromide is known as the silver bromide papers. Light
sensitivity of this type of emulsion is faster than the silver chloride papers. These photographic
papers are used for projection printing or enlarging process, wherein the image of the negative
is enlarged or projected. If properly developed, the silver bromide paper will give a black tone.
Papers that contain silver chloride in their emulsion are called silver chloride paper. Its
sensitivity to light is low and commonly used in contact printing.
 Generally, the size of the positive print is the same as the size of the negative used and
usually it will give blue black tones if properly developed. The combination of the two types of
emulsion is called silver chlorobromide papers. Its sensitivity to light is either slow or fast. The
slow emulsion is used for contact printing while the fast emulsion is used for projection printing.

The contrast range of photographic paper is classified be the manufacturers of the film
according to their own ideas. They produce different photographic papers intended for the
specific contrast of the negatives to be printed.

Generally, this contrast range is classified into four, which are:

the low contrast,
the normal and medium contrast,
the hard contrast and
the very hard or extra hard

The low contrast paper is usually suitable to a very contrasty negative to produce a
normal print or photograph, on the other hand; the high or hard contrast paper is suitable to a
very low contrast negative to compensate for lack of brilliance and produce a normal print or
photograph.

Photographic papers are made with different characteristics. They are a combination of
thickness, texture and finish. The texture may be smooth, rough or linen. Its finish may be
glossy in a very smooth surface texture. Other types of texture may produce a matte of semi-
glossy finish in rough or line texture. The paper base of the photographic paper may be either
white or tinted. Its weight or thickness may be either light-weight or single weight or double
weight. The choice of photographic papers for printing will depend upon the purpose of the
photograph to be made.

Black and white objects are usually printed in a white base photographic paper.
Reproduction of photographs would give satisfactory results if printed in a white base
photographic paper. For portraits photograph, a cream paper base of photographic paper is
recommended and for law enforcement photography, the smooth photographic paper is
necessary so that details of the image will appear and be appreciated by the viewers.

Every type of film has a characteristic exposure range, or latitude of exposure. Latitude
is essentially the margin of error in exposure within which film, when developed and printed, can
render the actual color and tonal values of the scene photographed. The terms overexposure
and underexposure are used to describe deviations, purposeful or unintentional, from the
optimum exposure. Film exposed to illumination for a longer time than optimal will often
be”blocked up” with silver in highlight areas, resulting in lost of contrast and sharpness and an
increase in graininess. Underexposure produces negatives characterized as thin, conditions in
which there are not enough silver crystals for accurate rendering of dark and shadowed areas.

With films that have tapered latitude, an exposure adjusted for a shady area is likely to
result in overexposure of adjacent sunny areas. The greater a film’s latitude, the greater its
ability to afford satisfactory prints despite over or underexposure. Films, from which negatives
are made, both color and black and white, generally offer enough latitude to allow the
photographer a specific margin of error. Transparency films, from which color slides are
prepared, generally have less latitude.
 Exposure refers to the range of illumination or the light allowed affecting the sensitized
material at a given time. The amount of light that affects the sensitized materials can be
controlled by the lens aperture or lens opening and duration of illumination can be controlled by
the shutter speed of the camera. When the rays of light reach the emulsion of sensitized
materials, a number of silver halides sensitive to light are affected and produce latent image.
This image can only be visible after development.

The Camera and its accessories:

Contemporary cameras operate on the basic principle of the camera obscura. Light
passing through a minute hole, or aperture, into an otherwise lightproof box casts an image on
the surface opposite the aperture. The lens sharpens the image, and film makes possible a
fixed, reproducible image. The camera is an apparatus by which film can be exposed in a
controlled manner. A camera is basically a light tight box with a pinhole or a lens, shutter at one
and a holder of sensitized material. The exposure of the sensitized material to light is controlled
by the lens and its aperture, and shutter through its speed in opening and closing of lens to light.
The indispensable parts of a camera are; a light tight box, a lens, a shutter, a holder of
sensitized material and a view finder. Although they differ in structural details, modern cameras
consist of four basic components: body, shutter, diaphragm and lens.

Basic Parts of a Camera:

Light tight box- Located in the body is a lightproof compartment in which film is held
and exposed. This part of the camera is very significant because of its capability to
exclude all unwanted light that might expose the sensitized materials or film. It is an
enclosure that devoid light.

Lens- The purpose of the lens is to focus the light coming from the subject. It is mainly
responsible for the sharpness of the image formed through which light passes during
the exposure. The lens, which attached to the front of the body, is actually a grouping of
optical glass lenses. Housed in a metal ring or cylinder, it allows the photographer to
focus an image on the film. The lens may be fixed in place or set in a movable mount.
Objects located at a variety of distances from the camera can be brought into sharp
focus by adjusting the distance between the lens and film.

Shutter- Is a spring-activated mechanical device keeps light from entering the camera
except during the interval of exposure. It is used to allow the light to enter through the
lens and reach the film for a pre-determined interval of time, which light is again blocked
off from the film. Most modern camera had focal-plane or leaf shutters. Some older
cameras use a drop-blade shutter, consisting of a hinged piece that, when released,
pulls across the diaphragm opening and exposes the film for about 1/30th of a second.

In the leaf shutter, at the moment of exposure, a cluster of interlocked blades springs
apart to uncover the full lens aperture and then springs shut. The focal plane shutter
consists of a black shade with a variable-size tear across its width. When released, the
shade moves quickly across the film, exposing it gradually as the slit moves.

Holder of sensitized material- It is located at the opposite side of the lens. Its function
is to hold firmly the sensitized material in its place during exposure to prevent formation
of multiple or blurred image of the subject.
 Viewfinder- It is an instrument in determining then field of view of the camera or the
extent of the coverage of the lens. Most modern cameras also have some sort of
viewing system to allow the photographer to see through the lens of the camera, the
scene being photographed. Single lens reflex cameras all incorporate this design
feature, and almost all general-use cameras have some form of focusing system as well
as a film-advance apparatus.

Diaphragm- A circular aperture behind the lens operates in conjunction with the shutter
to admit light into the light-tight chamber. This opening may be fixed or it may be
adjustable. Adjustable diaphragms are made of overlapping strips of metal or plastic
that, when spread apart, form an opening of the same diameter as the lens; when
meshed together, they form a small opening behind the center of the lens. The aperture
openings relate to numerical settings, called f-stops, on the camera or the lens.

Other parts of the Camera:

Film Advancer- the film advancer of the camera is necessary so that the exposed film
can be wind or transferred to the take up spool and the unexposed film will be on the
opposite side of the lens for another exposure.

Shutter Speed- the shutter speed will control the duration between the opening and the
closing of the shutter. It will regulate the quantity of light that will reach and affect the film
inside the camera.

Lens Aperture- the ratio between the diameter and the focal length of the lens is called
the lens aperture. It is the light gathering power of the lens. The rays of light passing thru
the lens aperture can be controlled by its opening.

Focusing Mechanism- the sharpness or clearness of the objects being photographed

will depend upon the focusing system of the camera. This mechanism will estimate the
object distance from the camera and forms a sharp or clear image in the photograph.

Major types of Camera: There are so many model of camera available in the market today, but
they can be classified according to the viewing system, namely:
the view finder type
the single lens reflex type
the twin lens reflex type
the view or the press camera type

View finder type- The smaller and the simplest type of camera is the view finder camera.
Its view finder framed the objects will be recorded on the film. Usually it is made of a simple
lens located at the peep hole of the camera. Very often the focusing system of this type of
camera is in the view finder itself, otherwise, the camera is a fixed focus one. This type of
camera can provide an excellent focusing system, especially at dim light condition. However,
this type of camera suffers from an inherent defect called parallax error that prevents the
recording of some of the objects being photograph as seen in the view.

Single lens reflex type- The best way to determine the entire coverage of the camera is
to look directly behind the lens of the camera. Wit a mirror behind the taking lens, the image of
the objects is reflected to the viewer and it enables the photographer to compose and focus the
objects being photograph. This type of camera will eliminate the parallax error and it will work
well with all lenses. Never the less, the single lens reflex is more complex and liable to break
down due to the mirror which gives way every time an exposure is made. It is difficult to focus
especially under dim light conditions.

Twin lens reflex type- the twin lens reflex type camera has two lenses one for the
viewing and focusing of the objects, and the other is the taking lens. In this type of camera the
image being photograph can be seen in flat surface as reflected by the mirror behind the
viewing lens. The viewing screen will help the photographer in the accurate composition of the
object to photograph as her look into the camera at his waist level. Again the principal problem
on this type of camera is parallax error especially when a close-up lens is used.

View or press camera type- the biggest and the most sophisticated among the different
type of cameras is the view or press camera. This type of camera is practically useless for
candid or action photograph. However this type of camera is useful in law enforcement
photography especially in the reproduction of document photography and photomicrography.
Minute objects can be enlarged and composed actually in the large viewing screen of this type
of camera.

Camera Accessories:

Tripod- it is a triple leg device which is adjustable to any reasonable extension. This can
be used in holding the camera when the camera is bulky or when using a shutter speed
lower than one twenty five of a second to prevent the movement that will produce blurred
images in the photographs.

Cable release- this attack to the shutter to prevent accidental movement of the camera
during the exposure period especially when longer exposure is made.

Flash units- flash bulbs or electronic flash which synchronized with the opening and
closing of the shutter. This is very effective to augment the adverse lighting condition of
the objects being photograph.

Light meter – a device use in determining the intensity of light that strike the subjects
and affect the film. This light meter can be an extinction meter or photoelectric meter.

Extinction meter- the reflected light from the shadow as seen by the naked eye is
estimated or calculated by direct observation of the photographer.

Photoelectric meter- the most dependable device that will measure the brightness of
light. It is pointed toward the subjects to be photographed and converted the light
collected into electric energy that makes the needle of the meter to move across its
scale. The reading is taken and the conversion table gives the proper exposure.

Extension tube- a device use in photographing a minute objects. It is attached to the lens
board of the camera and the lens is attached to it when close-up photographing is
necessary.

Filter- a transparent medium which transmits and absorbs different wavelength of lights.
They are usually made of glass or gelatin material placed in front or behind the camera
lens. It will correct and control the rays of light that will produce a good color or black and
white photographs.
 There are several filters made or manufactured for this purpose, they are
classified into five, namely: contrast, correction, haze, sky and polarizing filters.
Very common, the neutral density filter is used in excessively bright light and it
would also protect the camera lens from accidental scratches or abrasions.

Camera grip- a device used to hold firmly the camera so as to prevent the vibration or
movement of the camera during the exposure period. It is usually attached to the body of
the camera and sometimes the flash unit is attached to it.

Lens hood- a device used to eliminate some reflection of lights which might destroy the
image cast by the objects, especially, when the light is coming from the top or side
portions of the camera. It usually mounted in front of the lens barrel.

There are three important controls in a camera to be manipulated and adjusted to its
proper setting. They are: a) the focusing control b) shutter speed control and c) the diaphragm
control.

Focusing Control- the most important control on a camera is the focusing control. Focus
is the means by which the object distance is estimated or calculated to form sharp or clear
images. There are three type of focusing devices, namely: the range finder type, the ground
glass type and the scale bed type.

The range finder type of focusing control is classified into two, the coincidence type and
the split type. In the former, the objects being photographed appeared double when the
focusing control is not on its proper distance, and by moving this control, one of the
object will move and coincide with the other object that will show a single object formed
and the focusing control is therefore accurate. On the other hand, the latter types of
focusing control, the object are split into two parts when the lens is out of focused. While
moving the focusing control, the split image will move and unite to form undivided
images of the object, then; the focusing control is set properly.

The ground glass focusing control can be seen on the viewing screen of the camera.
During the photographing, the images of the objects being photographed will appear
blurred when the focusing control is not accurately set. By adjusting the focusing
mechanism of the camera, the objects being photographed will become clearer and
clearer until the clearest of the objects appeared in the viewing screen which will indicate
that the focusing control is properly set.

In the scale bed type of focusing control, the focusing mechanism of the camera can be
adjusted by means of estimation or calculation of the objects distance and the camera.

Shutter speed control- The length of time that the rays of light will reach and affect the
sensitized material (film) can be controlled by the shutter speed control of the camera. There
are several factors to be considered in using this control. Some of these factors are the light
sensitivity of the film which are determine thru its ASA numbers, the motion of the subjects on
different angles, the purpose of the photographs to be taken and others.

There are two types of shutter on any adjustable cameras, the leaf shutter and the focal
plane shutter. The former is made of small overlapping metal blades powered by a spring and
generally placed either in between the lens known as the central plane shutter or after the lens
of the camera. The latter is made of a black cloth or small sheet of metal which is also powered
by a spring and generally found in the film plane of the camera. It is also known as before the
film shutter.

When the shutter release is pushed or pressed, these shutters open and closed again in
a present of time made in the shutter speed of the camera. The direction of the leaf shutter
when it opens is from the center to the circumference of the lens and return after ward to its
former position. The movement of the focal plane shutter is from the side of the focal plane it
moves to the other side. Usually the permissible shutter speed of a leaf shutter is up to one over
five hundred of a second, while the focal plane shutter is up to one over one thousand of a
second. In some models of camera, they are even faster.

There are several disadvantages of the focal plane shutter. It is slightly noisier than a
leaf shutter, objects moving across the film plane may be distorted and it cannot be used in
electronic flash when the speed is higher than one over hundred twenty five of a second.

Diaphragm Control- the diaphragm works like the pupil of the eye. It may be enlarged or
contracted. If it is enlarge, it allows more light to enter, on contrary, when it is contracted or
small; it allows lesser lights to enter. The adjustment is done by moving the ring of the
diaphragm towards the desired size of opening. It is generally represented by numbers known
as the f- stop.

In every movement, the f- number will stop to indicate that the diaphragm is set to that
number. Very common, these numbers are found on the ring outside the lens barrel. The
common f- number or f-stop observable today is from f# 1.2 which is the widest up to f# 22
which is the smallest. As the diaphragm opening is change from f# 1.2 up to f# 22, the opening
of the lens will change from the widest to the smallest. Such changes are so apparent and
noticeable when observed properly.

The diaphragm of any camera lens can control the depth of field that affect the focus or
sharpness definition of the objects being photographed. As the lens opening decrease in size
more sharpness of the objects being photographed will appear. However, when the lens
opening increases in size, the zone of sharpness decreases and other details of the objects
being photographed will not appear as seen by the naked eye. In most cameras, especially the
ground glass type of camera, the depth of field is noticeable on the viewing screen, the objects
will appear sharp as the lens opening changes from its widest to the smallest. Other camera
lenses incorporate a depth of field scale around the lens barrel.

This scale appear as pair of numbers and when the lens is focused at a given distance,
it will indicate the area covered by its depth of field that produced the zone of sharp focusing.
The used of the depth of field is very necessary especially, when there is no sufficient time of
focusing of the objects to be photographed.

Shutter speed and F- numbers- basically, the shutter and f- numbers are both controlling system
of the rays of light that enters, reached and affects the film inside the camera.

In photographing of objects, the photographer can select any combination of shutter

speed an f- numbers that will give the right amount of light needed to normally expose the film.
As the shutter speed increase, the f- stop numbers decreases. For instance, the same amount
of light will be admitted by f # 16 at one second and f # 11 at one half of a second.
 Using the proper combination of the f- stop and shutter speed number will be dependent
on the light sensitivity if the film, the purpose of the photographs, motions of the objects being
photographed and the lighting conditions prevailing during the photographing. In some
sophisticated cameras, control over exposure has been totally automated. A computer set the f-
stop and the shutter speed after the ASA rating of the film has been properly set in the camera.

The built-in meter of the camera will provide the proper illumination of lights that will
affect the film. This type of automation is either the shutter priority automation or the diaphragm
priority automation. When the former is used the camera selects the diaphragm opening that will
give proper exposure. If the latter is used, the camera chooses the shutter speed that will
produce normal exposure of the film.

Camera Lenses:

The lens is as essential a part of a camera as the body. Lenses are classified in generic
terms as wide angle, normal and telephoto. The three terms pertain to the focal length of the
lens, which is customarily measured in millimeters. Focal length is the distance from the center
of the lens to the image it forms when the source is at infinity. In practice, focal length influences
the field of view, magnification and depth of a field of a lens.

Cameras used by professional photographers and serious amateurs are designed to

admit all three lens types interchangeably. In 35-millimeter photography, lenses with focal
lengths from 20 to 35 millimeters are classified as wide-angle lenses. They provide greater
depth of field and cover a larger field (or angle) of view but provide relatively low magnification.
Extreme wide-angle also known as “finish eye”, lenses provide fields of view of 180 degrees or
more. A 6-millimeter fish-eye lens made by Nikon has a 220-degree field of view that generates
image on film, rather than the normal rectangular or square image.

Lenses with focal lengths from 45 to 55 millimeters are considered as normal lenses
because they produce an image that approximates the field of view of the human eye. Lenses
with longer focal lengths, called telephoto lenses, limit the field of view and decrease the depth
of field while greatly magnifying the image. For a 35-millimeter camera, lenses with focal lengths
of 85 millimeters or more are referred to as telephoto.

A fourth generic lens type, the zoom lens, is intended to have a variable focal length,
which can be adjusted continuously between two fixed limits. Zoom lenses are especially useful
in combination with single-lens reflex cameras, for which they allow continuous control of image
scale.

Lens defects which may be considered as inherent:

Spherical aberrations - A condition where photographic rays passing through the

edges of a lens are bent or refracted more sharply than those passing through the
central part of the lens, thus they come to a focus nearer the lens than those of a central
rays.

Coma - Also known as lateral spherical aberration. It concerns with rays entering the
lens obliquely.
 Curvature of the field - An abnormality when the image formed by a lens comes to a
sharper focus on curved surfaced than on a flat surface.

Distortion - A condition where the outer part of the image produced by the lens will be
magnified either less or more than the center image.

Barrel distortion - The diaphragm is placed in front of the lens.

Pincushion distortion – The diaphragm is placed behind the lens.

Chromatic aberration – This is the inability of the lens to focus all the colors at the
same place.

Astigmatism – Refers the inability of the lens to focus lines running in different direction
like for example a cross.

Chromatic difference of magnification – The inability of the lens to produce image

sizes of the object with different colors.

Flares – This may be considered as optical and mechanical.

Achromatic lens – A lens corrected for chromatic aberration.

Rapid rectilinear lens – A lens corrected for distortion.

Anastigmat - A lens corrected for astigmatism.

Apochromat – A lens corrected for astigmatism but with higher correction of

color.

Lens characteristics: Focal length – Refers to the distance measured from the optical center of
the lens to the film plane when the lens is set of focused at the infinity position. When classified
according to focal length, lenses may be called:

Wide angle lens – A lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative
material. (35 mm or more)

Normal lens – A lens with a focal length of approximately equal or more but not more
than twice the diagonal of its negative material. (50 mm)

Long or telephoto lens – A lens with a focal length of more than twice the diagonal of its
negative material.

Relative Aperture – Refers to the light gathering power of the lens and is expressed in the F-
number system.

By increasing or decreasing the f- number numerically, it is possible to: control the

amount of light passing through the lens; control of depth of the field; control the degree of
sharpness due to the lens defect.
 Depth of field – Refers to the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object
in apparent sharp focus when the lens is set or focused at a particular distance.

Hyper focal distance – Refers to the nearest distance at which a lens is focused with a
given particular diaphragm opening which will give the maximum depth of field.

Focusing – Refers to the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image a
camera except those fixed focused requires focusing.

Focusing scale or scale bed – A scale is typically found at the lens barrel indicating pre-
setted distance in feet or in meters, to focus the lens of the camera, the distance of the
object t be photographed is measured estimated or calculated and then pointer or
marker of the lens barrel is adjusted to the corresponding on the scale.

Range-finder – Refers to a mechanism that measures the angle of convergence of a

light coming from the subject as seen from two apertures.

There are two types of range finder namely: 1) Split image through- the range finder the
image of a straight line in the object appears to the cut into halves and separated from
each other when the lens is not in focus. When the image of the lines is aligned the lens
is in focus. 2) Co-incident image – through the eye piece, a single image is seen double
when the subject is out of focus. Make the image coincide and the lens is in focus.

Ground glass – is focused by directly observing the image formed at the ground glass;
the screen is placed behind the taking lens. If the image is blurred, fuzzy, or not clear,
the lens is out of focus. If the image appears to be sharp, the lens is in focus.

Zone – this is possible in wide angle lenses only. There are only three setting for
focusing. One for close distance (approximately 3 to 6 ft.) another for the medium
distance (approximately 6 to 15 ft.) and finally for distance object (approximately 15 ft. to
infinity).

Shutter – refers to the device used to block the path of light passing through the lens and
exposing the sensitized material. Normally there are two types of shutters:

Central shutter – Usually located between the elements of the lens. It is made of metal
leaves and its action starts from the center toward the side, and then closes to the
center.

Focal plane shutter – it is located near the focal plane or the sensitized material. It is
usually made of cloth curtain. Its action starts on one side and closes on the opposite
sides.

Exposure: Refers to the product of illumination and time it is computed by either the use of a
light exposure meter or by taking into consideration factors such as lighting condition, film
sensitivity and kind of subject. E.g. when using a film with ASA rating of 100, for a normal
subject set the shutter speed at 1/25 of a second and adjust the diaphragm opening in
accordance with the following lighting conditions. Bright sunlight – f-11, hazy sunlight – f-8, dull
sunlight – 5-6. Exposure errors may affect the detail, tone reproduction and contrast.
 In chemical processing: development refers to the process of reduction. Exposed silver
halides reduced into metallic silver. There is a separate developer for film (D -76) and another
for paper (Dektol). The factor that affects developing time are: agitation, temperature,
concentration of chemical and exposure.

Stop bath – Is an intermediate bath between the developer and the fixer. It is usually a
combination of water, blue acetic acid or just plain water. Primarily its function is to
prevent the contamination of the chemical solution.

Fixation – Refers to the process of removing unexposed silver halide remaining in the
emulsion after the first stage of development of the latent image.

The usual composition of an acid fixing solution are solvent silver halide known as
Hypo an anti-staining agent like acetic acid, a preservative like sodium sulfate, and a
hardening agent like potassium aluminum.

Processing method: negative – positive method or reversal method.

Chemical composition of a developer: reducer or developing agent – hydroquinone;

preservative – sodium sulphite; accelerator – sodium carbonate; and restrainer or fog preventer
– potassium bromide.

Chemical composition of fixer: dissolving agent – hypo or sodium thiosulphate; preservative –

sodium sulphite; neutralizer – boric acid, acetic acid and hardener – potassium aluminum.

Factors that affect developing time: characteristics of negative material, strength and
composition of developer, temperature of the developing solution, agitation or stirring during
development.

Enlarging techniques: Subsequent to processing an exposed film into a negative, the next step
would be to turn the negative into positive print or copy. This could be accomplished by either
contact printing or projection printing.

For contact printing, a contact printer is used while projection printing enlarger is
needed. There are four essential parts of an enlarger; a base and stand a lamp house, a
condenser or diffuser and a lens.

Accessories of the enlarger are: a negative holder and an easel (paper holder).

Made of gelatin or glass, filters are used in front of a camera lens to modify the color
balance of light, to change contrast or brightness, to reduce haze or to create special effects.

In black-and-white photography, color filters are used with panchromatic film to send out
light of the matching color while blocking light of a contrasting color. In a landscape photograph
taken with a red filter, some of the blue light of the sky is blocked, causing the sky to appear
darker and thereby emphasizing clouds. Under a blue sky, a yellow filter produces a less
intense effect because more blue light is transmitted to the film. The no. 8 yellow filter is often
used for outdoor black-and-white photography because it makes the tone of a blue sky in much
the same way that the human eye perceives it.
 Conversion filters, light-balancing filters and color-compensating filters are all commonly
used in color photography. Conversion filters alter the color balance of light for a given film.
Tungsten films, for example, are calculated and balanced for the color temperature of amber
tungsten light. Exposed in daylight, they will generate pictures with a bluish cast. A series 85
conversion filter can fix this. Daylight film, on the other hand, balanced for sunlight at noon,
which has a greater intensity of blue wavelengths than tungsten light, will have a yellow-amber
cast when exposed under tungsten light. A series 80 conversion filter fixes this problem.

Light-balancing filters are generally used to make minor adjustments in color. These
pale-toned filters eradicate undesirable color casts or supplement a general warming hue.
Color-compensating (CC) magenta filters can stabilize greenish fluorescent light for daylight or
tungsten film. Another type of filter, the polarizer, is used mainly to reduce reflection from the
surface of shiny subjects. Polarizing filters are also used in color photography to enhance color
saturation.

Filter – Is a homogeneous medium which absorbs and transmits differentially light rays passing
through it. A color filter works in such a way that it will transmit its own color and absorbs all
other colors. By using filters in combination with black and white films, the photographers can
control tonal values to get a technically correct rendition or to exaggerate, or suppress the tonal
difference for visibility, emphasis and other effects. With color films, filters are used to change
the color quality of the exposing light to secure proper color balance with the film being used.

Filter factor: The use of filter subtract some of the light passing through the lens, an increase in
exposure time or lens opening is needed. The number of times that the normal exposure must
be multiplied is called “filter factor”. The filter factor value relies upon the film type and light
source in addition to the absorption of the filter.

Types of filter in black and white photography: Correction filters which are used to alter the
response of the film in order that the colors are recorded at approximately the same shade and
relative brightness values as seen by the eye.

Contrast filter which is utilized to change the relative brightness values so that two colors
which would otherwise be recorded as nearly the same will have peculiar brightness in
the photograph.

Haze filter is used to reduce or eliminate the effect of serial haze.

Neutral density filter is used for reducing the amount of light transmitted without
changing the color value. Polarizing filter is used to eliminate or reduce the reflections of
highly reflective sites and surfaces.

Crime Scene Photography: In some types of crimes, specifically those involving physical
violence, the crime scene, including the location of the relevant objects within it, is of vital
importance in establishing points of proof. A record of such a crime scene is indispensable to a
successful presentation of the case in court. If the scene is altered through haste or
carelessness, it may never be restored to its exact original condition, the vital elements of proof
may thereby be lost. Moreover, in the initial stages of the investigation, the significance of a
certain aspect of the same may not be evident. Although later they may affect vitally the issues
in the case.
 The first step in the investigation of any crime is to photograph completely and
accurately all the aspect of the scene before any of the objects of evidence are removed or
otherwise disturbed. Similar photographs should also be made after the body or bodies have
been removed. It is always prudent to take too many photograph rather than too few.

A set of four photographs is the usual minimum to show a room adequately, and many
more maybe made in the case of major crime. Medium distant views as well as close up
photographs should be made of important objects. Two lenses are usually adequate.
Occasionally existing room light may be satisfactory for photographic purposes. However, the
photographer will usually have to provide additional lighting for interior shots such as photoflood,
photoflash, or electronic flash.

For general view of the scene, use the camera at eye level. These photographs give a
presentation of the scene as the average eye witness might have observed it naturally.
Measuring devices such as yardstick, ruler or tape measures can be used to show the relative
size of a distance between objects or the degree of magnification of an enlargement. They
should not obscure any important part of an enlargement or any important part of evidence.

In document and small-object photographs, a 6- inch ruler or 15 centimeter ruler placed

at the bottom or just below the object will show the relative size of objection in a photograph
exhibit. Photographs are necessary to corroborate testimony of certain witnesses and usually
add weight and credibility to their testimony.

In photographing the crime scene, the photographer should attempt to record all useful
information series of photographs that will help the viewer to understand how and where the
crime was committed. The term crime scene refers not only to the immediate site of the crime,
but also includes the adjacent areas which may be significant site of the crime in establishing
the location and surrounding of the immediate site.

PART III
(CRIMINALISTICS – 3)
FORENSIC BALLISTICS

Forensic Ballistics is the science of firearms identification by means of the ammunition

fired through them. It confines itself with the legal application of the science that deals with the
study of the motion or movement of the projectile or bullet passing through the barrel of the
firearm. The word ballistics was derived from the Greek word “ballo” or “ballien” which means to
throw and “Ballista” which is a Roman war machine similar to a gigantic bow or catapult.

One of the references pertaining to the rifling of firearms is in a book authored by Harold
Peterson wherein he discusses the rifling of firearms by Emperor Maximilian of Germany
between 1493 and 1508.

In April 1925, in New York City, New York (USA), the Bureau of Forensic Ballistics was
established by Charles E. Waite, Major (later Colonel) Calvin H. Goddard, and Philip O. Gravelle
and John H. Fisher. The Bureau was formed to provide identification services throughout the
United States as few law enforcement agencies had the capability to provide this type of
service. Major Goddard was very much a firearms identification pioneer who wrote and spoke
extensively on the subject and was published in numerous publications.

One of the significant events of particular note is that they adapted a comparison
microscope for use in the identification of fired bullets and cartridge cases. This singular act is
considered by many to be a hallmark event in the science of firearms identification. Adapting the
comparison microscope, for use in the examination of fired bullets and cartridge casings,
allowed for a significant increase in the examiner’s ability to identify matching specimen.

On February 14, 1929, in Chicago, Illinois (USA), an event occurred that significantly furthered
the acceptance of firearms identification techniques by authorities in the United States. This
event referred to as the Valentine’s Day Massacre, involved the brutal slaying of seven
gangsters by a rival gangster group in the City of Chicago. The grand jury foreman, Mr. B.A.
Massee, promptly engaged the services of Calvin H. Goddard of the Bureau of Forensic
Ballistics to examine and report on the firearms related evidence; which included fired bullets,
pellets, fired shotgun casings and fire cartridge cases were significant.

Goddard was able to conclusively state that the killers had used one 12- gauge shotgun
and two Thompson submachine guns to commit the killings. He noted that one of the
Thompson’s submachine guns was fired using a 50- round drum magazine while the other was
fired using a 20-round magazine. Goddard became the Director of the Scientific Crime
Detection Laboratory (SCDL) which was affiliated with the Northwestern University School of
Law near Chicago. Goddard remained Director of the SCDL until leaving in 1934 to form a
private firm. Prior to his departure, Goddard provided scientific training, to include the areas of
firearms and tool mark identification, to numerous individuals who went on to work in other
laboratories around the United States. He was regarded as the Father of Modern Ballistics.

Branches of Ballistics: It is composed of Interior, Exterior, Terminal and Forensic Ballistics.

Interior Ballistics

Interior ballistics deals with the temperature, volume and pressure of the gases
consequential from combustion of the propellant charge in the gun; it also deals with the work
performed by the extension of these gases on the firearm, its carriage, and the projectile. Some
of the significant elements involved in the study of interior ballistics are the relationship of the
weight of the charge to the weight of the projectile; the length of bore; the optimum size, shape
and density of the propellant grains for different guns; and the related problems of maximum
and minimum muzzle pressures.

The British engineer Benjamin Robins conducted various experiments in interior

ballistics. His findings justifiably give the right him to be called the father of modern gunnery.
Modern experiments confirm most of Robin’s conclusions, but disagree mainly with respect to
maximum temperature and pressure. Late in the 18 th century the Anglo- American physicist
Benjamin Thompson made the first endeavor to measure the pressure generated by
gunpowder. The story of his experiments was the most important contribution to interior
ballistics that had been made up to that time.

About 1760 French ballisticians determined the connection of muzzle velocity with the
length of barrel by measuring the velocity of a musket ball and cutting off a portion of the barrel
before taking the velocity of the next shot. By using the results of these experiments and
advances in chemistry and thermodynamics, ballisticians developed formulas showing the
connection between muzzle velocity and weight and shape of projectile; weight, type, and grain
size of powder charge; pressure and temperature in the barrel; and the size of the powder
chamber and the length of the barrel.

Interior Ballistics – This treats of the motion of the projectile or bullet while still inside the firearm.
It consists of the following movement:

The firing pin hitting the primer;

Ignition of the priming mixture;
Combustion of the gunpowder;
Expansion of the heated gas;
Development of pressure measured in pounds per square inch;
Generation of energy measured in foot pound;
Recoil of the firearm;
Velocity or speed of the bullet measured in feet per second;
Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel of the firearms; and
Creation of engravings on the cylindrical portion of the fired bullet.

Exterior Ballistics

In exterior ballistics, fundamentals such as shape, caliber, weight, initial velocities,

rotation, air resistance, and gravity help determine the path of a projectile from the time it leaves
the gun until it reaches the target.

Until the middle of the 16th century it was assumed that bullets move in straight lines
from the gun to the target and that shells fired from mortars illustrate a path made up of two
straight lines joined by an arc of a circle. The Italian mathematician Niccolo Tartaglia, in a
published work on gunnery, asserted that no part of the path of a projectile could be a straight
line and that the greater the velocity of the projectile the flatter its path. Tartaglia invented the
gunner’s quadrant used to ascertain elevation of the muzzle of a gun. Galileo proved that in a
vacuum a projectile depicts a parabolic arc. The description of the law of gravitation by the
British scientist Sir Isaac Newton simplified the cause of the curvilinear motion of projectiles. By
the use of calculus he determined the force transferred from the projectile to the particles of air
at rest; this method of calculating air drag has been outdated by the use of tables prepared from
test firings.

Two methods have been used to establish the velocity of a projectile after it leaves the
gun. One method measures the thrust of the projectile; the other measures the time necessary
for the projectile to travel a given distance. The first method is the older, and in the past, when
guns and projectiles were small, velocities low, and ranges short, the results were sufficiently
precise for most practical purposes. The ballistic pendulum and gun pendulum were used to
gauge projectile momentum, but these devices have been replaced by cheaper and more
accurate equipment working on the principles of the second method.

The ballistic pendulum was developed about 1743 by Robins, who was the first to
embark on a systematic series of researchers to determine the velocity of projectiles. The
principle of the ballistic pendulum, as well as of the gun pendulum, which was developed by
Thompson, is the transmission of momentum from a projectile with a small mass and a high
velocity to a large mass with a resultant low velocity.
 The ballistic pendulum consisted of a huge plate of iron to which was bolted a block of
wood to receive the impact of the projectile; the pendulum was hanging freely from a horizontal
axis. The block, when struck by the projectile, recoiled through a certain arc that was simply
measured. Knowing the arc of recoil and the masses of the projectile and the pendulum, the
speed of the projectile could be determined by calculation. The ballistic pendulum was able to
resist the impact of musket balls only; however, by determining the relations that should exist
between the caliber, length of barrel, and charge of power. Robins considerably advanced the
science of gunnery.

By the second method, the velocity of a projectile is ascertained by measuring the time
required for it to travel a known length of its path. Various machines have been devised for this
purpose; in 1840 the British physicist Sir Charles Wheatstone suggested the use of electricity
for measuring small intervals of time. This suggestion led to the development of the
chronograph, a device for recording by electrical means, the time necessary for a projectile to
pass between two screens of fine wire.

The formulas and tables for the exterior ballistics of each new type of gun or cannon are
more or less experimental before the aiming devices can be accurately calibrated.

Exterior ballistics – Deals with the motion of the projectile after leaving the muzzle of the gun
barrel. Said actions are confined with:

Muzzle blast – which refers to the sound created at the muzzle end of the barrel
due to the sudden escape of the expanding gas.

Muzzle energy – the power generated after leaving the firearm;

Trajectory – this refers to the path of the bullet or the curved pattern in flight from
the gun barrel to the target;

Range – is the distance between the bullet and the target. Accurate effective
range is the distance within which the shooter has control of his shots. Maximum
range refers to the farthest distance that the projectile can be propelled from the
firearm;

Velocity – refers to the rate of speed of the bullet;

Gravitational pull – is responsible for the downward movement of the bullet;

Air resistance – the force encountered by the bullet while in flight; and

Penetration – the impact or entry of the bullet on the target.

Terminal Ballistics:

The laws that govern the collision of the projectile with the target are the special domain
of the third branch of ballistics. Like interior and exterior ballistics, terminal ballistics
necessitates many empirical formulas. Hypothetical investigations and experiments, however,
are carried on in penetration, fragmentation, detonation, shape of charge, and related blast
phenomena, including combustion and incendiary effects. Ballisticians obtain the principles
governing such elements as number, size, velocity, and spatial distribution of fragments
produced by detonations of cased high-explosive charges.

Terminal Ballistics – This go into the effects of the impact of the bullet on the target. Its study is
confined to the following motions:

Terminal accuracy – refers to the size of the bullet grouping on the target;

Terminal energy – refers to the energy of the bullet upon impact;

Terminal velocity – the speed of the bullet upon hitting the target; and

Terminal penetration – which measures the depth traveled by the bullet inside the target.

Forensic Ballistics – It refers to the science of firearm identification by using the ammunition
fired through them. Its branches include the following:

Field Investigations – The duty of the SOCO unit which involves the recognition,
collection, marking, preservation and transmittal of ballistics exhibits such as fired
bullets, fired shells, firearms and allied matters at the crime scene.

Technical examinations which is conducted by the firearms examiner within the

laboratory which involves the marking of the evidence, test firing, photomicrography
under the bullet comparison microscope preparation of comparative charts and the
marking of the final reports on the findings and observations of the firearms examiners.

History and Development:

The Chinese and the Mongols made the application of gunpowder to a portable arm.
They were aware of its use as a propellant long before its advantage became
recognized in Europe.

The invention of the gunpowder in Western Europe in the early 13th century preceded the
development of firearms. Roger Bacon, an English monk was credited with the invention
of gunpowder in 1248.

Berthold Schwartz was regarded as the first to use the “black powder” gunpowder to the
propelling of a missile in the early 1300’s.

Horace Smith pioneered the making of breech-loading rifle; he was the founder of the
Smith and Wesson Company.

Daniel Wesson an associate of Smith in revolver making.

 John M. Browning pioneered the breech-loading single shot rifle.

David “Carbine” Williams was the maker of the first known carbine.

Alexander John Forsyth was the “Father of the Percussion Ignition in 1807. “He was
credited for being the first to conceive the idea of using detonation compounds for
igniting powder charges in small arms.

James Wolfe Ripley simulated the development of the Model 1855 rifled-musket.

Samuel Colt in 1835 produced the first practical revolver.

Firearms: As described under Sec. 877 of the Revised Administrative Code, Firearms or arms
includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols and all other deadly weapons
from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or any other missile may be discharged by means of
gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes air rifles except such as being of small
caliber and limited range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered as a
complete firearm for all purposes.

Technically a firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of projectiles by means of

the expansive force of gases coming from burning gunpowder. The term caliber is used to
indicate the bore diameter measured from two opposite lands.

Types of firearms:

Rifle – Refers to a type of small weapon to used to hit targets at a longer distance and
designed to be fired from the shoulder and make use of the explosive in fixed metallic
ordinance to fire only a single projectile through a rifled bore for each pull of the trigger.

Musket – Is an ancient smooth bore weapon designed to shoot a single round lead ball.

Carbine – Named after David “Carbine” Williams is a caliber .30 short barrel rifles
having a barrel not longer than 22 inches designed to fire a single projectile through a
rifled-bore, either semi-automatic or full automatic for every press of the trigger.

Pistol – A hand firearm which applies to single shot through a rifled-bore for every press
of the trigger, usually applied to semi-automatic loading. This is a popular weapon due
to its stopping power for short range defense.

Revolver – A hand firearm in which a rotating cylinder successively places cartridges

into position for firing. A versatile and dependable weapon due to its rugged, well-built
and all around type of firearms.

Air rifle – A type of weapon designed to shoot pellets by using compressed air.

General classification of firearms: Smooth bore firearms and Rifled firearms

Main types of firearms: Artillery – are those used to propel projectile more than one inch
in diameter. Small arms – are those firearms that propel projectile less than 1 inch in
diameter.
Types of firearms as to manner of mechanical construction:

Single action – refers to weapon in which pressure upon the trigger releases the
hammer that must be manually cocked.

Double action – refers to weapon in which pressure upon the trigger both cocks and
releases the hammer.

Automatic – Are weapons whose mechanism is so arranged that it will fire continuously
while the trigger is depressed.

Semi-automatic – Are weapons requiring a separate pull of the trigger for each shot fired
and uses energy of discharge to performing cycle.

Bolt action type – Refers to weapons in which the breech closure is in line with the bore
at all times; manually reciprocated to load, unload and cock; and is locked in place by
breech bolt lugs.

Lever action type – Are those weapons designed wherein the breech mechanism is
cycled by an external lever generally below the receiver.

Slide action type – A firearm which features a movable forearm which is manually
actuated in motion parallel to the barrel of the shooter. Also referred to as Pump Action.

Machine gun type – Refers to any weapon designed to shoot automatically or semi-
automatically more than one shot without manual reloading by a single press of the
trigger.

Submachine gun type

Shot guns – Are smooth-bore and breech loading shoulder arm intended to fire a
number of lead pellets or shots in one charge.

Zip guns – Are miscellaneous guns which are homemade.

Parts of a firearm:

Barrel is the part of the firearm which initiates the path of the bullet.

Frame is an essential part of the firearm which houses the internal parts.

Cylinder serves as the chamber and magazine.

Yoke refers to the connecting pivot between the frame and the cylinder.

Extractor is the part of the firearm which pulls the empty shells from the cylinder.

Extractor rod serves as a locking device and activates the extractor.

Center pin part of the firearm which serves as a locking device for the cylinder.
 Center Pin Spring holds the center pin in a locked position.

Hammer strikes the blow that ignites the primer.

Bolt that part of a firearm which disengages the center pin to allow the opening of the
cylinder and blocks the hammer.

Side Plate provides the access to the internal parts.

Side plate screw holds the yoke and side plate in place.

Hammer block a safety device that prevents the hammer to strike the primer.

Double action sear designed to allow double action fire.

Thumb latch part of the firearm which actuates bolt to release the cylinder.

Hand or pawl rotates the cylinder when the hammer is cocked.

Cylinder stops a device which holds the cylinder in alignment for firing.

Trigger the apparatus which actuates the parts necessary to fire the weapon.

Trigger guard prevents the trigger from unnecessary action to avoid accidental firing.

Rebound slide part which returns the trigger, actuates hammer block and locks the
hammer.

Trigger level contacts rebound slide to return the trigger forward.

Trigger spring provides energy for the return motion or rebound slide.

Mainspring the part f the firearm which provides force to the hammer to activate the firing
mechanism.

Strain screw controls the tension on the mainspring.

Trigger stop refers to the device which prevents excessive rearward movement after
hammer release.

Cylinder notch aids in holding the cylinder in place and aligned ready for firing.

Ratchet is the device used to help in the withdrawal of the cartridge of shells from the
chambers of the cylinder.

Ammunition: Shall refer to loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and
pistols from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or other missiles maybe fired by means of
gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes ammunition for air rifle.
 Technically ammunition is a term used to describe a complete unfired unit consisting of
bullet, primer, cartridge case and gunpowder. The general term ammunition refers to metallic
cartridges or shot shells. A cartridge is a complete round of ammunition for a firearm.

Cartridge was derived from the Latin word “chart” meaning paper and the French word
“cartouche” meaning roll of paper. The earliest small arms ammunition or cartridge in the 16 th
century consisted of a pre-measured charge of powder wrapped in paper. Cartridge may be
defined as a case, capsule, shell or bag of metal pasteboard and the like containing explosive
charge and (in small arms and some cannon) the projectile to be fired.

There are several marks which may found on fired cartridge cases, namely:
firing pin impression,
breech face markings,
chamber marks,
extractor marks,
shearing marks,
pivotal marks,
ejector marks and
Magazine lips markings.

Types of cartridge according to rim:

Rimmed type – the diameter of the rim is greater than the diameter of the body of
the cartridge case.

Semi-rimmed type – the diameter of the rim is slightly greater than the diameter
of the body of the cartridge case.

Rimless type – the diameter is equal with diameter of the body of the cartridge
case.

Rebated type – the diameter of the rim is smaller than the body of the cartridge
case.

Belted type – are those where there is a protruding metal around the body of the
cartridge case near the rim.

Classification of cartridges according to location in the primer:

Pin fire – Although obsolete, it is the first cartridge of an exploding type where the
pin extends through the head of the cartridge case into the primer. Its protruding
end is hit by a hammer onto the side of the cartridge instead of penetrating
horizontally form its rear.

Rim fire – The simplest form of modern cartridges where the priming mixture is
placed in the cavity in the rim of the head of the cartridge case. (Used in .22
pistols, revolvers and rifles). The name was due to the fact that this type of
 cartridge can be fired only if the cartridge is hit by a hammer or the firing pin on
the rim of the case.

Center fire – The primer cup is forced into the middle portion of the head of the
cartridge case. (Rimmed type used in .38 and .357 cal.; Semi-rimmed used in
Super cal .38; rimless used in .45 Pistols, Grease Gun, Thompson submachine
gun). In modern center fire ammunition the firing pin blow on the cartridge in the
center of the primer pounds the priming mixture between the primer cup and the
anvil of the primer. The flame passes through the “flash hole” or “vent” and this
ignites the powder charge.
Shotgun cases – It is made up of paper tube, metal base, base wad, battery cup, primer
cup, anvil, wad, shot and closing wad.

Cartridge case is also called a “shell”, which is the tubular metallic container for the
gunpowder. The cartridge case serves as a waterproof container for the gunpowder; it is
a means whereby a bullet, gunpowder and a primer are assembled into a unit and
prevents the escape of gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the cartridge case are
forced against the walls of the chamber by the pressure.

The rim is a part of the cartridge case limits the forward travel of cartridges into
their chambers and also limits clearance between the heads and the supporting surface
of the breechblock or bolt. The primer pocket holds the primer securely in central
position provides a means to prevent gas escape and gives a solid support for primer
anvils, without which the primer could not fired. Flash holes or vents are the cavity in the
web or the bottom of the primer pocket through which the primer flash pass on ignition
to the powder charge. It is the cal that connects the priming mixture with the gunpowder.

The body and head makes up the cork that plug up the breech of the barrel
against the escape of the gas. Neck refers to the cartridge case that is occupied by the
bullet. Cannelures are saw-like grooves found rolled into the necks and bodies of the
case at the site of the bullet base to prevent the bullet from bring loosened and pushed
back. Crimp is the part of case that is forced upon a bullet; it helps in holding the bullet
in place and provides resistance to the movement of the bullet out of the neck which
involves the burning of the gunpowder.

Base is the foundation of the case which contains the primer and the shell head wherein
the head stamp, caliber and year of manufacture is located. Shoulder is the part of the case
which supports the neck. Extracting groove is the rounded channel near the base of the case
designed for the automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing.

Primer - A metallic cup charge with a priming composition. It is usually made up of

potassium chlorate, antimony sulfide and fulminate of mercury. When struck or hit by the firing
pin, it detonates, such action is called “percussion”. Primers are used for igniting the gun
powder.

The primer consists of the primer cup which the container of the printing mixture,
priming mixture which is usually a highly a sensitive chemical, anvil which is the portion of the
primer against which the priming mixture is crushed by a blow from the firing pin and disk which
is a small paper or disk of tin foil which is pressed over the priming mixture to exclude moister
and helps hold the priming mixture in place.

Gunpowder – Refers to the powder charge used in firearms. Also referred to as propellant. The
most common type is the black powder which is made up of potassium nitrate, charcoal and
sulfur. Smokeless powders are those given to nitro powders which are entirely smokeless in
action. When ignited by the primer flash it is converted to heated gas under high pressure and
this energy boosts the bullet or shot charge through the barrel.

There are two common types of gun powder used in small arms, the black powder and
the smokeless powder. The black powder contains 75% potassium nitrate, 10% sulphur and
15% charcoal. It is the oldest known propellant which may be ignited by heat, friction, flame or
spark. Smokeless powder is a powerful type of propellant mostly used in modern small arms.
The main classes of propellants are the single base powder which contains pure nitroglycerin
gelatinized with nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin as the primary ingredient accompanied with
centralite, Vaseline phthalate esters and inorganic salts to insure stability, reduce flash and
flame temperature and improve ignitability.

Bullet – refers to a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical projectile propelled from the firearm by
means of the expansive force of gases from burning gunpowder. Its most common form are
lead, jacketed, armor piercing, tracer, incendiary, dum dum, gas check, wad cutter and wax
bullet. The term bullet was derived from the French word “boullete” which means a small bull.
Common police vernacular for bullet is slug.

There are several marks which may be found on fired bullets they are the:
land marks,
groove marks,
skid marks due to worn out barrel,
slippage marks due to bullet “jumping” the rifling and
shaving marks

Lead bullets are made of lead or alloys of lead such as tin, antimony which is slightly
harder and pure than lead. Jacketed bullets are made with a core of lead by a jacket of harder
metal such as gilding metal and copper alloy. The primary function of the jacket is to prevent the
adherence of lead to the inside of the gun barrel.

As to its shape bullets may come in round nose tip and flat base, pointed nose tip and
boat tailed, wad type tip and square base and semi-wad tip with hollow base.

Armor piercing bullets have hardened steel cores which penetrates armored targets.

Ball bullets have soft lead cores inside a jacket and mainly used as anti-personnel.

Incendiary bullets contain phosphorus that can set fire a target upon impact.

Tracer bullets contain a mixture similar of barium nitrates, which is set on fire when the
bullet is projected.

Explosive bullets also known as fragmentary bullets contain a high charge explosive,
used in weapons 20 mm and above.
 Dumdum bullets invented by the British Ordinance Force in India, more commonly
known as soft point and hollow point bullets.

Ballistics Measurement

The development of high-speed photography and of the stroboscope by the American

engineer Harold Eugene Edgerton and others has paved the way to greater understanding in all
three branches of ballistics. By the use of such devices any projectile can photographed in flight,
thus permitting accurate studies not only of its velocity but also of its position (to determine
degree of wobble) and even of the shock waves it produces.

The most significant recent development in ballistics is the use of computers. The
calculus of exterior ballistics normally involves sets of second-order partial differential equations.
Solving such a set of equations usually involves hundreds of thousands of computations. To
locate the position of the projectile at various points along the trajectory, dozens of such
solutions are required. For each of various distances from the ground of the gun, the entire
process must be repeated. Even with the aid of slide rules and ordinary calculating apparatus,
such an operation, would take a mathematician, an inordinate amount of time. Electronic
computers amass complete solutions within a few seconds. Computers are utilized also for
simulation of missile flights.

Firearms identification is actually a form of Tool mark identification where the firearm, because it
is made of a material harder than the ammunition components, act as a tool to leave impressed
or striated marks on the various ammunition components that come into contact with the
firearm.

Class characteristic of firearms which are factory specification and determined prior to the
manufacture of firearms such as:

Bore diameter – also known as caliber is the diameter to which the bore was reamed,
the distance measured between two opposite lands inside the bore.

Number of lands and grooves which are always the same, hence if a bore has five
lands; it will also have five grooves. Lands are the elevated portion and the grooves are
the depressed portion.

Pitch of riflings which refer to the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves or
the distance advanced by the riflings in one complete 360 degrees turn.

Direction of twist which may go either to the left or to the right twist of the riflings initiate
the bullet to rotate as it passes through the bore giving the bullet “gyroscopic stability”
during its flight from the muzzle to the target.

Depth of grooves is measured on a radius of the bore as seen in cross section, usually
a few thousands of an inch deep and equal to the height of the side of a land.

Width of lands which depends upon bore diameter, width of groove and number, it is the
“remainder of the circumference after subtracting all the groove width.

Width of groove which is measures as the shortest distance between the two sides or
edges of a groove.
Individual characteristics are those which are peculiar markings in a specific firearm not found in
all other firearm. It is determined and acquired during and after the manufacture of firearm.
Firearms evidence submitted to a laboratory’s Firearms Section will usually include a firearm,
fired bullets, spent cartridges cases, spent shot shells, shot, shot shell wadding, live ammunition
and clothing.

In addition to comparing ammunition components to firearms, firearm examiners conduct

other examinations that usually include the following:

Testing firearms to determine if they function properly.

Examine clothing and other items for gunshot residues and/ or shot patterns in an
attempt to determine a muzzle-to- garment distance.

Determine caliber and manufacturer of ammunition components. Including the

examination of various shot shell components.

Determine the manufacture or manufacturers of firearms that may have fired a particular
bullet or cartridge case.

Generally there are six types of problems which confronts Forensic Ballistics, they are:

Given a bullet, to determine the caliber and type of firearm from which it was fired;

Given a fired cartridge case, to find out the caliber and type of firearm from which it was
fired;

Given a bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the bullet was fired
from the suspected firearm;

Given two or more bullets, to find out whether or not they were fired from only one
firearm; and

Given two or more cartridge cases, to determine whether or not they were fired from
only one firearm.

Caliber is term used to indicate the diameter of a bullet in hundredths of an inch. A bullet that is
30 hundredths of an inch (.30) in diameter is called a 30caliber bullet. The term caliber is of
English origin and is used by ammunition and firearm manufacturers in the United States.
Firearms and ammunition of European origin use the metric system and would refer to a 30
caliber bullet as a 7.62 mm bullet. The caliber of the bullet is just the first class characteristic
that must agree with the questioned firearm. The bullet must also be of the type found in
cartridges that the firearm will fire.

A cartridge is a single unit of ammunition consisting of the cartridge case, primer and propellant
with and without one or more projectiles. Cartridges are usually given a name or cartridge
designation by their developer, who is more often than not the manufacturer of a firearm. The
cartridge designation typically includes a numerical value to indicate the approximate diameter
of the bullet and will often include the manufacturer’s name. Measuring the bullet’s diameter,
weighing the bullet and examining the physical characteristics of the bullet help the firearm’s
examiners to arrive at a basic caliber for the submitted bullet.

Firearm examiners also can compare questioned bullet to known reference standards. Most
firearm sections maintain an ammunition reference collection and manufacturers catalogs that
can be used as reference material in determining bullet’s caliber.

Principles used in shell identification:

The breech face and firing pin of every single firearm have microscopic individualities of
their own.

Every firearm leaves its “thumb mark” or “fingerprint” on every cartridge it fires.

The whole theory of identification of shells is based upon the fact that since the breech
face of every firearm must be individually well-defined, the cartridge cases which it fires
are imprinted with this uniqueness. The imprints of all cartridges fired from the same
firearms are the same, and those on cartridge cases fired from different weapons are
dissimilar.

Principles implicated in bullet identification:

No two barrels are microscopically identical as the internal surface of the bore or barrel
all possesses characteristic and individual markings of their own.

Every barrel leaves its “fingerprint” or “thumb mark” on every bullet fired on it.

When a bullet is fired from a rifled gun barrel, it becomes stamped by the riflings and
these engravings will differ in its minuscule detail with every individual firearm. The
engravings found on bullets fired from the same barrel will be the identical, and will be
different from those fired from another barrel.

Rifling: Most modern pistols, revolvers, rifles and some shotgun barrels have what are called
rifling in their barrels. Rifling consists of grooves cut or formed in a spiral nature, lengthwise
down the barrel of a firearm. Riflings are placed in the barrels of firearms to impart a spin on the
bullets that pass through it. Because bullets are oblong objects, they must spin in their flight, like
a thrown football, to be accurate. Looking down the barrel of a firearm you might see riflings. In
firearm examiner lingo the riflings are called as lands and grooves. The lands are the raised
areas between two grooves. A rifling pattern of eight grooves with also have eight lands.

Types of riflings:

Colt type – (6-L-G 2X) Six (6) lands and grooves, left hand twist, narrow lands and
broader grooves.

Steyr Type – (4-R-G-L) Four (4) lands and grooves, right hand twist and lands of equal
width.

Smith and Wesson Type – (5-R-G= L) Five (5) lands and grooves, right hand twist and
lands of equal width.
 Browning Type – (6-R-G 2x) Six (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands
and broader grooves.

Webley Type – (7-R-G 3x) Seven (7) lands and seven (7) grooves, right hand twist;
narrow lands and broader grooves.

Army Type – (4-R-G 3x) Four (4) lands and grooves, right hand twist; narrow lands and
broader grooves.

Firearms can be manufactured with any number of lands and grooves in their barrels.
They can also spiral either left or right. A few of the more common rifling patterns are 4/ right, 5 /
right, 6 / right, 6 / left, 8 / right, and 16 / right. When barrels are manufactured, they start out as a
solid rod of steel. Drilling is the first step undertaken when a hole is drilled down the center of
the rod of which lubricating oil is forced under pressure. This will result in a comparatively rough
hole of uniform diameter which extends longitudinally from one end of the barrel to the other.
The interior surface bears numerous scars consequential from the irregular cutting of the drill
and the metal chips which mark the finish drilling operation. After the rifling operation is
completed the barrel is lapped which is the polishing phase in which a lead plug closely fitting
the inside of the barrel is drawn back and forth on a rod carrying with it a polishing compound.
The polishing operation removes many of the larger imperfections resulting from cutting and
forming operations. If it is a shotgun barrel, the inside is smooth, if it is a rifled barrel the interior
has a spiral grooves on the inner surface extending for its complete length.

There are three basic machining processes that modern firearms manufacturers use to
form the rifling in barrels. Rifling can be cut into the inner surface of a barrel using a broach, the
rifling can be formed using a hardened still button, or the rifling will be formed through a process
called hammer forging. A newer method of rifling barrels, called Electrochemical Rifling,
does not involve the normal machining processes of the other techniques.

Broach Rifling: The modern broach method of rifling uses a hardened steel rod with
several cutting rings spaced down the rod. Broaches can be over 16 inches long and
because they have several cutting rings, they are referred to as gang broaches. Each
successive cutting ring is slightly larger in diameter and when the last ring on the broach
passes down the barrel the desired depth to the grooves is obtained. The cutting rings
have gaps evenly spaced around them to allow for the lands. The rod is twisted as it is
pulled through the barrel and this forms the spiral to the rifling pattern. A cut-away of the
inside of a barrel below shows the cut grooves and the lands with original drilling marks.

Button Rifling: Probably the most common method used today to rifle barrels which use
a different approach to forming the grooves in the barrel. A button is a very hard steel
plug that is forced down an unrifled barrel. The grooves are then formed in the barrel
under very high pressure. The pressure created to form the rifling in the barrel hardens
and polishes the inside of the barrel.

Hammer Forged Rifling: The latest mechanical method of rifling barrel is accomplished
through a process called hammer forging. Hammer forging produces a type of rifling
called Polygonal rifling. A hardened steel mandrel is inserted into a barrel blank and
the outer surface of the barrel is machine hammered. The hammering forces the barrel
material down against the mandrel and the inner surface of the barrel takes on the
shape on the mandrel. The mandrel is then removed from the barrel and the outer
surface of the barrel is cleaned up. Just as in the other types of rifling, polygonal rifling
 can have different patterns. The most common polygonal patterns are 6/ right and 8/
right. This form of rifling is used by Glock, Steyr, IMI, and a few other manufacturers.

Electrochemical Rifling: In a process that eliminates the conventional machining of

metal, rifling is formed by wet-etching the interior of a barrel under an electric current.
The metal inside the barrel is actually eaten away or dissolved to create grooves in the
barrel. An electrode (cathode) that has metal strips in the shape of the rifling is placed in
the barrel (anode) and the assembly is submerged in a salt solution. An electric current
is applied and the electrode is moved down the length of the barrel and twisted create
the spiral shaped grooves. As the current travels from the barrel to the electrode metal is
removed by electrolysis thus forming the grooves in the barrel. This process creates the
rifling in the barrel very quickly and does not require consumable tooling.

Polygonal rifling on the other hand is very different from conventional rifling. There are
no distinct transition between the lands and the grooves. Polygonal rifling takes on a
shape that is sometimes referred to as “hills” and “valleys”. This gradual transition
prevents firearm examiners from measuring the individual rifling elements in a polygonal
rifled barrel. Provided a bullet is in good condition, polygonal rifling impressions are fairly
easy to spot.

Electrochemical rifling is more similar in shape to the button and broach rifled barrels but
has slightly less distinct transitions between the lands and the grooves.

Rifling impressions: A bullet is slightly larger in diameter than the bore diameter of the barrel in
which it is designed to be fired.

The bore diameter diameter is the distance from one land to the opposite land in a
barrel. As a result, a rifled barrel will impress a negative impression of itself on the sides
of the bullet.

The rifling pattern in the barrel that fired a particular bullet can be determined by
counting the number of groove or land impressions around the circumference of the
bullet.

By holding the nose of the bullet pointing away from you, the direction the impressions
run away from you (either to your left or right) determines the direction of twist.

If the rifling impressions pattern on the bullet matches the rifling pattern in the barrel of
the questioned firearm, the next step is to measure the rifling impressions on the bullet.

The lands and grooves on a bullet are measured in thousandths of an inch or in

millimeters. One way to measure individual rifling impressions is to use a micrometer.

The width of the lands and grooves on a bullet provide a further class characteristic that
can be used as a preliminary means to determine if the submitted bullet could have been
fired from the submitted firearm.

Another class characteristic of rifling that seldom comes into play is the rate of twist or pitch of
the rifling in the barrel. The rate of twist is the distance the rifling needs to spiral down the barrel
for it to complete a single revolution.
 When bullets are compared to standards from a given barrel the pitch to the rifling
impressions can be a means to eliminate the bullet as having been fired from the firearm. If the
angle disagrees with the angle found on standards then the comparison will be a negative one
based on those class characteristics.

No two firearms, even of those of the same make and model, will produce the same
unique marks on fired bullets and cartridge cases. Manufacturing processes, use and abuse
leave surface characteristics within the firearm that cannot be exactly reproduced in other in
other firearms.

Firearms do not normally change much over time. This allows for firearms recovered
months or even years after a shooting to be identified as having fired a specific bullet or
cartridge case. Tests have been conducted that found that even after firing several hundred
rounds through a firearm the last bullet fired could still be identified to the first. All cases that
involved firearms identification start with preliminary examinations of the evidence for similar
class characteristics.

Class characteristics can be defined as: Intentional or design characteristics that would be
common to a particular group or family of items. They serve as the basis to identify a certain
class or group of firearm.

The class characteristics of firearms that relate to the bullets fired from them includes
the caliber of the firearm and the rifling pattern contained in the barrel of the firearm.

Cartridges and cartridge cases on the other hand are examined for class similarities
in what are called breech marks, firing pin impressions, extractor marks, ejector
marks and others.

If dissimilarities in class characteristics are found or if a general lack of good class

characterisytics are present no further comparisons may be necessary.

When similar class characteristics are identified the examinations progress to a final
stage where an attempt is made to find a “match” in what are called individual
characteristics, marks produced by the random imperfections or irregularities of tool
surfaces.

These random imperfections or irregularities are produced incidental to manufacture

and/ or caused by use, corrosion, or damage.

They are unique to that tool and distinguish it from all other tools. The transfer of
individual characteristics from a firearm to the ammunition components passing
through it is what makes firearms identification possible. Individual characteristics are
those characteristics which are determinable only after the manufacture of the
firearm. This may be due to normal operation, abuse, wear and tear, corrosion and
the like.

Bullets collected for comparison to a specific firearm are examined first to see if they
are of a caliber that could have been fired from the submitted firearm. They are then
examined to determine if the pattern of rifling impressions found on the bullet match
the pattern of rifling contained in the barrel of the questioned firearm.
If these class characteristics agree the next step is to try to make a positive match
between the individual characteristics that may have transferred to the bullet from the
barrel. Imperfections in the surface of the interior of the barrel leave striations on the
projectiles. Striations have the potential to be consistently reproduced in a unique
pattern on every bullet that passes down the barrel of a firearm.

Friction from passing through the water slows the bullets down and they end up on
the bottom of the tank about halfway down its length. The tank is approximately 3 feet
wide, 10 feet long and 3 feet high.

Fired standards, are examined first to determine if in fact the barrel is producing
striated marks in a unique and consistent pattern. Once a consistently reoccurring
pattern to the marks is identified on standards, the standards are compared to the
evidence bullets to see if the same pattern of marks exists on the evidence.

To make these comparisons the firearm examiner will use a comparison microscope.
Microscopes typically use objectives that are 100x and above. Magnifications typically
used in firearms identification are 5x, 10x, 20x, 30x, and 40x.

All firearm sections will have a comparison microscope. The comparison microscope
consists of two microscopes mounted side by side and connected by an optical
bridge. There are two stages on the lower part of the microscope that the bullets to be
compared are mounted on. The bullets are attached to the stages using some type of
sticky substance. Images of the bullets travel up through the objectives, bounce off
several mirrors in the optical bridge, and are combined in a round field of view seen
by looking into the stereoscopic eyepieces. The resulting image will show the bullets
mounted to the stages, side-by-side, with a thin dividing line down the middle.

The stages that the bullets are attached to allow the bullets being examined to be
rotated on their axis and moved up, down, to the left, and to the right. The bullets are
rotated around to see if any microscopic similarities are present.

Most positive identifications are made on striations that occur in land impressions and
the best marks are usually near the base of the bullets.

Bullets can have as many as six, eight or even twenty-two different land and groove
impressions and each one may have areas of agreement between the striations.

One of the biggest problems in making identification is that few evidence bullets are
submitted intact. Most badly distorted, wiped and /or fragmented. Until the questioned
bullet is examined microscopically by a trained firearm examiner one may not
determine if it has marks of comparative value.

Cartridge case identification: Like bullets, fired by a specific firearm. As soon as

cartridges are loaded into a firearm the potential for the transfer of unique tool mark
exists.

The cartridge does not have to be fired for these marks to be transferred. Simply
loading a cartridge into a firearm can cause unique identifiable marks that can later
identified.
Tool marks produced on the cartridge cases will be in two basic forms. As the microscopic
striations found on bullets, cartridge cases can pick up striated action marks. These “scratches”
are produced when the cartridge case moves laterally against the tool (inner surface of the
firearm) producing a scrape or striated mark. The other forms of marks that can be left on a
cartridge case are impressed action marks. Impressed marks are created on cartridge cases
when it impacts the tool with adequate velocity or pressure to leave an impressed or indented
mark.

Cartridge cases are compared to fired standards from a firearm using a comparison
microscope. Standards are fixed examined to determine what marks, if any, the firearm is
consistently reproducing. Evidence cartridge cases are then directly compared to the standards
to see if they too are also similarly marked.

Striated action marks are common to cartridge cases that have passed through the
action of an auto loading or repeating firearm. Striated action marks can be produced on
cartridge cases by contact with a number of different areas within the firearm. Some of
the more common striated action marks include chamber marks; shear marks, firing pin
drag marks, extractor marks, and ejector marks.

Chamber Marks: Roughness in the chamber of a firearm can scratch the outer walls of
a cartridge case when loaded and removed from the chamber. Most chamber marks
occur after the cartridge is fired. Cartridge cases expand when fired pressing out
against the walls of the chamber. When they are pulled out of the chamber, the sides of
the cartridge case can be scratched.

Shear Marks: When a cartridge case is forced backwards from recoil the primer imbeds
itself in the firing pin hole. As the slide of the pistol starts to recoil, the barrel will drop
slightly as the action opens. The dropping barrel forces the cartridge case to move
down slightly and when this happens the lower edge of the imbedded primer is sheared
downward and out of the firing pin hole.

Firing Pin Drag Marks: When the firing pin springs forward to strike the primer of a
cartridge, it may remain slightly forward and imbedded in the primer. Certain barrels
drop down slightly as recoil is forcing the action open. The cartridge case drops with the
barrel causing the nose of the protruding firing pin to drag across the primer as it leaves
the firing pin impression.

Extractor Marks: Another action mark, usually found in a striated form, are those created
by the extractor of most auto-loading or repeating firearms. The extractor is a small part
sometimes resembling a hook that is used to remove a cartridge or cartridge case from
the chamber of firearm. As the slide of the pistol moves to the rear, the extractor pulls
the cartridge case along with it until it is ejected from the pistol. The extractor may or
may not leave an identifiable mark on the cartridge case. This is true if the cartridge is
fired or simply hand chambered and extracted without firing.

Ejector Marks: The extractor pulls the cartridge cases out of the firearm’s chamber. As
the cartridge case is pulled to the rear it will be struck somewhere on an opposing edge
by a part as seen below called the ejector. The ejector is designed to expel the cartridge
case from the action of the firearm. The resulting impact of the cartridge case with the
ejector will cause another action mark that can be used as a means of identification.
 Ejector marks are sometimes created when cartridges or cartridge cases are ejected
from the action of a firearm. Ejector marks can be either striated or impressed but the
impressed ejector marks not only can be used to identify a cartridge case as having
passed through a firearm’s action they can also be an indication that the cartridge cases
was fired in the firearm. Ejector marks could only be reproduced when the cartridge
cases were fired in the firearm and not by simply hand chambering and ejecting a live
cartridge.

Impressed action marks, with a few exceptions, are produced when a cartridge case is
fired in a firearm. The two most common impressed action marks are firing pin
impressions and breech marks.

Firing Pin Impressions: Firing pin impressions are indentations created when the firing
pin of a firearm strikes the primer of center fire cartridge case or the rim of a rim fire
cartridge case. If the nose of the firing pin has manufacturing imperfections or damage,
these potentially unique characteristics can be impressed into the metal of the primer or
rim of the cartridge case.

Firing Pin Impressions also can be found on live cartridges. In some cases, the firing pin
may miss the primer of a cartridge or fail to strike the primer of a cartridge or fail to
strike the primer of a cartridge. The cartridge may also misfire due to a contaminated or
deteriorated primer compound. For whatever reason, the result will be the presence of a
firing pin impression on the cartridge case of a live cartridge. This could be significant if
the cartridge was found at the scene or found at a suspect’s house.

Breech Marks: By far the most common impressed action marks on cartridge cases are
breech marks. Most fired cartridge cases are identified as having been fired by a
specific firearm through the identification of breech marks. Very high pressures
generated within a firearm when a cartridge case is discharged. These pressures force
the bullet from the cartridge case and down the barrel at very high velocities. When a
firearm is discharged, the shooter will feel the firearm jump rearward. This rearward
movement of the firearm is called recoil.

Recoil is for the most part caused by the cartridge case moving rearward as an opposite
reaction to the pressures generated to the force the bullet down the barrel. When the
head or base of the cartridge case moves rearward, it strikes what is called the breech
face of the firearm. The breech face rests against the head of the cartridge case and
holds the cartridge case in the chamber of the firearm. When the head of a cartridge
case slams against the breech face, the negative impression of any imperfections in the
breech face are stamped into either the primer of the cartridge case or the cartridge
case itself.

When firearms are recovered at the crime scene, the following must be noted:
Type of firearm whether revolver, pistol, shotgun, or rifle;
Caliber;
Serial Number;
Load in the cylinder in revolver or magazine if pistol;
Position of the firearm relative to the body;
Place and date of recovery and other distinct features of the firearm.
When shells are recovered from a crime scene, the following must be listed:
The number of shells and order of recovery;
Caliber of the shells;
Trademark or brand of the shells and
Place and date of recovery.

When the bullets are found in the crime scene the following should be noted down:
Type of bullet whether lead or jacketed;
Caliber of the bullet;
Shape or form of the bullet;
Other metal fragments; and
Date and place of recovery.

In marking or labeling recovered evidences use a distinctive initial. The fired bullets
should be marked on the ogive or nose or its anterior portion together with the date of recovery.
For damaged and disfigured fired bullets, the initials may be placed at the base. Like fired
bullets, recovered shells should be marked with the initials using any sharp object or stylus,
marking may be placed inside, near the open mouth, on the body of the shell or outside, near
the open mouth.

For recovered firearms, the marking should be placed on all the three inseparable and
main parts such as the barrel, cylinder and frame for revolvers; barrel, frame and slide for
pistols.

Basic tools used in Forensic Ballistics:

A bullet comparison microscope is an optical instrument is the primary equipment for a

typical ballistics laboratory; it is used for comparing evidence bullets or shells and test
bullets or shells. Under this apparatus, the two (evidence and test) fired bullets or fired
shells are examined in a “juxtaposition”. They are examined and compared at the same
time, level or plane, direction, magnification and image.

Stereoscopic microscope is generally used in preliminary examinations of fired bullets

and fired shells to determine the relative distribution of class characteristics and
tampered serial numbers of firearms.

Shadowgraph contains a series of microscopic lenses of varying magnifications to

determine class characteristics for orientation purposes. It has a large circular ground
glass, 14 inches or more in diameter wherein the observation and comparison is done.

CP 6 Comparison Projector wherein the evidence bullet can be readily compared with
the test bullet with no eye strain since observation and comparison is done at a vertical
and comfortable viewing distance, what can be seen at the screen can be
photographed by any kind of camera.

Bullet recovery box is a wooden box 12”x12”x96” with hinged top cover and with one
open end filled with ordinary cotton and divided into sections by carbon partition. This is
used to obtain test fired bullets or test fired shells.

Helixometer is an instrument used in measuring “pitch of rifling”.

 Caliper is an instrument used for making measurements such as bore diameter, bullet
diameter and barrel length.

Torsion or analytical balance is used to determine the weight of bullets and shotgun
shells for possible determination of type, caliber and make of firearm from which it as
fired.

Onoscope is an apparatus used in examining the internal surface of the gun to

determine irregularities inside the bore of the gun barrel.

Taper gauge it is used to determine bore diameter of firearms.

Electric gun maker is used to mark fired bullets, fired shells and firearms submitted for
examinations.

Chronograph is an instrument used in determining the muzzle velocity or speed of the

bullet.

PART IV
(CRIMINALITICS)
QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

Also referred to as disputed documents, questioned documents refer to any document

which is under scrutiny or to which an issue has been raised. Documents denote any material
that contains marks, signs or symbols, whether visible, partially visible or invisible that may
convey a meaning or message to someone.

Disputed or questioned documents suggest that there is a controversy or an argument

over the document. A holographic document refers to any document completely signed and
written by one person. Graphology refers to the study of handwriting to determine one’s
personality trait. This is not part of handwriting analysis and is not considered a science.

“The Handwriting of Junior Professionally Investigated” published by Charles Chabot

was the first book in English to assert that there was a science of handwriting identification, and
to illustrate its methodology.

Albert S. Osborn, considered as the “Father of Questioned Documents” published his

work “Questioned Documents” in 1910. In 1935, the Lindbergh baby kidnapping case, State vs.
Hauptmann Osborn proved in court as an expert witness that the accused Bruno Richard
Hauptmann had written all of the ransom notes found or sent after the abduction of the son of
Charles A. Lindbergh leading to the conviction of the accused.

A document examiner is one who examines and studies scientifically the details and
elements of documents in order to identify their source or to discover the facts
concerning them.
 Questioned document examination principally covers:

Identification of seal, stamps and other authenticating devices.

Examination of handwriting which includes signatures and handwriting for the

purpose of determining authorship or their genuineness.

Examination of type prints and typewriting for the purpose of determining their
source or genuiness.

Detection of alteration.

Restoration of obliterated writing.

Decipherment of erased writings.

Determination of age of documents.

The fundamental principle underlying handwriting analysis is that “no two persons write
the exact same thing, the exact way”.

Every individual develops unique peculiarities and characteristics in their handwriting.

Classes of Standards: Standard documents are those in which the origin is known and can be
legally used as a sample to compare with other materials that is questioned. Basically there are
two known classifications or types of standards which are as collected and requested.

Two classification of standards for comparison:

Procured or collected standard – records that can be obtained from files of

documents executed in the course of a person’s day to day social, business,
official or personal activities. They serve as the best and most appropriate
standard in the determination of the genuineness of a questioned writing or
signature.

Requested Standard – Also known as “Post Litem Motam Standards” or dictated

standard is a standard document which are executed and prepared at one time
upon request. These exemplars serve in addition to collect standard that could
possibly obtained as appropriate standards in determining the authorship or
identity of anonymous letters such as ransom notes, extortion notes, libelous or
poison letters and the like.

Basic Points that should be considered in obtaining Standard Writings:

The amount of standard writing available. At least seven standards are sufficient for
accurate analysis and comparison.

The similarity of the subject matter. Many writers make use of two or more styles of
signature; the most common of such are conventional or traditional style using ordinary
long hand method and individualized or personalized where writing is executed with
 superfluities of design and pattern usually in eligible forms of the letters but which is
personal to the writer.

The relative dates of the disputed and the standard writings. Best standards are those
made on dates which cover a period or before, about and after the dates of the
questioned.

The conditions under which both questioned or known specimen were prepared.
Intoxication, haste, serious illness, lack of care or an unnatural writing position may
introduce variations in writing which makes it inappropriate and unsuitable as standards
for comparison.

The type of writing instrument and paper used. Pencil writings may not necessarily
show the characteristics of a ball pen or fountain pen. As a rule, standards must be
written with the same instrument as that in questioned and as far as possible the paper
used in the exemplar should be of the same ruling, shape and size as the condition of
the supposed questioned.

Conditions that should be observed in obtaining requested standards:

The material must be dictated to the writer.

Normal writing conditions should be arranged.

The dictated text must be carefully selected.

Some portion of the dictation should be repeated at least three times.

The dictation should be interrupted at intervals.

An adequate amount of writing must be included.

Writing instruments and paper should be similar to those used in preparing the disputed
document.

Physiological Basis of Handwriting:

The writing center near the motor area of the cortex is responsible for finger movement
involved in handwriting. Agraphia is a disease where one losses the ability to write even though
he could still grasp a writing instrument.

The hand contains two kinds of muscles which function in the act of writing. A group of
“extensor” push up the pen to form the upward strokes adds/ ease the tension produced as a
result of flexion by the group of muscles called the “flexor” which pushes the pen to form the
down ward strokes.

Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in writing, those which
operate the joints of the fingers, wrist, elbow and shoulder. The delicate way in which the
numerous muscles used in writing together to produce writer forms is known as “motor
coordination”.
Stages in the Development of Handwriting:

The first step in the development of handwriting starts when a person begins to learn the
art of penmanship copybook forms and illustration of different letters. This step is by imitation, a
process of drawing, ardent and meticulous slow copying. The forms of letter at first occupy the
focus of the attention.

Second step in handwriting is where the matter to form recedes and the focus of
attention is centered on the execution of various letters, that is, they are actually written instead
of drawn.

The final step in the development of handwriting refers to the manual in the execution of
letters after more progress, it is soon relegated to the subjective mind and the process of writing
becomes more or less automatic. Attention is no longer given to the process of writing itself
because the subject matter to be written now occupies the focus of attention.

The manner in which writing is produced is shown by itself that is the appearances of the
writing strokes will indicate where attention was focused in the writing process. Where the
writing is more or less automatic as attention was focused on the subject matter and not on the
writing process itself, the careless abandon in the writing process will be shown by free and
coordinated strokes. On the other hand a forgery of copied or simulated class is produced by a
process similar to that employed by a person learning how to write in following a model.

Individuality of Handwriting:

Characteristics in Handwriting: Characteristic – Also referred to as identifying details, is any

element, property or mark which distinguishes. It has two basic types which are classified as
class characteristics which are those elements or properties which are common to a group; and
individual characteristics which is highly peculiar and personal and is improbable to occur in
other instances.

Writing is the product of a very complicated series of acts, being as a whole a

combination of forms, which are the visible result of mental and muscular habits acquired by
long, continues and painstaking effort.

A written form is a record of motion and mature writing by many repetitions which finally
becomes unconscious coordinated movements that produce record. As defined by Wigmore,
handwriting is a visible effect of bodily movement, which is an almost unconscious expression of
fixed muscular habits, reacting from fixed mental impressions of certain ideas associated with
script form.

The individuality of handwriting is the combination of peculiarities of writing which is most

personal and individual thing that a man does which leaves a record that can be seen and
analyzed. Mature writing is modified by factors such as education, training, preference, artistic
ability, and musculature and nerve tone.

Deviations from copybook form and modification in mature writing may be caused by:

Simplification discarding of unessential details which may go as far as to strip the

letter to the skeleton making it either clear cut and precise or careless or bare.
 Elaboration in which decorative strokes are added to the plain letter form giving writing
ample and rich or too ornate character.

Linear pattern where writing shows no concern to form so that lines and angles
predominate and loops and angles are not pronounced.

Types of handwriting:

Cursive writing – inscription or lettering wherein the letters are for the most part joined
together.

Disguised writing – A writing specimen that is executed deliberately with an attempt to

alter the usual writing habits in the attempt to conceal the identity of the one executing
the writing.

Guided – Also known as assisted writing it is executed while the writer’s hand is
steadied in a way. They are most commonly written during a serious illness or on a
deathbed and employed as a method for beginners in writing.

Hand lettering – Refers to a specimen of writing characterized by a disconnected style.

Natural writing – Refers to that specimen of writing that is written or executed normally
without any attempt to control or alter its identifying habits and its usual quality of
execution.

A signature is a combination of rather limited letters and designs and due to its frequent
use; it becomes almost automatic with its source. The identification or the so called “verification”
of signature is a specialized branch of handwriting examination.

Known signatures may contain elements and a feature not common to the writer’s other
classes of writing. Factors identification given closest style in signature examination may not be
given the same special emphasis in general writing.

Classes of Signature:

Formal or complete – It usually executed in signing significant and important

documents and papers.

Cursory or Informal – It is usually executed in the conduct of one’s own daily affairs.
Primarily of routine nature.

Careless scribble – It is usually executed for signing receipts and similar insignificant
documents.

Classes of disputed Signatures:

Forged signatures where no attempt has been made to make a copy of facsimile of the
genuine signature of the person purporting to sign the document.

Forged signatures of fictitious persons.

 Forged signatures that closely resemble the genuine signature.

Genuine signature which the writer is unwilling to accept as genuine.

Genuine signature obtained by trickery.

A forged signature is a signature of another person, or of a fictitious character written by

another person who has no authority to do so, with intention to defraud.

Simple Forgery – It is also known as a spurious signature which refers to a bogus signature
where no attempt has been made to make a facsimile or copy of the genuine writing or
signature of a person purported to make or sign a document.

Copied or Simulated Forgery – Regarded as the most skillful form of forgery it is a fake
signature resembles the genuine signature executed in free-hand. Others refer to it as a
freehand imitation forgery. (termed as the “model”)

The forger labors under stained mental and muscular condition that makes it difficult, if
not altogether impossible to do his work in skillful manner brought by: painful anxiety to the work
well; the realization that forgery is a criminal act; and the fear of discovery which will result to
dishonor and punishment.

Copied forgery always shows natural result of strained condition by:

slow,
hesitating,
unnatural appearance and
too much attention on details

The fundamental common forgery defect is not divergence in form but is the quality or
stroke showing tremors of fraud, hesitations, stops and other indications of a poor, defective line
quality. It is impossible to identify the author of a simulated forgery for in the dual process, he
assumes the characteristics of the writing imitated and unconsciously injected his own
characteristics in a very limited quantity. The writing characteristics will not provide any basis for
identification.

Traced Forgery – This refers to a fraudulent signature which closely bears a resemblance to the
genuine signature but made by using any of the following: carbon outline process, indention
process, transmitted process or projection process or the laser method.

Different processes of tracing:

Carbon outlines method or Carbon process where a carbon paper is placed between
the genuine signature (top sheet) and the fraudulent document (lower sheet). Outline of
model signature is traced with dry pen or pointed object to make a carbon offset on the
lower sheet. Outline is finally re-written or retraced with suitable ink stroke.

Indention process where a canal like outline of the genuine is produced on the
fraudulent documents (lower sheets) by tracing the outline of the genuine signature (top
sheet) with a pointed instrument. The outline is then directly inked, in some instances;
 the outline is first retraced lightly when pencil before it is finally retraced with suitable
ink.

Transmitted light or projection process where the spurious document is placed

immediately over the genuine signature with strong light directed through the two sheets
of paper from below or behind; outline that is seen through upper sheet is then traced.

Proof of Traced forgery:

Discovery of the actual model or genuine signature from which it was made.

Presence of pencil, carbon or indented outlines that point to the tracing process.

Discovery of two or more identical attendant forgeries which could only have been
drawn from one model or original.

Three essential phases in handwriting/ questioned documents examination:

Recognition (analysis) of characteristics. Analysis where properties or characteristics

are observed, calibrated and determined.

Comprehensive comparison of all characteristics where properties of the unknown

determined thru analysis are now compared with the familiar or recorded properties of
known items.

Evaluation. Correct interpretation of characteristics.

The examination involves the recognition, thorough comparison and correct

interpretation or evaluation of the elements, features, qualities and characteristics of the
handwriting.

Quality refers to that peculiar or distinct character which is used in describing

handwriting to any identifying factor which is related to the writing movement itself.
Features included among the qualities of handwriting are its distinctive traits.

Element which refers more to the separate physical parts of a thing is also an
appropriate descriptive term in some connections preferable.

Recognition of writing characteristics:

Form which refers to the shape or design of the individual letters.

System which refers to the particular style of system of penmanship practiced or

learned in childhood.

Muscular habits or co-ordinations. In the execution of down strokes, the impulse

originates from the flexor muscles of the index and middle fingers and the thumb yields.
In upward strokes, the movement impulses originates from the thumb which pushes the
pen against the index and the middle fingers which must yield to the impulse with just a
sufficient force to allow the upward movement muscles involved in this operation arm
the extensor muscle.

Straight lines. Generally, straight lines are found mostly in writings executed with
speedy forearm movement, and the most irregular are in writing made with the finger
movement.

Curves. Writings produced with smooth muscular accord, lack of muscular accord
manifest itself at places of the writing at or near or top or bottom of the letters where
movement impulse changes from one unit to the other, so that instead of curves at the
tops or arcs of letters, angles may be formed.

Angles which usually serves as junction between straight lines and curves in writing
strokes.

Retracing wherein some writers execute letters with upward strokes moving or retracing
downward strokes and this characteristic of retracing is very slight. In others quite
considerable and pronounced.

Connections which refers to the strokes or links that hook up a letter with the one
following. In signatures, it is common practice to write signatures with the initials and
names connected without lifting the pen.

Size as a writing characteristic is somewhat divergent under varying conditions and has
little significance when applied only to one example.

Slant which refers to the slope of writing in relation to the baseline, it is a fairly stable
habit.

Spacing between letters in words depends upon the length of the connecting strokes or
links. Speed and movement influence spacing.

Proportion of a part to the other part of a letter, or relative height of one letter to another
letter can be found in different writing. It is one of the hidden features of writing it being
unknown even to the writer.

Movement of the finger, hand, forearm and whole hand. In finger movement the thumb,
index and middle fingers are used exclusively in the writing of the letter. Hand
movement involves action of the hand with fingers playing minor role action being
limited mainly to the formation of the smaller parts of the letters, pivot of lateral motion
of the wrist. Forearm, or muscular movement, the elbow is the pivot of lateral movement
and gives great command of the hand and the most complete lateral freedom. Whole
arm movement involves the entire arm without rest and is employed in very large writing
and ornamental penmanship.

Line quality. The delicate characteristic of line quality in writing freely produced with
harmonious relation of strokes and unconscious emphasis is the most difficult off all
handwriting characteristics to imitate successfully.
 Tremor which is deviation from uniform strokes or lack of smoothness entirely apparent
even without magnification. Lack of muscular skill with the pen is shown by lack of
uniformity of speed in making strokes, pen stops and involuntary vertical and horizontal
movements uncontrolled sidewise movements produce a line with abrupt changes of
direction or zigzag character.

Skill which is judged in terms of legibility and symmetry.

Rhythm which is referred to as “a flowing hand” is a coordinated succession of

movement impulses that glide into each with a rhythm.

Speed. Handwriting shows great variation in speed and muscular skill among different
writers ranging from clumsy hesitation of the illiterate and palsied (related to paralysis)
feebleness due to age, up to skillful dash and the grace of the adept.

Shading and pen position.

Pressure more accurately describes the proportion of strokes to each other in width as
affected by shading and by unconscious emphasis.

Pen-lifts. With most writers, disconnections in words are more closely related to design
of letters than in movement, the habits having been acquired during the onset of writing
learning stage.

Terminal strokes and initial strokes. When a letter or word or signature is completed in a
free, natural writing, the pen is usually raised from the paper while in motion with a
“flying finish” and with many writers the motion of the pen also slightly precedes the
putting of the pen on the paper at the beginning with a “flying start” so that the strokes at
the beginning and the end of words gradually diminish or taper to a “vanishing point”.

Alignment which is the relation on successive characteristics or letters of a word,

signature or line or writing to an actual or imaginary baseline. Deviations are mainly due
to movement and the position of the writing arm especially in relation to the line of
writing.

Arrangement which is governed by artistic ability or sense of proportions.

Rubric or embellishment which is unnecessary to legibility of letter forms or writings but

incorporated in writing for decorative or ornamental purposes.

Class characteristics these are common to a group also referred to as general characteristics.

Individual characteristics which are highly peculiar or personal to a particular writer and is likely
to occur in other instances.

Basic Rules for the identification of handwriting:

Rule 1. Each mature writer has a handwriting which is personal and individual to him alone.

Every individual’s handwriting undergoes gradual changes in the course of his life.
 The gradual changes in handwriting which occur during a person’s lifetime while
following certain general patterns are individual to each writer.

Rule 2. Deterioration of an individual’s writing due to any cause effects all of the writing
properties and is not confined to change of one or two elements.

An individual’s handwriting may deteriorate very rapidly due to sharp physical decline
resulting from either old age or severe illness.

A transitory change may be injected into handwriting temporary physical and mental
conditions, such as fatigue, nervous tension, intoxication or severe illness from which
the writer ultimately recovers.

Elements of forms in writing:

Arc – Refers to the rounded inner part of an upper bend, crook or curve.

Beard – Also known as a double hitch is an introductory up and down stroke found in
some capital letters.

Blunt – This is a part of a stroke characterized by a sudden beginning or end at which

the pen does not create a diminishing stroke.

Buckle Knot – Is a horizontal or loop stroke used to complete letters A, D, F, and H.

Central part – Refers to the body of a letter, usually characterized by circular or small
rounded strokes.

Ductus – link – Or a Ductur broken is the connection between letters, either joined or
disconnected.

Embellishment – Added strokes which serves as an ornament or flourish to the design

of the letters. Considered as unessential to the legibility of writing.

Eyelet – Are small oblong strokes.

Hitch – Introductory backward stroke found in most capital letters and some small
letters.

Hump – The upper part of an upper bend, crook or curve.

Knob – Refers to the tiny pool of ink at the beginning or ending stroke.

Loop – Are oblong strokes. Stem/ Staff/ Shank – Referred to as the backbone of the
letter characterized by a lone downward stroke.

Through – Any garland form of letter strokes.

Whirl – The lone upward stroke usually located opposite the stem.

Baseline – The imaginary or ruled line upon which the writing rests.
 Copy Book Form – The design of letters which are fundamental to a writing system.

Line quality – Refers to the visible record in the written stroke of the basic movement
and manner of holding the writing instrument. Derived from a combination of factor
including skill, speed, rhythm, freedom of movement, pen position and shading.

Writing movement – An important element of which embraces all the factors which are
related to the motion of writing.

System of writing – Refers to the combination of the basic design of letters and the
writing movement as taught in school.

Slant – Refers to the angle or inclination of the axis of letters relative to the baseline.

Rule 3. A writer cannot exceed his maximum writing ability or skill without serious training and
effort applied over a period of time.

Rule 4. Attempted disguise leads to an inferior never better quality handwriting. Lack of
uniformity in execution and form is an extended specimen of handwriting is an indication of lack
of disguise.

Conversely, uniformity of handwriting qualities is an extended specimen of handwriting

and is an indication of lack of disguise.

Rule 5. Variation in writing is an essential property of everyone’s handwriting. The degree of

variation in writing tends to increase with more rapid and less careful execution.

Variation in handwriting is related to the conditions under which it was prepared. The
purpose for which writings were intended may govern the degree of variation in them.

In repeated specimen of writing prepared at one time, variation tends to be less than
between specimens written from day to day.

Factors that affect writing characteristics:

Natural variations – Refers to the normal or usual deviations found in a repeated

specimen of an individual’s handwriting or in the product of any typewriter.

Transitory change – Those changes which only continue to exist while the basic cause
of the deterioration is still affecting the writer, once such cause has been removed from
the writer, his writing will revert to its normal form.

Tremor – Refers to the weakening of strokes set apart by a wavering or shaky stroke.
This may be due to genuine tremors caused by either sickness, weakness, old age or
illiteracy or a tremor of fraud.

A genuine tremor shows some free connecting and terminal stroke made by the
momentum of the hand. A tremor of age or weakness shows unnatural erratic departures of the
line from each intended course, abrupt recovery, awkward digressions, and indication of
muscular movement beyond the control of the writer.
 Tremor of illiteracy is characterized by general irregularity due to the lack of will and
mental uncertainty as to the form and a general clumsiness, resulting from unfamiliarity with the
whole writing process.

A tremor of fraud which is drawn even though quite perfect in general form, shows but
little, if any freedom and will often show hesitation at the wrong places and tremor slowly placed.

Writing conditions – Which cover all factors affecting the over-all quality of writing such
as the writer’s condition under which the writing was prepared.

Writing instrument – The utensil or means used to execute the writing such as ball point
pen, fiber pen or fountain pen.

How writing is identified?

Rule 1. The individuality of writing is the basis of all identifications.

Rule 2. Handwriting is identified by the combination of all its attributes on qualities, including
both those derived from the writing movement and those related form.

Handwriting portrays through its various attributes the writing movements by which it
was formed. A particular writing instrument may not fully reflect all of the qualities of
writing movement.

Elements of the writing movement:

Pen lift – An interruption in strokes caused by a sudden removal of the writing

instrument from the paper surface.

Pen emphasis – Is the act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper surface
paper with an increase in speed.

Pen position – Refers to the relative location of the pen in relation to the paper surface.

Pen pressure – Refers to the usual or average pressure applied in writing.

Pen scope – It represents the reach of the hand with the wrist at rest.

Retouching – Also known as patching is a stroke which goes back over a defective
portion of a writing to correct or repair an error.

Retracing – Refers to the strokes which goes back over another writing stroke. In
natural handwriting there may be many instances in which the pen doubles back over
the same course.

Rhythm – Refers to that element of writing movement which is marked periodic or

regular recurrences. It is the harmonious or balanced recurrence of impulses or strokes.
It may be classified as smooth, jerky or intermittent in its quality.
 Shading – Refers to the widening of the ink stroke due to the added pressure on a
flexible pen point.

Skill – The degree or ability or a writer’s proficiency in writing.

Speed – It cannot be measured precisely from the finished handwriting but may be
interpreted in broad terms of slow, moderate or rapid.

Rule 3. Writing standards are necessary to establish the individual’s normal writing habits and to
show the degree of variation common to his writing.

The best standards include writing which was prepared for a comparable purpose and
under similar conditions to the matter under investigation.

Rule 4. A specimen of writing was written by a particular person if all its identifying elements are
a part of his handwriting and furthermore the variation within its specimen falls within his range
of writing variation.

Indication of genuineness:

Flying or flourishing starts (initial strokes).

Flying or vanishing finishes or strokes (terminal strokes).

Intermediate strokes when pen comes off the paper but not stopped and shows
continuity of motion.

Abbreviated form.

Distorted forms.

Illegible forms written in sufficiently free and rapid manner.

Broken and unfinished signature.

Genuine retouching or overwriting.

Ink failure.

Skillful shading.

Correct general appearance with incorporated refined qualities of an individual

character.

Consistency of refined line quality.

Freedom in writing.

Certain natural variations in details of the writing.

Indications of forgery:
 Tremors

Hesitations – pen stops at unusual places.

Non- continuous broken stokes.

Abrupt changes in direction of line or strokes, showing uncertainty of movement.

Concealed of hidden amalgamations.

Bulbous or blunt initial and terminal strokes.

Misplaced shading.

Shading in more than one direction indicating frequent change of pen hold due to
hesitation.

Lack of variation of pen pressure.

Erratic change of slant.

Defective line- quality- stilted, drawn quality devoid of free, natural, normal writing
movements.

Unnecessary, careful patching or retouching.

Unnatural pen-lifts.

Presence of carbon, pencil or indented outlines along the strokes of “inked” patterns.

Document Examination

Document examination consists mainly of comparing questioned handwriting with known

handwriting to reveal the writer’s identity; it also includes the examination of hand printing,
forgeries, typewriting, inks, paper, indented and eradicated writing, rubber-stamp impressions,
charred paper, and related items. No two persons write accurately alike; the writing process is
so multifaceted that personal peculiarities always persist in the handwriting of any given
individual. Detailed inspection reveals these hidden characteristics, which can then form the
basis for an expert’s opinion.

Miscellaneous Aspects of Questioned Documents:

Alterations

Alterations or changes which usually affect the original meaning of a document are
made either at the stage of preparation and are already part of the document when it is
executed, signed, sealed or witnessed of done fraudulently after its execution.

Alteration that appears should not be immediately considered as fraudulent, the

alteration should be considered in a thorough and careful manner to be able to determine what
the reasonable inference is from all the facts. It therefore becomes necessary to distinguish that
which is fraudulent from which is a genuine alteration. An obvious, necessary change in a
document is often evidence not of fraud but of genuineness. A refined and partly hidden
alteration may be very suspicious.

Fraudulent changes naturally are made in a hidden manner and they may never be
discovered if special attention is not directed to them. Alterations are made in any of the
following manner:

Erasures:

Mechanical – done by rubbing off with rubber eraser or scraping off with a sharp
instrument.

Chemical – accomplished by ink eradicator or other bleaching solutions.

Addition

Substitution

Inter-lineation or intercalation (insertion between lines)

Superimposition

Obliteration of smeared over writing by blacking out portions of writings by some

opaque materials.

Inked and Questioned Documents:

Common concerns / issues relative to inks in questioned documents:

“Whether two writings made with the same kind of ink were made with identical ink of
different qualities of in different solutions.”

“Whether the ink in one part is similar or different in kind from ink on other part of the
same document or other documents”.

Manner of making entries on a document:

Whether documents of different dates or a succession of differently dated book entries

shoe the natural variation in ink writing.

Whether the conditions point to one continuous writing at one time under identical
conditions.

Whether the ink is as old as it purports to be.

Different inks of the same class can often be distinguished positively from each other by
dissimilarity in:

Depth or strength of color;

 Contrast or range of color;

Variation in tint of the ink as a whole attributed to chemical changes after the inks are
compounded;

Secondary color by oblique reflected light;

Margin of the stroke whether clear cut, smooth or feathered;

Gloss or sheen;

Penetration or degree of the ink when absorbed into or shows through the paper;

Color of smeared portions or blotted strokes; and

Amount of sediment, or precipitate manifested in thin or blotted strokes.

Paper and Questioned Documents:

Origin, difference or identify in paper is shown by the:

Color
Consistency
Thickness
Finish or Surface
Watermark
Wove or laid style
Cutting
Size
Rolling
Loose or padded sheets
Wire marks
Composition or character of fibers used in its manufacture
Colored, gilded or silver edges
Rounded corners
Book binder’s stitch

Typewriters are machine designed to print or impress type characters on paper, as a speedier
and more legible substitute for handwriting. Since the introduction of practical typewriters in the
1870’s, the machines have come into universal use and have played an important part in the
development of modern business and in the great dissemination of written and printed
information that has characterized the 20th century.

The first known attempt to produce a writing machine was made by the British inventor
Henry Mill, who obtained a British patent on such a machine in 1714. The next patent issued for
a typewriter was granted to the American inventor William Austin Burt in 1829 for a machine with
type arranged on a semicircular wheel that was revolved to the preferred letter, and then
pressed against the paper. In 1833 a French patent was given to the French inventor Xavier
Progin for a machine that embodied for the first time one of the principles employed in modern
typewriters: the use for each letter or symbol of separate type bars, set in motion by separate
lever keys.
 The device used for moving the paper between letters and between lines on almost all
modern typewriters is a cylindrical platen, against which the paper is held tightly. The platen
moves horizontally to give the spacing between lines. The first apparatus to use this method of
spacing was made in 1843 by the American inventor Charles Grover Thurber. The printing
portion of his typewriter was a metal ring that revolved horizontally above the platen and was
outfitted with a series of vertical keys or plungers having pieces of type at the bottom. The
machine was operated by revolving the wheel until the correct letter was centered over the
printing spot on the platen, and then striking the key.

Several other inventors attempted to produce machines designed to produce embossed

impressions that could be read by the blind. One such machine, developed by the American
inventor Alfred Ely Beach in 1856, resembled the modern typewriter in the arrangement of its
keys and type bars, but embossed its letters on a narrow paper strip instead of a sheet. A
comparable machine created by the American inventor Samuel W. Francis, and patented by him
in 1856, had a circular arrangement of type bars, a moving paper holder, a bell that rang to
signal the end of a line, and an inked ribbon. The keyboard arrangement of Francis’s machine
bears a resemblance to the black and white keys of a piano.

The Remington Typewriter

During the 1850’s and 60’s many inventor’s tried to produce a practical typewriter, but
none succeeded until 1868, when three American inventors, Christopher Latham Sholes, Carlos
Glidden, and Samuel W. Soule, patented a writing machine. Early in 1873, they contracted with
E. Remington & Sons of Ilion, New York, manufacturers of rifles and sewing machines, to
manufacture their typewriter.

The first Remington typewriter came off the line in September 1873. The Remington
includes almost all the basic features of the modern machine. The paper was held in a carriage
between a rubber platen and a smaller rubber cylinder, which were placed parallel to one
another. The carriage was moved from right to left by means of a spring as the letters were
struck; the movement was regulated by an escapement device, so that the carriage traveled the
distance of one space for each letter. The carriage was returned to the right by a lever, which
also served to rotate the platen for a space of one line by means of a ratchet and pawl. The type
bars were arranged in a circle; when any one of the keys, which were arranged in a mounted
keyboard at the front of the machine, was depressed, the corresponding type bar struck against
the bottom of the platen by lever action. An inked cloth ribbon ran between the type bar and the
platen, and the type struck this ribbon to make an inked impression on the underlying paper that
was positioned against the platen above the ribbon. The ribbon was carried on a pair of spools
and was moved automatically after each impression.

The early Remingtons impressed only in capital letters, but in 1878 the carriage shift was
made possible by two inventions. One was a key and lever that moved the carriage an abrupt
distance don for printing the capitals, and another key and lever that moved the carriage to its
original position for printing the lowercase, or small letters. The other was the double key, with
capital and lowercase letters mounted on the uniform type bars. The presentation of the shift
and double keying allowed the addition of numbers and other symbols without increasing the
size of the keyboard. The typing procedure known as touch-typing, which enabled operators to
achieve great speed and accuracy, soon, appeared.
 Type bars of basic commercial typewriters struck the paper at the bottom of the platen;
the line being written was thus not visible to the operator. Commencing in the early 1880s this
disadvantage was removed by the so-called visible typewriters, in which the type struck the front
of the platen.

Following the success of the Sholes-Glidden-Remington machine, a number of new

models of typewriters were invented, but few of them proved to be of any enduring worth, and
most were discarded. Among the typewriters that proved profitable in the U.S. were the
Underwood, L.C. Smith, Royal, and Woodstock.

Two entirely dissimilar designs of typewriter that did not use the typebar system were
also introduced in the U.S. during the 1880’s and 90’s. One of these was the so-called type-
wheel typewriter, epitomized by the Blickensderfer machine. In this typewriter all the typefaces
were mounted on the outside of a single small cylinder that was revolved and moved up and
down by the action of the keys to position the proper letter in the typing space. The Hammond
typewriter, introduced in 1880, worked on a somewhat comparable principle and carried its type
on interchangeable, curved shuttles fixed to the outside of a metal ring. In both these machines
no platens were used, and the type did not hit against the paper to make an impression.
Instead, the paper was positioned in a vertical spot, unsupported by a platen, and the
impression was made by a hammer that struck the back of the paper, forcing it against the
ribbon and the type. The advantage of the Hammond machine was the interchangeability of
type shuttles, making possible the use of a diversity of typefaces on the same machine.

Portable typewriters working on the typebar principle were first introduced in 1912. The
smallest of modern portable typewriters are no larger than a full-length dictionary and offer most
of the features of full-sized office machines. Silent typewriters, which came into use after World
War I, used a lever system for actuating the typebars, but relied on pressure rather than a
striking movement to make the type impression, reducing the noise of operation.

Electric Typewriters

Electric typewriters have been in widespread use since 1925, and a major role in the
field has been played by the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM). In these
equipment, a motor-driven mechanism performs the actual work of lifting the typebar and
striking it against the ribbon, and also of returning the carriage to the right and turning the platen
at the end of the line. Because the keys are used only to initiate the electric mechanism, the
pressure used by the operator is much less than on conventional mechanical typewriters, and
as a result the operator can type faster and with less fatigue. Another significant benefit is that
the impress, or pressure, of each letter is completely uniform.

Electric typewriters are available that permit fast correction of mistakes; that
automatically justify, or evenly align, the right-hand margin; that supply characters in foreign
languages and alphabets; that type certain words at a single stroke, that have ribbons yielding
uniform, unfading letters; and that are equipped with interchangeable type spheres that supply a
variety of typefaces, such as italic or cursive.

Recent Developments

The use of electronic controls made possible by the microprocessor and computer
storage have multiplied the uses of the modern typewriter, transforming it into a word processor
or data processor. The connection of a specially designed electronic typewriter keyboard to
computer logic and memory circuits allowed the assembled system to perform such automatic
functions as producing a number of copies of a given letter to different people, with appropriate
modifications within the body of the letter.

Typewriter composing machines operating as computer terminals now arrange copy for
printing, proportionally spacing characters and automatically justifying the margins. The
information typed can be edited on a cathode-ray monitor. In the 1970s and ‘80s print media
equipped their writers and editors with such technology. These and other high-speed printing
and data-processing machines make use of the typewriter keyboard still in the outlined
designed by Christopher Sholes but they are in fact extensions of computer rather than
typewriter technology.

Basis of typewriting identification:

Same type size: PICA – 10 characters per inch, Elite – 12 characters per inch,
Proportional spacing machine IBM 1/32 unit type. (f11t j – 2 units; h r u w – 4 units; m –
5 units, all other letters – 3 units)

Same type designs: “8 key letters – and other alphabetical characters, numerals “1-9”
and other signs and symbols.

Similar combination of correctly- writing and defective writing characters.

Points to consider in preparing Standard of Typewriters:

Include all words and characters used in the questioned document.

Use the same wording as the questioned document if possible.

Employ different degrees and speed.

Utilize the same or similar quality of paper; and

Make no machine adjustments or ribbon changes until at least several standards are
completed.

Each sheet should contain data on make, model, serial number of machine and initials
or signature of the investigator. Submit typewriter’s ribbon if it has not been changed
since the questioned document was typed.

Typeface defects: Refers to any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the type
face metal. Type face refers to the printing surface of the type block.

Horizontal mal- alignment – A deficiency in alignment in which the characters print to the
right or left of its proper position.

Vertical mal-alignment – A defect in alignment in which the character prints below or

above its proper position.
 Twisted letter – Each character and letter is designed to print at a certain fixed angle to
the baseline. Due to damage and wear to the type bars and type block some letters are
distorted so that they lean to the left or right of their correct slant.

Off its feet – The condition of a type face printing heavier on one corner or side over the
remainder of its outline.

Rebound – Is a defect in which a character prints a double impression with the lighter
one slightly offset to the left or right.

Clogged type face – Otherwise referred to as dirty type face characterized by unclean
prints due to constant use of the typewriter without cleaning the type face, commonly
occurring in enclosed letters and characters.

Types of defects: The term defect is used to described any maladjusted or abnormality
in a typewriter which is reflected in its work and which leads to its identification and
individualization.

Permanent defect – Refers to any identifying attribute to a typewriter which cannot be

corrected by simply cleaning the typeface or replacing the ribbon. It includes actual
breaks in typeface, like worn-off serifs and cut on shanks.

Transitory defect – Refers to an identifying typewriter characteristic which can be

eliminated by replacing the ribbon or cleaning the machine. Dirty impressions from
clogged or dirty typefaces and incomplete impressions due to poor condition or worn
out, torn ribbon.

Alignment defect – Refers to horizontal, vertical, character printing off its feet and tilted
characters.

Care and Handling of Documentary Evidence:

Documents being questioned or disputed should be cared and handled in a manner that will not
impair their value as evidence. Such precautionary measures may seem unnecessary, but it
frequently occurs that either through carelessness or ignorance of evidential value of an
important document is seriously impaired and significant interests are thus jeopardized. As
much, as possible, the exact physical condition of every portion of a disputed document should
be cautiously observed and made a matter of written record.

Thereafter, it should be preserved as far as possible in exactly the same condition as it is

when first suspected. It is advisable that a plastic container or covering should be provided. In
this connection, the following directions are standard operating procedures in handling
documentary evidences:

Disputed documents should not be cut, torn or in any manner mutilated in the slightest
degree.

Documents should not be folded in any new place and should not be folded and
unfolded unnecessarily.
 Documents should not be touched with an eraser or any kind, nor with a pen, pencil of
sharp object.

Documents should not be subjected to chemical treatment. Except on special

permission, no chemical analysis should be made on the document as chemicals
applied may damage or deface the document.

Do not damp, soak or wet documents.

Portions of the document which is of particular significance such as signature, amount

or date should not be encircled in any manner as to affect the strokes or portions
thereof.

Hand deliver or send by registered mail the documents.

Have a note on the accurate chain of custody.

Photograph the document on its original state upon receipt.

Initial and date the document in its safe areas.

Store in locked vault to ensure evidence safety.

Minimize light exposure as such rays may diminish the color or ink and hasten aging of
the document.

Minimize handling of the documentary evidence to avoid leaving imprints.

Keep the document in transparent plastic folders.

Keep accurate and precise records.

The use of Photography in Questioned Document Examinations:

It serves as a record of the initial condition of a disputed document.

Photograph make clear what otherwise may be hidden or indistinct.

By means of photographs, writing in question can be accurately enlarged so that every

quality and characteristics of it can be clearly and properly interpreted.

Any number of accurate reproductions of a document in question could be made

affording unlimited opportunity for study, comparison and evaluation by a number of
examiners.

Photographs can be cut apart as may be desired and the various parts may be marked
for comparison.

Photographs are also useful in showing discoloration due to chemical erasures or other
fraudulent changes which may otherwise be overlooked.
 Erasures made by abrasions by ordinary rubber eraser can sometimes be shown very
clearly and recorded in permanent form by a photograph taken with the paper placed
obliquely to the plane of the lens and plate and inclined at just the right angle of
reflection so as to show differences in the reflected light from different portions of the
paper surface.

Stereographic photo micrograph shows conditions of writing in three dimensional

enlargements and is useful in showing sequence of crossed lines, or showing whether
writing across a fold followed or preceded the folding of the paper.

Transmitted light photography is useful in:

Examination of watermarks.
Showing the continuity of strokes.
Determination of the identity or the differences in paper by showing the
arrangement of the fibers and the markings of the wire gauze and dandy roll.
Determining retouching or patching of writing by clearly showing the presence
of added ink in interrupted strokes.

Apparatus and instruments used in Questioned Document Examinations:

Magnifying lens – Utilized by bank personnel the maximum character of which is four
inches and while this appears big with its wider frame the magnifying power of hand
held lens is only two times the original.

Shadowgraph

Stereoscopic Binocular microscope where a tri-dimensional enlargement is possible.

Ultra-violet lamp

Infrared viewer

Transmitted light gadget to provide illumination beneath or behind the glass on which
document is placed.

Table lamp with adjustable shade and neck such ac the available gooseneck lamp for
controlled illumination, required in side-light examinations placing the light at a low
angle in a position oblique to the plane of the document.

Measures and test plates preferably made of transparent glass plates to be used for
signatures and typewriting examination.

Video Spectral Comparator 2000 an imaging apparatus that allows the examiner to
analyze inks, visualize hidden security features and reveal alterations in a document. It
is composed of a desktop computer that runs on a software provided by the
manufacturer and an imaging device that includes a color charged coupled device
(CCD) video camera a black and white CCD video camera, excitation /barrier filters and
various radiant energy sources such as halogen, tungsten, Foster Freeman and
fluorescent lamps.
PART V
(CRIMINALISTICS- 5)
POLYGRAPHY

POLYGRAPHY. Refers to the scientific method of detecting deception accomplished with

the help of an instrument capable of recording simultaneously changes in pulse rate, blood
pressure, respiration and skin resistance which indicates disturbances usually emotional of a
lying subject when being questioned. The word polygraph was derived from the words “poly”
which is a Greek word which denotes several or many and “graph” which means a writing chart.

Strictly speaking, the polygraph is not “lie detector” but a device of several physiological
functions associated with variations of emotional states. The functions monitored are respiration
rate, heartbeat, blood pressure, and skin conductivity or resistance. However, some new types
of functions have been suggested.

Polygraph may refer to any of various scientific recording devices designed to register a
person’s bodily responses to being questioned. Generally known as a lie detector, the polygraph
has been known chiefly in criminal investigations, although it is also used in employment and
security screening practices. Because no machine can accurately recognize when a person is
lying, the polygraph results are used in conjunction with other evidence, observations, and
information.

Emotional stress reflected by this test, for example, need not be due lying. On the other
hand, a subject may be a pathological liar and therefore show no quantifiable bodily responses
when giving false answers. Regular nervousness, individual or physical or mental abnormalities,
discomfort, excessive pretest interrogation, or indifference to a question also affect test
precision.The polygraph can provide a basis for an evaluation of whether or not the subject’s
answers are truthful. This examination has also been helpful in exonerating innocent persons
accused of crimes.

A polygraph is actually a number of instruments combined to simultaneously record

changes in blood pressure, pulse, and respiration. The electrical conductivity of skin’s surface
can also be calculated – increased sweat- gland activity reduces the skin’s ability to carry
electrical current. The Reid polygraph, devised in 1945 by the American criminologist John
Edward Reid, also records muscular change.

Contraption worn by the seated subject includes a so-called pneumograph tube around
the chest, an ordinary blood- pressure cuff, and electrodes on the fingers and surfaces of the
hand. The actual physiological alteration are transmitted, through a small panel unit, into
synchronized readings on moving graph paper; these parallel graphs are then correlated and
interpreted to determine whether the subject is lying.

Proper conditions and procedure are indispensable in polygraph testing. The room used
should be plain, quite, comfortable, and private; two-way mirrors and microphones are
sometimes used as legal safety measures. The examiner’s role is also significant. He must be
steadily objective and should be thoroughly trained in scientific interrogation to reduce the
inherent human error.
 Polygraph results are generally considered inadmissible as legal evidence in courts, the
use of the device in private employment procedures was severely restricted by law in 1988. The
main objections to the polygraph are that its use is unconstitutional, that it constitutes an
invasion of privacy, and that it is still too inconclusive scientifically to be considered to be
legitimate as evidence. In some countries the use of polygraph is prohibited by their
governments on the basis of violation of free will.

Polygraph examination is undertaken by asking questions skillfully formulated while the

subject is attached to the instrument. These questions are answerable by yes or no, the
inferences based from a number of observable symptoms in a subject will be interpreted by the
polygraph examiner. The accuracy of the test relies on the competency of the examiner. The
usefulness of the polygraph in recording symptoms of deception is based on the established
principle that a conscious mental effort on the part of the subject who is deceitful would produce
involuntary physiological changes. These changes are the respiration, blood pressure and pulse
beat are capable of being recorded and accurately diagnosed by skillful polygraph examiners.

A polygraph test measures the subject’s pulse, blood pressure, respiration and skin
resistance or conductivity while the individual is being asked a series of questions. The changes
from an established baseline are presumed to indicate an emotional reaction when lying in
response to a question.

Polygraph is used in crime detection and investigation to: eliminate innocent subject,
recognized fabricated complaints, determine the veracity of information, narrow the focus of
inquiry, locate the fruits of the crime, and gather additional information on particular suspects
and from reluctant witnesses and aid the investigator to speed up the process of investigation.

The limitations however is clear since the polygraph examination may only administered
to a willing subject and its result is not accepted as an evidence in court even if the data
collected in a polygraph examination are accurate since interpretation may vary and give rise to
doubts.

Pre-scientific Methods of Detecting Deceptions:

The ancient method in detecting deception was not based on any understanding of the
physiological principles underlying deception; it relied on religious and superstitious belief. Trial
by torture, combat, and ordeal was used in those times as a vehicle for establishing the truth.

The ordeal which may traced back from the days of Christ, the Dark Ages and Middle
Ages until the later part of the 16th century. The process of determine deception is undertaken by
means of various mystical modes wherein the proof of innocence or guilt would result from the
accused passing a test or an undertaking without considering proof, facts or evidences; this was
due to the fact that psychology of deceit did not exist during those times.

Balance Ordeal – This existed in the 600 B.C. as early as the Institute of Vishnu wherein
the practice of determining the veracity of the statement of the accused by placing him
on one scale of balance and in other scale a counter balance. Then the accused is
asked to step down the scale while the judge delivers a catchphrase to the balance.
 After the exhortation, the accused is asked to go back to the scale and if he is found to
be lighter than before he was adjudged as acquitted.

Boiling Water Ordeal – This was prevalent in Africa. This test of deception is undertaken
by asking those persons suspected of committing a crime to place their right arm into
the boiling pot to the elbow, after plunging their arm they are asked to take a rest at the
same time, the one who after the next afternoon has lost some of his skin or showed a
blister would be determined as the person guilty of committing a crime.

Donkey’s tail Ordeal – This is undertaken by placing the accused and a donkey in one
room, if after some time, the donkey cries, the accused is adjudged as guilty of the
offense charge against him.

Red Hot Iron Ordeal – This form of test was prevalent in India, specifically from those
living in the hill tribes of Rajhamal in the North of Bengal. The accused to prove his
innocence as asked to lick a red hot iron for nine times unless burnt sooner, if the
tongue is burned, the accused was put to death guilt was believed to make the tongue
dry.

Red Water Ordeal – This form of trial is undertaken where the accused is asked to fast
for twelve hours, and then he is asked to swallow a small amount of rice and drink
darked colored water. If these acts as emetic and the accused rejects all f the rice, he is
determined innocent from the charges. This was based on the belief that the fetish of
the victim enters the body through the mouth with the emetic red water; it examines the
heart of the accused and if it finds him innocent brings up the rice in evidence.

Rice Chewing Ordeal – In 1150 A.D. the Roman Catholic clergy has made full use of
Indian practice of ordeals specifically that of the rice chewing ordeal. Concentrated rice
is the article selected instead of cheese and bread, if the accused who is asked to chew
the concentrated rice is unable to swallow a single grain he is adjudged as guilty. This
was based on the premise that a person conscious of their crime and fearful of the
punishment from God would feel a suffocating sensation in their throat; they would then
fall on their knees and confess the crime.

Trial by Combat a primitive practice of detecting deception whereby controversies in

accusations are settled by means of duel, the victor will be spared from the
consequences while the loser will be pronounced guilty.

Deception Detection Method:

It is a method of gathering and knowing information from the subject about the crime in
dispute employing the use of machine or device, drugs or substances and other necessary
means.

Lie Detector Test – Keeler’s Polygraph Test: A test used to record physiological changes
associated with lying in subject. The polygraph machine will record the blood pressure,
respiratory rate and the skin resistance to electricity in a graphing paper. This instrument is an
accurate, reliable delicately engineered used as a scientific method to exonerate the innocent
and to detect the guilty. The subject is made to sit comfortably and the blood pressure cuff,
pneumograph and electrodes connected to the machine will be placed in the subject.
 When the machine is switched on then questions will be asked that can only be
answered by Yes or No by the subject. The machine measures changes in the rate and pattern
of respiration through the use of one or two rubber tubes placed about the chest, the inspiration
and expiration reflected in the movements of the stylus on the chart. Two electrodes placed
upon the fingers upon the fingers measures the galvanic skin resistance, and a blood pressure
cuff allows for continuous blood pressure and pulse readings.

These recordings are transferred to a chart revolving at six inches per minute. Although
the polygraph has been used extensively as an investigative aid in assisting the law
enforcement agencies in reducing the number of suspects in a particular offense an also used
as pre-employment examination in business and industry, there are about 10% of the tests that
are inconclusive because drawbacks.

Narco-analysis – Narco- synthesis or Administration of Truth Serum: This is a deception

detection method using narcotic or anesthetic drug in order to get information from the subject.
Drugs used – (Truth Serum) - Hyocine hydrobromide, sodium amytal, penthotal, seconal and
other barbiturates, methanine, methyl pheridate, droperidol and scopolamine; Trichloroethylene
(Anesthetic Drug).

Principle involved – The drug is injected hypodermically or intravenously at certain

repeated dosage or if tricholoroethylene is used should be taken by inhalation at a certain
amount. When the point was reached where there is release of inhibition and subsequently
release of repressed questions by the interrogator. The tendency of the subject is to reveal
secrets of the crime and pinpoints all circumstances concerning the commission of the crime.

The use of this method in criminal investigation is not advisable because of the following
reason:

Administration of this drug is dangerous – If not properly administered, it may kill the
subject or damage the brain or spinal in such a manner that the subject will be turned
like a vegetable.

Unreliable result – The information gathered from the subject is not reliable to be true. If
the subject gave false information before the test, he is also likely to give false
information under narcosis.

It deprives the subject of his own free will to speak freely.

Information taken from the subject under narcosis is not admissible in court as
evidence. Although not admissible, it is quite useful for further investigation.

Very few doctors agree in the use of these drugs for criminal investigation unless use for
diagnosis and treatment of ailment. It has been agreed by most criminal investigators
that a property conducted criminal interrogation equaled if not much better than Narco-
analysis.

Use of Alcoholic Beverage: Alcohol in the form of alcoholic beverage maybe used as a
deception detection method. Usually the hard liquor is the one preferred but other soft liquors
may also be used provide it served the purpose. The subject is made to drink the liquor in
divided amount up to the point of loss of control of the mind and thus released of inhibitions.
 The subject will be able to communicate freely, forgetting alibis and sometimes unveiling
the secrets of crime. The information taken from the subject under the influence of alcohol is
also not admissible in court as evidence because of the involuntary condition of the subject,
however, it maybe admissible if the subject can recall his statement when he was under the
influence of alcohol when confronted again.

Stimulus Association Test: In this test, the subject will be interviewed, wherein a group of
stimulus words or objects or person will be presented to the subject. He will be then instructed
to answer the questions as quickly as possible. The time interval between each relevant
questions and answers were noted down as well as the reaction of the subject to the stimulus
words or object or person related to the crime in dispute. The time interval and the reaction of
the subject will be studied by the interrogator.

A person presumed to be guilty will usually make a mistake or will have long time interval
in answering questions. He may manifest the situation in answering critical questions and
especially when the weapon used in the commission of crime will be shown to him. There will
also be inconsistencies in his answers or responses to the stimuli. This test is also not reliable
as a deception detection method because of the following reasons: A person like the recidivist
and really guilt may defeat the test by telling lies; Sometimes, the test requires the use of
intelligence in answering the questions; A nervous person who is innocent may have a long time
interval in answering and may even have signs and symptoms of guilt.

Use of Hypnotism: The hypnotism find its way in criminal investigation by hypnotizing the
subject and then question will be asked hen the subject is under hypnosis. The subject is under
the control and influence of the hypnotist and therefore the information gathered is devoid of the
subject’s own free will to speak making it not admissible in court as evidence.

Signs and Symptoms of Emotional Tension: The emotional factor in a person especially the
emotional offender after the crime is a basis in which emotional tension maybe manifested in a
variety of sings and symptoms hen the subject is being interrogated by the investigator. Aside
from the emotional tension, other symptoms maybe observed such as fear, anger, shame or
humiliation, depression and nervousness on the part of the subject.

The subject may manifest the following signs and symptoms: Color change: Blushing or
red color face indicates anger and humiliation. Paleness of the face is indicative of
tension, fear and anxiety.

Sweating: (Perspiration) Sweating in an air-conditioned or well- ventilated room is a sign

of emotional tension but maybe indicating anger, humiliation and nervousness. Cold
damp perspiration is a manifestation of shock, fear and anxiety.

Inability to look “straight” at the interrogator’s eyes is a symptom of guilt although not
conclusive when the subject was observed to have constant movement and winking of
the eyes avoiding to look “straight” at the interrogator’s eyes as if the interrogator might
see something in the eyes of the subject that will manifest his guilt.

Heart rate and pulse beat: The pulse beat can be observed at the neck, where there is
an increased in the pulsation of the carotid artery which almost always synchronizes
with the increase of heart rate. It is indicative of guilt, nervousness and fear.
 Breathing: The holding of the breath is an indication of tension especially when critical
questions were asked, and then followed by a sudden, explosive and longer expiration.

Dryness of the mouth and throat: There is dryness of the mouth and throat because of
the reflex inhibition of the salivary glands and it can be observed repeated swallowing
and wetting of the lips. In the male, there is an upward downward movement of the
“Adam’s Apple” in repeated swallowing. It is an indication of tension and nervousness
but maybe a symptom of guilt.

Peculiar and unusual expression: The “not feeling well” and “not that I remember” are
sometimes the remarks of the subject probably to avoid divulging himself in the
interrogation. The suspect who may be nervous may try to prove his innocence by
swearing to the truthfulness of his assertion. He may repeatedly utter, “I swear to God
that I am telling the truth.”

Unusual Behavior:
Clenching of the fist or hands indicate anger.

The placing of the upper extremities tightly at one or both sides of the chest
may indicate emotional tension of the subject.

Crying while being investigated maybe indicative of tension, depression, anger,

humiliation and sometimes a demonstration to prove his innocence about the
crime in dispute. Ordinarily a person cries because of sadness or gladness in
their life.

Other behaviors such as crossing and uncrossing the leg over the other, tapping
the table, rubbing the face or hair, twisting the handkerchief or clothing,
snapping the fingers, biting the fingernails, manipulation of any object and other
body movements observed may indicate emotional tension, nervousness, anger
and sometimes mental disturbances.

Kinds of Lie:
White Lie or benign,
Black Lie,
Red Lie and
Malicious lie

Kinds of Liar:

Pathological liar
Professional liar

The major components of a polygraph machine are: Cardio – sphygmograph Component: It was
designed to detect changes in the blood pressure and pulse rate of the subject. It can record
changes of systolic blood pressure and pulse rate of the subject. It is made up of the following:

Blood pressure cuff which is attached to the upper right arm of the subject, slightly
above the brachial artery.
 Sphygmomanometer which is utilized to indicate the amount of air pressure inflated to
the system.

Pump bulb assembly which inflates air into the system, also known as air pump it has a
hose connecting the blood pressure cuff through which the blood pressure changes and
passed into the recording pen.

A resonance control unit which is used for reducing or increasing the amount of air
pressure to reach the brass bellows (tambour) and thus reduce or increase the
amplitude of pen excursions.

A centering control which is used to provide adjustment of the tracing so that the
composite records patterns would be on the guideline.

A vent which provides the means by which air in the system can be released.

A recording pen unit which is used to record the blood pressure pulse rate changes on
the chart paper by means of a five (5) inch recording pen.

The following pioneers contributed to the use of the Cardiospyghmograph in lie detection:

Cesare Lombroso – An Italian scientist who in 1885 used hydrospygmograph procedure

and was credited to be the pioneer who envisioned the idea of using scientific
procedures to lie detection. He is considered as the first person to use an instrument for
the purpose of detecting deception.

Angelo Mosso – A pioneer who developed in 1895 a type of sphygmomanometer and

utilized a scientific cradle and focus on the significance of fear as an indication of
deception.

Dr. William M. Marston – Dr. William Moulton Marston (1893- 1947) was born in
Cliftondale, Massachusetts and educated at Harvard University Where he received
three degrees, an A.B. in 1915, an LL.B. in 1918 and a PH.D. in 1921. He was a
physician, the developer of the theory we use today for the DISC system and other
important devices, and the creator of the comic book character Wonder Woman.
Marston was also the creator of the systolic blood pressure test, which lead to the
creation of the polygraph (lie detector). Because of his discovery, Marston was
convinced that women were more honest and reliable than men and could work faster
and more accurately.

John A. Larson – A pioneer who in 1921 developed an instrument capable of

simultaneously and continuously recording blood pressure, pulse rate and respiration.
His invention was designed as “the Bread Lie Detector”.

Galvanograph Component: Its primary function is to detect changes or alterations in skin

resistance of the subject. It is made up of the following components:

Finger electrode assembly which has a finger electrode plate and retainer bond
attached to the left index and ring finger of the subject. And a connecting plus designed
to fasten the system to the polygraph machine.
 Recording pen unit which is usually 7 inches in length.

Amplifier unit which is made to support the galvanometer in converting electrical to

mechanical current.

Sticker – In 1897 he worked on the galvanograph component and studied the influence
and relation of the sweat glands to skin resistance.

Veraguth – In 1907, he formulated the term Psycho – galvanic skin reflex. He claimed
that electrical phenomena are due to the activity of the sweat glands.

Richard O. Arthur – He developed an improvised polygraph machine with two galvanic

skin resistance.

Pneumograph Component: It is designed to detect changes in respiration of the subject. Its

major components are the Pneumograph chest assembly and the recording unit.

Rubber convulated tube which is ten (10) inches in length corrugated rubber attached to
the chest and abdominal area of the subject. One end of the tube is sealed and the
other end is connected to the instrument by a rather thick walled rubber tube
considerably larger in diameter than the pneumograph tube itself, it expands and
contracts as the subject breathes. The beaded chain another component of the
pneumograph assembly is used to fix in place the rubber convoluted tube.

The pneumograph recording unit is made up of brass bellows, a frame, crankshaft,

countershaft, adjustable fulcrum, bearing with adjusting screw, pen cradle and pen
centering control. Volume changes of the chest caused by breathing are transmitted to
the chest assembly to the recording unit. These activate bellows which move forward
and backward pushing the crankshaft in turn applies a torque to the countershaft upon
which the pen cradle is attached. The backward and forward right movement is then
recorded to a chart paper.

The following contributed to the use of the pneumograph in detecting deception:

Vittorio Bennussi – A pioneer who in 1914, noted changes in inhalation and exhalation
ratio occurring during deception. He recorded the respiratory curves of the
pneumograph.

Harold Burtt – A scientist who in 1918, determined that the respiratory changes were
signs of deception and concluded that systolic pressure changes are valuable in
determining deception.

Keymograph Component: Its primarily serves as the paper feed mechanism of the polygraph
machine. It is the device that records the different tracings by driving the paper out under a
recording pen simultaneously at the rate of 6 to 12 inches per minute. The chart must travel at a
uniform speed to facilitate valid interpretations.

Chart paper is driven past the recording pen shaft at a uniform speed six (6) inches per
minute. Chart rolls are approximately 100 ft. holes spaced ½ inch apart. The paper is
imprinted with horizontal lines at ¼ inch interval twenty (20) divisions and vertical lines
 at 1/10 inch intervals with heavy lines at ½ inch divisions across the paper which
represents five (5) seconds of time.

Pulse rate per minute may be computed by multiplying the number of beats counted in
one division by twelve (12). Its major parts are as follows:

Chart which is a rolled graph paper composed of twelve (12) divisions in sixty (60)
seconds run designed to measure the rate of various body functions.

Rubber roller which pulls the paper out of the machine.

Paper rail guide which serves to secure or ensure the chart paper’s forward
movement without shaking. Leonard Keeler – An American Criminologist who in
1926, he invented the kymograph machine. In 1949, the “Keeler’s polygraph”
incorporated the galvanograph with measurement, blood pressure and respiration
component and kymograph component. He also devised a metal recording bellow,
rolled chart paper and the method of question formulation used in polygraph
examination.

Other contributors to the development and use of polygraph machine:

Sir James Mackenzie – A famous English heart specialist who first describe the
polygraph machine as “the ink polygraph”.

Cleve Backster – He created the numerical scoring on the polygraph chart and
standardizing quantitative polygraph technique.

E. Calton – He was credited for devising the Word Association Test.

John E. Reid – He developed improvement with the conventional polygraph by

incorporating muscular resistance his device was known as the Ried Polygraph. He was
also credited for the development of the SAT and Control Question Test.

Stages undertaken in a Polygraph Examination: Initial interview – Usually conducted by the

investigator handling the case or a polygraph examiner who was given brief but significant
details of the case it is designed to obtain pertinent information necessary for the conduct of the
test.

Test questions are prepared by the polygraph examiner based from the facts and
information gathered by the investigator. This is supplemented with a crime scene sketch,
photographs, laboratory results, statements taken and the background information of each
subject. The examiner must be furnished full information pertaining to the case to conduct an
adequate pre-test interview with the subject during which time, the appropriate questions to be
asked may be formulated. Suspicions, theories and general assumption are not used as basis
for a polygraph examination.

The investigator on case should brief the polygraph examiner of facts pertaining to:
Background information specifically previous police records and verified facts which the subject
denies such as:

Exact amount of money or specific articles stolen.

 Exact type, make of firearm, weapon or tool used in the commission of the crime.

Exact place, date and time when the crime occurred.

Unusual aspects of the offense or any odd, strange or obscene acts committed at the
crime scene.

Known facts pertaining to the suspect’s actions and movements immediately preceding
or after the incident.

Facts indicating a connection between victims, suspects and witnesses.

Unpublicized facts of the offense known only by the victim, the offender and the
investigator.

Results of the laboratory tests conducted.

Pre-test interview – Administered by the polygraph examiner designed to condition or prepare

the subject for the actual polygraph test. Its duration usually lasts 20 to 30 minutes. At this
stage, the rights of the subject are explained, his consent are obtained as well as personal data
and the determination whether the subject is mentally, physically and psychologically prepared
to undergo the test.

Prior to the polygraph examination the following considerations are taken into account:

The subject must refrain from smoking at least two (2) hours prior to the test.

The subject should avoid taking medication for at least two (2) days prior to the
examination.

The subject should not be hungry.

The subject must refrain from consuming alcoholic beverages for at least 12 hours prior
to the actual test.

The subject should not be suffering from physical or emotional abuse.

The subject should calm down and relax. If the female subject is pregnant or having
menstruation, the test will not be undertaken.

The subject should not wear tight apparels or clothing as this may cause inference in
the test results.

The subject should have at least five (5) hours of sleep prior to the examination.

Before the actual polygraph examination is administered to the subject, the polygraph examiner
must take the necessary preparations which area as follows:

The appraisal of the subject’s constitutional rights.

 Obtain the subject’s consent to undergo a polygraph examination.

Taking the subject’s personal data.

Informing the subject’s involvement with the case.

Evaluating the psychological preparations.

Determine his/her suitability as a subject.

Actual Test. The conditions of the room must be ideal that it should be spacious, well ventilated
and lighted; it should be sound proof and not decorated so as not to distract the subject. The
major components of the polygraph machine are attached to the subject. And questions are
asked one by one at specific intervals.

Polygraph is assumed to be effective if the examination room is:

The room must be spacious for two persons with a polygraph desk, subject’s chair with
arm rest and an examiner’s stool.

The room must be devoid of pictures, paintings, ornaments and other decors.

The room must be adequately ventilated and well lighted.

The room must be private and generally free from all outside noise preferably at least
ninety (90) percent sound proof and distracting influence.

The room may be installed with an observation one-way mirror and remote sound
system or video device, amplifier for monitoring and recording the test proceedings to
authorized observers.

As to the machine to be used it should be tested and widely used by most Asian
countries, it should be well maintained, properly set and in a well running condition.

Post Test Interview. It is similar to the method of interrogation administered by the polygraph
examiner which is designed to obtain admission or confession of the subject. An interview is
conducted when the subject indicates an innocent response, while interrogation is undertaken if
signs of deception are indicated by the results of the actual polygraph test.

In cases wherein polygraph result indicates that the subject is innocent, it is the duty of
the examiner to cordially release the subject and to thank the subject for giving consideration
and cooperation.

If the polygraph examiner is convinced of the guilt f the subject from the charts taken, the
post test interrogation technique is used to secure admission or confession. It is undertaken
following these procedures:

Inform the subject that he can not be cleared from his chart.

Advise the subject that the responses were the result of his emotion and not by means
of any mechanical manipulations.
 Use sympathetic and persuasive attitude as well as perseverance in drawing out
confession or admission.

Indicate recorded reactions with brief explanations of their importance as an objective,

tangible and concrete evidence to be used against the subject.

Listed conscientiously to any consequences, pursue a line of mild questioning as to the

reasons why the criminal act was committed.

Rationalize the subject’s act by offering way to excuse his conduct or minimize the
implication or swing the culpability to someone or some situation.

If confession or admission is coming allow the subject to narrate it in his own words.

Carefully listen to precise details and write it down at first instance.

Never make any guarantee as to immunity, reward or leniency.

Inform the investigator on case.

If no confession was given, cordially release the subject.

Test Question Techniques: The questions asked in the course of the polygraph examination
must be stated as simply as practicable. It should be clear from doubts and must be formulated
in such a way that double inquiries are avoided. E.g. Did you steal the money and then kept it in
your backyard? or Did you kill and took the money of Pol? Such are example of questions which
combines two sets of facts or occurrences, one of which may be truthfully answered by “No” and
the other by “Yes”.

In addition, the questions given must be thoroughly comprehensible and understandable

to the subject. The terminology to be used must be that which the subject is very much familiar.
Lengthy questions should be also avoided in the course of a polygraph examination. It may
cause confusion to the subject which may result to a disturbed reaction. E.g. “Did you kill Maria
E. Palad in the bedroom of her rented condominium unit at Cityland Pasong Tamo Unit 269 in
Makati? The more appropriate question may be “Did you kill Maria E. Palad?” Legal jargons with
meanings which are not precise such as man slaughter, rape and embezzlement should not be
used. Instead of man slaughter the term kill, shoot or stab would be more appropriate; rape may
be replaced by forced sexual intercourse and embezzlement with the word steal.

Rules to be observed in formulating test questions:

Questions must be concise as possible.
Questions must be direct and simple.
Questions should not be in the form of an accusation.
All queries must be answerable by yes or no.
The terms to be used should be clear and understood by the subject.
All questions must refer to one offense only.
All questions must refer to one element of a felony.
Questions must not entail legal terminologies.
All questions should not contain inferences to one’s knowledge, religion, race, ideology
or belief.
Types of Questions:

Irrelevant questions – are those pertaining to basic data and information regarding the
background of the subject not related to the case but is asked to establish the normal
response of the subject. E.g. name, address, age, etc. Such questions are only
answerable by “Yes.” Relevant questions are those queries related to the issue which
maybe classified as strong relevant or weak relevant which indicates deception on the
part of the subject.

Weak relevant maybe divided into three namely: knowledge – questions given for the
purpose of determining the information known to the subject; evidence connecting
which is designed the link the subject and the crime and sacrifice questions which is
used to determine truthfulness on the part of the subject. It is answerable by NO.
Relevant questions are further classified with respect to their stimulation effect as strong
or primary relevant or secondary or weak questions.

Strong relevant or crucial questions are designed to test for direct involvement which is
specifically designed to produce an emotional response in guilty subjects it having an
intense specific relationship to the crime.

Secondary questions on the other hand, are formulated and given to bring about guilty
knowledge or partial involvement. Secondary or weak relevant questions are further
classified as either Sacrifice relevant, knowledge or evidence- connecting questions.

A sacrifice question reveals a subject’s norms and stimulus excitement level it gives as
a clue which pertains to the attitude of the subject’s acceptance; such as “Do you wish
to truthfully answer all the questions?” A knowledge questioned is designed to test
whether the subject processes information regarding the location of the evidence,
identity of the suspect or other similar secondary elements of the case under
investigation.

An evidence-connecting question is formulated to arouse the guilty subject and focus

his attention on the likelihood of incriminating proof that would tend to establish his guilt.

Control questions – They refer to queries which may either be relevant or irrelevant
designed to establish and obtain response from an innocent subject. It is sometimes
referred to as a probable lie. It provides a basis for evaluating the subject’s perceptual
set. It is classified into primary control question which is based on a lie and a secondary
control question which is based upon other aspects of wrongdoing.

Test procedures: All test or polygraph examination must be conducted only after having a pre-
test interview with the subject to condition him for the test. The polygraph examination should
consist of asking the subject a list of not more than twelve (12) prepared questions in a planned
sequence. There should be at least three (3) charts taken with each chart which should not
exceed four (4) minutes with a rest of from five (5) to ten (10) minutes between charts.

Types of Tests: The number of test required when the subjects indicates deception is at least
five (5) tests which may be any of the foregoing:
General Question Test – Answerable by YES or NO these are questions which the
subject knows are true.

Peak of Tension Test – It is the asking of series of questions in which only one has
bearing upon the matter under investigation. This is conducted where there is a
widespread knowledge pertaining to a crime but the intimate details are known only by
the offender. It is answerable by No only.

Card Test – It is conducted immediately after the completion of the first test while the
blood pressure cuff is still deflated. The subject is asked to choose one from seven
numbered cards, take it and return the same without telling the examiner or otherwise
identifying the chosen number. The card is then shuffled by the examiner and instructs
the subject to answer NO concerning the cards when shown. This is to single out which
among the answers given by the subject is a lie. This is undertaken to stimulate lying
subjects into specific responsiveness to the subsequent relevant questions and to afford
the lying subject an opportunity to try to distort the polygraph examination tracings
which would result in exposing his deception with respect to the matter under
investigation.

Silent Answer Test – This is a confirmatory test because the subject is afraid of the
unfamiliar and the unknown. It is an examination in which the subject is instructed by
the examiner to avoid audible response to the question to the question asked.

Guilt Complex Test – In cases where the subject is overly responsive, the test is given
which consist of a test pertaining to purely fictitious incident of a similar nature to the
one under query. It is designed to compare the responsiveness on with those that
appeared on the actual test record wherein questions asked are those pertains to that
which is under investigation. The test is designed for diagnostic purpose to aid in the
post examination interrogation of a lying subject.

Mixed Question Test – This consists of an arrangement of first and third test questions,
administered for the purpose of discounting possible factor of accidental responses and
to compare the degree of reaction between control and relevant questions. The
objective of such changes in question choice of words is to direct the subject’s attention
to certain particular items or situations and in so doing arouse his concern that his
earlier test records may have disclosed some deception respecting one or more of the
previous questions. (1) would indicate or refer to a subject who is considered a
moderate responder to both control and relevant questions; (2) would refer to an erratic
responder and (3) would refer to an unresponsive subject.

The advantages in using mixed test questions are as follows:

The mixed question test would permit additional pin-pointer pairings of the relevant
and control question responses.

The mixed question test would allow the examiner to check the responsibility of
spot responses since some subjects would respond at a certain times during the
test without regard to the questions being asked.

A mixing of question of the fourth exam would guard against subjects who may
have anticipated the asking of certain questions and may give anticipatory
 response. A subject may have given a response at the end of the test due to
discomfort, by changing on the fourth test, the mixed question such occurrence
would be excluded.

Kinds of Response:

Normal Response – Which refers to the tracing on the chart wherein the subject
answered the irrelevant questions.

Specific Response – Refers to any deviation from the normal tracing of the subject in
the relevant question.

RE-EXAMINATION: If after all the five tests have been administered and the polygraph
examiner was not able to make definite diagnosis regarding the moderate responder or those
subjects whose behavior patterns are incoherent with the examiner’s diagnosis, an arrangement
should be made for a reexamination of the subject at a later date. This situation occurs 10% of
cases under investigation where the polygraph examination has been used.

During this discussion where the examiner finalizes the arrangement for a
reexamination, it would be helpful to observe the subject’s comments and general behavior
ordinarily different from those of a subject who is determined to be lying.

Experience would show that persons who are truthful would comply and adhere to the
pre scheduled reexamination even if not under the custody of the police; on the other hand
untruthful subjects are prone to break the promise or arrangement to come back for a
reexamination.

RE-EXAMIANTION PROCEDURE: Instruction to sit in the examination chair should be given to

the subject as soon he enters the examination room. Instrument attachment should be preceded
by the examiner by attaching the attachment of the pneumograph, tube, blood pressure cuff and
other pieces of the polygraph equipment.

When some comments or suggestions from the subject are given the examiner must first
complete the task of instrument attachment and immediately after accomplishing the task,
should listen what the subject has to say.

In cases wherein no comments or admission have been made by the subject, the card
test should be administered; except that this time when the subject says “NO” regarding his
chosen card the examiner should end the test without asking any of the remaining cards. This
serves to condition the subject more than if the remaining cards are also mentioned because it
conveys a greater positiveness pertaining to the efficiency of the Polygraph technique.

However, if the subject makes a fuss of the Polygraph tracings when his chosen card
was mentioned the examiner should ask one other unselected card question and then repeat
the one pertaining to the chosen card, a similar procedure should be undertaken whenever a
reexamined subject resorts to distortion at some non-chosen card question.

After card test, the examiner should leave the room and tell the subject that he will return
after a few minutes to give time for the subject for further thought regarding his truthfulness or
deception with respect to the matter under investigation. When he returns the actual test
questions which had been asked during the prior examination should be given. Upon its
completion the examiner should leave the room and return after several minutes and then
proceed to conduct the mixed question test.

After completion of the test, the examiner would have a substantial record for diagnosis.
If it has been determined that the subject is truthful, the examination should be concluded.
However, if there is still uncertainty the “YES” test is again conducted.

The examiner can be able to determine the following based from the chart markings:

Exact time when the test commenced and terminated. Initial and final galvanograph

Specific where each question asked started and ended, corresponding identification of
the question, and the type and time of the given answer by the subject.

Amplitude and duration of reaction patterns.

Any instruction or repetition of questions made.

Any movement, talking by the subject, cough or outside distractions that occurred.

Mechanical adjustment or readjustment undertaken.

Time interval between queries.

Irrelevant factors affecting test charts such as paper jams.

Chart number, name of subject, date and time.

CHART MARKING AND INTERPRETATION

The following are signs and symbols used to facilitate evaluation and interpretation of test chart:

X / 60 / 1.5A – First marking of the examiner of the chart.

X - Start of the test

60 - Millimeter of the mercury shown in the sphygmo-dial.

1.5 - Ohms of skin electrical resistance sensitivity.

A or M - Refers to automatic or manual galvo amplifier.

+ - Yes answer to the question.

- - No answer to the question.

M - Movement

T - Subject talked

TI - Talking instruction

C - Coughing

A or M - Refers to automatic or manual galvo amplifier.

+ - Yes answer to the question.

- - No answer to the question.

M - Movement

T - Subject talked

TI - Talking instruction

C - Coughing

PJ - Paper jump

CT - Clearing throat

SN - Sniff

SZ - Sneeze

BI - Breathing instruction

DB - Deep breathing

IS - Ink stop

MI - Movement instruction

OS - Outside stimulus

M-M - Prolonged movement

XX / 60 / 1.5A - Marking after the test

XX - End of the test

INTERPRETATION OF CHARTS: The chart is ruled vertically to represent time element at an

interval of either in the second, five seconds or ten seconds division and horizontally in fractions
¼ inch for amplitude measurements. There are three heavy evenly spaced horizontal lines that
serve as the guideline for the three tracings namely the composite record of the pneumograph,
cardiograph and galvanograph tracings from one series of questions.

The general rules to be followed in chart interpretation are:

There must be an identifiable response.

To be specific, it must form a divergence from norm of the subject.

It must be seen in at least two (2) or more test charts.

The paramount indication of deception is the simultaneous specific responses in the

three (3) tracings of the chart namely the pneumograph, galvanograph and the
cardiosphygmograph tracings.

The pneumograph tracings usually found at the top of the chart is a record of the subject’s
respiratory action during the questioning process and may be classified as normal or abnormal.
The pneumograph pattern is made up of inhalation and exhalation strokes with normal
amplitude from ½ to ¾ inches. The normal cyclic rate is from 13 to 18 breaths per minute and
may vary in persons of exceptional physical built, condition or respiratory defect.

The classification of abnormal is generally applied to those patterns that digress from
the norm established by the individual.

Descriptive types of breathing:

Normal,
Rapid,
Slow,
Shallow,
Deep serrated inhalation / exhalation or both.
Deviations caused by coughing mechanics of answering.

Pneumograph changes from the individual norm which may be considered indicative of
deceptions:
Change in volume or amplitude;
Change in regularity or rhythm – swallow;
Variation in the inhalation / exhalation ratio;
Change of baseline;
Loss of baseline;
Hyperventilation – deep breathing;
Respiratory block; and
Suppression – staircase

The galvanograph tracing usually located at the center position of the chart, when properly
balanced takes the form of a slightly wavering line across the middle portion of the chart with a
minor response to spoken stimuli.

Galvanic tracings which may serve to indicate deception:

Vertical increase at point of deception.
 Double saddle reaction.
Plunging galvo tracing.
Long degree and / or duration of response following point of deception.

The cardiosphygmograph tracing usually found at the bottom of the chart, refers to the record of
the activity of the heart during the questioning process and is made up of three physiological
phenomena; a systolic rate, a diastolic stroke and a dicrotic notch. The normal pulse rate of an
average individual is 72 to 80 beats per minute and may differ due to the emotional tone of the
subject. Volume or amplitude is also subject to dissimilarity as dictated by the physiological
structure of the person and the cuff pressure. Cardio tracing taking the form of specific
responses indicative of deception are:
Increase or decrease in amplitude.
Increase or decrease in pulse rate.
Increase or decrease in blood pressure.
Alteration in the position or disappearance of dicrotic notch.
Extra systoles (the untimely contraction of an auricle or ventricle while fundamental
rhythm of the heart is maintained).

Interpretation and analysis of charts taken in the Peak of Tension Test:

Any increase or decrease to point of deception than a level tracing.
An increase to point of deception and decrease.
A decrease to point of deception and then an increase.
Level tracing to point of deception and then an increase or decrease.
Irregular to point of deception and then a smooth tracing.
Smooth to point of deception and then an erratic tracing.
Any alteration that may take place at point of deception.

Some factors are specific response to be considered as possible deception in chart evaluation:
Degree of reaction;
Distribution of reactions;
Duration of reaction;
Latent period of time;
Rate of change of the curve and
Trend of gross curve

Polygraph examinations may be undertaken if the subject agrees to voluntarily submit to

undergo the test and it should be properly conducted to be of great use in the investigation of
cases. Voluntary consent is vital since no polygraph examination can be effectively employed on
a reluctant subject.

At present, the science of polygraphy is recognized as to its reliability and validity to be

more than 90% precise. It now enjoys general acceptance among authorities including
researches, psychologists and physiologists as well as polygraph examiners posses a high
degree of reliability and validity as an effective instrument and procedure in detecting deception.

Polygraphy and expert testimony relating thereto may be admissible upon stipulation to
corroborate other evidences of defendant’s participation in the offense charged or to impeach or
corroborate his own testimony under the following conditions:
 The counsel of the litigants and the subject must sign a written stipulation providing for
his submission to the test and for the later admission at trial of the graphs and the
examiner’s opinion thereon on behalf of either the defense or prosecution.

That the admissibility of the test results must be subject to the discretion of the trial
judge as to the credibility of the examiner as an expert witness or as to the manner
which the test was conducted whether according to proper conditions or it did not
followed the uniform procedures in the conduct of the polygraph examination.

That if the graphs and examiner’s opinion were to be offered as evidence the opposing
litigant shall have the right to cross- examine the examiner pertaining to any of the
foregoing:
The examiner’s qualification,
The examiner’s training,
The conditions under which the test was conducted,
The limitations and possibilities of error in the technique used,
A t the discretion of the trial judge, any other matter deemed relevant to the
inquiry.

That if the graphs and examiner’s opinion were to be offered as evidence the opposing
litigant shall have the right to cross- examine the examiner pertaining to any of the
foregoing:
The examiner’s qualification,
The examiner’s training,
The conditions under which the test was conducted,
The limitations and possibilities of error in the technique used,
A t the discretion of the trial judge, any other matter deemed relevant to the
inquiry.

Morally an examiner: Must devote himself to the polygraph profession with high
personal integrity and professional proficiency;

Must maintain his good moral character;

Must have a sincere desire to become a polygraph examiner;

Must be an impartial seeker to the truth free from bias and prejudice;

Must conduct an examination in an ethical and professional manner;

Must never allow his personal belief, feelings, sympathy or prejudice or others to
influence the result of the examination; and

Must be well-groomed wearing a laboratory gown in conducting a polygraph

examination.

Technically a polygraph examiner:

Must be licensed and well-trained at the polygraph training facility.

 Must be proficient in the conduct of polygraph examinations, tests question construction
and chart interpretation.

Must have a complete knowledge of the instrument and its capabilities and limitations
and to most polygraph techniques.

Barriers and Limitations of Polygraph:

It is an invaluable investigative aid, but never a substitute for investigation.

It is a scientific diagnostic instrument not only a lie detector machine.

It does not determine facts, but records responses to that which the subject knows to be
true.

It is not an accurate instrument when the examiner is incompetent.

The device will not utilize until sufficient facts of the case have been gathered and
established to allow the examiner to prepare a complete set of appropriate questions.

No polygraph test can be conducted without the voluntary consent of the subject.

The machine is not used to test whether the subject is mentally or physically fit.

The test will not be undertaken until the accusations have been explained to the subject.

No indication will be made to any person to be considered lying because he refused to

undergo a polygraph examination.

Minimum requirements for a valid Polygraph Examination:

For the Polygraph examiner:

The examiner must be licensed and well trained at a polygraph training facility;

The examiner must have enough experience to be able to analyze and interpret the
chart tracings or polygrams experience must have been gained while working under
supervision;

The examiner must be objective, impartial and independent;

The polygraph technique and test procedure must be explained to the examinee;

Chart tracings or Polygrams must be assessed manually and computerized evaluation

may be used to obtain other opinion or for quality control;

The examiner must be able and willing to testify as an expert witness.

For the Subject or the Examinee:

The examination must be undertaken voluntarily and this must be stated in writing;
 The examinee must be free from severe illness;

The examinee should not be subjected to accusatory interrogation before the

examination;

The examinee must not be under the influence of narcotics or alcohol at the time of the
examination;

The examinee must have been prepared and duly notified in advance about the
examination;

The examinee should have a sufficient amount of rest before taking the polygraph test.

The Polygraph Technique:

The procedure to be employed in the examination must be internationally accepted as a

valid questioning method;

All questions must be thoroughly reviewed prior to the collection of charts;

A minimum of two (2) polygraph charts should be recorded during the chart collection
stage of the examination;

The surrounding in which the examination is conducted should be conducive to proper

polygraph quite environment free from audio or visual interference.

The polygraph Instrument:

It must be properly calibrated according to manufacturer’s specification before using the

device;

The device must be in good working condition;

At a minimum, the instrument should be able to record tracings for skin responses,
cardiovascular and breathing patterns simultaneously.

PART VI
(CRIMINALISTICS - 6)
FORENSIC MEDICINE

Forensic Medicine is a branch of medicine which deals and applies the medical science to
legal cases. It is then a science which concerns with the medical aspects of problems that
confronts the court. In practice, it is synonymous with Legal Medicine, although it is applied to
the solution of various problem in courts and legal proceedings while legal medicine is the
branch of medicine that is applied to law and justice whether to elucidate legal problems or not.
In all crimes that have caused an immediate or eventual death, the work of the forensic
pathologist is crucial. He is medical doctor with special training in those aspects of pathology
associated with crime, as contrasted with the ordinary pathologist, who is more concerned with
death and disease. His two main tasks are: To establish the cause of death, and which is more
important and to establish as well as possible the time of death.

Secondary requirements are to note all unusual indications that might help to identify the
criminal, or any foreign material that may be relevant; to make and preserve a complete record,
both record and photographic, of all information gained by autopsy; and to obtain and preserve
materials that may be needed for further investigations. Such materials include all clothing’s of
the victim, preserved in condition for later examination of bullet holes, cuts, stains, power
residues, and the like; blood samples to be used for determination of blood group, alcohol
content, and presence of drugs; any and all organs or tissues that may require later analysis for
poison; and samples of such materials as hair, fragments of weapons that may be found in the
tissues, and any other material that may contribute to the solution of the crime.

Special problems for the forensic pathologist include abortion, infanticide, abnormal sex
acts that may lead to death, suffocations, asphyxiations, and in some instances, accidents in
which no criminal acts has occurred. The distinction between accident and suicide falls to some
extent within his province, and his conclusion may be very important, particularly to the
survivors faced with insurance questions.

Suspicious deaths are a major concern of the forensic pathologist, who must obtain the
information by which they may be classified as natural (disease), self-destruction, murder, or
accident. His efforts will generally be supplemented in this task by investigator who can provide
a background for the event. In some offices of the coroner or medical examiner, there are such
investigators on the staff. In others, the police department or sheriff’s office must be relied on.
Here the actual cause of death is generally the most important part of the information, and this
is generally available only through autopsy. In modern date facilities, such as those medical
examiners in the NBI Crime Laboratory and the PNP Crime Laboratory, autopsies are performed
in all suspicious death case.

Some forensic pathologists perform toxicological examinations as well as pathology.

Generally, this is not good practice because few pathologists qualify in both fields; in many
offices, a toxicologist is part of the staff.

Tracing of bullet tracts through the body, though a very common activity is not always
simple. But in reconstruction of a shooting, this can make the difference between knowing what
happened and mere speculation. Analysis of other wounds.

Scope of Forensic Medicine: Forensic medicine had a very wide scope comprising many
branches of medicine and para – medical sciences as well as law. Sudden or mysterious death
belongs to Internal Medicine; sprain fracture and dislocation belongs to Orthopedic Surgery;
wounds and other physical injuries to Pathology or Surgery; poisoning belongs to toxicology;
abortion and injuries of the genital organs in rape and other sexual crimes are within the scope
of Gynecology and Obstetrics. The branches of law such as Criminal Law, also utilize Forensic
Medicine in its dealing with crimes against person or property.

The Medico- Legal System: The medico- legal system adopted in a particular country depends
upon the laws of such country. The ones commonly used are the Medico- Legal Office System,
Medical Examiner System and the Coroner System. Some countries employed the three
systems at the same time but other countries preferred two or a certain system.
Medico-Legal Office System – This is the medico- legal system used in the Philippines at
present which is handled by a Medical Jurist or Medico- Legal Officer who is a registered
physician duly qualified to practice medicine in the Philippines. The National Bureau of
Investigation and Philippine National Police had their own medico-legal offices with their own
respective Medico-Legal Officers.

The Medico-Legal Officer is the one who investigates medico-legal cases of death; physical
injuries, rape and other sexual crimes. His duty is to examine the victim or assailant, to make a
report and to appear in court as expert witness when summoned by the proper authorities.

Medico –Legal Investigation – It is an investigation about the question of issue by the

use of the medical techniques in its procedure and operation.

Role of a physician in criminal investigation: The role of a doctor in a criminal

interrogation is to assist whether it requires highly technical and medical skills in its
operation and interpretation of results.

The “Law of Multiciplity of Evidence” is a law applicable in identification which states that the
greater the similarities or dissimilarities, the greater is the probability for the conclusion to be
correct.

Identification of Persons:

Importance of identifying the person:

A person who had been arrested by the law enforcement agent to assume the
responsibility of the criminal act he had committed.

A wanted person or those with “shoot to kill” or “shoot on sight” order should be first
established the identity before arresting or killing.

A missing person who was found later either living or dead.

The identity of a person who died leaving a vast state of wealth and the person who
claimed to be the legal heir of the deceased.

The identity of a certain remains to be exhumed must be established. It is important to

determine whether the remains is of human origin, race, age, sex, time and cause of
death.

In case of unknown dead human body found elsewhere by the investigator, the following
points should be taken with consideration:
Place where the body was found
Date and time when found
Cause of death
Time when death occurred
Approximate age
Possible occupation
Complete description of the body.
Points to consider in identifying the person: Face, Eyes, Nose, Head, Condition of the Hair,
Ears, Mouth, Body Built, Height, Weight, Gait, Complexion, Mannerism, Hands and Feet, Teeth.

Face – it is very important means of identifying the person.

Configuration and Shape.

Facial expressions or forms according to races or effects of diseases.

Hippocratic facies – It is the facial appearance of a person approaching

death characterized by pinched nose, hollow eyeball, temple and cheeks; sunken
eyes; relaxed lips and lived skin.

Mongolian facies – The dull-look appearance of person characterized by almond

shape eyes, pale complexion and prominence of cheek bones.

Facies lionine – Lion face appearance of a person usually after recovery from
leprosy and is describe to have a big pinched nose; enlarged ears; prominence of
the orbital bones, cheeky and jaw; thick lips and glistening oily face.

Mycedema facies – The face of a person which is pale, swelled cheeks which do
not pit on pressure; associated with dullness slow speech and muscle weakness.

Color of the Face:

Blushing or red color of the face is indicative of anger or humiliation in a person.

Pale face is a manifestation of nervousness, fear anxiety in a person.

Marks of the face: presence of birth marks, scars, moles and tattoo marks, presence of
pimples, freckles or tumors on the face, presence of holes or excruciation, presence of
lines at the sides of the mouth and nose; between nose and upper lip, chin and at the
forehead.

Eyes:

Size – Big or small,

Shape and configuration:

Slit-like manifested by Chinese eyes
Almond shape eyes seem in Mongoloid,

Color – black, brown, green, blue or red eyes,

Presence of moles, nevi or port – wine marks,

Condition of eyelashes and eyebrows,

 Presence of certain abnormalities in the eyes such as arcus senilis. Carunculne,
cataract, cross-eyed ness, ptergyium and others.

Nose:

Size and shape – large or small; flat or slopping nose,

Condition of the pores;

Condition of the septum

Head:

Size – Big or small,

Shape – Round, oblong or triangular shape,

Condition of the forehead:

Big or small,
Wide or narrow,
Presence of aging lines.

Condition of the hair:

Hair lines – Anterior and posterior hair lines;

Absence, thick or thin hairs, kinky hairs;

Short or long hair;

Haircut – High cut or low cut, crew cut, razor cut, flat top and other forms of haircut;

Color – Black, blond, brunette or red hairs.

Ears:
Size – Big or small,
Shape and configuration,
Presence of earring holes, pinched ears
Other abnormalities.

Mouth:
Size – Big or small mouth,
Lips – Thick or thin lips.

Body Built:
Thin or skinny,
Slender or robust type.
Height:

Tall or small,

Proportion of the body to the upper and lower extremities.

Weight – Approximation of the weight as to heavy weight, welter weight, light weight, feather
weight, bantam weight & paper weight.

Gait – It is the manner of walking in a person:

Ataxic gait – A gait in which the foot is raised high and forward and then suddenly
dropped down on the floor.

Cerebellar gait – A swaying or staggering manner of walking like that of a drunken

person.

Cow’s gait – A manner of walking due to knock knee like that of a cow.

Paretic gait – A manner of walking in which the feet and legs are held wide apart and
then moves forward with short steps, dragging the foot behind in walking.

Spastic gait – A gait of a person like that of a robot wherein the legs are held together
and move forward with short steps and with slight or no bending of the knee and foot.

Waddling gait – A gait resembling the duck characterized by a swaying movement of the
buttock in walking.

Frog’s gait – A manner of walking resembling that of a frog characterized by hopping

from one position to another.

Complexion:

Color – Brown, Black or White; Fair or Dark complexion,

Presence of Tattoo marks over the body and extremities.

Mannerism – The unusual or peculiar movements of the body or parts of the body.

Hands and Feet:

Size – Big or small,
Shape and configuration,
Number of fingers and toes.

Teeth:
 Natural or artificial teeth,
Loss of teeth – Partial or complete,
Alignment of the teeth,
Size of teeth
Condition of the gum.

Other materials or means that may be of help in identification:

Clothing – Color, size, design, style, tailor mark, laundry mark, texture, dust or stains in
the clothing.

Ornaments or Jewelry – Watch, ring, earring, necklace, bracelet, anklets and others.

Personal Belongings – Wallet, bag, identification cards, residence certificate, driver’s

license, call cards, pictures, diaries, letters, eyeglasses and others.

Identification from the spouse, parents, relatives or friends.

Files from the police and other law enforcement agencies such as the National Bureau
of Investigation and the Military. Identification thru the fingerprints and handwriting.

Points of identification of persons applicable to the living only:

Characteristics that may be easily be changed:

Growth of hair, beard or moustache,
Clothing with special preference as to form, color, design, texture and style,
Frequent places of visit,
Trade or profession,
Body ornamentation.

Characteristics that may not be changed:

Memory – It is difficult to forget those that were already in the mind. Test for places,
names and faces;

Speech – Peculiarities of speech such as stammering, stocatto, stuttering or lisping;

Gait – Manner of walking which may be natural to a person or secondary to a

disease or personality;

Mannerism – Tic;

Hands and feet;

Complexion;

Changes in the eyes;

Facies; and

Degree of nutrition.
Point of Identification applicable to both living and the dead person before
decomposition:

Occupational mark;

Race – with the intermixing of races, it becomes, sometimes difficult to use these points
of differentiation:

Presumption of color – Caucasian – Fair; Negroes – Black; Malayan – Brown;

Japanese – Yellow.

Features of the face Caucasian – Prominent shape of the nose; Malayan – Flat
nose with round face; Mongolian – Almond shaped eyes and prominent cheek
bones; Negroes – Kinky hair, thick spreading lips.

Shape of the skull Red Indians – Flat head; Malayan – Rounded head

Stature – Usually person ceases to after 25 years old, shrinkage occurring debilitating
diseases and old age. Growth rarely exceeds 5 centimeters after 5-7 years and 13-16
years old. Growth is most active at the age of 5-7 years and 13-16 years old.

Teeth – Sometimes this is one of the most useful basis for identification and sometimes
also a dentist or personnel dentist of its person may be of great help.
Temporary or permanent teeth.
Number of teeth present, whether reverse, crooked, mal- aligned or straight.
Number of teeth lost, including evidence of length time lost.
Condition of the teeth – Carious, colored, presence of cavities, erosion, filling and
cleanliness.
Presence of supernumerary teeth or wisdom teeth.
Extraction, dental filling, permanent bridge work, fitting of crown and filling cavities.

Tattoo marks – Such marks must be noted as to number, exact location, and size.
Shape, color, design and pigment used. The permanence of the tattoo marks or marks
of erasures depends upon and solubility of the pigments used.

Weight – It is a reliable point to consider in identification.

Deformities or defects – Sometimes these can be corrected.

Birth marks – Spot nevi, port-wine marks, stains and Mongolian blue spots can be seen
but maybe removed.

Physical injuries leaving permanent results such as amputation and improper union of
fractured bones.

Mole.

Scars:
Number, exact location, size, shape, consistency, presence or absence of pain,
raised or depressed, or keloid formation.
 Age of scars – Recently, 2-3 weeks, are vascular with red or pink color.
Contracted bloodless scars with white glistening surfaces are usually more than 6
months old.
Surgical operation – regular for with stitch marks and scars.
X-ray irradiation of keloid.
Burning and scalding – large, irregular with keloid formation.
Gunshot injury – Disk-like with depressed center.

Tribal marks

Sexual Organs:
Circumcised and type of circumcision;
Coronal paraffin at the penis;
Holes and hair at the prefuce of the penis;
Breast and uterus may reveal pregnancy and operation;
Stripe of pregnancy at the abdomen.

Blood Grouping.

Basis of the Bertillon’s method of identification:

Human skeleton does not change after 20 years;

It is impossible to have bones alike;

Measurement easily taken with the aid of simple instruments. Difficulty lies in the
necessity of delicate instruments and well trained operator to prevent inaccuracy.

Medico- Legal importance in the study of the skeleton:

For identification whether the skeleton is of human origin or not;
Determination of Sex;
Determination of Race;
Determination of Age;
Determination of Height;
Determination of the plurality or missing bones;
Determination of the ante-mortem and post-mortem injuries in the bones and teeth;
Determination of the duration of interment.
Examination of the skeleton – The identification of the bones by the use of the naked eye
depends upon the parts recovered. The skull is very easy to distinguish as belonging to human
being, however, others skeletal parts especially if not complete are very difficult to identity. Bone
fragments if still fresh, can be accurately identified as to animal species by the precipitin test.
Microscopy is of little help in identifying burned or chemically treated bones. The structure of the
bones in all mammals are basically similar but the size and formed alone lend distinctions.

The oval or round shape of the skull and the less prominence of the lower jaw and nasal
bone suggest that it is from human remaining. The finding of the dental fixtures in the jaw helps
in the identification. The linea aspera is a very distinctive human characteristic when
investigating a human femur. The other bones can be identified by placing and arranging it in a
table corresponding to the human body lying on his back. Other materials such as rings,
earrings, hairs, and pieces of torn clothing as well as the kind of coffin may be in identification.
Determination of Sex from the skeleton: The sex may be established with considerable
probability from the study of the bones. As a general rule, the female bones are smaller, lighter
and smoother than those of the male bones. The pelvis gives the best indication of sex
particularly the ischium- pubic complex; the skull to indicate the size of the brow ridges or
mastoid process; of the lower jaw to show the form of the chin region; and the joint ends of
some of the long bones like the ball joints. The bones that may be examined in the
determination of sex are the pelvis, skull, sternum, femur and humerus.

Differences of Body parts among the Races:

Skull
Caucasian : Square
Mongolian : Square
Negro : Narrow and elongated

Forehead
Caucasian : Raised
Mongolian : Inclined
Negro : Small and compressed

Face
Caucasian : Small
Mongolian : Small
Negro : Molar bones and jaw proportionally projecting teeth set obliquely.

Upper Extremity
Caucasian : Small
Mongolian : Small
Negro : Long in proportion to body; forearm large in proportion to arm; hand small

Lower Extremity
Caucasian : Normal
Mongolian : Small
Negro : Legs large in proportion to thighs; feet wide and flat; heel bones
projecting backwards.

Determination of Age from skeleton: The age of the person when he died or the age of the
skeleton may be approximated. The features in the bones as guide to approximate the age are
the following:

Size of the bone.

Appearance of the ossification center: Ossification center is the part in the bone where
the bones wall s started to grow and multiply until a particular bone attains its size and
development.

Teeth: The presence or absence of deciduous or temporary teeth which started to

appear in the infant at 6 months old and completed at 2 years old; Eruption of
permanent teeth which occurs between the ages of 6 to 12 and completed at 17 to 18
years old.
 Suture closure: Of the different sutures in the skull, the sagittal suture is the best
indication for the suture closure which begins to close at 22 years old and complete its
closure at 17 to 18 years old. However, it is not reliable to determine the age of the
skeleton from the suture in the skull.

Transformation of the pubic symphysis.

Changes in the scapula: Scapula is a pair of bone at the back wherein changes may
occur to determine the age of the person after death.

Age changes due to ossification after maturity:

Lipping of the circumferential margin of the glenoid fossa;
Lipping of the clavicular facet;
Appearance of a “plaque of facet” on the underside of the acromial process;
Increasing demarcation of the triangular area at the base (Vertical margin) of the
scapular spine;
Appearasnce of the cristae scapula at 50 years old.

Age of changes due to an atrophic process after maturity:

Surface vascularity;
Deep vascularity;
Atrophic spots;
Bookling and “pleating” of the infraspinous area.

Determination of Height from the skeleton: The height of a person when he died can be
estimated from the measurements of long bones and the application of the different formulae
using the different constants.

Pearson’s formula for the reconstruction of the living stature thru long bones whose animal
matters have disappeared and which are in dry state.

Males
Stature = 81.306 plus 1.880 – Femur
= 70.641 plus 2.894 – Humerus
= 78.664 plus 2.376 – Tibis
= 89.925 plus 3.271 – Radius
Females
Stature = 72.884 plus 1.945 – Femur
= 71.475 plus 2.754 – Humerus
= 74.774 plus 2.352 - Tibis
= 81.224 plus 3.343 – Radius

Topinard and Rollet, the French anatomist who devised a formulae for the determination of
height for males and females.

Male Female

Length of femur x 3.66 3.71 = Height

Length of Humerus x 5.06 5.22 = Height
Length of Tibia x 4.53 4.61 = Height
Length of Radius x 6.86 7.16 = Height
Humphrey’s Table: Humphrey made a table of the different height of the bones for different ages
and their corresponding statures. Lacassagne used the following coefficient for the
determination of height:

Bone Male Female

Femur 3.66 3.71

Tibia 4.53 4.61
Fibula 4.58 4.66
Humerus 5.06 5.22
Radius 6.86 7.16
Ulna 6.41 6.66

Estimations of Total Fetal Length from one or more Bones (C.H. Length)

Diaphysis of Femur x 6.71 = Total height

Diaphysis of Tibis
Diaphysis of Humerus
Diaphysis of Radius
Diaphysis of Clavicle
Diaphysis of Lower jaw
x 7.63 = Total height
x 7.6 = Total height
x 9.2 = Total height
x 11.3 = Total height
x 10.0 = Total height

Determination of the Plurality of Misssing Bones: The bones of the dead person maybe more or
absent indicating thsat more than one person died and placed in a common grave as in
massacre and mass execution or it may denote congenital deformities in the bones of such
person; however, missing parts of the skeleton may give a suspicion that the skeleton have
been altered by animals or by other means.

Determination of the ante-mortem or post-mortem injuries in the bones or teeth: A crack or

fracture on the bones may denote that a foul play may have been incurred on the person when
still alive. The presence of vital reaction and bone union may indicate the previous fracture of
the person when still alive. One or more teeth may be missing from its socket. The injuries in the
bones and teeth must be analyzed as to whether incurred during life or in exhumation.

Determination of the duration of interment: The duration of interment is the time interval when
the dead body was buried and the time when it is raised from the grave.

Medico-Legal importance of identifying hair and other fibers:

To establish the identity of human remains;
For rough estimate of sex in a person;
A means of showing possible association between a suspected person and a weapon or
vehicle.

Hair as evidence: The evidential value of the examination of hair in scientific investigation of
crime depends on the thoroughness and completeness of the laboratory studies. The naked eye
and hand –lets study of hair as well as the use of microscopy and the photo-micrography are
very important to determine not only the spatial configurations (curliness, waviness) and
physical features (springiness, softness, brittleness) but also the structure of hair. Certain
characteristics of fibers from plants may show a definite qualities and characteristics which may
be used to differentiate the human hair from other fibers by its physical qualities and its
chemical reactions.

Medico-Legal importance of sex determination:

For identification of the person as to whether male or female;
To determine the individual rights vested by law to a certain sex only;
Right of Succession – (Right of primogeniture);
Marriage – The law of certain country permit marriage only between male and female.
Persons who can contract marriage must be a male and a female, and in no instant can
there be a valid marriage when both of them are of the same sex.
Rights granted by law are different for each sex only.

Evidence of Sex may be classified as presumptive, probable and conclusive:

Presumptive evidence:

Body contour – Females have prominent pelvis while meals have slender body.

Voice and manner of speech: Females have high pitch of voice – Soprano type. Males
have low pitch voice – Baritone type

Presence of hairs in some parts of the body. Example is the moustache and beard in
the male which is not found in the females.

Muscular built: Females have muscles which are soft and tender. Males have hard and
well-developed muscles.

Manner of clothing, beautification and social life of females different from males.

Strength – Males are usually stronger than the females.

Some behaviors of female are different from that of the male.

Probable evidence:

Possession of female genital organs such as vagina, uterus and enlarged breast
maturity.

Possession of penis in the male.

Possession of feminizing and musculinizing hormones: Estrogen and progesterone in

females. Androsterone and testosterone in the males.

Conclusive evidence:

Presence of ovaries in the female

Presence of the testis in the male

Legal importance of age determination:

For classification of the person as to whether infant, child, adult or old person;
 To determine criminal liability

Points to consider in the determination of age:

Appearance and growth of pubic hair, moustache and beard. The pubic hair begins to
appear at the age of 13 years old in female and 14 years old in the male and become
completed at about the age of 16 of 17 years old. Moustache and beard in the male
starts to may appear at 16 or 18 years of age. Enlargement of breast in females: The
breast of the females ill start to develop at the age of 13 to 14 years old, wherein the
degree of development is influenced by heredity, environment, culture and races.

Change of voice: The change of voice in the male and female occurred at the age of 16
to 18 years old.

Changes in the color of the hair: The hair usually changes its color at the age of 40
years old from black to gray; then to white and finally to silver- white in old age.
Sometimes the change of color of the hair occurs in young person or in persons with
long standing mental and emotional stress, heredity and other sickness.

Grade or year in school or college: Children usually start schooling at 5 years old in the
nursery of kindergarten and then enter the primary school at 7 years old. Usually, a
person at the age of 16 to 18 years old if first year in college.

Menstruation in woman usually starts at the age of 12 years old in warm countries.

Degree of mental development: The mentality of the child changes gradually as the
person becomes an adult.

Manner of dressing, self- beautification and social life changes from child to adult.

Atheromatous changes and opacity of the cornea (cataract) start to appear at 40 years
old and above.

Wrinkles of the skin usually appear at 40 years old and above.

Medico-legal importance in the study of blood:

For identification whether the stain is blood and of human origin or not.

For blood cross –matching and blood transfusion.

For determination of the different blood diseases, example: Leukemia, Hemophilia and
others. For disputed parentage – (Maternity and paternity test) Circumstances or
corroborative evidence against or in favor of the perpetrator of a crime.

Determination of the cause of death: The amount of blood loss in the body without being
replaced may probably imply that the cause of death in a person is hemorrhage. The
loss of reddish tinge in the blood may also imply carbon monoxide poisoning or other
blood diseases as the cause of death of a person.
 Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant. The drips of blood
or blood stain in a place may pinpoint the route of escape of the victim or the assailant
by the tapering end of the blood spot which points towards the direction of the source of
the blood. The shape pf of the blood and the blood stain as well as its splashed on
character when spilled in the floor may indicate the direction of the source.

Determination of the approximate time the crime was committed. From the study of
aging of the blood-spilled and blood-stained material. The time that the crime was
committed may be approximated as to whether it is recently done or a few hours ago.

Determination of the place of the commission of the crime.

Identification of blood and blood stains: The human is a reddish liquid portion of the
body within the blood vessels and containing formed elements such as red blood cells,
white blood cells, platelets and plasma which is the liquid portion.

The liquid portion of the blood contains proteins, inorganic elements and other
substances. The liquid plasma is if differentiated from blood serum, in that the letter is devoid of
fibrinogen, which is a protein substances in the blood and in which is transformed into fibrin in
the process of coagulation.

Serum is a light yellow fluid which separates when blood coagulates. A normal healthy
Filipino has about 16-18 glasses of blood (An average glass of 200 cc.). Loss of six glasses of
blood means loss of life, while loss of three glasses will cause anemia. In medico-legal cases,
the blood and the blood stained materials will be object of examination in the crime laboratory
and the points to consider are the following:

Determination whether the stain is blood or not. If blood, determination whether human
or blood or not. If human blood, determination of the blood group or blood type does it
belong: Blood Group or Blood Type – A, B, AB, and O.

Characteristic of the Stain and the Stained Material:

Age of the stain

Color of the stain
Clotting of the blood condition of the stained material
Approximate amount of blood lost
Nature, configuration, manner, degree and condition of the stained materials.

Age of the Stain: The aging of the stain can be estimated from its color and hemoglobin
in the red blood corpuscles. Hemoglobin is the iron-containing protein of the blood and
is composed of two substances:

Death: Is defined as the absence of life in a living matter. Upon death the organism returns to a
stable equilibrium, both physically and chemical. In medico- legal death, it refers to the death
which involves in crime or medico-legal cases to prove or disapprove that a foul play had been
done. Usually death from sickness in the hospital or at home is a natural death and therefore is
not classified under medico-legal death because there is no foul play or crime involved.

Medico-legal importance of determining death:

Basis for immediate removal of vital organs and for transplantation;

Civil personality of a natural person is extinguished upon death. The effect of death
upon the rights, powers and obligations of the deceased is determined by law, contract
and will.

Property of a person is transferred among the heirs at the time of death. Art. 774, Civil
Code.

Criminal liability of a person is extinguished by death. Art. 89, RPC.

Civil case for claim which does not survive is dismissed upon the death of the
defendant. Rule 3, Sec. 21, Rules of Court.

Kinds of Death:

Somatic Death – Clinical Death: It is a complete, continuous, persistent cessation of

respiration, circulation and almost all brain functions of an organism. The immediate
signs of death in a person are the sudden cessation of upward and downward
movement of the chest in the process of respiration; sudden pale color of the face and
lips; the pulse and the heart beat stops; the jaw or head drops down and flaccidity of the
muscles occurs; the presence of dilated pupils as well as the loss of corneal and light
reflexes.

Clinical types of Death: Sociological death: It is a type of death wherein the withdrawal
and separation from the patient by others producing a sense of isolation and
abandonment.

Psychic Death: The condition of death wherein the patient regresses, gives up or
surrenders, accepting death prematurely and refuses to continue living. Psychic death
occurs prematurely if the patient has excessive fear of his illness and views it as lending
to immediate death.

Biologic Death: The type of death characterized by the absence of cognitive function or
awareness, although artificial support system may maintain organ functioning.

Physiologic Death: A type of death when all vital organs have ceased to function.

Molecular Death – Cellular Death: It is the cessation of life of the individual cells in the
body which occurs one at a time after somatic death. The blood contains food and
oxygen that is ended by the tissues. Nerve cells and brain cells die earlier about 5
minutes after somatic death while muscle cells live longer until the onset of rigor mortis
which is about 2-6 hours.

Apparent Death – “State of Suspended Animation”. It is a state of temporary cessation

of vital activities of the body or the vital processes were depressed to the minimum
 compatible with life. This condition is not actually death although classified under the
kinds of death because the person or organism is still alive although it seems that there
are no signs of life.

Signs of Death: The signs of death must be determine not only for its medico-legal implication
but also to exclude apparent death by the early as well as late changes which occurred in the
body at the time of death or within the next few minutes extending into the first and subsequent
hours.

Cessation of Respiration – It has been observed that when a prson is dying the
breathing becomes irregular and then suddenly in gaps separated by long periods of
interval until a last expiratory movement which is usually accepted as the outward and
visible sign of death which had occurred. A person can hold his breath not longer than 3
and a half- minute but a persistent, continuous cessation of breathing after 5 minutes
without spontaneous breathing and repeated testing for at least two minutes interval at
each testing is considered as a respiratory failure.

Methods of detecting respiratory failure:

Observance of upward and downward movement of the chest and abdomen in the
process of breathing. No movement observed upon death.

Palpation of the respiratory movement by placing the palm of the hand on the chest
and abdomen. There will be no feel of the movement upon death.

By auscultation with the aid of stethoscope or placing the ear at the region of the
chest to hear the breath sounds. No breath sounds are heard upon death.

Examination with the aid of a mirror – A clean looking glass or mirror is placed in
front of the mouth and nose of a person. If there is cloudening or dimming of the
mirror, the person is breathing and therefore alive, however, the person is dead
when there is no change in the mirror.

Examination with the aid of feathers or fibers: The feather or fiber is placed in front
of the mouth and nose of a person. If there is no movement of the feather or fiber,
the person is dead. This test should be done indoor because the wind is a factor
that may cause error.

Examination using a glass of water: A glass of water is placed on the chest of the
person lying on his back. If the person is breathing and there is movement of the
chest, there will also be movement of the surface level of water in the glass. No
such movement occurs upon death.

Examination using lighted candle, match or any material: The flame of the lighted
material is placed near and in front of the mouth and nose of a person. If a person
is not breathing and therefore dead, there will be no movement or more glowing of
the flame. The wind is also a factor that may cause error.

Winslov Test: It is a test to determine cessation of respiration when there is no

movement of the reflected image on the water or mercury in a container and placed
on the chest of a person lying on his back.
 Cessation of Heart Beating and Circulation: Upon death, the heart stops beating in a
persistent and continuous manner which cannot be revived by cardiac massage and
other resuscitative measures for about a period of five minutes.

Subsequently, the pulse beat stopped and also the circulation or blood flow to different
parts of the body. In this condition, the person is pronounced to be dead. In case of
decapitation or cutting of the head and judicial hanging, the heart beat persist for 15
minutes to 1 hour.

Methods of detecting cessation of heart action and circulation:

Palpation of the pulse and heart beat – There will be no pulse and heart beat when
palpated in a person. Auscultation with the aid of stethoscope or placing the ear at the
region of the heart in the left chest to hear the heart sounds. Upon death, no heart
sounds heard observance of the point of maximum impulse at the region of the left
chest. No point of maximum impulse observed upon death.

Fluoroscopic examination – By fluoroscopic examination, the movement of the shadow

of the heart can be seen if the heart still contracting and relaxing in a living person, but
upon death, this movement disappears.

Electrocardiography – (EEG) The heart in a living person undergo certain electrical

discharge and emission following a conducting system in its contraction and relaxation
which can be recorded in an electrocardiographic machine. The recorded tracings of the
living heart are different from the tracings of a dead heart.

Cooling of the body: The metabolic process and other biochemical changes in the body
producing heat and energy as well as the function of the hypothalamus controlling the
body temperature stopped upon death, thereby the body temperature gradually
decreases until it assumes the temperature of the environment.

The lowering of the body temperature is one of the earliest sign of death and the body
cools by radiation, conduction and convection. The rate of fall of the body temperature
is most rapid in the first four after death and then progressively slower during the next 6-
9 hours until it reaches the temperature of the surroundings beyond 12 hours.

The normal body temperature in a living person is 37 degree Celsius or 98.3 degrees
Fahrenheit but upon death the temperature gradually decreases. The fall of 15 degrees
Fahrenheit to 20 degrees Fahrenheit is considered as death of the body.

In post-mortem caloricity or post-mortem Glycogenolysis, there is an increase of

temperature due to fast, early putrefactive and chemical changes in the body, which
occur in about 1-3 hours after death. Post-mortem caloricity occurs especially in
persons who died from infectious diseases and strychnine poisoning.

Stages of muscular changes: Stage of primary flaccidity: It is the stage of muscular change
upon death characterized by relaxation of muscles and loss of their natural tone so that the jaw
or the head drops down; the thorax collapses and the limbs becomes flaccid; the iris assumes a
mid position and the sphincter relaxes. This is the reason why the dead person may still urinate,
defecate or excrete the waste product of metabolism thru pores in the skin because of the
relaxation of the sphincters.

Stage of Post- Mortem Rigidity or Rigor Mortis: This stage of muscular change which occurs
2-6 hours after death and is characterized by hardening of the muscles due to biochemical
changes of the muscle proteins that will ultimately result to decrease of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), which is a protein substance of the muscle fibers. The rigor mortis involved both
voluntary and involuntary muscles which usually start at the muscles of the jaw and face and
then spreads to the neck, upper limbs, trunk and lower limbs until the whole body assumes a
board like rigidity after about 12 hours. The duration of rigor mortis in a dead person varies in
cold, temperature and tropical countries. In temperate countries, rigor mortis will be present for
2 to 3 days while in tropical countries the duration is 2 days although during summer rigor mortis
will last for 36-48 hours after death.

Conditions Simulating Rigor Mortis: Heat stiffening: A condition characterized by hardening of

the muscles due to coagulation of muscle proteins when the dead body is exposed to intense
heat as by burning or immersion in a hot liquid.

Cold Stiffening: A condition characterized by hardening of the muscles due to solidification of

fats, muscles and fluid when the dead body is exposed to extremely cold or freezing
temperature.

Cadaveric Spasm or Instantaneous Rigor: It is the instant stiffening of a certain group of

muscles which occurs immediately at the moment of death and although its cause is unknown is
associated with violent death due to extreme nervous tension, fatigue and injury to the nervous
system. This voluntary contraction of muscles has a medico-legal implication because it records
the last act of life in a person.

Stage of secondary flaccidity: A muscular change characterized by the softness and flaccidity
of the muscles in which no longer response to mechanical or electrical stimulation due to
dissolution of the muscle proteins that have been previously coagulated during the stage of rigor
mortis. This stage is the onset of putrefaction and occurs many hours in rigor mortis.

Putrefaction: It is the process of dissolution of tissues by the digestive action of its enzymes and
bacteria that results to softening and liquefaction of tissues and usually accompanied by the
liberation of foul-smelling gases and change of color of the tissues. The flies will be attracted to
the dead body during putrefaction and sipped the juicy portion of the tissues: lay eggs which
hatch within 24 hours to form maggots and which again feed vigorously in the damage tissues.

Approximate Sequence of Events in Putrefaction of Dead Body in Tropical Countries:

After 1-2 days (24-48 hours) Putrefactive changes: Rigor mortis absent; muscles soft
and flaccid; greenish discoloration over the abdomen; some veins beneath the skin
seen as interlacing purplish brown network over the shoulder, chest and abdomen; flies
and ova are present.

3rd day (72 hours) Putrefactive Changes: Abdomen distended with gases; trunk bloated;
hair and nails loosened from its attachment; formation of blisters and blebs; face grossly
swollen and discolored; maggots seen.
 1 week (7 days) Putrefactive Changes: Further bloating of the body and discoloration of
the skin; bursting of the thorax and abdomen; further dissolution of the more resistant
viscera.

2 weeks (14 days) Putrefactive Changes: Detachment of hairs and nails from its
attachment; bursting of the thorax and abdomen; further dissolution of the more
resistant viscera.

1 month – Putrefactive Changes: Body Skeletonized

The decomposition of the dead body in temperate countries differs from those in the
tropical countries because of the differences in environmental temperature, air pollution and
bacterial activity. In temperate countries, the body when exposed to air will be reduced to
skeleton in 5-6 months time but when buried in a well drained soil will take about ten years
before an adult dead body be reduced to skeleton if embalmed.

Decomposition of dead body proceeds about twice as slowly as it is in air; but there are
many factors that interplay in the rate of decomposition like the temperature of the water, depth
to which the body is submerged, bacterial content of the water and the role of fishes and other
aquatic animals.

Special forms of putrefaction:

Mummification: A condition where there is removal of the body fluid before

decomposition sets in that resulted to shrinking and preservation of the dead body. If the
dead body is buried or exposed to a dry, hot sandy soil and warm environment with
considerable air movement, the body will not decompose but instead become dried and
be preserved for and indefinite period of time.

Saponification – Adipocere formation: It is the formation of a soft, friable and brownish-

white greasy substance in the soft fatty tissues of the body after death. This substance
is called “adipocere” and formed by the post-mortem hydrolysis and hydrogenation of
the body fats. Adipocere is a soapy or waxy material; rancid in smell; dissolves in hot
alcohol and ether; when burned it produces yellow flame. The substance is best
detected by chemical, this adipocere is present in sufficient amount in the tissues, it is
an indication that some time has elapsed since death. The presence of moisture is
necessary in order to produce adipocere so that in a well developed and robust body
built person, transformation will be accelerated. Adipocere formation is also delayed by
cold faster in warm climate as well as faster when the body is acted upon by bacteria.
The presence of adipocere in the body also prevented or delayed the putrefaction of the
body.

Maceration: It is a condition of a dead body usually the fetus characterized by softening

and discoloration of tissues as well as the formation of blisters in the skin due to action
of autolytic and poteolytic enzymes in the absence of putrefactive bacteria.

Changes in the blood after death:

Changes of Color: After death and when heart stops beating and subsequently followed by
cessation of circulation, the blood flow in the whole body also stops. The stasis in the circulation
will drain the blood from the capillaries and veins to accumulate in the most dependent portions
in the body because of the pull of gravity producing a discoloration in those areas of the body
not subjected to pressure. Post-mortem lividity or livor mortis is therefore, a discoloration of the
body after death when the blood tends to pool in the blood vessels of the most dependent
portion of the body and which appears 20-30 minutes after death and complete in about 12
hours. The usual color is dull-red or reddish purple with some bluish-black petechia due to
rupture of small engorged capillaries. However, in carbon monoxide and cyanide poisoning as
well as exposure to cold temperature the color is pink while it is lead color in asphyxia. In 12
hours, the lividity is more or less complete and the color becomes darker and permanent.

Importance of Post-mortem Lividity: It is a sign of death:

It approximate the time of death in a person,
It determines the position of the body after death,
It may indicate the cause or manner of death.

Kinds of Post-mortem Lividity:

Hypostatic Lividity: It is the lividity when the discoloration is due to the blood
pooled in the most dependent areas of the body.

Diffusion Lividity: It is a fixed or permanent discoloration when the blood vessels

or has diffused to different parts of the body.

Coagulation of the blood (Clotting): When the heart beat stops, subsequently cessation of
circulation, there will be stasis of the blood which may enhance the coagulation of the blood
inside the blood vessels. The anti-clotting factors in the blood will undergo chemical changes
and these will also enhances the coagulation of the blood. The clotting of the blood occurs in a
slow process after 6-8 hours of death in such manner that the blood separates and formed a re
clot at the lower level and above it is a white clot known as chicken-fat clot.

Basis in Estimating the Time of Death: The following points may be used as basis to be taken
into consideration in estimating the time of death in a person:

General physical changes. A warm supple of the body with moist, transparent cornea
and moist lips as well as the absence of post-mortem lividity in the most dependent
portions of the body is a condition of recent death in a person. Considering the effects of
the body and environmental factors, the time of death may be within previous hour.
Post-mortem Lividity – Livor Mortis. The onset of post-mortem lividity is 20-30 minutes in
the most dependent portions of the body and is completed in about 12 hours when the
blood has already clotted or diffused to different parts of the body wherein the
discoloration its darker and permanent.

Post-mortem Rigidity – Rigor Mortis. Onset – 2-6 hours after death and is completed in
about 12 hours duration; 24-48 hours in the Philippines and other tropical countries; 36-
48 hours during the summer in the Philippines and other tropical countries.

Onset and stage of Decomposition. In tropical countries, the onset of decomposition is

1-2 days after death and the finally the dead body becomes skeleton in a month’s time
considering the factors that influence the rate of putrefaction.

Life cycle of the flies. The flies undergo certain stages in their life cycle. The
eggs or ova laid by the flies on the dead bodies will hatch to form maggots with
24 hours. The maggots will feed vigorously on the damaged dead bodies, then
transform into pupal stage and finally into the adult flies within a few days.

Changes in the body temperature. Upon death, the body temperature decreases
gradually until it reaches the temperature of the environment. The rate of fall of
temperature from 15 degrees Fahrenheit to 20 degrees Fahrenheit is considered
as a sign of death.

Changes in the blood. The blood remains fluid in the body after death for 6-9
hours. After which it gradually clotted in a slow process until 12 hours wherein
the lividity is fully developed.

Changes in the cerebro-spinal fluid – (15 hours following death).

Changes in the aqueous and vitreous fluid in the eyes. The fluids in the eyeball
consist of the aqueous fluid in the anterior and posterior chamber and the
vitreous fluid in the body of the eyeball, their composition, though complex is
very similar and the vitreous component is easier to use. The potassium level
rises and has been thought to be a helpful change. The drying cornea produces
haziness in the eyes within the minutes of death.

Changes in the stomach. The rate of emptying of the stomach varies so that it is
very difficult to estimate the time of death in a person, however, the state of the
stomach and its contents might help in the estimation of the time of death. It
usually takes 3-4 hours for the stomach to empty its contents after meal.

Changes in the hair. A knowledge of the rate of growth of facial hair allows an
estimate to be made of the age of the beard reckoned from time of the last
shaved. The rate of growth of hair has been estimated from 0.4 mm. to 0.5 mm.
per day, but the individual hairs of the same areas varies from place to place on
the face and in different individuals as well as seasonal variation. The length of
the beard hair is measured by shaving the corpse, placing the shaved hairs
between two glass slides, and measure the enlarged image projected on to a
screen. About 80% of hairs will be found of similar length.

Changes in the Urinary Bladder. The amount or urine bladder may indicate the
time of death when taken into consideration the time when a person urinates or
evacuates his urinary bladder.

State of Clothing. The wearing apparel of a dead person may create a suspicion
of the time of death as well as the placed of death. If the dead person is well-
dressed, it is more likely that death occurs at day time, but if wearing pajamas or
nightgowns, it is possible that death occurs at night time and probably at home.

Presence or absence of life of the fleas in the clothing of dead person in water.
The fleas maybe seen in the clothing of drowned person and is used to estimate
 the time of death in such a person. If fleas in the clothing of the drowned person
are still alive, then the person has been dead in water for less than 24 hours and
therefore the person has been dead for more than 24 hours.

Changes in the Bones. Upon death, when the soft tissues have already
disappeared, the bones left will be used to estimate the time of death of a person
or the age of the bones by considering the degree of erosion of epiphyseal end
of long bones, pulverization of flat bones and the reduction of weight due to the
loss of animal matter. The radio-active carbon or carbon-14 maybe used for
assessing the age of ancient remains. After death, the carbon-14 content of the
bones gradually decreases and the radioactivity weakens although the rate
occurs at a slow process. Therefore, if the carbon-14 activity of bones is
measured and compared with what is known to exist in the body during life, a
reasonable estimate can be made of the age of ancient remains.

Medico-legal Investigation of Death: The purpose of the investigation of death is mainly

to determine the cause of death. It also classify the case of death whether suicide,
murder or homicide. The dead body is subjected to autopsy by the physician or medico-
legal officer and the post-mortem findings will be presented to the court as evidences to
prove or disprove that a crime or foul play had been done to the victim.

Law enforcement officers may request either medico-legal officer, district health
officer, local health officer, medico examiner of the City, medical staffs of hospitals,
centers and other government physician and even members of the municipal board of
health who are not physicians or a “cirojano ministrante” whenever a registered
physician is not available to perform an autopsy or other forms of investigation
necessary for the sake of justice.

Classifications of the Cause of Death are Medico-legal classification and

Pathological.

Natural Death: A medico-legal classification of death that occurs due to a

disease or ailment in the body. The diseases may occur spontaneously or it
might have been the consequence of the physical injury inflicted prior to its
development. The natural death may also occur suddenly wherein the
termination of life comes quickly and unexpectedly or may be a delayed one due
to a long, lingering illness. The medico- legal autopsy is conducted in cases of
sudden and unexpected death, including apparently accidental death, primarily
to establish the cause of death.

Violent Death. It is death due to injuries by some forms of outside force wherein
the physical injuries inflicted is the proximate cause of death. The death of victim
is presumed to be natural consequence of the physical injuries inflicted when the
following facts are established. That the victims at the physical injuries were
inflicted was in normal health; That death may be expected from the physical
injuries inflicted; That death ensued within a reasonable time.
 Accidental Death. It is death which occurs unexpected and outside of will.
Sometimes, it may be defined as death due to accidents or misadventure.

Negligent Death. It is death due to reckless imprudence, negligence, lack of skill

or lack of foresight.

Infanticidal Death. It is death due to the killing of a child less than 3 days old.

Parricidal Death. It is death due to killing of one’s own father, mother or child
whether legitimate or illegitimate.

Homicidal Death. Homicide is the killing of another person with intent but without
justification.

Murder. It is the unlawful killing of a person committed with any of the

circumstances enumerated under Art. 248, RPC attending the crime.

Euthanasia. Mercy Killing. It is a willful acceleration of death of person in order to

lessen sufferings of the patient; this is permitted in some European countries.

Suicidal Death. It is death due to killing or destruction of oneself. A person who

commits suicide but was not able to kill oneself is not penalized by law but a
person who assists another person to commit suicide is punished.

Pathological Classification includes Death from Syncope:

Syncope is a symptom complex characterized by loss of consciousness, fall in

blood pressure, fainting spell, decrease respiration and heart rate due to sudden
loss of heart action, pulmonary function as well as arrest of functions in the
brain.
Death from Asphyxia: Asphyxia is a condition of death due to interference in
respiration.

Death from Coma: Coma is a profound stupor in sickness or after severe injury.

Methods of Judicial Death:

Death by Lethal injection
Death by Electrocution
Death by Musketry – Firing squad
Death by Gas Chamber
Death by Hanging

Physical Injury: Refers to a specific impairment of the body structure or function caused
by an outside force or agent. it is an injury of the body caused by physical agents which
is the application of stimulus to the body producing damage or injury to the tissues.
Classification of Physical Injury as to Severity:

Mortal Wound – Wound which when inflicted to the body is immediately followed
by death or one which is serious that will endangered the life of the victim.

Non-mortal Wound – Wound which when inflicted to the body is not immediately
followed by death or one which is not so serious that will endanger the life of the
victim.

As to the kind of instrument used:

Wounds produced by blunt instrument – Lacerated wound.

Wounds produced by sharp edged instrument – Incised wound.

Wounds produced by sharp pointed instrument - Punctured wound.

 Wounds produced by sharp edge and sharp pointed instrument – Stab wound.

 Wound produced by change of environmental pressure on the body.

 Wounds produced by micro-organism

As to the manner of infliction:

 Hit – By the stroke of bolo, axe and blunt instrument

 Thrush or stab – By the stroke of a knife, dagger, ice pick, bayonet, saber, spear
and others
 Tearing or stretching

 Gunpowder explosion, projectiles or shrapnel

 Sliding or Rubbing

As to the depth of the wound:

 Superficial Wound – Wound which involves the outer layer of the skin or tissues
of the body.

 Penetrating Wound – Wound wherein the instrument pierces a solid organ or

tissues.

 Perforating Wound – Wound where there is communication between the outer

and inner portions of the hollow organs
As to the relation of the site of application of forces and the location of injury:

 Coup injury – It is the physical injury which is found at the site of the application
of force.

 Contre Coup injury – It is the physical injury which is found at the site and also
opposite the site of the application of force.

 Coup contre coup injury – It is the physical injury which is found at the site and
also opposite the site of the application of force.

 Locus minoris resistencia – It is the physical injury which is found not at the site
or opposite the site of the application of force but in some areas offering the
latest resistance to the force applied.

Extensive injury – It is the physical injury involving the greater area beyond the site
of force.

Medico-Legal classification:

 Mutilation – The intentional act of looping or cutting off any parts of the living
body.

 Slight Physical Injury – It is the physical injury wherein the victim is ill-treat or
incapacitated for work or requires the medical attendance for a period of one to
nine days.
 Less serious physical injury – A physical injury wherein the offended victim is
incapacitated for work or require the medical attendance for 10 days or more but
not more than 30 days.

 Serious Physical Injury – A physical injury wherein the victim is wounded, beaten
or assaulted and is incapacitated for work or require the medical attendance for
more than 30 days.

 Deformity – Disfigurement: It is the temporary or permanent deformation of the

body producing physical ugliness,

 Administration of injurious substances or beverages – It is the physical injury to a

person who, without intent to kill shall inflict upon another or any serious physical
injuries by knowingly administering to him any injurious substances or beverages
or by taking advantage of his weakness of mind and credulity.

As to the type of wound:

 Closed Wound – Wound where there is no break in the overlying skin or tissues;

 Superficial closed wound;

Petechiae
Contusion
Bruise
Cyst
Hematoma

 Deep closed wound:

Sprain
Fracture, simple
Dislocation
Concussion
Internal Hemorrhage
Intra – cranial hemorrhage
Rupture of organ
Laceration of organ

 Opened wound – wound where there is a break in the overlying skin or tissues.

 Superficial closed wound: Petechiae – These are minute, pin-point,

circumscribed extravasation of blood in the subcutaneous tissues or underneath
the mucous membrane. Example: Subpleural petechial hemorrhage – Tardieu’s
spot; Insect’s bite.

 Contusion – Bruise: It is a wound in the substance of the true skin and is the
subcutaneous cellular tissues characterized by swelling and discoloration of
tissues because of extravasations of blood. The shape of the bruise is usually
round or oval but may follow the shape of the wounding weapon, so that the
position of the bruise may indicate the manner of assault.

 Hematoma: It is large extravasations in a newly formed cavity secondary trauma

characterized by swelling, discoloration of tissues and effusion of blood
underneath the tissues. The hematoma may be absorbed spontaneously or may
complicate forming abscess, cyst, gangrene or tumor.

 Sprain – It is the straining or tearing of the articular tendons, ligaments and

muscles characterized by swelling, discoloration of tissues involved and extreme
pain.

 Fracture – It is a break or solution in the continuity of the bone tissue resulting

from violence or from some existing pathology.
 Simple fracture – It is an injury where there is the line of fracture but the
alignment of the bone is still intact.

Compound fracture – It is a fracture where there is a break in the bone

and loss of alignment of the affected bones.

Comminuted fracture – It is a fracture where there is a break in the bone,

loss of alignment of the affected bones and separation of fragments of
bones.

 Discoloration: It is the displacement of the articular surfaces of the bones forming

the joints usually secondary to trauma. There maybe stretching or tearing of the
tendons, ligaments or muscles which attached on the bones forming the joints.

 Kinds of Dislocation:

Simple dislocation – A dislocation where there is displacement of the bones

but without external wound.
Compound dislocation – A dislocation where there is displacement of the
bones and accompanying break or wound in the skin.

 Cerebral concussion: It is a condition of the brain resulting from a sudden jarring

or stunning of the brain which follows a blow on the head and is characterized by
headache or dizziness; unconsciousness or semi-consciousness; muscles
relaxed and flaccid; reflexes sluggish; respiration slow and shallow; and pulse
which is rapid but weak.

 Internal hemorrhage – It is the bleeding usually in the cavity or organs inside the
body.

 Intra –cranial hemorrhage – It is the bleeding in the cranial cavity.

 Rupture of organ – It is an injury of the hollow organ inside the body

characterized by extravasations of the blood.

 Laceration of organ – It is the injury of an organ inside the body secondary to

violence characterized by bleeding and irregular edges of the affected wound.

 Opened wound: Abrasion: It is an open wound characterized by the renewal of

the epithelial layer of the skin brought by friction against a hard, rough object.

 Forms of Abrasion:
 Linear abrasion – An abrasion where there is a single line of injury which
may be curve or straight.

Multi-linear abrasion – A form of abrasion where there are several lines of

injury which are parallel to one another.

Confluent abrasion – A form of abrasion where the lines of injury are

arranged in hap hazard manner.

Multiple abrasions – An abrasion in the body surface located in different parts

of the body.

 Types of Abrasion:

Scratches – An abrasion brought about by the stroke of sharp-pointed

instrument over the skin producing the injury.

Grazes – An abrasion due to forcible contact with a rough, hard object

resulting to irregular removal of the skin surface.

Impact or Imprint abrasion – An abrasion due to contact with a rough, hard

object in which the structural form of the object is reflected over the skin.

Pressure or Friction abrasion - An abrasion due to pressure applied and with

accompanying movement over the skin.

Gunshot Wound: It is an open wound produced by the penetration of the bullet slug
within then tissues of the body. The bullet slug which was propelled from the gun as well
as the flame from the heated expanded gases in short range fire is the one that
produces the injury.

 Characteristic of the Wound of Entrance: The wound of entrance is usually small

and may be smaller than the missile due to retraction of the skin and tissues at
the opening of the wound. The edge of the wound is inverted with some
contusion or abrasion around the wound. In contact or close range fire, there is
burning of the skin, singeing of the hair and gunpowder tattooing. The other
description of the wound of entrance is based on the distance of the body from
the fired gun.

 Contact fire: The wound of entrance is burst due to the explosion of the powder
which produces the heated and expanded gases. There is burning of the tissues
 in the affected area because it is within then flame zone; singeing of the hair; and
particles of gunpowder in and around the wound of entrance. The skin is
separated from the underlying tissues in the affected area, and the blasted
tissues are cherry red because of the presence of carbon monoxide. The
pressure of the bullet slug will cause caving in or excavation of tissues and the
contusion collar is seen around the wound entrance. The size of the wound is
rather small.

 Near contact up to 6 inches distance: There is bursting of tissues, burning and

blackening of the skin as in contact fire but the particles of gunpowder are
present inside as well as around the wound of entrance. The shape of the wound
may be lacerated or slit-like and the size is larger than the diameter of the
missiles. The excavation of tissues due to the pressure of the penetrating bullet
slug may not be as severe as in contact fire.

 Distance above 6 inches up to 24 inches and beyond: The size of the wound
gradually approximates the size of the missile. As the distance from the target
becomes farther, the burning or blackening of tissues, gunpowder tattooing,
singeing of the hair and excavation of tissues becomes lesser and lesser until it
disappears beyond the 24 inches distance.

Characteristics of the Wound of Exit: Usually the wound of exit is larger than the
projectile but it does not follow any definite shape. The edge of the wound is everted
and sometimes with some tissues or flaps of skin protruding from the wound. The bullet
slug maybe lodged inside the body usually in lone range fire and therefore without any
wound of exit. Shotgun Wound: It is an open wound produced by the penetration of
pellets or shot within the tissues of the body. In shotgun fire, the pellets penetrate and
usually lodged inside the body and a tendency for a wider dispersion of pellets at a
certain distance except in contact and near contact fire.

Characteristics of the Shotgun Wound of Entrance Contact Fire:

 The wound of entrance is irregular with bursting of the affected tissues on

account of explosion of the heated and expanded gases with accompanying
flame causing burning of the skin and the tissues. There is singeing of the hair;
presence of wads as well as particles of gunpowder inside the wound of
entrance.

 Near shot up to 6 inches distance: There is marked laceration of the skin and
destruction of tissues due to the pressure of explosion. The burning is marked on
the surface of the skin and particles of gunpowder are present inside and around
the wound of entrance. There is singeing of the hair as well as pieces of wads
inside and outside the wound of entrance.
  Distance about 1 yard: The pellets penetrate the tissues as one mass making the
wound with irregular edge of the wound entrance. There will also be blackening
of tissues with slight burning, singeing of the hair or gunpowder tattooing.

 Distance about 2 to 3 yards: The wound of entrance has a big central hole with
ragged edges and a few stray wounds of entrance around the central hole. At this
distance, there will be no more blackening or burning of the skin, gun powder
tattooing, singeing of the hair and pieces of wads at or near the wound of
entrance.
 Distance of 4 yards: A small group of pellets may penetrate the tissues producing
a central core, although plenty of pellets in a wider dispersion may produce
separate wound of entrance. The pellets dispersed about 11 times the distance in
yards in non-choked barrel while in full-choked bore the dispersion is ½ less but
there is a wider dispersion in short barrel shotgun.

Wounds from explosion of explosive materials: The explosive materials may be covered
by soft materials such as pieces of papers, cartoons, aluminum foils and others as
exemplified in dynamite and big firecrackers while other explosive materials are covered
by metal as well as its contents of hard metals as exemplified by grenades, bombs,
mines, anti-aircraft and scud missiles.

Injuries from the blast of explosive materials:

 Blast wave injury: When the explosion occurs, it causes sudden increased of
atmospheric pressure followed by a sudden decreased. This compression-
decompression effect will be relayed in the atmosphere and produces
destruction, distortion and bursting of soft tissues especially of the internal
organs characterized by bleeding. This exemplified in injuries from the explosion
of dynamites and big firecrackers.

 Burns from flame or heated gas: The explosion of the powder will produce flame
and heated expanded gases which will cause burns of different degrees in the
body exposed within the vicinity. Example: Explosion of the airplane and bombs.

 Asphyxia due to lack of oxygen: When the explosive material exploded it will
utilize the oxygen within the vicinity of the atmosphere and the human being that
is exposed will suffer from difficulty of breathing and died of asphyxia because of
lack of oxygen within the vicinity of the atmosphere. Oxygen is necessary for the
explosion and inflammability of substances as well as necessary for the life of
human being and other animals.
  Poisoning by inhalation of carbon monoxide, nitrous or nitric gases, hydrogen
sulfide, sulfur dioxide or hydrocyanic acid gases. The explosion of explosive
materials will cause liberation of poisonous gases which when inhaled in
sufficient amount will produce gas poisoning or asphyxia.

 Direct injury from the flying missile: The detonation of high explosive especially
those with metal covering like grenades, bombs, mines, scud and anti-aircraft
missiles will cause fragmentation of metal in the form of shrapnel as well as
pieces of wood, rocks and other flying missiles which when it hit the body
produced wound or injuries.
Other evidences in dealing with the wound include evidences from the wounding
weapon, evidences from the victim as well as the assailant and evidences from the
scene of the crime.

Physical Injuries or Deaths due to Extremes of Temperature: Thermal injuries are those
caused when the body is exposed to an increase or decrease of environment
temperature producing cellular or tissue changes.

Effects of Cold temperature: When the body is exposed to cold or freezing

environmental temperature it will produce death or injuries to the body because of less
dissociation power of oxygen from the hemoglobin in the blood, thus the tissues will
have a diminished power to utilize oxygen. Prolonged exposure may cause necrosis
and gangrene of the tissues. The degree of damaged depends upon the decreased in
temperature duration of exposure, vitality of tissues involved, sex and condition of the
body.

In the Philippines and other tropical countries, the effects of cold temperature in
the body is rather seldom but in temperate and cold countries the effects are very
common, because the Philippines and other tropical countries have only dry and rainy
season while in temperate and cold countries have four seasons namely Summer,
Spring, Fall and Winter.

Local effect of cold temperature:

 Frostbite – It is a condition of exposure to cold temperature of certain parts of the

body which produced mechanical disruption of cell structure and is characterized
by diminished body temperature, cold stiffening and pallor which is later on lead
to swelling, thrombosis, necrosis and gangrene of the affected tissues.

 Trench foot – A condition usually seen among those walking over the snow
wherein the foot exposed to freezing temperature characterized by cold
stiffening, muscle cramp, necrosis and gangrene of the foot.
  Immersion foot – A sub-variety of trench foot when the foot is submerged into a
cold freezing liquid characterized by decreased body temperature, cold stiffening.
Muscle cramp, necrosis and gangrene f the muscles in the foot.

Generalized or systemic effects of cold temperature: The systemic effects are reflex in
nature to the circulatory system brought about by stimulation and paralysis of the
nerves. At first, there is reduction of all the vital processes in the body like respiration,
circulation, heart beating, digestion, metabolism and excretion but later on blister
formation and gangrene will develop in the exposed part of the body.

Effects of Heat in the Body: Heat is a form of kinetic energy transferable from one body
to another and appreciable by the thermal sense.

 Specific heat is the number of calories required to raise the temperature of one
gram of a particular substance with a temperature of one degree centigrade.

 Sensible heat is the heat which when absorbed by the body produces a rise in
temperature. The body may also suffer from injuries in temperature. The body
may also suffer from injuries when exposed to hot environment or those that
results from strenuous physical exertion.

 Generalized or Systemic effect of Heat: Heat cramp – It is a painful contraction f

the skeletal muscles usually seen among manual workers in hot environment
whose bodily fluids have been depleted of sodium chloride not replaced by heavy
loses from sweat.

 Heat exhaustion – It is a physiological breakdown following exposure to heat or

precipitated by peripheral vasometer collapse and is manifested by faintness,
palpitation, nausea, vomiting, syncope dizziness, headache and restlessness.

 Heat stroke – It is a failure of adequate heat elimination almost always related to

a breakdown of the sweating mechanism usually seen among workers working in
a warm environment or exposed to the heat of the sun and is manifested by an
evaluation of body temperature, mental confusion, staggering gait, injuries to the
central nervous system which is edema and destruction of nerve cells as well as
congestion and focal hemorrhages in various organs.

 Local effect of heat: Scald – It is the burn due to contact with a hot or boiling
liquid or gas over the body characterized by redness, pain and blister formation.

 Burns – It is the injury due to the application of physical heat in any form to the
body and is characterized by redness and heat coagulation of the tissues to
 actual charring. The effect of burns to the body is influenced by the intensity of
heat, duration of contact, tissue involved, sex, age and accompanying infections.

 Thermal burn – It is a type of burned caused by the application of heat or hot

object. It is further subdivided in two groups: Those due to hot liquid and steam
(scalds); Those due to dry heat and fire.

 Chemical burn – A type of burn due to chemicals like strong acids, alkalies, and
other irritant substances which produced extensive destruction of tissues and
usually healed by the formation of keloid scars.

 Electrical burn – A burn due to electric current. There are three kinds of electric
burns such as contact burns, spark burns and flash burns.

 Radiation burn – A burn due to radiation from radio-active substances such as X-

ray and ultra violet light as well as radiation bombs.

 Friction burn – A burn when the body comes in contact with the moving object
either by sliding, rotating or rubbing.

Clinical classification of burn:

 First degree burn – It is the burn which involves the superficial layer of the skin or
tissues characterized by redness and pain, but later on sloughing of the skin after
a few many days. Example: Sunburn

 Second degree burn – It is the burn which involves the superficial layer of the
skin and tissue, nerve endings and is characterized by the formation of blisters
containing fluid over the tissues. This is the most painful burn because of the
irritation of the nerve endings.

 Third degree burn – It is the burn involving the skin, nerves, muscles and bones
which is usually encountered in victims of conflagrations. This is the most sever
burn because the victim usually dies from loss of fluid and electrolyte in the body
and massive infection.

Physical Injuries or Deaths due to Electricity: The fatal electrocution is subdivided into
three groups according to voltage: Domestic voltage, Industrial voltage and Lightning.

Factors that influence the effect of electric shock:

 Physical or mental fatigue.
 Cardiac disease.

 Awareness of electric shop.

 Sleep.

 Voltage: A volt is the unit of electromotive force. It is the force which requires to
produces one ampere of intensity when passed through a conductor having the
resistance of one ohm. Voltages of 50 or less are usually not fatal but most
facilities follow exposure to voltages over 220 to 250 volts.

 Amperes: It is the unit of intensity of an electric current. This is the principal factor
and is determined by dividing the voltage by the resistance of the conductor in
Ohms. Amperage of 70-80 in alternating current or 250 voltages in direct current
is dangerous to man.

 Resistance of the body: The unit of electrical resistance is the ohm which is
defined as the resistance of a column of mercury of specified height and width at
a specified temperature. The resistance of the skin to electric current constitutes
the body’s main protection. Dry intact skin is a good insulator, and the skin of the
palms of the hands and soles of the feet offers the most resistance to the
passage of electric current. If the palms were thickened by manual labor, the
resistance may be 1 and 2 million ohms. The more vascular the areas of the skin
offer the least resistance. Sweating or moisture reduces this resistance. Blood is
a good conductor and once the source of current is in contact with the vascular
corium, the resistance is very low.

 Nature of the current: Alternating current is more lethal than direct current when
the current flows constantly in the same direction.

 Earthing – Grounding: The better the contact between a person and the earth
when the electric shock is sustained, the more dangerous it is the person.
Dryness of the skin; wearing of rubber boots, shoes or glove; dryness of the floor
and better insulation of the metallic conductor gives better resistance of the body
to electric current.

 Duration of contact: The period of contact with the source of current is important.
Low voltage current may prove dangerous if maintained for long period but high
voltage require only short duration to produce death.
  Kinds of electrodes: Some metals are good conductors while others are not or
poor conductors of electricity.

 Point of entrance: The passage of electric current to the left sided of the body is
more dangerous than to the right side because of the predominant location of the
heart on the left side of the body.

Classifications of Asphyxia:
 Asphyxia by Hanging: Hanging is a state of injury or death of the body whereby
the ligature tightened over the neck by the suspension of the body. Complete
hanging is a condition of hanging when the fact do not touch the flow while
incomplete hanging occurs when the victim is sitting, kneeling, lying or the whole
suspended body does not cause complete compression of the neck.

Determination whether hanging is suicidal, homicidal or accidental:

 Suicidal hanging: In death by hanging, it is usually suicidal unless proven

otherwise. Some evidence to be ascertained are as follows: Accessible materials
used for ligature like rope, rolled beddings or wires; Identification of the fibers
from the rope in the hands of the victim; Evidences of movement of the rope on
the beam or anchorage from upward downward as the body has been
suspended; History of desperation in life, suicidal note and others; Testimony
from witnesses.

 In homicidal hanging: There is a presence of defense wound in the body of the

victim; Presence of blood attains and other injuries to the body of the victim;
Presence of signs of struggle in clothing, furniture, beddings and others; Nature
of the windows, curtains and doors as well as disturbances of the surroundings.

 Asphyxia by Strangulation: Strangulation by ligature is done by tying the ligature

around the neck and two ends pulled in the opposite direction in such manner
that tightens the ligature. It is usually homicidal and the ligature used may be a
rope, chain, wire, vines, rolled clothing and others. Findings in strangulation by
ligatures.

 External findings: Ligature mark over the neck, wherein the degree of marking is
variable. Petechiae of the skin on the face and conjunctiva; Face livid and
swollen; and eyes opened and congested.

 Manual strangulation or Throttling: It is strangulation with the use of the hands in

applying pressure for 2 minutes or more the neck to produce death. The usual
 course of events is that the airway is obstructed by direct pressure, and that the
death is the result of asphyxia.

 Special forms of strangulation. Palmar strangulation: A form of strangulation

wherein the palms of the hand will be used in supplying pressure over the neck
while the assailant is either in front or at the back of the victim.

 Garroting: It is the strangulation which is a means of judicial execution wherein a

ligature, metal strap or bowstring is placed around the neck and tightened to the
point of compressing the neck of the convict.

 Mugging: A form of strangulation wherein the assailant uses the arm or forearm;
legs or thigh in compressing the neck of the victim.

 Compression of the neck with a stick, rod or pipe: This is the strangulation
wherein a piece of stick, rod or pipe is used in applying pressure over the neck
and the assailant is either in front or at the back of the victim.

 Asphyxia by Suffocation: Smothering: It is the closure of the mouth or nose by

solid objects such as the hands, pillows, cushions, clothing, paper, mud or by a
hard surface applied externally. Homicidal and accidental smothering is common.
Accidental smothering occurs usually in comatose or drunken persons, mentally
disturbed or those persons who are weak or unconscious.

 Choking: It is the obstruction of the respiratory tract by foreign bodies which may
be a bolus of food, blood, false teeth or any hard material. It is usually accidental.

 Asphyxia by Drowning or Submersion: Drowning or Submersion is a condition of

asphyxia due to plunging in water or other liquid in such manner that there is a
hindrance in a free passage of air though the respiratory tracts as well as free
exchange of gases in the lungs as the mouth and nose are submerged in the
fluid.

 Asphyxia by compression of the chest – Traumatic Crush Asphyxia is a condition

of death due to external compression of the thorax and abdomen with
consequent prevention of respiratory movement.

 Burking is a form of traumatic crush asphyxia invented by Burke and Hare

wherein the victim is murdered by kneeling or sitting on the chest and with hands,
the nostrils and mouths are closed. Afterwards, the cadaver is sold to medical
schools for scientific studies. There are usually no external findings but internally
may show manifestations referable to asphyxia.
  Asphyxia by breathing irrespirable gases: Some gases when inhaled or comes in
contact with the body will produce gas poisoning and is therefore dangerous to
life and health. Toxicity following inhalation of those irrespirable gases may result
from: Deprivation of oxygen; Direct irritation of the respiratory passages;
Narcosis; Specific differential toxic effect on certain organs.

 The most common gases which cause asphyxial death are carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide.

Injuries in Motor-Vehicular Accidents:

 Impact injuries – The injuries sustained by the pedestrian when the vehicle struck
the body.

 Secondary injuries – It is the injury sustained by the victim’s striking other objects
such as the ground, fence, post, walls and others.

 Crash injury – Injuries in the body if the person has been run-over, the severity of
which depending upon the weight of the vehicle and its clearances from the
ground. There may be fracture of the cranium and other bones; rupture and
laceration of organs causing internal hemorrhages.

 Turn-turtle injuries – Injuries sustained by the occupants of the vehicle when the
vehicle turns around or upside down. Some occupants may be pinned down,
crushed or thrown out.

 Physical injuries or Death due to Radiations from Radio-active substances

radiations emitted: It may be in the form of alpha, beta and gamma rays from
radio-active substances such as from the natural radio-active elements in the
earth and atmosphere; radiations used in medicine and industry; radiations in
nuclear reactors; and radiations from the by-products of other processes like high
voltage apparatus or radio-active bombs.

 The most dangerous ray which is deleterious to life and health is the gamma ray
which has a high energy, high penetrating power and destructive to the tissue. It
cab be taken in the body by inhalation, ingestion, skin, absorption and
therapeutic injection. The radio active effect may be seen in the skin, bone
marrows, lymphoid tissues, gut and gonads.
  In the bone marrow the radiation destroys or prevents the formation of blood
elements like red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets in such a manner
that there is depletion of these in the blood.

 A ‘permissible dose’ of any ionizing radiation is a dose of radiation that, in the

light of the present knowledge, is not expected to cause appreciable bodily injury
to a person at any time during his lifetime. This is the dose that the investigator
assessed in estimating the age of the bones of man and animals.

Starvation: Starvation or Inanition is a deprivation of food and/ or water which is

necessary for the maintenance of life and health. The length of survival depends upon
the body built, age, sex, concomitant disease and the presence or absence of water.
Without food and water a person cannot survive in 7-10 days, but in those without food
but with water the length of survival period is about 30-60 days.

 Acute starvation – It is the starvation which occurs when the food and or water is
suddenly and completely withdrawn.

 Chronic starvation – It is the starvation wherein the deprivation of food and or

water occurs in a gradual manner.

Sexual offenses and deviations: Sex is an inborn instinct of man. Any person without
sexual desire is considered abnormal. Sexual crime may generally be classified into
two; harassment and assault both of which are not only a transgression of the law but
such acts are considered as insulting to norms and culture of society.

Sexual harassment is a sexual act committed by any person by uttering obscene

language which irritates the victim as well as the unconventional sexual acts which are
not in conformity with the moral standard in a society. Sexual assault is “genderless
crime” which involves unconventional sexual acts of violence and aggression committed
on the genital, oral or anal orifice of another person.

Carnal knowledge is a sexual act involving bodily connection done by penetration

of the sex organ of the male with that of the female organ. It is interchangeably used
with sexual intercourse or coitus.

Importance of medical evidence to the criminologist: Understanding of the medical

evidences in sexual crimes. For the proper preservation of the specimen to be needed
for medical examination. Appreciation of the probative value of the medical evidence of
sexual crime in court.

Sexual Deviation: Sexual deviation is an unnatural sexual behavior by certain individual

which is done usually in privacy but maybe done in public or done in a bizarre manner.
The sexually deviant individual who indulged to some sexual deviations may sometimes
lead to the commission of sexual offenses, but most of the individuals do not exhibit
criminal intent but only a normal sexual act or a manifestation of mental disorder.

 Lust murder – Necrosadism: An aggressive sexual behavior wherein the offender

performed sexual intercourse or other sexual act and then kills the victim
afterwards.

 Sadism – A sexual behavior wherein the offender inflict harm to another person in
order to attain sexual gratification. A sadist is an individual who gains sexual
satisfaction from harming another person.

 Masochism – A sexual perversion in which sexual pleasure maybe attained after

being whipped or harmed. The masochist usually a female gains sexual
gratification by experiencing pain before, during or after sexual act.

 Exhibitionism – Indecent exposure: This is a willful exposure of the naked body in

public for sexual gratification.

 Mixoscopia – A sexual perversion wherein sexual pleasure is attained by

watching couples engaged in sexual intercourse within a group of people.

 Aoshianism – Tribadism: A sexual perversion in which sexual pleasure may be

done by sexual intercourse or sexual activity between 2 women.

 Pluralism – A sexual activity done by 2 or more couples performing sexual

intercourse at the same time, in the same room or places, and then exchange
partners afterwards as a result of sexual festival. Also known as “orgy”.

 Troilism – A sexual act involving three persons performing sexual intercourse,

fellatio, cunnilingus and other sexual activities. 3 persons consisting of 2 men
and a woman or a man and two women sexual partners.

 Incest – A sexual relation with a relative.

 Masturbation – Self- gratification: A form of sexual deviation done by fondling or

touching the external genital organ to attain sexual pleasure.

 Voyeurism – Peeping Tom: A sexual act performed by male and sometimes the
female wherein sexual pleasure is attained by seeing persons undressing or
engaged in sexual activity.

 Satyriasis – An excessive desire for sexual intercourse in the male.

 Partialism – A sexual deviation found in the male who have special affinity on
certain parts of the body of female to arouse sexual pleasure before intercourse.

 Cunninglingus – A sexual deviation in the male where in gratification may be

attained by licking or sucking the female genital organ, usually, this is followed by
sexual intercourse.

 Sodomy – A form of sexual perversion seen in person in the prisons or mental

hospitals in which sexual intercourse done to the anus of another person.

 Bestiality – A sexually deviation usually done by person with mental disorder in

which sexual intercourse is performed with the animals.

 Paedeastia – A sexual perversion wherein the male performed the passive role
while the female is in active role in sexual intercourse.

 Necrophilia – A sexual perversion wherein pleasure may be attained by sexual

act or sexual intercourse with a corpse.

 Don Juanism – A sexual behavior in the male who is characterized to have many
women in his life.

 Nymphomania – It is an excessive desire for sexual intercourse in the female.

 Fellatio – A sexual deviation wherein the partner places the male genital organ in
the mouth to attain sexual gratification.

 Narcissism – A sexual perversion wherein a person has extreme admiration and

love for oneself in which pleasure is attained by being naked and watching
oneself in the mirror.

 Transvestism – It is a homosexual deviation that enjoys sex by wearing clothing

usually belonging to the opposite sex.

 Frottage – A sexual deviation done usually in crowded places by the male who
attains sexual pleasure by rubbing against some parts of the body of the opposite
sex.

 Fetishism – A form of sexual perversion found in the male who attains sexual
pleasure from the clothing or body parts of the female. It is different from
partialism in the sense that it confers on the clothing or body parts of the female
which arouse sexual feeling and produce orgasm without sexual intercourse to
follow in partialism.
  Pedophilia – A sexual deviation wherein a person had an erotic sexual desire on
children and gratification is attained by touching the private sex organs of
children.

 Coprolalia – A sexual deviation characterized by the use of obscene language as

the sole power to arouse sexual excitement. It is exemplified in the form of
obscene letter writing and obscene telephone calling.

Virginity is a condition of a woman or female who have not experienced sexual

intercourse or whose genital organs had not been altered by coitus. Defloration is the
rupture or laceration of the hymen in woman due to sexual intercourse. It is the common
occurrence among the bride in a newly married couple or in a virgin who had first
engaged in sexual intercourse with another man.

 Moral virginity – It is a state of virginity wherein a female is not physical matured

or still not conscious about sex and had not experienced sexual intercourse. It is
usually seen in female children whose secondary sex characteristics and sex
organs have not yet been fully developed.

 Physical virginity – A condition of virginity wherein a woman is already conscious

about sex and had already developed the sexual organs and sex characteristics
but has not yet experienced sexual intercourse. The hymen is a thin membrane
covering between true physical virginity and false physical virginity.

 False physical virginity is a condition in woman who is sexually matured, had not
experienced sexual intercourse and whose hymen is distensible, although not
ruptured.

 Demi-virginity – This is a virginity wherein the woman had some, sexual act with
either man or woman but with the exception of sexual intercourse or rupturing of
the hymen. The sexual acts maybe exhibitionism or partialism.

 Virgo-intacts – This is not actually virginity because the woman had one or more
sexual intercourse with another man but had not borne a child yet.

Evidence to prove virginity and defloration: The external genital organs and other
female parts make them extremely vulnerable to injury in medico-legal cases. Breasts:
The breast is 2 mass of fleshy tissues at the region of the chest with its nipple at the
center and surrounded by pinkish-brown areola. In sexual crimes, injuries may be
observed in the breast such as abrasion marks from the grip of the fingers, laceration
and even bite marks over the nipples.
Vaginal canal: It is a muscular-membranous canal used as a female copulation organ
and covered by hymen externally. The lining of the vaginal canal formed numerous
transverse ridges. The vagina if not altered is usually tight and with sharp distinct
rugosities; however; if altered such as in sexual intercourse, placing instruments and
even strenuous physical activity, the canal maybe lax and with flattening of the rugae.

Labia majora and Labia minora – The labia majora which cover the labia minora are
composed of two layers: a thick pigmented outer layer covered with hairs and an inner
smooth layer containing sebaceous follicles. The labia minora is devoid of hair follicles
but contains sebaceous glands and had a tendency to be erectile. These structures are
not used as basis to conclusively determine the virginity of a woman. The labia majora
and labia minora maybe gaping in some women and yet have not experienced sexual
intercourse while others may have plump, firm and well coaptated labia but have
already experienced sexual intercourse.

Fourchette and Perineum – The fourchette is the V- shape structure formed by the
union of the labia minora posteriorly and below the vaginal orifice. Perineum is the area
between the posterior commisure of the labia majora and the anterior margin of the
anus. This is lacerated during the passage of the fetus in the birth canal and in sexual
act.

Hymen – The hymen is a thin fold or mucus membrane attached around the vaginal
orifice. Its shape and structure may determine the appearance of the vaginal orifice. It
may be partially closing the vaginal orifice, presenting an opening that vary in size from
a pinpoint to a caliber that readily admits the tip of one or even two examining fingers. It
maybe a delicate membrane that can easily be ruptured or maybe tough and fibrous. It
is ruptured during sexual act, instrumentation, childbirth and strenuous physical activity
of a woman.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) refers to the chemical inside the nucleus of all cells
that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms. A DNA molecule is
made up of two strands that wrap around each other to resemble a twisted ladder. The
sides are made of sugar and phosphate molecules. The “rungs” are made of nitrogen –
containing chemicals called bases. Each strand is composed of one sugar molecule,
one phosphate molecule, one phosphate molecule, and a base. Four different bases
are present in DNA – adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). The
particular order of the bases arranged along the sugar – phosphate backbone is called
the DNA sequence.
 The sequence specifies the exact genetic instructions required to create a
particular organism with its own unique traits. Each strand of the DNA molecule is held
together at its base by a weak bond. The four bases pair in a set manner: Adenine (A)
pairs with thymine (T), while cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G). These pairs of bases
are known as Base pairs (bp).

These Base Pairs (bp) are the basis of Y- chromosome testing. Components of
DNA: DNA is a polymer. The monomer units of DNA are nucleotides, and the polymer is
known as a “polynucleotide”. Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar
(deoxyribose), a nitrogen containing base attached to the sugar, and a phosphate
group.

There are four different types of nucleotides found in DNA, differing only in the
nitrogenous base. The four nucleotides are given one letter abbreviations as shorthand
for the four bases. A is for adenine, G is for guanine, C is for cytosine, T is for thymine.
Pyrimidine Bases: Cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines. The 6 stoms, 4 carbons, 2
nitrogen are numbered 1-6. Like purines, all pyrimidine ring atoms lie in the same plane.

 Purine Bases: Adenine and guanine are purines. Purines are the larger of the two
types of bases found in DNA. The 9 atoms that make up the fused rings are 5
carbon, 4 nitrogen numbered 1-9. With all ring atoms lie in the same plane.
Deoxyribose Sugar: The deoxyribose sugar of the DNA backbone has 5 carbons
and 3 oxygen. The carbon atoms are numbered 1’, 2’, 3’, 4’, and 5’ to distinguish
from the numbering of the atoms of the purine and pyrimidine rings. The hydroxyl
groups on the 5’- and 3’- carbons link to the phosphate groups to form the DNA
backbone.

 Deoxyribose lacks a hydroxyl group at the 2’- position when compared to ribose,
the sugar component of RNA. Nucleosides: A nucleoside is one of the four DNA
bases covalently attached to the C1’ position of a sugar. The sugar in
deoxynucleosides is 2’- deoxyribose.

 The sugar in ribonucleosides is ribose. Nucleosides differ from nucleotides in that

they lack phosphate groups. The four different nucleosides of DNA are
deoxyadenosine (dA), deoxyguanosine (dG), deoxycytosine (Dc), and
deoxythimidine (dT, or T).

 Nucleotides: A nucleotide is a nucleoside with one or more phosphate groups

covalently attached to the 3’- and or 5’-hydroxyl group(s).

 DNA Backbone: The DNA backbone is a polymer with an alternating sugar-

phosphate sequence. The deoxyxribose sugars are joined at both the 3’-hydroxyl
 and 5’-hydroxyl groups to phosphate groups in ester links, also known as
“phosphodiester” bonds.

 DNA Double Helix: DNA is a normally double stranded macromolecule. Two

polynucleotide chains, held together by weak thermodynamic forces, form a DNA
molecule.

 Features of the DNA Double Helix: Two DNA strands from a helical spiral.
winding around a helix axis in a right-handed spiral, the two polynucleotide
chains run in opposite directions, the sugar-phosphate backbones of the two
DNA strands wind around the helix axis like the railing of a spiral staircase and
the bases of the individual nucleotides are on the inside of the helix, stacked on
top of each other like the steps of a spiral staircase.

 Any type of organism can be identified by examination of DNA sequences unique

to that species. To identify individuals, forensic scientists scan 13 DNA regions
that vary from person to person and use the data to create a DNA profile of that
individual (sometimes called a DNA fingerprint). There is an extremely small
chance that another person has the same DNA profile for a particular set of
regions.

Examples of DNA Uses for Forensic Identification:

 Identify potential suspects whose DNA may match evidence left at crime scenes.
 Exonerate persons wrongly accused of crimes.
 Identify crime and catastrophe victims.
 Establish paternity and other family relationships.
 Identify endangered and protected species as an aid to wildlife officials.
 Detect bacteria and other organisms that may pollute, air, water, soil and food.
 Match organs donors with recipients in transplant programs.
 Determine pedigree for seed or livestock breeds.

DNA typing: Scientists find the markers in a DNA sample by designing small pieces of
DNA (probes) that will each seek out and bind to a complementary DNA sequence in
the sample. A series of probes bound to a DNA sample creates a distinctive pattern for
an individual. Forensic scientists compare these DNA profiles to determine whether the
suspect’s sample matches the evidence sample.
Experts point out that using DNA forensic technology is far superior to
eyewitness accounts, where the odds for correct identification are about 50:50. The
more probes used in DNA analysis, the greater the odds for a unique pattern and
against a coincidental match, but each additional probe adds greatly to the time and
expense of testing. Four to six probes are recommended.
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) – RFLP is a technique for analyzing
the variable lengths of DNA fragments that result from digesting a DNA sample with a
special kind of enzyme. This enzyme, a restriction endonuclease, cuts DNA at a specific
sequence pattern known as restriction endonuclease recognition site. The presence or
absence of certain recognition sites in a DNA sample generates variable lengths of DNA
fragments, which are separated using gel electrophoresis. They are then hybridized with
DNA probes that bind to a complementary DNA sequence in the sample.

RLFP is one of the original applications of DNA analysis to forensic investigation. With
the development of newer, more efficient DNA-analysis techniques, RLFP is not used as
mush as it once was because it requires relative large amounts of DNA. In addition,
samples degraded by environmental factors, such as dirt or mold, do not work well with
RFLP.

PCR Analysis: PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is used to make millions of exact
copies of DNA from a biological sample. DNA amplification with PCR allows DNA
analysis on biological samples as small as few skin cells. With RFLP, DNA samples
would have to be about the size of a quarter. The ability of PCR to amplify such tiny
quantities of DNA enables even highly degraded samples to be analyzed. Great care,
however, must be taken to prevent contamination with other biological materials during
the identifying, collecting, and preserving a sample.

STR Analysis: Short tandem repeats (STR) technology is used to evaluate specific
regions (loci) within nuclear DNA. Variability in STR regions can be used to distinguish
one DNA profile from another.

The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) uses a standard set of 13 specific STR
regions for CODIS. CODIS is a software program that operates local, state and national
databases of DNA profiles from convicted offenders, unsolved crime scene evidence,
and missing persons. The odds that two individuals will have the same 13-loci DNA
profile are about one in one billion.

Mitochondrial DNA Analysis: Mitochondrial DNA analysis (mtDNA) can be used to

examine the DNA from samples that cannot be analyzed by RLFP or STR. Nuclear DNA
must be extracted from samples for use in RLFP, PCR, and STR; however, mtDNA
analysis uses DNA extracted from another cellular organelle called a mitochondrion.
While other biological samples that lack nucleated cellular material, such as hair, bones,
and teeth, cannot be analyzed with mtDNA. In the investigation cases that have gone
unsolved for many years, mtDNA is extremely valuable. All mothers have the same
mitochondrial DNA as their daughters. This is because the mitochondria of each new
embryo come from the mother’s egg cell. The father’s sperm contributes only nuclear
DNA. Comparing the mtDNA profile of unidentified remains with the profile of a potential
maternal relative can be an important technique in missing person investigations.

Y- Chromosome Analysis: The Y chromosome is passed directly from father to son, so

the analysis of genetic markers on the Y chromosome is especially useful for tracing
relationships among males or for analyzing biological evidence involving multiple male
contributors.

Chromosomes: Chromosomes are paired threadlike “packages” of long segments of

DNA contained within the nucleus of each cell. In humans there are 23 pairs of
chromosomes. In 22 pairs, both members are essentially identical, one deriving from
individual’s mother, the other from the father. The 23 rd pair is different. In females this
pair has two like chromosomes called “X”. In males it comprises one “X” and one “Y”,
two very dissimilar chromosomes.

It is these chromosomes differences which determine sex. The Y- Chromosome:

Human sex is determined by the X and Y chromosomes. A female has 2 X-
Chromosomes and a male has an X and A Y-Chromosome. When a child is conceived it
gets one chromosome from its mother and one chromosome from its father. The
chromosome from the mother will always be an X, but the chromosome from the father
may be either X or Y. If the child gets the X she will be a girl, if the child gets the Y he
will be a boy.

PART VII
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY

Forensic Chemistry is defined as the branch of chemistry which deals with the
application of chemical principles in the solution of problems which arise in connection
with the administration of justice. It embraces a diversified field concerning among
others the chemical side of criminal investigation. The work of a forensic chemist is
primarily divided into four stages which are as follows: collection and reception of the
specimen to be examined; actual analysis and examination; communication and
interpretation of the result of the examination and actual court appearance as an expert
witness.

The following principle serves as a basic guide to efficiently and effective conduct their
work:
 Sufficiency of samples;
 Standard for comparison;
 Maintenance of individuality;
 Labeling and sealing.

The importance of blood and blood stains as evidence in criminal cases is of great
significance:

Blood is referred to as the circulating tissue of the body. It is used as a

corroborative and circumstantial evidence, in disputed parentage, it is also used to
determine the cause and time of death of the victim, the determination of escape of the
assailant and the approximation of the time the crime was committed.

To ascertain the above-mentioned the following examinations are mainly utilized:

A. Physical tests

1. Solubility test: Blood-stained material is placed in a saline solution will give a bright
red color of the solution. This solution can be used for further examination of the blood.

2. Heat test: The blood-stained material soaked in a saline solution and heated will have
sediments or precipitates.

3. Luminescence test: Stains on dark fabric with mud, paint and other substances will
emit bluish-white luminescence in a dark room when sprayed with a special solution due
to the reaction of hematin crystal. Although the solution does not interfere with further
test, unsprayed specimen of the material must be kept for the serologic test. (Lyon’s
Medical Jurisprudence for India, 10 ed., 1953, p. 303)

B. Chemical Tests: Although there is yet no chemical test which gives positive proof of
the presence of blood but these are test which are of help in indicating which stains
should be submitted for further examination.

 Benzidine test: A fragment of the suspected stain is placed in the filter paper.
Drop a solution consisting of one part of a 10 % solution of benzidine in glacial
acetic acid (freshly made) and 10 parts hydrogen peroxide. A rapidly developing
blue or blue green color indicates the presence of blood. However, oxidizing
agents other than blood also gives this reaction, so that the test is more reliable
 when negative than positive. This test has the sensitivity up to 1:300,000
dilutions.

 Guaiacum test – (Van Deen’s Day’s or Schombein’s test). Pressed and rubbed
the surface of the stain to the white filter paper. The solution of the alcoholic
tincture of guaiacum is added, and then hydrogen peroxide or ozonic ether is
applied by drops. A blue color is indicative of the presence of blood, although
other substances like potato, skin, iron rust, cheese, blue indigo gives positive
results. The guiacum test is positive up to 1:50,000 dilutions.

 Phenolphthalein test – (Kastle-Meyer test): The Kastle-Meyer reagent is dropped

on a white filter with stained material. After 10 seconds, a drop of hydrogen
peroxide is placed. A pink color indicates the presence of peroxidase. This test is
sensitive up to 1:80,000 dilutions.

 Leucomalachite Green test: With the use of hydrogen peroxide, the

leuchomalachite green is oxidized to malachite green giving a bluish green or
peacock blue color of the solution if blood is present.

 Blood stained material in saline plus ammonia will give a brown solution due to
the formation of alkaline hematin.

C. Microscopic Examination: The presence of red blood cells, white blood cells,
platelets, epithelial cells and bacteria maybe seen when the saline extract of the stained
material is examined under the microscope. The examination relies on the isolation of
corpuscles and a consideration of their shapes size and the presence or absence of
nuclei. The fact that a stain is old will detract from the value of this because of alteration
to red cells.

The presence of blood in the mammals maybe distinguished by the shape and
appearance of the corpuscles all possessing circular discs. Menstrual blood will show
vaginal epithelium and doederlein’s bacillus.

D. Micro-chemical test:

 Teichmann’s test or Haemin crystals: A small portion of the stain is scraped off,
and placed on a microscope slide. From a garment, the stain or a small part of it,
maybe cut out and placed on the slide, and finally covered with a cover slip. A
drop of glacial acetic in which is dissolved 0.1 gram of potassium iodide, chloride
and bromide is run under the cover slide and, the slide is warmed over the flame
when bubbles appear, and on cooling is brought to the flame again. Overheating
must be avoided for production of crystals. Haemin crystals are red-brown which
 are bean shapes or dumb-bell shape in appearance. The crystal may be usually
located at the periphery of the cover slip.

 Takayama’s test for Haemochromogen crystals: A small piece of suspected stain

is placed on a slide and covered with a cover slip. Two or three drops of
Takayama’s reagent are made to drop at the sides of the cover slip. Salmon pink
crystals assume the shape of shallow rhomboids which, in the mass appear as
feathery aggregates. A recommendation for this test is the very characteristics
spectrum produced by the haemochromogen.

 Acetone Haemin test – Wagenhaar test: A dried stain or stained fabric is placed
on a glass slide and cored with a cover slip with a needle interposed it prevents
direct contact of the cover slip with the slide. Drop acetone at the slide under the
cover slip so that the material is surrounded and a drop of dilute exalic or acetic
acid is the added. When examined under the high power microscope, the small
dark dicroic, acicular crystals of acetone haemin are seen.

E. Spectroscopic Examination: The blood pigments, which is the hemoglobin and its
derivative compound have the power of absorbing light of certain wave length and
produces certain characteristics bands on the spectrum with the use of spectroscope. In
newly fresh blood stains, the hemoglobin, oxyhemoglobin and hematin kaline hematin,
hematoporphyrin and reduced hematin maybe determine. Other hemoglobin derivatives
such as acid hematin, alkaline hematin, carboxyhemoglobin, and hematin maybe
observed.
F. Biologic Examination:

1. Precipitin test: This test is of value in the determination whether the blood is of
human origin or not although of the anthropoid ape and related animal may give the
same result. It also determine whether muscles, secretions, bones, seminal fluid and
other body fluids are of human origin or not. However, other chemical substances like
alcohol, formaldehyde, corrosive sublimate, Lysol, creoline, carbolic acids and alkalies
when mixed with blood destroy the property of the blood to react with precipitin.

Blood Grouping: The blood is composed of certain chemical substances called antigens
located on the red blood cell surface. These blood substances are detected by their
reaction with the corresponding anti-bodies present in the plasma of certain individuals
who lack antigen. The observable characteristics of the anti-bodies are their ability to
clump or agglutinate red blood cell possessing the corresponding antigen. Antigen in the
blood such as agglutinogen has been identified as A, B, AB, and O which are found in
the same or different blood of individuals.

Agglutinogen O A B AB
O O A B AB
B - - - -
A - - - AB

Agglutinin Groups –cells

Anti –A Agglutinogen
Anti – B
Anti – O

Interpretation of results:

 No agglutination with either groups A and B sera = Group O;

Agglutination with both group A and B sera = Group AB;
Agglutination with A but none with B sera = Group B;
Agglutination with B but none with A sera = Group A.

Derivation of Offspring (Landsteiner)

Group of Parents Group of Children

OxO O
OxA O, A
OxB O, B
AxA O, A
AxB O, A, B, AB
BxB O, B
O x AB A, B
A x AB A, B, AB
B x AB A, B, AB
AB x AB A, B, AB

Exclusion cases
A, B, AB A, AB
B, AB O, AB
A, AB O
B, AB O

Seminal Stains:

Semen refers to a viscid gelatinous, sticky character which is composed of

seminal fluid and cellular elements it is slightly alkaline in reaction. For most sexual
offenses, semen and stains is the key in determining whether the accused had a role in
the commission of the crime. A normal male would excrete 1.5 to 3.5 cc of semen per
ejaculation which should contain 400 to 500 million spermatozoa.

The following examinations are conducted on semen and seminal stains:

 Physical examination – dry semen gives starchy feeling while fresh ones give an
off white color and fishy odor. When ultraviolet light is used it is indicated by
giving a bluish fluorescence.

 Chemical examination which is presumptive in nature may be undertaken by

using the Florence test which forms brown rhombic shape crystals when positive
however this test is very delicate to administer; Barberio’s test which may be
efficient for testing stains up to 6 years; and Acid Phosphate test which is reliable
in the identification of seminal stains.

 Microscopic examination: The primary purpose of this examination is to detect

spermatozoa.

 Biological examination. This test is of value in the identification of seminal fluid

using the spermato-precipitin which may determine whether the semen is human
or from animal origin.

Gun Powder and other explosives:

The interest of forensic chemist concerning gunpowder is generally confined with black
powder and smokeless powder. When either any of the two is used residues are left in
the target and may be used to determine the distance between the muzzle of the
firearm and the victim at the time it was fired.

The perpetrator’s hand would also receive such residues after firing the gun;
hence it may be used as basis for the dermal nitrate or (DPA) diphenylamine paraffin
test, proving that the suspect discharged a firearm. A visible result of deep blue specks
when nitrate contacts the diphenylamine reagent would indicate that the subject person
may have fired a gun.

Limitations of DPA test:

 The test cannot determine the source of nitrate;

 Other substances such as fertilizers, tobacco, firecracker, urine, detergent and

cosmetics may give false positive results;
  The examination is not specific for nitrate since the role of the nitrate is that of an
oxidizing agent;

 The use of gloves, knowledge of chemicals that will remove nitrates, excessive
perspiration, wind velocity and direction will give negative results even if the
person actually fired a gun.

Explosives refer to any substance which may cause a detonation by the sudden
decomposition or combustion. Explosions are always accompanied with the liberation of
heat and formation of gas.

Classification of explosives as to the functioning characteristic:

 Propellant – also known as low explosives they are combustible materials

containing within themselves all oxygen necessary for combustion. E.g. fire
crackers, smokeless powder, pyro-techniques.

 Primary explosives – also referred to as initiators they detonate when they are
subjected to shock or heated. E.g. lead azide, mercury fulminate.

 High explosives – They detonate under the influence of shock of the explosion of
a primary explosive.

Ammonium nitrate which is the cheapest and most readily available salt of
nitric acid.
TNT – trinitrotoluene it is the most widely use explosive. Picric acid Plastic
explosives used by military units.
Nitroglycerine – most widely used commercial explosive.
RDX – Considered as one of the most important military explosive used
today.
C-4 – A plastic explosive which is white and dough like in texture.
Chloroacetophenone – CN is the principal component in the filler used in
tear gas solutions.

 Fire bombs such as Molotov cocktail which is an incendiary device, acids mixed
with gasoline, alcohol and gasoline, etc.

Hair and textile fibers:

Hair is a specialized outgrowth of the skin which occurs almost everywhere on

the human body except the soles of the foot and palm of the hand. It is generally
classified as real hair which is long and stiff and fuzz hair which is short, fine and
sometimes wooly and curly.

The use of hair as evidence is older than that of the fingerprint. It may prove of
value in identifying both the suspect and the victim in the crime. Hair and other fibers
may be difficult to locate and may require a thorough search.

Parts of the Hair:

 Root – that portion embedded on the skin. It is classified as either living roots or
those found on hair on full growth and dry roots or those referred to as dead
roots.

 Shaft – it is the most distinctive part of the hair. It consist of the cuticle or the
outermost covering of the hair; the cortex which is the thickest layer of the shaft;
and the medulla or core which is the central canal of the hair.

 Tip – the distal end of the uncut hair shaft.

Aspects of hair examination:

 Hair may be used to distinguish hair from either of human or animal origin,

 Determination of characteristic by race, sex, the approximate age of the

individual and the region or part from which human hair was taken or removed.

Textile fibers are generally classified as natural and synthetic textile fibers.

 Natural fibers may be vegetable (cellulosic), mineral and animal (protein) fibers.
While synthetic fibers are classified as either organic or inorganic fibers.

 Methods of fiber identification: Simple preliminary macroscopic tests,

Microscopic examinations, Tests employing chemical reagents, solvents and
stains.

Methods of identification and quantitative separation:

 Simple preliminary macroscopic tests.

 Microscopic examinations.

 Tests employing chemical reagents, solvents and stains.

 Methods of identification and quantitative separation:

  Burning test – used to determine whether fiber is animal or of vegetable material.
For animal fibers – fumes turn red litmus to blue, fibers burn slowly and give odor
similar to that of feather. For vegetables fibers – fibers burn rapidly giving off little
fumes which turn blue litmus to red.

 Color test

 Solubility test.

Papers and inks are considered essential materials in the analysis and examination,
they indicate the age of document by means of analysis of watermark and fiber
composition in papers, presence of alterations, erasures and some forms of forgery may
be manifested.

Papers are basically composed of fibers which maybe either mechanical pulp
soda sulfite mixture, cotton rag or linen rag; sizing material which is added to improve
pap texture such as starch, gelatin, rosin and casein and loading materials which is
added to paper to partially fill the pores between the fibers adding weight to the paper
such as barium sulfate and calcium sulfate. Egyptian papyrus is known as one of the
earliest substance used for writing purposes.

Test for papers:

 Preliminary examination:
Examination of folds and creases,
Observation of odor,
Presence of discoloration,
Study of impressions caused by transmitted light,
Study of watermarks and wire marks.

 Physical test causing no perceptible change:

Measurement of weight; width; length of paper;
Analysis of texture, gloss, opacity and color of paper.

 Physical test causing a perceptible change:

POP test or bursting strength test.
Folding endurance test,
Absorption test,
Accelerated aging test.

 Chemical Tests

Kinds of Inks:
  Iron nutgall – (blue) also known as Gallo tannic ink is the most frequently used
ink used for making documents and entries.

 Ballpoint pen ink – it is made of light fast dyes soluble in glycol type solvents
such as oleic acid and carbitol.

 Color writing ink – composed of synthetic aniline dyestuffs dissolved in water,

ammonium vanadate is added to make writing permanent.

 Logwood ink – (black) it is a cheap ink which does not corrode steel pens and
made up of saturated solution of logwood, potassium dichromate, hydrochloric
acid and phenol as preservative.

 Aniline ink – (purple black or blue black) also known nigrosine ink it is composed
primarily of coal tar dissolved in water.

 India ink – also known as Chinese ink or carbon ink, it is the oldest ink material
known to man.

Test for inks:

 Physical test,

 Spot test or chemical test,

 Paper chromatography test.

Glass: It is a super cooled liquid made primarily of silicon which possesses high rigidity
and viscosity. Its study and examination is important in some cases such as hit and run,
robbery and shooting incidents.

Test for glass:

 Spectrographic test – This will determine the element of a glass.

 X-ray diffraction test – This test is used to determine the type of glass pattern.

 Physical properties examination – This test will determine with accuracy density
of glass by flotation method and refractive index by immersion method.
 Study of polish marks – A test for fine glass.

 Ultraviolet light examination – It is used to determine the differences in physical

and chemical composition of the glass specimen.

 3 R rule – A principle used for radial cracks which states that stress lines on
radial cracks will be at right angle to the rear side of the glass.
  RFC rule – A principle used for concentric cracks, it states that stress lines on a
concentric crack will be at right angle to the front side, that is the side from which
the impact or blow came.

For holes caused by a bullet and other fragments the following observations should be
noted:

 The side where the bullet entered creates a smaller hole, the exit hole producing
a bigger cavity hence determining the direction from which the shot was fired.

 The shape of the hole is similar to that of a cone. The position of the hole is
perpendicular.

 For holes created by stones and other similar items, the crater resembles a
shape similar to that a volcano and excessive flaking is manifested.

Metallurgy: The art of extracting and working in metals by the application of chemical
and physical knowledge is used in criminal investigation when the nature of cases
would involve counterfeiting, arson, robbery and hit and run cases.

Metallography is that branch of metallurgy which involves the study of the

microstructure of metals and alloys; counterfeiting coins and tampering of serial
numbers are its most common application in police investigative work.

Kinds of counterfeit coins:

 Cast coin which is prepared in molds.

 Struck coin which is produced by stamping or striking method.

Examination of counterfeit coin is made by physical and chemical method.

For the examination of tampered serial numbers the application of etching fluid is
used to restore the original serial number.

Soil: Petrography which refers to a branch of geology which deals with the systematic
classification and identification of rocks, minerals and soils is vital in criminal
investigation in cases where soil is used as evidence.

For examination of soils the density gradient method is used which is a fairly
simple procedure of determining the identity or non-identity of soil samples based on
density distribution. It is reasonably fast and requires no special apparatus for its
completion.

Classification of soil:

 Alluvial soil – soils formed from moved, blown or washed particles to the
lowlands.

 Colluvial soil – soils formed from decomposition of metamorphic, sedimentary

and igneous rocks.

 Sedentary soil – An inactive soil.

Moulage is the faithful reproduction of an impression with the use of casting materials.
Casting materials refer to any substance which can be changed from liquid or plasctic
form to solid state.

In crime scene investigations the use of moulage is significant particularly if

imprints or weak marks made by keys, tool marks and teeth marks; impressions or
strong marks made by shoe, foot and tires are present thus requiring a mold for proper
analysis and comparison with other evidences at hand to link and detect the unknown
suspects.

Casting materials:

 Negocoll – this is a rubbery gelatinous material made of colloidal and magnesium

soaps.

 Homonit – a flesh colored resinous substance used for making positives from
necogoll negatives.

 Celerit – a brown colored substance used for backing and strengthening the
homonit.

TOXICOLOGY – Refers to the study of adverse effects of chemical, physical or

biological agents on living organisms and the ecosystem, including the prevention and
amelioration of such adverse effects. Specifically it is that branch of science which deals
with poisons, their origin, chemical and physical properties, physiological actions,
treatment and methods of detection.

A poison is any substance which hen introduced to the body is generally

absorbed by the blood stream and acts chemically and is capable of producing noxious
effects and or destroys the cells of the body. From a medical perspective there are three
types of poisoning namely acute, sub-acute and chronic poisoning.
 The conditions which maybe modify the action and effect of poison to human
beings are: age, sex, health, habit, idiosyncrasy, disease, food, sleep and exhaustion,
dilution of the poison, dose, solubility and mode of administration of the poison as well
as the conditions of the surface where the poison was applied.

Classification of poison according to kingdom:

 Animal – cantharides,
 Vegetable – strychnine,
 Mineral – hydrochloric acid

Classification of poison according to chemical properties:

 Inorganic poisons:
Volatile and non-volatile – Chlorine, bromine, sulfuric acid and iodine.
Mineral alkalies – Sodium hydroxide
Mineral acids – hydrochloric acids

 Organic poisons:
Volatile – chloroform, alcohol
Alkaloids – Brucine, strychnine
Bacterial – Ptomaine
Organic acids – Salicylic acid
Animal poisons – Snake venom, bufotoxin
Glucosides – Digitalis

Classification of poisons according t physiological action:

 Exhaustive – or asthenics are agents which produce exhaustion, marked loss of

muscular power such as hydrocyanic acids, aconite and digitalis.

 Sedatives – or depressants are agents which impede or delay and depress the
physiological action of an organ such as nicotine, cocaine, and antipyrine.

 Tetanics – refer to substances which act upon the spinal cord producing
continuous contraction of muscles as a result of stiffness of the part to which they
are infected such as nux vomica, strychnine and brucine.
  Narcotics – are substances which generate stupor, les feeling or complete
insensibility such as cocaine and its substitute; Demerol and opium.

 Neurotics – are substances which act mainly on the nervous system producing
convulsions, delirium and coma accompanied by disordered circulation and
respiration such as alcohol and carbon monoxide.

 Corrosive – are highly irritant poisons which produce local destruction of tissues
and characterized by vomiting. Nausea and great local distress such as alkalies
and strong acids.

 Irritants – are substances which produce inflammation or irritation pain in the

mucus membrane characterized by purging, vomiting and pain in the abdomen
such as cantharides and arsenic.

Classification of poisons according to methods of isolation:

 Metallic poisons.

 Volatile poisons which may be isolated by distillation.

 Non-volatile poisons which may be secluded by extraction with organic solvents.

 Substances which require special methods of isolation such as those requiring

dialysis, acids and salts of alkalies metals are extracted with water.

Classification of poisons according to pharmacological action:

 Heavy metals and metalloids.

 Substances that are mainly characterized by their action after absorption.

 Substances characterized by local action.

Actions of poisons:

 Local – The disturbance produced on that part which the poison may come into
contact.

 Remote – The disturbance produced on distinct places away from the site of
application.

 Combined – The effect is not only localized but it also affects other organs and
tissues.
Posology – refers to the branch of science which treats of the form and quantity of
medicine to be administered within a specific period.

Kinds of Dose:

 Safe dose – one that does not cause a harmful effect.

 Toxic dose – a poisonous dose which is harmful to both healthy and sick
persons.

 Lethal dose – a dose that would produce death if not immediately treated to any
one it comes in contact with.

 Minimum dose – the smallest amount of dose which produces therapeutic effect
without causing any harm.
 Maximum dose – a dose that will cause no harm but at the same time will be able
to produce the desired therapeutic effect.

Poisons may be eliminated by:

 Emesis,
 Feces,
 Respiration,
 Urine,
 Milk,
 Saliva,
 Tears, and
 Sweat.

Antidotes are agents which neutralize a poison or otherwise counteract its

effects. They are classified as mechanical, chemical and physiological antidotes.

Mechanical antidotes are those hic remove the poison without changing it or coat the
surface of the tissue or organ to prevent absorption of the poison. Such as: Emetics
which are substances which produce vomiting and classified as either local or general
emetic.

 Cathartics which are agents which produce intestinal evacuation.

 Precipitants are substances which prevent absorption by precipitating them and

rendering them soluble.

 Demulcents are those agents which protect and soothe the part affected by the
poison.
Chemical antidotes are agents that make the poison harmless by chemically altering it.

Physiological antidote also known as antagonists are substances which act upon the
system so as to counteract the effect of the poison masking and altering the symptoms
produces.

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES

Personal Identification

Accidentals – Refers to relatively small number of patterns to irregular in outline to be

grouped with central pocket loops and double loops. They have two or more deltas and
a combination or fusion of two or more types of patterns not including the plain, radial or
ulnar arch. This category also includes any freak pattern or accidental formation that
does not conform to any conventional type.

Accidental Whorl – Refers to a pattern which consists of a combination of two different

types of patterns with the exception of the plain arch, with two or more deltas, or a
pattern which possess some of the requirements for two or more different types.

AFIS – This Automated Fingerprint Identification System is a biometric identification (ID)

methodology that uses digital imaging technology to obtain, store and analyze
fingerprint data. The AFIS was originally used by the U.S. Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) in criminal cases. Lately, it has gained favor for general identification
and fraud prevention.

Anklosis- Refers t a bone condition wherein the finger joints cannot be bent.

Appendage – A short ridge at the peak or top of a recurve usually at right angle.

Approximating Patterns – Refers to outlines, which because of extreme complexities

in their formations, cannot be assigned definite, specific interpretations. These usually
results in disagreements on the interpretation among fingerprint experts.

Arches – Arches represent only about 5 per cent of the fingerprint patterns
encountered. In arch patterns, the ridges run from one side to the other of the pattern,
making no backward turn. There is ordinarily no delta, but where there is the
appearance of a delta, no recurving ridge must intervene between the core and delta
points.
Ball Zone – It is the large cushion below the base of the big toe. It also corresponds to
the thenar zone in palm rights.

Bar or Rod – Refers to a single ending ridge in the center of a recurving ridge of a loop.

Battley Single Fingerprint Method – Refers to a system of classifying and organizing

fingerprints devised by Harry Battley, London, England.

Bifurcating Ridge – It is a single ridge, which divides or forks into to ridges.

Blocking Out – Refers to the insertion of a fingerprint card the results of the
interpretation of all ten patterns. Represented by letters, symbols or numbers on the
card required for each of the rolled prints.

Calcar Zone – It refers to the area at the heel; very rarely do patterns show in this zone,
its ridge formation consisting of latitudinal striations.

Carpal Delta Zone – Area about the center of the palm, down near the wrist. It is
seldom expected to find a pattern in this zone, but when a delta does appear there,
comparison is easier.

Central Pocket Loop Whorl – Refers to a pattern which consist of at least one
recurving ridge, or an obstruction at right angles to the line of flow, with two deltas,
between which, when an imaginary line is drawn, no recurving ridge within the inner
pattern area is touched or cut.

Chain of Evidence – Also referred to as Chain of Custody, in court a person must be

able to account every minute of time the evidence has been in his or someone’s hands
or custody from the time it was found at the scene of the crime until it is offered as an
exhibit in court.

Cheiloscopy – Refers to the examination of lip prints which may serve to identify an
individualize persons.

Chiroscopy – It is the scene of personal identification by means of friction ridge

characteristics existing on the palmar surface of human hand.

Class Characteristics – Refers to those individuality that can be possessed by more

than one print. The class characteristics of friction ridge skin extend to many factors
other than digit or palm, or toe or sole, and the definable pattern type. Patterns of the
same type, by definition, may appear quite diverse.
Classification – Refers to the display of fingerprint records into groups or subgroups for
filing purposes. It is a formula derivative from a complete set of ten fingerprints patterns.

Classification of Approximating Patterns – Refers to inscription of all the probable

categorization for a set of prints, which contains one or more uncertain patterns.

Cleaner’s Mark – Also known as Laundry Tag. It is a means of identification that is

solely based on a laundry tag, laundry or cleaner’s mark on the person’s clothing.

Combination – It is the acceptance of all the possible variations of classification, which

a set of fingerprints may bring into being.

Composites – Refers to fingerprint patterns in which combination of the tented arch,

loop and whorl are found in the same print, also patterns where the majority of ridges
are loops and a few ridges at the center or side are whorls. These are subdivided into
central pocket loops and accidentals.

Converging Ridge – Refers to a crest whose closed end is angular and serves a point
of convergence; it is sharp and abrupt.

Core – The heart or the innermost center of a pattern.

Crime Scene Procedures – Refers to sound, lawful and proper approach in the
manner of crime scene searches.

Dactyloscopy – Also referred to as Fingerprint Identification it is the process of

comparing questioned and known friction skin ridge impressions from fingers.

Delta – Point on the first ridge formation at or exactly in front of the divergence of the
type lines.

Developing a Latent Print with Powder – The process of applying powder to the print
in such a way that the fine particles will adhere to the moisture left by the ridges of the
finger.

Dissociated Ridges – Refers to those odd ridge structures having no well-defined

patterns; the ridges are never fused, extremely short and are series of “patches” caused
by a disturbance of developmental process at the pre-natal life of an individual.

Distal – It is manifested when the exit of a loop formation points toward the fingertips.

Diverging Ridges – Are two crests running side by side and abruptly separating.

Dot ridge – An edge which resembles a point.

Double Loop Whorl – Refers to a pattern consisting of two distinct and separate loop
formations of different sizes, having two deltas and two sets of shoulders.

Edgeoscopy – The study of the morphological characteristics of friction ridges; shape

or contour of the edges of friction ridges.

Enclosure – Refers to a split which does not stay open but in which the legs of the
bifurcation, after running along side by side for a short distance, come together again to
form a single ridge once more. It completely surrounds a section of a furrow.

Ending Ridge – Refers to the terminus of a short or long ridge.

Envelop – Occurs when a staple encircles one or more rods.

Fibular Zone – Situated on the little toe side of the foot, just under the plantar zone. It is
on the side of the foot, which the fibula runs and patterns are seldom located in this
area. It corresponds to the ulna bone of the arm.

Filing – Refers to the process of finding the proper place in the fingerprint file where a
certain set of print belong and placing it there.

Filing Out – Refers to writing or inscribing on a fingerprint record card of all known
indispensable data about a subject, except the fingerprints themselves.

Final Classification – Refers to the ridges count of the loop on the right little finger.

Fingerprint – Refers to the reproduction on some smooth surface of the design or

pattern formed by the ridges on the inside of the end joint of a thumb or finger.

Fingerprint Classification Index – Refers to succession of guide cards having tabs on

which are lettered the numerous fingerprint classification combination.

Foot Pattern Zones – Areas in the sole of the human foot containing friction ridge
characteristics where footprint identification is based.

Friction Ridges – Also referred to as epidermal or papillary ridges. They are strips of
skin on the inside end joints of our thumbs and fingers by which fingerprints are created.

Furrows – They are canals or depressions between the ridges, which may be
compared with the low area in the tired tread.

Hypothenar Zone – This area comprises the large cushion below the base of the little
finger. It may contain whorls, loops, or combinations of both or no pattern at all.
Indent – Also known as Catch, it refers to locating or finding of a previously filed
duplicate record card of the subject.

Incipient Ridges – Refers to those abnormal type of ridges found in a small percentage
of patterns. They are found in the furrows between two well-formed ridges. They are
narrow, short and badly formed.

Inner Whorl – A ridge whose course being traced from the left delta to the right delta
passes inside the right delta with three or more ridges intervening between the right
delta and the traced ridge.

Island Ridge – A single ridge which splits into two branches flowing side by side toward
the same direction at a certain point meets forming the original ridge.

Key – Refers to the ridge count on the first loop in a set of prints, beginning with the
right thumb. The key is placed at the extreme left end of the classification line. It is at all
times shown in the numerator, no matter whether it is obtained from a right or a left-
hand finger.

Latent Print – Hidden or concealed fingerprints found at the scene of a crime. The
latent finger mark, deposited by the fingerprint pattern, is an intricate mixture of natural
secretions and contaminations from the environment.

Lateral Pocket Loop – Henry described lateral pocket loops as patterns whose core
points have their exits on the same side of the deltas.

Line of Flow – Visible in a central pocket loop, determined by drawing an imaginary line
between the inner delta and the center of the innermost recurving ridge.

Loop – Refers to a pattern in which one or more of the ridges start at one side of the
pattern, run toward the upper corner on the opposite side, then recurve and start back
toward the side from which they came originally, forming a delta at the end of the
pattern area and a loop with a core in the center. Loops constitute or make up between
60 and 70 percent of the patterns encountered.
Major Divisions - They are produced by the counting of loops and the tracing of whorl
type patterns emerging on the left and right thumbs. These divisions are used to
subdivide large collection of sets that the primary, secondary, and the sub-secondary do
not divide into adequately small groups to allow easy filing and searching.

Make – Refers to the fact that an identification has been made.

Meeting – Is one in which the ridge whose course being traced from the left delta
toward the right delta exactly meets the right delta with not more than two deltas
superseding between them.

Minutiae – Refers to the endings and the branchings of the finger lines.

Non- Numerical Patterns – Refers to outlines mainly used in making up primary

classifications that are not given numerical values.

Numerical Patterns – These are outlines, which are assigned number values
depending on which fingers they appear when making up the primary classification.

Outer Whorl – Is the ridge whose course being traced from the left delta toward the
right delta passes outside the right delta with three or more ridges intervening.

Pairing Off – Method of arranging a set of fingerprints so that all numerator fingers or
values are above the line and that all denominator fingers or values are below the line.

Palm Pattern Zones – Basis of palm print identification by means of the parts of the
human palms containing friction ridge characteristics.

Palmar Zone – This is the area that is situated at the bases of the index, middle, ring
and little fingers.

Papillary Ridges – Also known as Friction ridges, it refers to common term given to the
ridges on the fingers, palms and soles of the feet.

Pattern Area – Part of a fingerprint which rests within the area surrounded by type
lines.

Pattern Interpretation – It is the process of designation of names of fingerprint

patterns.

Plain Arch – A pattern in which the ridges come in on one side of the pattern and flow
towards the other side, with a rise in the center, withy no upward thrust, no recurving
ridge and no angular formation.

Plain Impression – The method of recording the center of the friction ridge pattern. It is
made by pressing an inked finger directly down upon a fingerprint card without any
rolling motion.

Plain Whorl – A pattern which consists of one or more ridges which make or tend to
make a complete circuit, with two deltas, between which, when an imaginary line is
drawn, at least one recurving ridge within the inner pattern area is touched or cut.
Plantar Zone – Is an area occupying all of the “ball” of the foot not occupied by the ball
pattern zone.

Podoscopy – Science of identification of through friction ridge characteristics existing

on sole of the human foot.

Polydactylism - Refers to the appearance of extra fingers as anatomically known.

Porelon Pad – A special inking pad which requires no ink supply or roller.

Poroscopy – It refers to the science of identification using the pores.

Post-mortem Fingerprinting – It is the process of taking fingerprints of a dead person

for identification purposes.

Primary Classification – Derived through the use of numbers assigned to certain types
of fingerprint patterns. It is the foremost classification which means the initial “sorting” of
sets of fingerprints and act as the key to all fingerprint classification and filing.

Radial Loop – Occurs when the downward slope of the ridges about the core is from
the direction of the little finger toward the thumb.

Recurving Ridge – Refers to the ridge that blends back in the direction from which it
started.

Reference Classification – A second choice classification from a set of points having

approximating or disputed patterns.

Ridge Bifurcation – Refers to the forking of a single ridge into two or more branches.

Ridge Characteristics – Minute or tiny details in the ridges of fingerprint patterns which
are used in comparing and identifying fingerprints. (“Minutiae” or “Galton” details)

Ridge Counter – Refers to a petite pointed instrument used for counting ridges.

Ridge Counting – It is the process of counting ridges that cross or touch an imaginary
line drawn between the delta and the core of a loop. The core and delta are not
counted, only the ridges that go cross or touch the imaginary line are counted.

Ridge Ending – An abrupt end of a ridge formation; it either ends pointing up or down
in a fingerprint pattern.
Ridge Tracing – Refers to the process of tracing the ridge that originates from the lower
side of the left delta toward the right delta to see where it flows in relation to the right
delta.

Rolled Impression – The process of recording the entire ridge pattern of the nail joint
by rolling an inked finger from one side of the fingernail to the other.

Short Ridge – A crest of limited length.

Shoulders of a Looping or Recurving Ridge – Points, one on each side of a loop, just
when the ridge positively begins and stops.

Sub-secondary Classification – The ridge trace or ridge count symbols of the patterns
on the index, middle and ring fingers of both hands, whether all three patterns are of the
same type or not.

Sufficient Recurve – Consists of the space between the shoulders of a loop, free of
appendage which lie along side upon it at a right angle on the outside of the recurve.

Tented Arches – Are a variety of the arch family which is a transitional pattern, because
it bears a resemblance to a plain arch and a loop pattern.

Thenar Zone – Refers to the large cushion at the base of the thumb. On this vicinity
may appear whorls, loops or combination or both.

Tibial Zone – This area is on the big toe of the foot in which patterns are almost never
found; but there are exceptional cases when they appear here.

Twin Loops – The ridges containing the core points have their exits on different sides.

Type Lines – They refer to the two innermost ridges which start or go parallel, diverge
and surround or tend to surround the pattern the area.

Ulnar Loop – Manifested when the downward slope of the ridges about the core is from
the directed of the thumb toward the little finger.

POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

Achromatic Lens – A lens which is partly corrected for chromatic aberration.

Anastigmat Lens – A lens which is free from astigmatism and other types of lens
defects. It has the ability to focus a vertical and horizontal line at the same time.
Anti-Staining Agent – The acetic acid which neutralizes the alkalie in the developer,
carried over that will prevent the weakening of the fixing solution and the staining of the
image produced.

ASA Rating – Refers to American Standards Association, expressed in arithmetical

value system. The speed ratings in numbers are directly proportional to the sensitivity of
the material.

Astigmatism – A lens defect which is the inability to focus both horizontal and vertical
plane at the same time or lines running in different directions.

Black Light – Refers to the absence f all colors of the spectrum.

Box Camera – A light-tight container or box equipped with simple lens, a shutter, and
an arrangement for holding film and provided with a viewfinder.

Bright Light – A natural light in which objects in open space casts a deep and uniform
shadow.

Cable Release – This is attached to the shutter to prevent accidental movement of the
camera during the exposure period especially when longer exposure is made.

Camera Grip – A device used to hold firmly the camera so as to prevent the vibration or
movement of the camera during the exposure period. It is usually attached to the body
of the camera and sometimes the flash unit.

Central Shutter – A type of shutter that is usually located between the elements of the
lens, made of metal leaves and its action starts from the center toward the side, and
then closes back to the center.

Chromatic Aberration – Refers to the lack of ability to focus the different colors of light
on film at the same time.

Chromatic Difference of Magnification – The inability of the lens to produce image

sizes of objects with different colors.

Coma – Also referred to as lateral spherical aberration, it is a lens defect in which the
ray enters the lens obliquely.

Contact Print – It is a photographic positive made by exposing the photographic paper

while it is held tightly against the negative.

Contact Printer – A wood or metal box, including a light and a switch by which the
exposure time is controlled.
Contrast – It refers to the tonal difference between the lightest and darkest segment or
portion.

Contrast Filters – Used to change the relative brightness value so that colors which
would otherwise be recorded as nearly the same will have different brightness in the
picture.

Correction Filter – Used to change the response of the film so that all colors are
recorded at approximately the relative brightness values as seen by the human eye.

Curvature of Field – A lens defect manifested when the image formed by a lens comes
to a sharper focus on curved surface than on flat surface.

Dark Room – A room capable of being completely darkened or black out which
contains tanks, developing trays, a sink, washer, dryer, enlarger, printer and other
apparatus necessary for the production of a finished photograph.

Depth of Field – It is the remoteness or distance measured from the nearest to the
farthest object in apparent sharp focus when the lens set of focus is at a particular
distance.

Depth of Focus – It is the distance toward and away from the film that the lens can be
moved at a given f-value and the object still appears in interior.

Developing Agents – Refers to solutions such as the amidol, hydroquinone and metol.
They differ in their action capability of maximum contrast and fineness of grains they
produce. Hydroquinone and metol are usually mixed to produce a developed.
Hydroquinone is an active developer and when used alone produces extreme contrast
and density. The image appears slowly but the density proceeds rapidly after the image
appears quickly but the density and contrast increased slowly.

Developing Solution – A chemical concoction, which causes the image on the film to
develop out a reverse image of the original scene or object photographed.

Developing Film – It is a method wherein a film is removed from the camera in a

darkened place and treated with certain liquid chemicals so that a permanent negative
is produced. It is the process of reduction in which exposed silver halides are reduced to
metallic silver, affected by agitation, concentration of chemicals, exposure and
temperature.

DIN Rating – Refers to Deutche Industri Normen rating, expressed in logarithmic value
system. In this system, an increase of the degrees doubles the sensitivity of the film.
Distortions – A lens defect in which outer parts of the image produced by the lens will
be magnified either more or less than the center image.

Dull Light – A form of natural radiance in which object sin open space casts no
shadows.

Emulsion – Consisting of light-sensitive silver salts in a gelatin medium and used to

coat photographic films and papers.

Enlarging – It is process of making sizeable pictures from small negatives.

Exposure – Refers to the product of illumination and time. The amount of light that
affects the sensitized materials can be controlled by the lens aperture or lens opening
and duration of illumination can be controlled by the shutter speed of the camera.

Exposure Meter – An instrument, which actually measures the intensity of light falling
on the subject.

Extension Tube – A device used in photographing tiny or minute objects. It is attached

to the lens board of the camera and the lens is connected to it when close-up
photographing is necessary.

Ferrotype Plate – Refers to a sheet of brass which has chromium-plated surface on

one side used for producing a highly glossed and smooth surface.

Film – A light sensitive material that is placed inside a camera to store any image the
camera focuses.

Film Advancer – A contrivance which is necessary so that the exposed film can be
wind or transferred to the take up spool and the unexposed film will be on the opposite
side of the lens for another exposure.

Film Holder – Essential part of the camera that grips the film firmly inside the camera. It
is always located at the opposite side of the lens of any camera.

Filter – A colored gelatin or homogeneous medium which absorbs or transmits

differentially light rays passing through it.

Fixation – Refers to the process of removing unexposed silver halides remaining in the
emulsion after the first image of development of the latent image.

Fixing Bath – It is known as “hypo” and its purposes are to harden the gelatin emulsion
on the film, and to dissolve out all the unexposed and developed silver halide in it.
Focal Length of a Lens – It is the distance measured from the optical center of the
lens to the film plane when the lens set of focus is at infinity position.

Focal Plane Shutter – Located near the focal plane or the sensitized material, this type
of shutter is usually made of cloth curtain, its action starts on one side and closes to the
opposite side.

Focusing – Refers to the process of setting the proper distance in order to form a sharp
image.

Focusing Scale – Also known as scale bed, it is usually found at the lens barrel
indicating pre-set distance in feet or in meters.

Glass Lens – A section of glass so shaped that it causes all light rays coming from any
point of the object and striking the lens, to be bent inward.

Grain Size – Refers to silver halides which are light sensitive and impregnated in the
emulsion exist as small crystals and upon development are converted to pure silver
granules.

Ground Glass – It is focused directly observing the image formed at the ground glass
screen, placed behind the taking lens.

Hardening Agent – Refers to potassium aluminum that solidifies the gelatin of the
sensitized materials which was soften in the developing solution.

Haze Filter – Use to remove or reduce the effect of smog or mist.

Hazy Light – A form of natural luminosity in which objects in open space casts a
transparent shadows.

Holder of Sensitized Material – Located at the opposite side of the lens. Its function is
to firmly hold the sensitized material in its place during exposure to prevent the
formation of a multiple or blurred image of the subject.

Hyper Focal Distance – The nearest space at which a lens is focused with a given
particular diaphragm opening which will give the maximum depth of field.

Infrared Light – Infrared light are lens having wave lengths greater than 700
millimicrons. Its wavelength ranges from 700 to 800 millimicrons. Infrared is not a color
or any kind of red. It is an invisible ray and detected by the skin as heat.
Iris Diaphragm – It is a contrivance built into the lens mount, which may be opened and
closed to control the passage of the light through a lens.

Lens – An essential part of the camera which is used to focus the light coming from the
subject, it is mainly responsible for the sharpness of the image formed through which
light passes during exposure.

Lens Board – It is a square of metal or small panel upon which the lens barrel
containing the diaphragm and lens elements is threaded.

Lens Diaphragm – Controls the amount of light that passes through the lens.

Lens Hoods or Lens Shades – Are generally sections of tubular plastic of aluminum,
which are attached to the forward end of a lens barrel for purpose of preventing stray
light striking the lens causing “flares” or “ghosts” on the negative.

Lever Type Shutter – Refers to a plane blade on the end of a handle that covers the
entire lens quiet tightly; excluding all light.

Light – A form of energy and which is electromagnetic in nature. It excites the retina of
the eye. Light makes things visible needed to produce photograph. The speed of light is
always constant. The average speed of light is 186,000 miles per second. However, the
wavelength of the rays of light may vary considerably.

Light Filters – Refers to photographic garnishes and accompaniments which screen or

filter part of the light rays passing through it.

Light Meter – A contrivance used in determining the intensity of light that strike the
subjects and affect the film. This light meter can be an extinction meter or photo electric
meter.

Light Sensitivity – Also known as the speed of the film is determined thru its ASA
numbers or DIN numbers given by the film manufacturers. The literal meaning of ASA is
American Standard and Association and the DIN is German Industrial Standard. The
former express the speed in numbers thru arithmetical system and the later thru
logarithmic systems.

Light Tight Box – The body of the camera which is an enclosure devoid of light.

Micro Photographs – Are commonly employed in certain commercial record systems.

Through this text, micro-photographs designate copies made on 35 mm and smaller
size films.
Micro Photography – It is the facsimile of photographs in which the image of an object
is reproduced much smaller than it actually is.

Negative – It is an exposed film, being a reverse of the original object.

Negative Lens – Refers to a concave lens, which characterized by the fact that it is
thinner and the middle than the edge and formed a virtual image on the same side of
the lens. It does not require focusing at all as everything will be sharp, upright and clear,
no matter how close or far away the object is. It is also known as a diverging lens
because of its power to diverge rays of light that passes through it.

Normal Lens - A lens with a focal length of approximately equal or more but not more
than twice the diagonal of its negative material.

Neutral Density Filter – Used for reducing or decreasing the amount of light
transmitted without changing the color value.

Orthochromatic Film – Films sensitive to ultra-violet rays, blue and green color but not
sensitive to red color.

Panchromatic Film – Films sensitive to ultra-violet rays, to blue, green and red color.

Parallax – It is process of looking at an object closely with one eye and the other and
finding that the object is not seen from the same angle and has a different apparent
position or shape.

Photograph – A reproduction made with a camera and light – sensitive material.

Photographic Negative – Produced or developed by exposing the film in a camera.

The term “negative” is derived from the appearance of the transparency. The lightest
portions of the original appear the darkest in the negative.

Photographic Positive – It is a print produced by passing light through the negative,

generally into photographic paper. The tonal values are directly proportional to those of
the original, that is, light areas of the original appearing light, and same is true with the
dark ones with dark areas.

Photography – An art or science that deals with the reproduction of images through the
action of light upon sensitized materials with the aid of a camera and its accessories,
and the chemical processes involved therein.

Photo Macrographs – Refers to photographs showing objects blown up or enlarged up

to around fifty diameters.
Photomicrograph – It is a photograph made through a compound microscope and may
be a greatly enlarged image of a small part.

Photomicrography – Refers to photography showing initial magnification when the

camera is used in relation with a microscope.

Polarizing Filter – A type of filter used to reduce or eliminate reflections on highly

reflective surfaces.

Police Photography – An art or science that deals with the study of the principles of
photography, the preparation of photographic evidence and its application to police
work.

Positive Lens – A convex lens, which is characterized by the fact that it is thicker on
the middle than the edge and formed a real image on the opposite side of the lens. It
has a positive focal length and beds the light rays together which make it as a
converging lens.

Preservative- Used to protect the developing agent against aerial oxidations. Usually
the preservative chemical is sodium sulfite that will prevent the formation of staining
developer products, acts as a silver solvent and increases the rate of development and
density. Without this preservative, the developing solution becomes weak and stains the
gelatin during the development process.

Printing – It refers to the production of a print from a negative by causing light to pass
all the way through the negative and strike a light-sensitive printing paper which is
developed later to give a finished photograph.

Printing Paper – It is a light sensitive material, which is not transparent and will provide
dense black and not clear whites.

Projection Point – It is a pattern made in an enlarger with a different speed and with
the use of a more light-sensitive paper.

Range Finder – Refers to optical mechanism utilized for measuring the angle of
convergence of light coming from two apertures.

Rapid Rectilinear lens – A combination of two achromatic lens with almost the same
focal length. This is corrected from some kinds of lens defects but not an astigmatism
defect.

Relative Aperture – Refers to the light gathering power of the lens, expressed in the F-
number system. By increasing or decreasing the F- number numerically it may control:
the depth of field, the amount of light passing through the lens and the degree of
sharpness due to lens defects.

Reticulation – It is the negative having rough surfaced which resembles a “crackle

finish” point.

Sensitized Material - The results of photography in its final form is a photograph. The
materials necessary to produce a positive print is a sensitized paper. Its emulsion is
coated to opaque materials like paper.

Shutter – It is a gadget, used to block the path of light passing through the lens and
exposing the sensitized material.

Shutter Speed – Controls the duration of light passing through the lens.

Simple Miniscus Lens - This lens is usually found in simple or box camera. It is
uncorrected lens and therefore suffering from inherent defects of lenses.

Single Lens Reflex Type – This type of camera will eliminate the parallax error and it
will work well with all lenses. Never the less, the single lens reflex type is more complex
and liable to break down due to the mirror which gives way every time an exposure is
made. It is difficult to focus especially under dim light conditions.

Solvent Silver Halide – Refers to sodium thiosulfite popularly known as hypo solution.
The function of the hypo solution is to remove the unexposed silver halide.

Spherical Aberration - A lens defect in which photographic rays passing through the
edges of lens are bent and refracted more sharply than those passing through the
central part of the lens.

Standard Photograph – Any file photograph which is not a microphotograph. A

standard photograph is made in film sizes of 2 ¼ by 1 ¼ inches or larger.

Telephoto Lens – Refers to a unique type of lens, with a focal length more than twice
the diagonal of its negative material.

Tripod – It is a triple leg device which is adjustable to any reasonable extension. This
can be used in holding the camera when the camera is bulky or when using a shutter
speed lower than one twenty five of a second to prevent the movement that will produce
a blurred image in the photographs.

Twin Lens Reflex Type – The twin lens reflex camera has two lenses, one for the
viewing and focusing of the objects, and the other is the taking lens. In this type of
camera the image being photograph can be seen in flat surface as reflected by the
mirror behind the viewing lens. The viewing screen will help the photographer in the
accurate composition of the object to photograph as her look into the camera at his
waist level.

Ultraviolet Lamp – A gas light burning carbon disulphide vapor in oxygen or in nitric
oxide.

Ultraviolet Photograph – It refers to any photograph, which records documents under

ultraviolet light or illumination.

Ultraviolet Rays – Radiations having the wavelength of 30 to 400 millimicrons.

View Finders – It is a means of determining the field of view of the camera or the extent
of the coverage of the lens.

View Finder Type – The smaller and the simplest type of camera is the view finder
camera. Its view finder framed the objects that will be recorded on the film. Usually it is
made of a simple lens located at the peep hole of the camera. Very often the focusing
system of this type of camera is in the viewfinder itself, other wise, the camera is a fixed
focus one. This type of camera can provide an excellent focusing system, especially at
dim light condition.

View or Press Camera Type – The biggest and the most sophisticated among different
type of cameras.

Visible Light – Rays having the wavelength of 400 to 700 millimicrons.

Wide Angle Lens – A lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative
material.
White Light – It is the combination of all the colors in the rainbow or spectrum, mixed in
the same proportions as they occur there.

X-rays – Radiations having a wavelength between .01 to .30nanometer or millimicrons,

produced by passing an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube.

Zone – Possible in wide angles lenses in which there are only three sets of focusing,
close (3 to 6 feet), medium (6 to 15 feet) and infinity (15 feet and beyond).

Zoom Lenses – This lens has variable focal lengths which can be adjusted
continuously by the movement of one or more elements in the lens system, known as
the variable focus lens.

FORENSIC BALLISTICS
Accidental Characteristics – These are indications unusual to one weapon or to each
cartridge case and bullet, ammunition or projectile fired in the same gun.

Alloy – Barely means the combination of metals.

Ammunition – Shall refer to loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns,
revolvers and pistols from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or other missiles maybe fired
by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes ammunition for air
rifle.

Antimony – An element used as an alloy with lead in bullets for solidifying the
projectile.

Anvil – Refers to a tiny piece of metal, which is positioned in the primer cup and forms
the point of resistance as the firing pin strikes the primer, thereby creating friction which
discharges the priming composition.

Air Rifle – A weapon which is designed to shoot pellets by means of compressed air.

Artillery – Are those firearms used to propel projectile more than one inch in diameter.

Automatic – Attributed to a weapon when the mechanism is so arranged that it will fire
continuously when the trigger is depressed.

Ballistics – Refers to the science of the motion of projectiles; or the study of the use,
movement and construction of projectiles such as bombs, bullets and shells, etc.

Bolt Action Type – Refers to weapons in which the breech closure in line with the bore
at all times; manually reciprocated to load, unload and cock; and is locked in place by
breech bolt lugs.

Battery Cup – It is the small cup which holds the primer.

Belted Type – A cartridge cases where there is a protruding metal around the body of
the cartridge case near the rim.

Bore – Refers to the cylindrical passage of the firearm through which the projectile
travels.

Breech – It is the rear extremity of the rifle.

Breechblock – The steel block which closes the rear of the bore aligned with the force
of the charge.
Breechface – The face of the block that comes in contact with the shell head against
the force of the charge.

Breech Marks – By far the most common impressed action marks on cartridge cases
are breech marks. Most fired cartridge cases are identified as having been fired by a
specific firearm through the identification of breech marks.

Buck Shots – Refers to large sized shots made by molding.

Bulging – Refers to the swelling or enlargement of a gun barrel.

Bullet – It is a projectile or slug intended or designed to be fired from a firearm.

Bullet Comparison Microscope – It is an optical gadget used essentially to compare

two bullets or fired cartridge cases to determine whether or not they were both fired
from the same firearm.

Bullet Recovery Box – It is a box-like structure made of metal or wood with one open
end into which the shot is fired, filled in with cotton or pulp to slow down and trap the
bullet or projectile.

Bullet Velocity – Refers to the speed or momentum at which a bullet travels forward.

Butt – Usually associated with rifles indicating the lower end of the stock.

Button Rifling – Probably the most common method used today to rifle barrels is
button rifling. Button rifling uses a different approach to forming the grooves in the
barrel. A button as is a very hard steel plug that is forced down an unrifled barrel. The
grooves are then formed in the barrel under very high pressure. The pressure created to
form the rifling in the barrel hardens and polishes the inside of the barrel.

Caliber – Refers to the diameter of bore measured in hundredths of an inch, measured

from land to land.

Calipher – A measuring apparatus used in the calibration of the bullets and gun bores.

Cannelure – Refers to a knurled rings around the body of the bullet that serves as
lubricant to lessen friction.

Cannelured Bullet – Refers to an elongate bullet with grooves around it, used for
crimping purposes or holding the lubricant.
Cartridge – Refers to a single unit of ammunition consisting of a cartridge case,
containing the propellant powder, with the primer at one end and the bullet at the other
end.

Carbine – Named after David “Carbine” Williams is a caliber .30 short barrel rifles
having a barrel not longer than 22 inches.

Cartridge Case – It is tubular metallic container, which is designed to hold the bullet,
primer and propellant powder.

Center Fire Cartridge – It is a cartridge case where the priming is located in the center
of the base.

Chamber – It is the back end of the barrel, which receives the shell or cartridge or part
of the weapon in which the cartridge is positioned for firing.

Chamber Marks – One of the most common striated action marks are called chamber
marks. Roughness in the chamber of a firearm can scratch the outer walls of a cartridge
case when loaded and removed from the chamber. Most chamber marks occur after the
cartridge is fired. Cartridge cases expand when fired pressing out against the walls of
the chamber. When they are pulled out of the chamber, the sides of the cartridge case
can be scratched.

Chilled Shot – Produced by mixing antimony with the lead, it is referred to as hard shot.

Choke – The degree of constriction applied in the muzzle of the shotgun to decrease
the spread of shots.

Combustion – It refers to the burning of the powder in the barrel.

Cone – It is the reduction of diameter in a barrel where the chamber bonds the bore.

Corrosion – Refers to the deterioration within the barrel caused by the chemical action
of the products of combustion after firing.

Crimp – Part of the mouth of the cartridge case that is turned in upon the bullet, it aids
in the holding of the bullet out of the neck which affects the burning rate of the gun
powder.

Crimping – It is a mechanical operation engaged in loading metallic cartridges, which

consists in turning over slightly or compressing the mouth of the metallic shell or case to
hold the bullet securely in its place.
Cylinder – Refers to a chamber inconsistent in number in different revolvers, which is
brought in line with the barrel where a particular cartridge is to be fired.

Damascus Barrel – Utilized in old shotguns, the barrel is constructed by braiding

together steel and iron and bars or wires.

Double Action Firearm – It is a kind of handgun in which pressure upon the trigger
both cocks and releases the hammer.

Double-Base – It is a powder containing nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose as basic

explosive ingredients.

Drop Shot – Basically means soft shot.

Ejector – The apparatus in a firearm which causes the empty shell to be thrown out of
the gun.

Electrochemical Rifling – Is a process that eliminates the conventional machining of

metal, rifling is formed by wet-etching the interior of a barrel under an electric current.
The metal inside the barrel is actually eaten away or dissolved to create grooves in the
barrel. An electrode (cathode) that has metal strips in the shape of the rifling is placed in
the barrel (anode) and the assembly is submerged in a salt solution. An electric current
is applied and the electrode is moved down the length of the barrel and twisted to create
the spiral shaped grooves. As the current travels from the barrel to the electrode metal
is removed by electrolysis thus forming the grooves in the barrel. This process creates
the rifling in the barrel. This process creates the rifling in the barrel very quickly and
does not require consumable tooling.

Exterior Ballistics – It is the study of the flight of the projectile as it leaves the barrel of
the firearm; until it hits the target.

Extractor – The device in a firearm which bring about the empty shell to be withdrawn
from the chamber.

Extractor Marks – Another action mark, usually found in a striated form, are those
created by the extractor of most auto -loading or repeating firearms. The extractor is a
small part sometimes resembling a hook that is used to remove a cartridge or cartridge
case from the chamber of a firearm. As the slide of the pistol moves to the rear, the
extractor pulls the cartridge case along with it until it is rejected from the pistol. The
extractor may or may not leave an identifiable mark on the cartridge case. This is true if
the cartridge is fired or simply hand chambered and extracted without firing.
Firearm – A common term for an instrument used for the propulsion of the projectile by
the expansive force of gases coming from burning powder. As described under sec. 877
of the Revised Administrative Code. Firearms or arms includes rifles, muskets, carbines,
shotguns, revolvers and pistols and all other deadly weapons from which a bullet, ball,
shot shell or any other missile my be discharged by means of gunpowder or other
explosives. The term also includes air rifles except such as being of small caliber and
limited ranged used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered as a
complete firearm for all purposes.

Firearms Examiner – An individual working in the field of firearms examination and

identification.

Firearm Identification – It is the science by which one can determine whether or not a
particular bullet was fired from a firearm. It is the knowledge with which one is able to
reveal any pertinent facts about ammunition or firearms.

Firearm’s Identification Technician – Same as firearms examiner.

Firing Pin Impressions – They refer to imprints which indentations are created when
the firing pin of a firearm strikes the primer of center fire cartridge case or the rim of a
rimfire cartridge case. If the nose of the firing pin has manufacturing imperfections or
damage, these potentially unique characteristics can be impressed into the metal of the
primer or rim of the cartridge case. Firing pin impressions also can be found on live
cartridges.

Flat-Point Bullet – One with unfilled or hollow point for the purpose of increasing the
mushrooming effect upon impact.

Foot Pound – Refers to the capacity to lift one pound at the height of one foot.

Forensic Ballistics – Refers to the study of firearms identification by means of the

ammunition fired through them.

Foulings – Refers to the accumulation of a deposit within the bore of a firearm caused
by solid waste products after the cartridge is fired.

Full Automatic Pistol – Refers to a firearm which continues to fire as long as the
trigger is depressed and cartridges stay in the feed belt or magazine.

Fulminate – Refers to one of the basic ingredients of the priming mixture.

Gallery Load – A compact or light charge in cartridges for use indoors.

Gauge – The diameter of the shotgun barrel.

Grooves – Refers to the cavities or voids inside the rifle barrel, by which a bullet when
forced forward, receives a spinning motion, making its flight accurate.

Gun – Any tubular device intended for projecting missiles.

Hammer Forged Rifling – The latest mechanical method of rifling barrels is

accomplished through a process called hammer forging. Hammer forging produces type
of rifling called polygonal rifling. A hardened steel mandrel is produced with the shape of
the rifling formed on its outer surface. The mandrel is inserted into a barrel blank and
the outer surface of the barrel is machine hammered. The hammering forces of the
barrel material down against the mandrel and the inner surface of the barrel take on the
shape of the mandrel. The mandrel is then removed from the barrel and the outer
surface of the barrel is cleaned up.

Hangfire – Slow or delayed combustion which causes the cartridge to fail to explode on
time.

Head stamp – It is the design the manufacturer places on the base of a cartridge cases
to indicate name of the marker and the year it was made.

Impact – A force or blow of a bullet striking an object.

Interior Ballistics – Refers to the study of the motions of projectile while it is in the gun.

Jacket – It is the covering of a bullet.

Jacketed Bullet – It is a lead core or center bullet with the outside covering or jacket is
made of any number of the harder metals such as brass, copper, plated steel, gliding
metal or cupro-nickel.

Key hole Shot – Refers to the process of tumbling of a bullet in flight hitting sideways,
usually due to worn out or over sized barrels.

Lands – Refers to the raised portion between the grooves inside the barrel.

Leading – Used to indicate or denote the presence of lead on the inside the barrel.

Lever Action Type – Are those weapons designed wherein the breech mechanism is
cycled by an external lever generally below the receiver.

Magazine – Reservoir or device to hold extra cartridges.

Metal-Cased Bullet – A bullet with a jacket of metal which completely encases the
nose.

Metal Point – It is bullet having metal tip and lead bearing.

Mid – Range – Refers to the distance between the long and short range.

Misfire – Refers to the total failure of the cartridge to explode.

Mushrooming – The expanding or upsetting of a bullet on impact.

Musket – Refers to an ancient smooth bore weapon intended to shoot a number of lead
pellets in one charge.

Muzzle Velocity – Refers to the speed of the bullet at the muzzle itself.

Nipple – Usually located on muzzle loading guns, it is a small metal cone at the rear of
the barrel through which the flame from the percussion cup passes to ignite the powder
charge.

Non-Jacketed Bullet – They are usually made of an alloy comprising of tin, lead and
antimony which is slightly harder than pure lead.

Obturation – It is the process of sealing of the barrel by both the case expansion and
bullet action.

Ogive – A name used to denote the cylindrical head of the bullet.

Penetration – Part of exterior ballistics which deals with the impact or entry of the bullet
on the target.

Percussion Cup – A tiny metallic cup containing fulminating material that explodes
upon the impact of the gun’s hammer.

Pin Fire – Are cartridges where the pin extends through the head of the cartridge case
into the primer.

Pistol – It is a firearm from which the shell of a fired shot is ejected and a fresh
cartridge pushed from the magazine into the breech by means of the gases created by
the preceding explosion.

Powder Charge – Refers to the amount of gunpowder used in the load.

Primer – A metallic cup charged with a priming composition. It is usually made up of

potassium chlorate, antimony sulfide and fulminate of mercury.
Priming Mixture – Refers to the chemical compound, which ignites the propellant
charges in a cartridge or shotgun shell.

Propellant – It is the fine particles which, when ignited by the primer flash, is converted
to gas under high pressure and propels the shot charge or bullet through the barrel to
the target.

Pump Gun – A common term designated to slide action repeating firearms.

Repeated Type – A cartridge case where the diameter of the rim is smaller than the
body of the cartridge case.

Range – Refers to the straight distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target.

Recoil – Refers to the backward motion of a gun in the act of discharging.

Revolver – A hand firearm having at the rear of the barrel a revolving cylinder provided
with a number of chambers, which, by the revolution of the cylinder are brought
successively into alignment with the barrel and the firing mechanism for successive
firing.

Ricochet – Refers to the tendency of a bullet to be deflected from its normal path after
striking a resistant surface.

Rifle – A type of small weapon designed to be fired from the shoulder.

Riflings – Refers to the number of cylindrical grooves which cuts the surface of the
bore.

Rim-Fire – A firearm which may be a rifle or pistol; discharges one shot with each pull
of the trigger. The cartridge is fired by a blow on the rim of the cartridge-head.

Rim-Fire Cartridge – Refers to a cartridge case where the priming is placed in the rim
of the case.

Rimmed Type – Cartridges cases where the diameter of the rim is greater than the
diameter of the body of the cartridge case.

Rimless Type – A cartridge case where the diameter is equal with diameter of the body
of the cartridge case.

Scorching – Caused by the flowing out of the hot powder gases from the muzzle which
are projected against the target.
Semi-Automatic – A weapon requiring a separate pull of the trigger for each shot fired
and uses energy of discharge to perform firing cycle.

Single Action – A weapon which must be manually cocked due to the pressure upon
the trigger releases the hammer.

Single-Base – It is a powder containing nitrocellulose as the explosive ingredient.

Shear Marks - Another common striated action mark are shear marks produced by
most pistols on cartridge case primers. When a cartridge case is forced backwards from
recoil the primer imbeds itself in the firing pin hole. As the side of the pistol starts to
recoil, the barrel will drop slightly as the action opens. The dropping barrel forces the
cartridge case to move down slightly and when this happens the lower edge of the
imbedded primer is sheared downward and out of the firing pin hole.

Shock line Power – Refers to the force dispensed by the projectile on impact; the
result brought about through a combination of striking energy and penetration.

Shot – Refers to the individual round lead balls, a number of which are contained in the
shotgun shell discharged at one charge.

Shotgun – A smooth bore weapon designed to shoot a number of lead pellets in one
charge.

Shotgun Shell – Refers to a single unit of ammunition for shotguns. It consists of a

tubular case either of metal or paper with metallic base containing the propellant,
powder, shot and wads.

Slide Action Type – A firearm which features a movable forearm which is manually
actuated in motion parallel to the barrel of the shooter. Also referred to as Pump Action.

Small Firearm – A general term used for firearms that propel projectiles less than one
inch in diameter.

Soft-Point Bullet – It is a metal cased bullet with a tip of lead, so that it will mushroom
on impact, increasing the striking load.

Squib Load – A defective load and exceptionally weak-sounding load.

Striations – Small grooves on the surface of the bullet due to tool marks or other
irregularities in the interior surface of the bore.
Tattooing – Refers to the area surrounding gunshot wound which has been marked by
the products of combustion of the cartridge discharge.

Terminal Accuracy – Refers to the size of the bullet grouping on the target.

Terminal Ballistics – Refers to the study of the consequences and effects of the impact
of the projectile on the target.

Terminal Energy – The force or poser of the bullet upon impact.

Terminal Penetration – Measures the depth traveled by the bullet inside the target.

Terminal Velocity – The speed of the bullet upon hitting the target.

Test Bullet – Refers to the bullets fired from suspected firearms in a bullet recovery box
to be used for comparison with the crime bullet or bullets recovered in the crime scene
or body of the victim.

Trajectory – Refers to the carved path or trail the projectile follows from the moment it
leaves the muzzle of a firearm until it strikes the target or the first point of impact.

Trigger Pull – It is the amount of force necessary to release the trigger.

Twist – It is the rate or pitch of twist in the rifling of a pistol or rifle barrel.

Velocity – Measured in feet per second, it is the forward speed at which the bullet
travels.

Vent – Also known as flash hole refers to an opening i9n the bottom of the primer
pocket through which the primer flash imports ignition to the powder charge.

Wad – Yielding substance, usually made of felt, placed over the powder of a shot shell
for the purpose of controlling the gas blast.

Windage – It is the allowance made for drift of a bullet.

Wobble – The unsteady and uneven spin or rotation of a bullet; usually caused by
insufficient twist in the rifle barrel.

Yaw – Refers to the wobbling of the bullet as it first leaves the barrel of a gun.

Zone of Contusion - It is a narrow spot immediately surrounding the wound of

entrance, where the projectile’s impact depressed and distends the tissues.
Zip Guns – Are miscellaneous guns which are homemade or produced manually on a
small scale basis.

QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

Abbreviation – Stripping away or reducing essential parts.

Addition – Refers to any matter made a part of the document after its original
preparation.

Alignment – The relation on successive characters or letters of a word, signature or

line or writing to an actual or imaginary base line.

Alignment Defects – These type face defects include characters which write
improperly such as twisted letter, vertical malalignment, horizontal malalignment, and a
character “off its feet”. These defects can be corrected by special adjustments to the
type bar and type block.

Altered Document – One which contains some change either as an addition or

deletion.

Aniline Inks – Also known as Synthetic Dye Inks.

Arc – Refers to the rounded inner part of an upper bend, crook or curve.

Ball Point Pen – Refers to a writing instrument which has its marking tip made up of a
small freely rotating ball bearing which rolls the ink to the paper.

Baseline – Refers to the imaginary line upon which the writing rests.

Beard – A preliminary embellishment which usually occurs in capital letters.

Blue-Black Ink – The kind of ink which writes blue and darkness with age to a black or
metal gray. This ink contains a blue dye, but the permanent marking substance are iron
tannates and iron gallates which gradually darken after exposure to air.

Blunt – This is a part of a stroke characterized by a sudden beginning or end at which

the pen does not create a diminishing stroke.

Buckle Knot – A loop made as a flourish which is added to a letter. A buckle knot is a
horizontal or loop stroke used to complete letters A, D, F and H.

Carbon Impression – Refers to any typewriting which is placed on the paper by the
action of the type faces striking through the carbon paper.
Carbon Inks – It consist of finely ground particles suspended in water.

Careless Scribble – It is usually executed for signing receipts and similar insignificant
documents.

Central Part – Refers to the body of a letter, usually characterized by a circular or small
rounded stroke.

Characters – The term is used to include either letters, symbols, numerals or points of
punctuation.

Characteristics – Commonly known as identifying detail in document examinations, it

is any property or mark which is used to distinguish any document form others, which
may be classified as class or individual characteristics.

Charred Document – It is one which has become blackened and delicate through
exposure to excessive heat or through actual burning.

Class Characteristics – Commonly referred to as a group which holds common

characteristics than other examined documents.

Clogged Type Face – A type face defect developed with continued usage of the
typewriter, the type faces become filled with ink, dirt, and lint, particularly in enclosed
letters.

Collation – It is a critical comparison or side by side examination of two documents.

Collected Standards – They refer to those which are written in the ordinary course of
business or in the regular course of man’s activity. They are sometimes referred to as
procured standards.

Comparison – Refers to the act of setting two or more items side by side to weigh their
identifying qualities.

Conclusion – Results from relating observed facts by logical, common sense reasoning
in accordance with established rules or laws.

Connection – It is a stroke which unites two successive strokes or letters. It may be

oval, arcade or angular in form.

Copied Forgery – Also known as Simulated Forgery, it is regarded as the most skillful
form of forgery, it is a fake signature which resembles the genuine signature executed in
free-hand. Others refer to it as a freehand imitation forgery.
Copy Book Form – Refers to the design of letters which are fundamental to a writing
system.

Copy Pencil – A writing instrument which marking substance consists of a mixture of

graphite and an aniline dye.

Cross Mark – A signature used by persons who are unable to write, a cross mark or
crude X is deemed their valid signature. This authenticating mark is still used by
illiterates, and if properly witnessed, it can legally stand for a signature.

Cursive Writing – Inscription in which the letters are for the most part joined together.

Cursory Signature – Also known as informal signature it is usually executed in the

conduct of one’s own daily affair. Primarily of routine nature.

Diacritic – it is an element added t complete a certain letter.

Decipherment – The process making out what has been effaced or what is illegible.

Defect – It describes any deviation or maladjustment in a typewriter which is reflected in

its work and results to its individualization or identification.

Disguised Writing – The result obtained when a writer may deliberately try to modify or
alter his writing habits in hopes of hiding his identity.

Disputed Document – It suggests that there is an argument or controversy over the

document.

Document – Any material which contains, marks, symbols, or signs visible, partially
visible, or invisible to the naked eye that may ultimately or presently convey a message
or meaning.

Document Examiner – Refers to one who studies scientifically the elements and
details of documents in order to identify their source or to discover other facts
concerning them is a document examiner.

Ductus Link – Or a Ductus broken is the connection between letters, either joined or
disconnected.

Efface – Means to scratch, rub out, erase or strike.

Embellishment – Also known as rubric, it is an additional, unnecessary stroke not
important to the legibility of letter forms and writing, its main purpose is for
ornamentation or to serve as a decoration.

Engrave Printing – Letterheads and other matters which are printed from a metal plate
containing an etched design. With this kind of work the ink is slightly raised above the
surface of the paper.

Elaboration – Decorative strokes are added to the plain letterforms, giving writing rich
and ample or too ornate character.

Erasure – Refers to the removal of printing, typewriting or writing from a document.

Examination – It is the process or act of making a critical and close study of any
material which includes among others; visual, microscopic, chemical, photographic,
ultraviolet and infrared test.

Expert Witness – A legal term to denote a person with special technical training and
experience permitted to express an opinion regarding a certain aspect of the issue that
is involved in a lawsuit. His role in court is to interpret the technical information in order
to assist the court in the administration of justice.

Extensor Muscles – Is a group of muscles that pushes up the pen to form an upward
stroke.

Eyelet – Refers to small oblong strokes.

Flexor Muscle – Refers to a group of muscles which pushes the pen down forming
downward strokes.

Foot – The lower part of a letter which rests on the baseline.

Forearm or Muscular Movement – Writing is produced by movement of both hands

and arms and also fingers in some cases. The elbow is the pivot of lateral movement.

Forearm Movement – Writing shows the utmost freedom and speed.

Forgery – Used synonymously with fraudulent signature or spurious document, a legal

term used in court, this involves not only the questioned document but also the intent on
the part of its author or maker to delay.

Formal Signature – Also known as complete signature, it is usually executed in signing

significant and important documents and papers.
Fountain Pen – A writing instrument which contains a reservoir of ink in a specially
designed chamber or sack.

Freehand Imitation – A fraudulent signature which was executed by mere simulation.

Graphology – The art of trying to interpret the character or personality of an individual

from his handwriting.

Guided Signature – Also known as assisted signature, they are commonly written
during a serious illness or on a deathbed. It is a signature which is executed while the
maker’s or writer’s hand or arm is steadied in a way.

Habit – A writing habit is any repeated detail or element which may serve to
individualize writing.

Hand Lettering – Refers to any disconnected style of writing which each letter is written
separately.

Hand Writing – A visible effect of bodily movement, which is an almost unconscious

expression of fixed muscular habits, reacting from fixed mental impression of certain
ideas associated with script form.

Handwriting Identification Expert – Another term used to denote a document

examiner.

Hiatus – Refers to a gap between a continuous stroke without lifting the writing
instrument or pen. It usually occurs due to speed and also known as pen jump.

Hitch – The introductory backward stroke added to the start of many capital letters and
in which can also be seen occasionally in introductory strokes of some small letters.

Holographic Document – A document which is completely written and signed by one

person.

Hook – Is a minute curve or angle which often occurs at the end of terminal strokes. It
also occurs at the end or beginning of an initial stroke and the terminal curves of letters
“a”, “d”, and “h”.

Horizontal Malalignment – It a typewriter defect in which the character prints to the left
or right of its proper position.

Hump – The rounded side of the top bend, curve, crook in small letters and even in
some capital letters.
Imitated – A term tantamount with freehand forgery.

Individual Characteristics – Refers to a highly peculiar or personal earmark.

Infrared Examination – This test employs invisible radiation beyond the red portion of
the visible spectrum which is usually recorded on a specially sensitized photographic
emulsion.

Ink – A viscous fluid marking material used for printing or writing.

Insertion – Means interlineation, it includes the addition of writing and other material
between lines or photographs or the addition of whole pages in a document.

Knob – Refers to that tiny pool of ink at the beginning or ending stroke.

Linear Pattern – Writing shows no concern for form so that lines and angles
predominate, and loops and angles are not pronounced.

Line Quality – Refers to the visible record in the writing stroke of the basic movements
and manner of holding the writing instrument. Derived from a combination of factors to
wit; writing skill, rhythm, shading, freedom of movement and pen emphasis.

Lithographic Printing – Also called offset printing, it is printing from a smooth surfaces
plate, which has been so treated that the printing areas are ink attracting and non-
printing areas are ink repelling.

Lockthrough of Paper – The form and appearance of paper when viewed with
transmitted light.

Loop – An oblong curve found in small letters “h’, “g”, “f” and “I”, a blind loop is
frequently the result of the ink having filled the open space.

Lumbrical Muscles – Cluster of muscle which pushes the pen with combination of
extensor and flexor muscles forming the lateral strokes.

Microscopic Examination – Any study or test which is accomplished with the

microscopic in order to discover minuscule or minute physical details.

Model Signature – It refers to a genuine signature which has been used to prepare a
traced or imitated forgery.

Movement – An element of writing which embraces all the factors which are related to
the motion of the writing instrument; skill, speed, hesitation, freedom, rhythm, tremor
and the like.
Natural Variations – Refers to the usual or normal deviations found between repeated
specimen of any individual’s handwriting or in the product of any typewriter.

Natural Writing – Any specimen of writing executed normally without any attempt to
alter or control its identifying habits.

Non-Aqueous Ink – An ink in which a dye or pigment is carried in any medium other
than water.

Oblique Photography – Also called side light photography, it is undertaken in

questioned document examinations with the illumination so controlled that it gazes or
strikes the document from one side at a very small angle.

Obliteration – The smearing over or blotting out of the writing to make the original
undecipherable.

Off Its Feet – A typewriter defect in which the type face prints heavier one side or
corner than over the remainder of its outline.

Patching – Also termed as retouching, it is going over a defective segment of a writing

stroke.

Pen – A writing instrument used to apply ink on paper.

Pencil Grade – It is the quantitative description of the softness or hardness of a pencil

and how dark a stroke is produced.

Pen Emphasis – Refers to periodic increase in pressure of the writing or the act of
intermittently forcing the pen against the paper surface with increased pressure.

Pen Lift – It is an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument

from the paper.

Pen Nibs – Two points or divisions which form the writing portion of the pen.

Pen Position – Refers to the relative location of the pen in relation to the paper surface.

Pen Pressure – Refers to the average force with which the pen contacts the paper.

Pen Scope – Represents the reach of the hand with the wrist at rest. It is the average
limit of the pen during the process of writing with the wrist at rest.

Permanent Defect – An identifying characteristic of a typewriter, which cannot be

corrected by cleaning the type face or replacing the ribbon.
Platen – It is the roll or tube which serves as the backing for the paper and absorbs the
blow from the type face.

Proportional Spacing Machine – A modern form of typewriting machine which

resembles printing in all of the letters, symbols and numerals that do not occupy the
same horizontal space as they do with conventional typewriters.

Qualification – Legal competency which is a combination of the education, professional

experience and the ability of a document examiner.

Quality – Refers to a peculiar or distinct character utilized in depicting handwriting to

any identifying factor which is related to the writing movement itself.

Questioned Document – Any document which is under scrutiny or about which some
issue has been raised.

Rebound – A typewriting defect in which the character prints a double impression with
the lighter side slightly offset to the left or right.

Reference Collection – Used to denote materials organized and complied by a

questioned document examiner to assist him in special questions.

Requested Standards – Also known as “Post Litel Motam Standards” or Dictated

Standard is a standard document which is executed and prepared at one time upon
request.

Restoration – Refers to the process in which erased writing is brought out again or
developed on the document itself.

Retracing – Also termed as retracing, it refers to any stroke which goes back over
another writing stroke.

Rhythm – The balanced quality of the writing movement which is marked by intermittent
or regular recurrence of harmonious stress of impulse.

Ribbon Impression – Refers to any typewriting which is made directly through cloth
imprint.

Sample – A representative or selected portion of the whole.

Secret Inks – Also known as sympathetic ink, it refers to a material used for writing
which is not visible until treated by some developing process or substance.

Shading – It refers to the broadening or widening of ink strokes due to added pressure
on the paper surface.
Significant Writing Habits – Applied to any characteristics of handwriting which is
sufficiently well fixed and distinctive to serve as a fundamental point in identification.

Simple Forgery – It is also known as spurious signature which refers to a bogus

signature where no attempt has been made to make a facsimile or copy of the genuine
writing or signature of a person purported to make or sign a document.

Simplification – Discarding of unessential details and may go as far as to strip the

letter to the skeleton making it either clear-cut and precise, or bare and careless.

Skill – Relative degree of the ability of the writer and a specimen of handwriting usually
containing evidence of a writer’s proficiency.

Slant – Refers to the inclination or angle of the axis of the letters relative to the
baseline.

Smeared Over Printing – It is an obliteration which is often accomplished by covering

or wiping over the original writing with an opaque substance.

Speed – May not be measured from the finished handwriting but may be interpreted in
broad terms as slow, moderate or rapid writing.

Spur – Refers to a short initial or terminal stroke.

Spurious Signature – A fraudulent signature in which there was no apparent attempt at

imitation or simulation.

Staff – Any long downward stroke of a letter. It is the backbone of any letter. Also
referred to as stem or shank.

Slant – Refers to the angle or inclination of the axis of letters relative to the baseline.

Standards – Compact and condensed set of authentic specimens which, if proper and
sufficient should contain a true cross section of the material from a known source.

Surface Texture of Paper – Describes the paper property which when viewed under
magnification is not absolutely smooth and flat but is rough and irregular.

Synthetic Dye Inks – Refers to any ink which consists of simply a dye dissolved in
water together with the necessary preservatives.

System of Writing – The combination of the basic design of letters and the writing
movement as taught in school.
Traced Forgery – Refers to any deceitful or fraudulent signature which was executed
by actually following the outline of a genuine signature with a writing instrument.
Transitory Defects – Any identifying typewriter characteristic which may be eliminated
by replacing the ribbon or cleaning the machine.

Transitory Change – Refers to alterations which only continue to exist while the basic
cause of the deterioration is still affecting the writer, once such cause has been
removed from the writer, his writing will revert to its normal form.

Transmitted Light Examination – A test in which the document is viewed with the
source of illumination behind it and the light passing through the paper.

Tremor – Refers to a writing weakness manifested by shaky and irregular strokes. This
may be due to genuine tremors caused by either sickness, weakness, old age or
illiteracy or a tremor of fraud.

Through – Any garland form of letter strokes.

Twisted Letter – Type face defect which leans to the left or right of their correct slant
due to wear and damage of the type block and the type bars.

Type Face – The printing surface of the type block.

Type Face Defect – Any oddity or peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to
the type face metal.

Vertical Malalignment – A typewriter defect in which a character is printing above or

below its proper position.

Watermark – A translucent design which is impressed upon the paper during

manufacturing.

Whirl – The lone upward stroke usually located opposite the stem.

Writing – A combination of certain forms which are the very visible result of mental and
muscular habits.

Writing Conditions – Include both circumstances under which the writing was
prepared and the factors which influenced the writer’s ability to write at the time of
execution.

Writing Impressions – The small writing indentions completely devoid any pigment.

Writing Instrument – The utensil or means used to execute the writing such as ball
point pen, fiber pen or fountain pen.
Writing Movement – An important element of handwriting which embraces all the
factors which are related to the motion of writing.
Writing Offsets – Results from a paper coming in contact with fresh ink writing.

Writing Pressure – The average force with which the pen contacts the paper surface or
the usual force involved in writing.

Wrong Handed Writing – Any writing executed with the opposite hand, which is a
means of disguise.

POLYGRAPHY

1.5 – Ohms of skin electrical resistance sensitivity.

60 – Millimeter of mercury shown in the spyghmo-dial.

A or M – Automatic or manual galvo amplifier.

+ - A chart marking which indicates a “yes” answer of the subject to a question.

- - A chart marking which indicates a “no” answer of the subject to a question.

Admission – A self-incriminating statement which falls short of an acknowledgement of

guilt.

Angelo Mosso – A pioneer who developed in 1895 a type of sphygmomanometer and

utilized a scientific cradle and focus on the significance.

Balance Ordeal – This existed in the 600 B.C as early as the Institute of Vishnu
wherein the practice of determining the veracity of the statement of the accused by
placing him on one scale of balance and in the other scale a counter balance. Then the
accused is asked to step down the scale while the judge delivers a catch phrase to the
balance. After the exhortation, the accused is asked to go back to the scale and if he is
found to be lighter than before he was adjudged as acquitted.

Black Lie – A kind of lie used by a person to deceive others.

Blood pressure Cuff Assembly – Part of the cardio component attached on the right
arm of the subject.

Boiling Water Ordeal – This was prevalent in Africa. This test of deception is
undertaken by asking those persons suspected of committing a crime to place their right
arm into the boiling pot to the elbow, after plunging their they are asked to take a rest at
the same time, the one who after the next afternoon has lost some of his skin or showed
a blister would be determined as the person guilty of committing a crime.
Card Test – It is conducted immediately after the completion of the first test while the
blood pressure cuff is still deflated. The subject is asked to choose one from seven
numbered cards, take it and return the same without telling the examiner or otherwise
identifying the chosen number. The card is then shuffled by the examiner and instructs
the subject to answer NO concerning the cards when shown. This is to single out which
among the answers given by the subject is a lie. This is undertaken to stimulate lying
subjects into specific responsiveness to the subsequent relevant questions and to afford
the lying subject an opportunity to try to distort the polygraph examination tracings
which would result in exposing his deception with respect to the matter under
investigation.

Cardiospygmograph – A device which consists of blood pressure cuff and rubber

pump and is fastened around the subject’s right arm. It records the changes in pulse
rate and blood pressure.

Cesare Lombroso – An Italian scientist who in 1885 used hydrospygmograph

procedure and was credited to be the pioneer who envisioned the idea of using
scientific procedures to lie detection. He is considered as the first person to use an
instrument for the purpose of detecting deception.

Chart – Also referred to a polygrams, it is the combined record of the

cardiospygnograph, galvanograph and pneumograph tracings recorded from a series of
questions.

Confession – Refers to the voluntary statement made by a person and given to proper
authorities wherein he acknowledges himself to be guilty of an offense and discloses
circumstances of his act and participation he had in the felony.

Control Question – Answerable by NO it is designed to produce a response from an

innocent subject.

Diacritic Notch – A short horizontal line on a cardio tracing located at the middle of
diastolic stern.

Deception – It is an act of misleading or deceiving usually accomplished by lying or

untruthful remarks.

Deception Detection Method – It is a method of gathering and knowing information

from the subject about the crime in dispute employing the use of machine or device.
Drugs or substances and other accessory means. Most of the tests are not reliable and
thus the information gathered are not admissible in court as evidence but only important
to be used for further investigation.
Detection – Refers to the act of discovering the existence, fact or presence of
something obscure or ambiguous.
Donkey’s Tail Ordeal – This is undertaken by placing the accused and a donkey in one
room, if after sometime, the donkey cries, the accused is adjudged as guilty of the
offense charged against him.

Emotion – An acute disturbance of individual as a whole, psychological in origin

involving behavior conscious experience and visceral functions.

Evidence Connecting Question – Intended to stimulate the subject and focus his
attention on the probability of incriminating proof that would tend to establish his guilt.

Fear – Refers to an emotional reaction to explicit or specific danger that appears to go

beyond a person’s defensive power.

Finger Electrode Plate – A part of the galvanograph assembly attached on the left
fingers of the subject.

Galvanograph – An apparatus used to record subject’s skin resistance to a small

amount of electricity. It is made up of electrodes attached to the finger of the left hand,
or to the index and ring finger of the left hand, or to the palmar or dorsal surface of the
left hand.

General Question Test – Consists of series irrelevant and relevant questions asked in
a planned manner.

Guilt Complex Test – In cases where the subject is overly responsive, this test is given
which consist of a test pertaining to a purely fictitious incident of a similar nature to the
one under query. It is designed to compare the responsiveness on it with those that
appeared on the actual test record wherein questions asked are those which pertains to
that which is under investigation. This test is designed for diagnostic purpose to aid in
the post examination interrogation of a lying subject.

Heredity – The transmission of mental and physical traits from parents to offspring.

Harold Burtt – A scientist who in 1918, determined that the respiratory changes were
signs of deception and concluded that systolic pressure changes are valuable in
determining deception.

Initial Interview – Usually conducted by the investigator handling the case or a

polygraph examiner who was given brie but significant details of the case it is designed
to obtain pertinent information necessary for the conduct of the polygraph test.

Irrelevant Questions – Are those query that do not relate to the matter under
investigation and deals with a known fact about which the subject cannot lie.
John A. Larson – A pioneer who in 1921, develop an instrument capable of
simultaneously and continuously recording blood pressure, pulse rate and respiration.
His invention was designated as “the Bread Lie Detector”.
Keymograph – A motorized component that pulls or drives the chart paper under the
recording pen concurrently at the rate of 6 to 12 inches per minute.

Knowledge Questions – Intended to probe whether the subject possesses information

regarding the identity of the offender.

Leonard Keeler – An American Criminologist who in 1926 he invented the Keymograph

machine. In 1949, the “Keeler’s polygraph” incorporated the galvanograph with
measurement, blood pressure and respiration component. He also devised a metal
recording bellow, rolled chart paper and the method of question formulation used in
polygraph examination.

Lie Detector Test – Also known as “Keeler’s Polygraph Test” is a test used to record
physiological changes associated with lying in a subject. The polygraph machine will
record the blood pressure, respiratory rate and the skin resistance to electricity in a
graphing paper. This instrument is an accurate, reliable delicately engineered used as a
scientific method to exonerate the innocent and to detect the guilty.

Lying – Is the conveying or uttering of falsehood or misleading impression, with the

intention of affecting wrongfully the acts, opinion or affection to another.

Mixed Question Test – This consists of an arrangement of first and third test questions,
administered for the purpose of discounting possible factor of accidental responses and
to compare the degree of reaction between control and relevant questions.

Normal Response – A tracing on the chart wherein the subject answered the irrelevant
questions.

Narco-analysis – Also known as Narco-synthesis or Administration of Truth Serum, this

is a deception detection method using narcotic or anesthetic drug in order to get
information from the subject.

Normal Tracing – A tracing of the subject produced when no irrelevant question was
asked.

Peak of Tension Test – Answerable only by NO, this test is only made possible when
there is no widespread publicity about a crime where intimate details as to the method
of commission of certain facts of the case is only known by the actor of the crime, the
victim and the investigator.
Pneumograph – It is a device which records the changes of respiration and breathing
of the subject, consisting of 10- inch convoluted tubes fastened together around the
subject’s abdomen and chest.

Pre-test Interview – Administered by the polygraph examiner designed to condition or

prepare the subject for the actual polygraph test. Its duration usually lasts 20 to 30
minutes. At this stage, the rights of the subject are explained, his consent are obtained
as well as personal data and the determination whether the subject is mentally,
physically and psychologically prepared to undergo the polygraph test.

Polygraph – Refers to an instrument fro recording changes in blood pressure,

respiration, pulse rate and skin resistance as sign or indication of emotional disturbance
especially of lying when questioned.

Polygraph Examiner – The person who administers or conducts the lie detection test
by the use of a polygraph machine.

Polygraphy – It is the scientific method of detecting deception with the use of a

polygraph contraption.

Post Test Interview – It is similar to the method of interrogation administered by the

polygraph examiner which is designed to obtain admission or confession of the subject.
An interview is conducted when the subject indicates an innocent response, while
interrogation is undertaken if signs of deception are indicated by the results of the actual
polygraph test. In cases wherein the polygraph result indicates that the subject is
innocent, it is the duty of the examiner to cordially release the subject and to thank the
subject for giving consideration and cooperation.

Reaction – It refers to any activity aroused in an organism by a stimulus. It is an action

or mental attitude induced by an external influence.

Red Hot Iron Ordeal – This form of test was prevalent in India, specifically from those
living in the hill tribes of Rajhamal in the North of Bengal. The accused to prove his
innocence was asked to lick a red hot iron for nine time unless burnt sooner, if the
tongue is burned, the accused was put to death guilt was believed to make the tongue
dry.

Red Water Ordeal – This form of trial is undertaken where the accused is asked to fast
for twelve hours, and then he is asked to swallow a small amount of rice and drink dark
colored water. If this acts as an emetic and the accused rejects all of the rice, he is
determined innocent from the charges. This was based on the belief that the fetish of
the victim enters the body through the mouth with the emetic red water; it examines the
heart of the accused and if it finds him innocent brings up the rice in evidence.

Relevant Questions – Direct query having precise and specific relation with the felony.
It is designed to produce emotional response in subject’s trying to craft deceptive
statements. It is answerable by NO.

Response – Refers to any inhibition or activity of previous motion of an organism or of

effectors or organ or part of the organism resulting from simulation or suggestion.
Rice Chewing Ordeal – In 1150 A.D. the Roman Catholic clergy had made full use of
Indian practice of ordeals specifically that of the rice chewing ordeal. Concentrated rice
is the article selected instead of cheese and bread, if the accused who is asked to chew
the concentrated rice is unable to swallow a single grain he is adjudged as guilty. This
was based on the premise that a person conscious of their crime and fearful of the
punishment from God would feel a suffocating sensation in their throat; they would then
fall on their knees and confess the crime.

Sacrifice Question – Reveals a subject’s norms and stimulus excitement level it gives
us a clue which pertains to the attitude of the subject’s acceptance.

Secondary Questions – Also known as weak relevant questions it is further classified

as either sacrifice relevant, knowledge or evidence connecting questions.

Silent Answer Test – This is confirmatory test because the subject is afraid of the
unfamiliar and the unknown. It is an examination in which the subject is instructed by
the examiner to avoid audible response to the question asked.

Specific Response – It is any variation or deviation from the normal tracing of the
subject.

Sphygmomanometer – The part of the cardio component which indicates the air
pressure in the system in millimeters of mercury.

Sticker – In 1897 he worked on the galvanograph component and studied the influence
and relation of the sweat glands to skin resistance.

Stimulus – Refers to the motion or force reaching the organism and excites the
receptors. It is a force that produces the organism or any of its part to activity.

Stimulus Association Test – In this test, the subject will be interviewed, wherein a
group of stimulus words or objects or person will be presented to the subject. He will
then be instructed to answer the questions as quickly as possible. The time interval
between each relevant questions and answers were noted down as well as the reaction
of the subject to the stimulus words or object or person related to the crime in dispute.
The time interval and the reaction of the subject will be studied by the interrogator. A
person presumed to be guilty will usually make a mistake or will have long time interval
in answering questions.
Strong Relevant Question – Refers to a verbal motivation of primary importance
projected in a form of question which overcomes the psychological excitement level and
causes three major components tracing change from the subject’s psychological norm.

Subject – Also known as examinee refers to a person undergoing a polygraph

examination or test.
Trial by Combat – A primitive practice of detecting deception whereby controversies in
accusations are settled by means of duel, the victor will be spared from the
consequence while the loser will be pronounced guilty.

Veraguth – In 1907, he formulated the term Psycho galvanic Skin Reflex. He claimed
that electrical phenomena are due to the activity of the sweat glands.

Vittorio Bennussi – A pioneer who in 1914, noted changes in inhalation and exhalation
ratio occurring during deception. He recorded the respiratory curves of the
pneumograph.

Weak Relevant Questions – Secondary queries which are concerned with the less
important elements of the offense and deals mostly on guilty knowledge and partial
involvement.

William M. Marston – The creator of the systolic blood pressure test, which lead to the
creation of the polygraph (lie detector). Because of his discovery, Marston was
convinced that women were more honest and reliable than men and could work faster
and more accurately.

X/ 60/ 1.5 A – The first marking of the examiner on a polygraph chart.

XX – In a polygraph chart it indicates the end of the test or examination.

FORENSIC MEDICINE

Abortion – Is the expulsion of the products of conception before full term, while others
consider it as the forcible expulsion of the product of conception anytime before the age
of viability.

Abscess of the Brain – It is the infection of the brain brought about by microorganisms
and is characterized by the formation or edema of the brain.

Accidental Death – It is destruction of life without intent which occurs unexpectedly and
outside of human will.
Acute Hepatitis – It is the sudden and severe infection of the liver caused by virus,
bacteria and other toxins characterized by fever, and yellowish discoloration of the body.

Acute Pancreatitis – It is the sudden inflammation of the pancreas, which may be

caused by infection carried in the blood stream.

Agraphia – A Brain disease which causes the inability of an individual to write although
he could still grasp the writing instrument.
Allele – One of the variant forms of a gene at a particular locus, or location, on a
chromosome. Different alleles produce variation in inherited characteristics. For STR
markers, each allele is the number of repeats of the short base sequence.

Apparent Death – It is a state of temporary cessation of the vital activities of the body
or the vital processes where depressed to the minimum compatible with life.

Anthrophy – Decreased in size of normally developed organ or tissue.

Asphyxia – This is a cause of death due to interference of respiration.

Autopsy – Refers to the examination of the body after death by means of dissection
method.

Base Pair – Two bases that form a “rung of the DNA ladder”. A DNA nucleotide is made
of a molecule of sugar, a molecule of phosphoric acid, and a molecule called a base.
The bases are the “letters” that spell out the genetic code. In DNA, the code letters are
A, T, G and C, which stand for the chemicals adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine,
respectively. In base pairing, adenine always pairs with thymine, and guanine always
pairs with cytosine.

Biologic Death – The type of loss of life characterized by the absence of cognitive
functions and awareness artificial support system.

Burial – Is a method of placing the dead body in the grave.

Cadaveric Spasm – Also known as instantaneous rigor, it refers to the stiffening of

certain groups of muscles which occurs immediately at the moment of death, it is
associated with violent deaths due to the extreme injury and tensions to the nervous
system.

Calsson’s Disease – Condition seen in diverse underwater when exposed to an

increase environmental pressure and characterized by the greater combining capacity
of the blood as well as accumulation of the gases.

Cerebral Concussion – It is a condition of the brain resulting from sudden jarring or

stunning of the brain, which follows a head injury.

Cerebral Embolism – This is the blocking of the blood vessels in the brain by foreign
bodies which may be in air, fatty substances or septic bodies.

Champignon D’ Ocume – Whitish foam at the mouth or nostril the mucus secretion of
the respiratory tract.
Chemical Burn – A type of burn due to chemicals like strong acids, alkali’s and other
irritant substances that produce extensive destruction of tissues and usually heal by the
formation of scars.

Chromosomes – One of the threadlike “packages” of genes and other DNA in the
nucleus of a cell.

Chronic Starvation – It is the starvation wherein the deprivation of food and or water
occurs in gradual manner.

Closed Wound – An injury where there is no break in the overlying skin or tissues.

Coagulation in the Blood – The process of solidification of the blood after death.

CODIS – Refers to a software program that operates local, state, and national
databases of DNA profiles from convicted offenders, unsolved crime scene evidence,
and missing persons. The odds that two individuals will have the same 13-loci DNA
profile are about one in one billion.

Cold Stiffening – Condition which is characterized by stiffening of the muscles due to

the solidification of fats, fluids and muscles as a result of the exposure of dead bodies to
extreme cold.

Coma – Is a profound stupor in sickness or after severe injury.

Compound Fracture – A fissure or crack where there is a loss of alignment of the

affected bone as well as break in the bone.

Congestion – It is the abnormal accumulation of blood in certain parts of the body.

Contre Coup Injury – It is the physical injury that is found not at the site but opposite of
the site of the application of the force.

Contusion – Commonly known as bruises, it refers to a wound in the substance of the

true skin and in the subcutaneous cellular tissues characterized by discoloration and
swelling.

Coup Injury – Refers to a physical injury which is found at the site of the application of
the force.

Cutis Anserina - Known as goose flesh, it refers to a condition of the skin usually in
extremities manifested by pale and contacted skin.

Death – The absence of life in living matters or organisms.

Defloration – Refers to the laceration or rupture of the hymen of women usually due to
sexual intercourse.

DNA – The chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for
making living organisms.

Diffusion Lividity – It is a fixed or permanent discoloration when the blood clotted in

side the blood vessels or has diffused to different parts of the body.

Dislocation – Refers to the displacement of the articular surfaces of the bones forming
the joints frequently secondary to trauma.

DYS # - D = DNA, Y = Y chromosome, S = a unique DNA segment. A label for genetic

markers on the Y chromosome. Each marker is designated by a number, according to
international conventions. At present, virtually all the DYS designations are given to
STR markers (a class often used in genetic genealogy).

Embalming – Is the method of preserving the dead body for a certain period of time by
removing body fluids before decomposition.

Epilepsy – A nervous diseases marked by seizure with convulsion and loss of

consciousness.

Exhumation – It is the raising or disinterring of the dead body remains in the grave.

Extensive Injury – It is a physical injury involved the greater area beyond the site of the
force.

Euthanasia – It is a willful acceleration of death of a person in order to lessen his

sufferings.

Fellatio – A sexual deviation undertaken by placing the male genital organ in the mouth
to attain sexual gratification.

Filiation – The civil status of the child in relation to his/her mother or father.

First Degree Burn – It is the burn which involves the superficial layer of the skin or
tissues characterized by redness and pain, but later on sloughing of the skin after a few
days. Example: Sunburn

Fracture – Refers to a break or solution in the continuity of the bone tissues resulting
from violence or from some existing pathology.
Friction Burn – A scald or scorch when the bodies come into contact with a moving
object that is either sliding or rotating.

Frostbite – It is a condition of exposure to cold temperature or certain parts of the body

which produces mechanical disruption of cell structure, it leads to swelling, thrombosis
and gangrene of the affected tissues.

Gait – Refers to the natural or secondary manner of walking which may be inherent or a
result of disease or personality.

Genes – The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring.
Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific
protein.

Genome – The entire DNA contained in an organism or a cell, which includes both the
chromosomes within the nucleus and the DNA in mitochondria.

Grazes – Refers to an abrasion due to forcible contact with rough, hard objects
resulting to the irregular removal of the skin surface.

Heat Stiffening – Hardening of the muscles due to coagulation of muscle protein when
dead body is exposed to intense heat.

Heat Stroke – It is a failure of adequate heat elimination almost always related to a

breakdown of the sweating mechanism.

Hematoma – It is a large extravasation of the blood in a newly formed cavity secondary

to trauma with swelling.
Homicidal Death – Homicide is the killing of another person with the intent but without
justification.

Homicidal Starvation – The hunger and undernourishment is done intentionally as in

neglected infants, mentally retarded, old and helpless persons.

Hypostatic Lividity – It is the Lividity when the discoloration is due to the blood pooled
in the most dependent areas of the body.

Hysteria – A psychoneurosis with symptoms based on conversion and characterized by

lack of control over acts.

Incised Wound – Refers to those injuries produced by sharp edged instruments.

Infanticidal Death – It is a fatality which involves the killing of an infant less than three
days old.
Inundation – To flood or swamp.

Keeler’s Polygraph Test – Also known as lie detector test, it is an examination used to
record the psychological changes associated with lying in a subject.

Lacerated Wound – An injury or abrasion which results from blunt objects or

instruments.

Less Serious Physical Injury – A physical injury wherein the offended victim is
incapacitated for work or requires medical attendance for ten days or more but not more
than 30 days.

Leukemia – A disease of blood forming tissues characterized by an extensive and an

abnormal production of mature and immature of white blood cells.

Liver Cirrhosis – It is the degeneration of white blood cells but proliferation of internal
tissues with fibrosis due to malnutrition, infection, toxins and alcoholic resulting to
decrease of liver functions.

Livor Mortis – Refers to the discoloration of the body after death when blood tends to
pool in blood vessels of the most dependent part of the body, also referred to post
mortem lividity.

Locus – A point in the genome, identified by a marker, which can be mapped by some
means. It does not necessarily correspond to a gene. A single gene may have several
loci within it (each defined by different markers) and these markers may be separated in
genetic or physical mapping experiments. In such cases, it is useful to define these
different loci, but normally the gene name should be used to designate the gene itself,
as this usually will convey the most information.
Locus Minoris Resistencia – A physical injury which can be found in some areas
offering the least resistance to the force applied.

Lust Murder – Aggressive sexual behavior wherein the offender performs sexual
intercourse and kills the victim afterwards.

Maceration – Refers to the softening of tissues of the body when placed in a fluid
medium in the absence of bacteria which occurs in the death of the fetus in the uterus.

Marker – Also known as genetic marker, a segment of DNA with an identifiable physical
location on a chromosome whose inheritance can be followed. A marker can be a gene,
or it can be some section of DNA with no known function. Because DNA segments that
lie near each other on a chromosome tends to be inherited together, markers are often
used as indirect ways of tracking the inheritance pattern of genes that have not yet been
identified, but whose approximate locations are known.
Masturbation – A form of sexual deviation done by fondling or touching the external
genital organ to attain sexual pleasure.

Medicine – Refers to the science and art which deals with the prevention and treatment
of illness or diseases.

Micro Satellite – Repetitive stretches of short sequences of DNA used as genetic

markers to track inheritance in families.

Molecular Death – It is the cessation of life of the individual cells in the body which
occurs one at a time after somatic death.

Mortal Wound – Injury or damage which when inflicted to the body is immediately
followed by death or is serious enough that will endanger the life of the victim.

Mutation – A permanent structural alteration in DNA.

Mutilation – The intentional act of looping any parts of the living body.

Narcissism – A sexual perversion which a sexual pleasure attained in watching itself in

the mirror.

Natural Death – Fatality due to disease or ailment in the body.

Necrosis – Death of the cells as a result of disease or injury.

Negligent Death – It is a loss of life due to reckless imprudence, negligence, lack of

skill or lack of foresight.

Non-mortal Wound – Damage or injury when inflicted to the body is not immediately
followed by death.

Nymphomania – It is an excessive desire for sexual intercourse in the female.

Open Wound – Cut where there is a break or rupture of the skin tissues.

Partialism – A sexual deviation in male who have skills on certain parts of female to
arouse sexual pleasure.

Paternity – Civil status of father to his begotten son.

PCR Analysis – Polymerase Chain Reaction is used to make millions of exact copies of
DNA from a biological sample. DNA amplification with PCR allows DNA analysis on
biological samples as small as a few skin cells.
Penetrating Wound – An injury or damaged caused by an instrument or any object
which pierces solid organ and tissues.

Perforated Peptic – It is the rupture of the stomach or duodenum to deepening wound

in the walls of the stomach or duodenum.

Perforated Tubal Pregnancy – This condition is the rupture of the fallopian tube of the
female.

Perforating Wound – An injury when there is contact on the inner and outer portions of
a hollow organ.

Petechiae – These are minute, pinpoint, and circumscribe extravasation of the blood in
the tissue.

Physiologic Death – A type of mortality when all the vital organs have ceased to
function.

Pluralism – Sexual activity done by two or more couples; group sex.

Post-mortem Lividity – A discoloration of the body after death when the blood tends to
pool in the blood vessels of the most dependent portions of the body. The onset of post-
mortem lividity is 20-30 minutes and the color change in the body is complete in
approximately 12 hours.

Precipitin Test – This examination test is of value in determining whether the blood is
of human origin or not.

Pregnancy – Is a condition or state of a woman who has within her body the growing
product of conception or a fecundated germ.

Punctured Wound – Those injuries produced by sharp pointed instruments.

Purine Bases – Adenine and guanine are purines. Purines are the larger of the two
types of bases found in DNA. The 9 atoms that make up the fused rings are 5 carbons,
4 nitrogen numbered 1-9. With all ring atoms lie in the same plane.

Putrefaction – Refers to the process of dissolution of tissues by the digestive action of

enzymes and bacteria which results to softening and liquefaction of tissues, typically
accompanied by change of tissue color and the liberation of foul smelling gases.

Rigor Mortis – Also known as the post-mortem rigidity, it is a stage of muscular change
which is characterized by hardening of muscles due to biological changes of muscle
proteins.
RFLP – Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism is a technique for analyzing the
variable lengths of DNA fragments that result from digesting a DNA sample with a
special kind of enzyme.

Saponification – Also known as Adipocere formation, it is the formation of a soft friable,

and brownish white greasy substance in the soft fatty tissues of the body which occurs
after death.

Satyriasis – An excessive desire for sexual intercourse in the male.

Scald – A burn due to contact with a hot or boiling liquid or gas over the body
characterized by redness, pain and blister formation.

Scapula – Is a pair of bones at the back wherein changes may occur to determine the
age of a person after death.

Second Degree Burn – It is the burn which involves the superficial layer of the skin and
tissue, nerve endings and is characterized by the formation of blisters containing fluid
over the tissues. This is the most painful because of the irritation of the nerve endings.

Serious Physical Injury – A physical injury where in the victim is wounded, beater or
assaulted and is incapacitated for work requires medical attendance for more than 30
days.

Sexual Deviation – Is an unnatural sexual behavior by certain individuals that is done

usually in privacy but may be done in public or done in a bizarre manner.

Short Tandem Repeats (STR) – Refers to the genetic marker consisting of multiple
copies of an identical DNA sequence arranged in direct succession in a particular region
of a chromosome. Occasionally, one will mutate by the gain or loss of one repeat. (Also
known as micro satellite).
Sodomy – Form of sexual perversion seen in the prison or mental hospital which sexual
intercourse is done to the anus of another person.

Somatic Death – It is a complete, continues cessation of respiration, circulation and

almost all brain function of an organism.

Sprain – It is the staining or tearing of the particular tendons, ligaments and muscles
characterized by swelling, discoloration of tissues involved and extreme pain.

Stab Wounds – Refers to injuries produced by sharp pointed and sharp edged
instruments.

Stage of Secondary Flaccidity – The phase of molecular change after death

characterized by softening and flaccidity of the muscles which no longer responds to
mechanical stimulation.
State of Suspended Animation – Also referred to as apparent death, it is a temporary
and transient cessation of the vital functions of the body due to disease, external
stimulus or other forms of influence.

STR Analysis – Short Tandem Repeat technology is used to evaluate specific regions
(loci) within nuclear DNA. Variability in STR regions can be used to distinguish one DNA
profile from another.

Suffocation – Stoppage of respiration, or asphyxia due to such stoppage.

Suicidal Death – A fatality or loss of life due to killing or destruction of oneself.

Superficial Wound – An injury which involves the outer layer of the skin.

Surgery – A branch of medicine which deals with the part of the body which needs
drugs and operative techniques in order to remedy or alleviate the defect or illness.

Third Degree Burn – It is the burn involving the skin, nerves, muscles and bones which
is usually encountered in victims of conflagrations. This is the most severe burn
because the victim usually dies from loss of fluid and electrolyte in the body and
massive infection.

Toxicology – Is the science or study of poisons that affect the body.

Trance – It is a profound or abnormal sleep.

Trauma – Refers to an injury or wound produced by external forces.

Traumatic Crush Asphyxia – Is a condition of asphyxia death due to external

compression of the thorax and abdomen with consequent prevention of respiratory
movement.

Trench Foot – A condition usually seen among those walking over the snow where the
foot is exposed to freezing temperature.

Troilism – A sexual act involving three persons performing sexual intercourse at the
same time.

Uremia – It is the accumulation of substances the blood ordinarily eliminated in the

urine.

Ventricular Fibrillation – It is the irregular twitching of the walls of the ventricle of the
heart.

Vertigo – A disturbed visual sensation in relation to space.

Violent Death – It is loss of life due to injuries by some forms as outside force wherein
the physical injuries inflicted is the proximate cause of death.

Virgo Intacta – Refers to a woman who has had several sexual intercourses but had
not yet born a child.

Voyeurism – A sexual act performed by the male and some times the female wherein
sexual pleasure is attained by seeing persons undressing or engaged in sexual activity.

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

3 R Rule – A principle used for radial cracks which states that stress lines on radial
cracks will be at right angle to the rear side of the glass.

Absorption Elusion Technique – Is an indirect grouping technique of bloodstains and

it depends on the detection of agglutinogen in the direct blood.

Accidental Poisoning – Those in which the poison was taken without intention to
cause harm or death.

Acetic Acid – Acid found in vinegar known as glacial acetic acid in its pure form.

Acetone – Used as solvent for cellulose acetate and nitro-cellulose it is a colorless

liquid with fruity odor.

Acute Poisoning – One in which there is prompt and marked disturbance of function or
death within a short time.

Agglutinogen – Also referred to as Antigen, these are characteristics chemical

structures or principles that are found on the surface of each red blood cells which
stimulates the production of agglutinins or antibodies.

Alluvial Soil – Formed soil particles that were washed, blown or moved by gravity to
the lowlands.

Alkaloid – A nitrogenous organic basic compound with bitter taste containing oxygen
that occurs especially in seed plants.

Aniline Ink – Made of coal tar product called nigrosine dissolved in water.

Animal Fiber – A fiber that made of protein. When subjected to a burning test its fumes
turn red litmus to blue, the fibers burn slowly and gives odor similar to tat of feather.
Antagonist – Also known as physiological antidotes which refer to an agent that acts
upon the system so as to counteract the effect of the poison and masks and the
symptoms produced.

Antibody or Agglutinin – These are proteins or principles contained in the serum,

which caused agglutination or clumping together of the red blood cells.

Antidote – Refers to any agent, which neutralizes poison and its effect.

Arsenic – A rat poison.

Artificial Silk – Cylindrical, lustrous, appearing like a glass rod.

Aspermia – A condition wherein males have no spermatozoa at all in their seminal fluid.

Asthenics – Also known as Exhaustive, are agents that produce exhaustion, marked
loss of vital or muscular power, such as hydrocyanic acid, digitalis and aconite.

Atropine – Obtained from the plant group Solonacea; known as Deadly Nightshade.

Auto Agglutination – Defined as the agglutination of individual red cells by their own
serum due to the presence of an absorbable agglutinin in the serum and a
corresponding agglutinogen in the cell.

Auxiliary Hair – Is fairly long with unevenly distributed pigment.

Ball Point Pen Ink - Made of light fast dyes soluble as carbitol, glycol or oleic acid.

Barberio’s Test – The test is almost specific for human semen and seminal stain as old
as six years old are said to respond to this test.

Barbiturates – A sleeping pill; induces sleep: a derivative of malonyl urea or barbituric

acid.

Benzene – Also known as benzol, it acts as a solvent for rubber, gums, fats and resins.

Benzidine Test – Reliable and easy way to test blood even when it is decomposed and
stained with contamination.

Black Powder – Consist of an intimate mixture of charcoal or carbon, sulfur and

potassium nitrate or sodium nitrate.

Blood – Referred to as the circulating tissue of the body which is made up of formed
elements suspended in plasma.

Bufotoxin – Poisonous substance isolated from skin of poisonous frogs.

Burning Test – Also referred to as Ignition Test it is an examination that determines
whether fiber is mineral, animal or vegetable.

Bursting Strength Test – Is an examination used to determine whether a paper is not

easily torn.

Cannabinoids – Active chemical found in marijuana and hashish.

Cantharides – An aphrodisiac (Provocative of or exciting sexual desire).

Carbolic Acid – Also known as Phenol, it is obtained from coal tar.

Carbon Disulfide – A solvent for sulfur burns with bluish flame giving dioxide and sulfur
dioxide.

Carbon Ink – Kind of ink wherein the use of chemical bleaches is ineffective, it is the
oldest ink material known to man. Also known as India ink or Chinese ink.

Carbon Monoxide – A tasteless, colorless and odorless gas produced by incomplete

combustion of carbon, it is toxic to humans.

Cast Coin – Coins made in molds or coins made in casting method.

Casting Material – Any substance which can be changed from a liquid or plastic state
to solid condition.

Cathartics – Are agents which produce intestinal evacuation.

Celerit – Brown colored material use for strengthening and backing the homonit.

Chemical Antidote – A substance that makes the poison harmless by chemically

altering it, and renders the poison insoluble and inert.

Chemical Test – Involves the treatment of the suspected sample with a chemical
reagent and reaction such as color change is noted.

Chloral Hydrate – Used as knockout drops.

Chloroform – A colorless liquid with a sweet taste and suffocating odor; an anesthesia.

Chromatographic Test – Is the method by which the components of a compound are

separated from another by passage thru a supporting medium and is used to identify
complex organic material.
Chronic Poisoning – Kind of poisoning in which there is gradual deterioration of
function of tissues which may or may not result in death.

Clay Mineral – A product of decomposition of primary minerals found in nearly all soil
and is the major constituent of most heavy soil.

Colluvial Soil – Formed from decomposition of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary

rocks, the decomposed particles moved by gravity.

Combined – The effect of the poison is not only localized on the site but also affects the
remote organs.

Confirmatory Test – Stage of blood examination wherein the actual proof that subject
is definitely blood.

Corrosive – Highly irritant poison which causes local destruction of tissues and causes
nausea.

Cortex – The intermediate and the thickest layer of the shaft and is composed of
elongated, spindle-shaped fibrils which cohere. It is the race determinant of the human
hair.

Cotton – A fiber, which burns rapidly, the fumes turned blue litmus to red. It is a
unicellular filament, flat, ribbon like and tapers gradually to a blunt or rounded point at
one end.

Crystalline Test – Involves the treatment of a suspected sample of a chemical that

causes the crystals of the questioned substance to precipitate.
Cultivated Silk – Smooth, cylindrical, lustrous threads, usually single but often double,
the twin filament held together by an envelope of gum.

Cuticle – Outermost covering of the hair.

Demulcents – Soothes and protects the part to which they are applied in mechanical
antidotes.

Density Gradient Apparatus – Is a simple apparatus utilizing simple procedure in

determining the identity or non-identity of soil samples based on the density distribution.

Density Gradient Test – Is the best method in comparative soil analysis.

Depressants – Similar to sedatives it refers to agents that retard or depress the

physiological action of an organ.

Dermal Nitrate Test – A test to determine whether a person fired a gun or not with his
bare hands.
Detonation – A violent explosion, resulting from instantaneous and direct
decomposition or combustion of unstable compounds such as TNT or mercury
fulminate.

Diphenylamine Test – Also known as DPA test it determines the presence and
distribution of nitrates.

Dose – Refers to the quantity of poison administered at one time.

Drug – Is a substance that has an effect upon the body or mind.

Dust – Matter, which is, dry and finely divided form.

Egyptian Papyrus – One of the earliest substances used for writing.

Emetics – Substance or agent, which produces vomiting.

Erasure – A chemical or mechanical means of removal of writing from the paper.

Ergot – It is a fungus poison developed on rye plants and other cereal grains.

Erythrocytes – Referred to as the red blood cells.

Etching Fluid – Is a fluid used to restore tampered serial numbers.

Ether – Highly volatile and inflammable liquid used as general anesthesia.

Ethyl Alcohol – Also known as Ethanol it is an alcohol found in wine also called grain
alcohol.

Expert Witness – One who possesses a skill, be it an art, trade or science or one who
has special knowledge in matters not generally known to men of ordinary education or
experience.

Explosion – Refers to a rapid combustion, decomposition of gases, and consequent

violent increase of pressure, usually creating a loud noise.

Explosives – Is any substance that may cause an explosion by its sudden

decomposition or combustion.

Florence Test – A test used to detect the presence of semen particularly in stained
clothing.

Forensic Chemistry – Is the application of chemical principles in the solution of

problems that arise in the administration of justice.
Formalin – An embalming liquid fluid.

Formic Acid – Is a toxic substance found in ants and spiders.

Fuzz Hair – A kind of hair generally short, fine, at times curly and wooly.

Gallotanic Ink – The type of ink where age maybe determined. This ink can penetrate
into the interstices of the fiber and not merely on the surface, thus making is removal
more difficult to accomplish. Also known as Iron Nutgall Ink.

Genes – Is any of the complexes chemical units in the chromosomes by which

hereditary characters are transmitted.

Genotypes – Refers to pair genes.

Glass – A super cooled liquid that possess high viscosity and rigidity.

Grime – Produced by mixing dust with the sweat or grease of the human body.

Guaiacum Test – A fairly delicate test showing the presence of fresh blood in a
solution.

Hair – Referred to as appendage of the skin which occurs everywhere on the human
body except on the palms and soles of the feet.

Hemoglobin – Refers to the oxygen carrier of the blood.

Heroine – A light brown powder; derivatives of morphine; also called diacetyl morphine.

High Explosive – Unstable material which denotes or explodes under the influence of
the shock of the explosion of a primary explosive.

Homonit – Refers to a resinous material used fro making positives from negocoll
negatives.

Hydrogen Cyanide – A poison found in “kamoteng-kahoy” also called Hydrocyanic Acid

or Prussic Acid.

Hydrogen Sulfide – A gas with a rotten egg odor usually made by decaying body.

Idiosyncrasy – A term applied to individuals who exhibit unusual reaction to a certain

substance.

Illegible Writings – Unnecessary writings that are not capable of being read usually
made on checks, birth certificate, passport, and transcript of records.
Indented Writings – Term applied to the partially visible depression appearing on a
sheet of paper underneath that one that the visible writing appears.

Industrial Dust – Industries like cement, button, powdered gypsum and Plaster of Paris
factories, flour milling, paint pigments, involves industrial processes like grinding, milling
or beating for the purpose of producing finely powdered ultimate products which in the
process impart a pronounced local character to the dust on the neighboring roads and
buildings.

Irritants - Those poisons or a toxic substance which produces irritations or inflammation

of the membrane, characterized by vomiting, pain in the abdomen and purging.

Lethal Dose - Quantity of poison that kills the victim or affected person.

Leucocytes - Referred to as the white blood cells.

Limb Hair - Is the hair similar to the trunk hairs but usually contain less pigment.

Linen - Is a multi-cellular filament, straight and cylindrical, not twisted and flattened,
tampering to a sharp point.

Loading Material - substance added to paper to give weight.

Local - An action of the poison in which the disturbance or changes is produced on the
part which the poison comes in contact.
Logwood Ink - It is the cheap ink which does not corrode steel pens and made up of
saturated solution of logwood, potassium dichromate, hydrochloric acid and phenol as
preservative.

Luminol Test - An important presumption identification test for blood.

Lysol - A disinfectant; a brown liquid from cresol and soap emulsion.

Mammalian Red Blood Cells - It is a circular, biconcave disc without nucleus common
to birds, fish and reptiles; where the red blood cells are larger, oval and nucleated.

Marijuana Leaves - It has palmate structure, leaflet has serrated edges, upper layer
has short hair called cystolith hair swollen at the base with calcium Carbonate, and it is
shiny due to resin, under surface and has long slender hair.

Maximum Dose - It is the largest amount that will cause no harm but at the same time
produce the desired therapeutic effect.

Mechanical Antidote - An agent that removes the poison without changing it or coats
the surface of the organ so that absorption is prevented.
Medulla - It is the central canal of the hair.

Melanin – A brownish-black pigment in the hair, skin, etc. It is the chemical responsible
for the color of the hair.

Mercenized Cotton - Is a straight, cylindrical with occasional twist; unevenly lustrous,

smooth except for occasional transverse fold or wrinkle; cuticle mostly lacking.

Methamphetamine Hydrochloride – A white crystalline powder, a drug having such

chemical composition including any of its isomers or derivatives in any form and in
commonly known as “shabu”.

Methyl Alcohol – Also known as Methanol it causes blindness; a solvent for varnish; an
anti-freeze in automobiles; also called wood alcohol.

Methylene – Dioxymethamphetamine (MMDA) – Commonly known as “Ecstasy, it

refers to the drug having such chemical composition including any of its isomers or
derivatives in any form.

Metallography – Branch of metallurgy that involves the study of the microstructures of

alloys and metals.

Microscope – An optical instrument used to magnify images of tiny objects.

Minimum Dose – The smallest amount of measured quantity of any substance which
produces therapeutic effect without causing any harm.

Molotov Cocktail – Fire bombs or incendiary devices composed of acids mixed with
gasoline.

Morphine – Found in poppy plant; an alkaloid present in opium; a white crystal.

Moulage – The process taken in the reproduction of physical evidence by plaster

moulds. The faithful reproduction of an impression with the use of casting materials.

Narcotics – Toxic substances that produce stupors and lessen feeling.

Negocoll – Refers to a rubbery gelatinous materials consisting essentially colloidal

magnesium salts.

Neurotics – Any substance which act chiefly on the nervous system producing delirium,
convulsion and coma with disordered circulation and respiration as the outstanding
symptoms.

Nitrobenzene – A pale yellow, oily liquid with sweet odor, which resembles the oil of
bitter almond.
Nitroglycerine – A mixed nitric acid, sulfuric acid and glycerin it is the most widely used
commercial explosive.

Non-volatile Poisons – Refers to those that are isolated by extraction of organic

solvent.

Obliterated Writing – The obscuring of writing by super imposing ink, pencil or other
marking material.

Oligospermia – Condition whereby males have abnormally low sperm counts or with
few spermatozoa.

Opacity – The quality of paper that does not allow light to pass through or which
prevents dark objects from being seen through the paper.

Opium – Refers to the coagulated juice of the opium poppy, it embraces every kind,
class and character of opium; whether crude or prepared.

Opium Poppy – Refers to any part of the plant of the species Papaver Somniferum L.,
Papaver Orientale, Papaver Bracteatum and Papaver Rhoeas, which include the seeds,
straws branches, leaves or any part thereof.

Paper Chromatography – The best way to determine and identify the type of in used in
a ballpoint pen.

Paraffin Test – Is the taking of the cast of the left and right hand to extract the nitrates
embedded or implanted in the skin.

Petrography – A branch of geology that deals with the systematic classification and
identification of rocks, rock forming mineral and soil.

Phenotypes – A term use to denote the expression of the inherited characteristics as

found in the individual.

Picrotoxin – Locally known as “lagtang” this poison is derived from fish.

Plasma – Composed of ninety percent water it is stray yellow colored liquid it comprises
about sixty-five percent of the blood.

Poison – Any substance which when introduced into the body, absorbed through the
blood stream; acting chemically is capable of producing noxious effect or destroy life.

Polish Marks – Stain of optical glass and other fine glassware which occurs during its
manufacture.
Posology – A branch of science which treats of the form and quantity of medicine to be
administered within a certain period.

Precipitants – Prevents absorption of the poison by precipitating them and making

them insoluble.

Precipitin Test – A test used to conclude whether blood is of human origin or not.

Primary Explosives – Commonly known as initiators, they explode or denote when

subjected to shock or heated.

Propellants – Also known as low explosives it refers to combustible materials

containing within themselves all oxygen needed for their combustion that burns but do
not explode and functions by producing gas that produces explosion.

Ptomaine – An organic bacterial poison, found in dead or decaying body.

Pubic Hair – It is similar to auxiliary hairs but are courser and do not appear bleached.
Wirier, have more constriction, twists and usually have continuous broad medulla.

Quinine – Alkaloids of cinchona bark white microcrystalline powder, which colorless,

with a bitter taste.

RDX – Considered as one of the most important military explosive used in

contemporary times.

RFC Rule – A principle used for concentric cracks, it states that stress lines on a
concentric crack will be at right angle to the front side, that is the side from which the
impact or blow came.

Remote – It is the change or disturbance produced in distant part from the site of
application of toxin.

Root – That portion embedded on the skin. It is classified as either living roots or those
found on hair in full growth and dry roots or those referred to as dead roots.

Safe Dose – One that does not cause harmful effect.

Salicylic Acid – An acid that found in “ap-ap” solution.

Scalp Hair – They are more mature than any other kind of human hair.

Scopolamine – A truth serum.

Secretors – Refers to males who are capable of producing four hundred to five hundred
million spermatozoa per ejaculation.

Sedentary Soil – An inactive loam or dirt.

Semen – A viscid gelatinous, whitish fluid of the male reproductive tract consisting of
spermatozoa suspended in secretion of accessory glands.

Seminal Fluid – It consists of water, salt and carbohydrates.

Serology – Deals with the study and identification of body fluids.

Serum – A straw yellow liquid formed when clotted blood is allowed to stand for
sometime and the clot contracts.

Shaft – It is the most distinctive part of the hair. It consist of the cuticle or the outermost
covering of the hair; the cortex which is the thickest layer of the shaft; and the medulla
or core which is the central canal of the hair.

Spectrographic Test – An examination conducted to determine the element of a glass.

Sizing Material – A substance which is used to improve the quality of the paper.

Spectrophotometric Test – The spectrophotometer reveals the ultra violet and infrared
color spectra peculiar to certain organic substances like barbiturates, strychnine,
morphine and codeine.

Spectroscopic Examination – Most delicate and reliable test for determining presence
of blood in both recent and old stains.

Spermatozoa – A small object with a pear shaped head, behind which is a short neck
and a tail of about ten times as long as the head.

Spermine Picrate – It is the positive result in the preliminary examination for semen in
Barberio’s Test.

Struck Coins – Made by striking or stamping method or these are coins made by
means of dyes.

Strychnine – An alkaloid found in dried ripe seeds of nux vomica.

Takayama Test – A test used to determine positively the presence of blood in stained
material.
Tetanics – Substance which act directly upon the spinal cord producing such
spasmodic and contraction of muscles as a result of stiffness or immobility of the parts
to which they are attached.

Tip – Refers to the distal end of the uncut hair shaft.

Toxicology – Is that branch of science, which treats of poisons, their origin, treatment
of their noxious effect, and methods of their detection.

Toxic Dose – One that is both harmful to both healthy and sick.

Trunk Hair – Vary in thickness along the shaft which are immature but are somewhat
similar to head hairs.

Watermarks – It is a distinctive mark or design placed in the paper at the time of its
manufacture by a roll usually a dandy roll.

Wiremarks – Marks produced on paper by the flexible wire soldered to the surface of
the dandy rolls that carries the watermark.

X-ray Diffraction Test – This examination is used to determine the type of glass
pattern.
Yarn – Made of fibers, which have been twisted together, like thread.

BOARD REVIEW QUESTIONS

I POLICE PHOTOGRAPH

1. It is the inability to focus light passing through the center of the lens and its edge
at the same place on the film.
a. Aberration c. Spherical aberration
b. Chromatic aberration d. All of the foregoing

2. Refers to a picture of the original object photographed.

a. Print c. Negative print
b. Positive print d. Contact print

3. Looking at the object closely with one eye while the other is finding that the
object is not seen from the same angle and has apparently a different position
and shape.
a. Parallax c. Depth of field
b. Lock through d. Focal distance

4. Characteristic of photographic paper usually utilized in police photography?

a. Single, glossy, white c. Double, glossy, white
b. Single, matte, cream d. Double, matte, cream
5. When a photograph was developed, the objects in open space cast a deep and
uniform shadow, what was the lighting condition when the shot was taken?
a. Bright c. Hazy
b. Dull d.Cloudy

6. Refers to the presence of all colors.

a. White light c. Rainbow
b. Gray light d. Black

7. Are device which allow the photographer to watch the object he is photographing.
It is usually made up of small lens and mirrors.
a. Range finder c. Tripod
b. View finders d. Shutter

8. Refers to the response of film to different wave length of light source.

a. Spectral sensitivity c. Light sensitivity
b. Color sensitivity d. Film sensitivity

9. A film sensitive to ultra violet rays and blue color only.

a. Blue sensitive c. Panchromatic
b. Orthochromatic d. Infra red

10. Lighting condition when objects in open space casts no shadow.

a. Bright c. Hazy
b. Dull d. Cloudy

11. Lens corrected for astigmatism.

a. Apochromat lens c. Achromatic lens
b. Anastigmat lens d. Rapid rectilinear lens

12. A camera used for surveillance must have a lens with focal length that is:
a. Wide angle lens c. Telephoto lens
b. Normal lens d. Narrow angle lens

13. When a material does not allow light to pass its medium it is said to be:
a. Transparent c.Opaque
b. Translucent d. All of these

14. To separate colors, this homogeneous medium absorbs and transmits light rays
passing through it.
a. Filter c. Developer
b. Stop bath d. Fixer

15. In crime scene photography, what is the sufficient lens type for interior
photograph?
a. Wide angle lens c. Telephoto lens
b. Normal lens d. Narrow angle lens

16. Refers to the most difficult lens defect.

 a. Astigmatism c. Distortion
b. Coma d. Chromatic aberration

17. It is used to allow light to enter through the lens for a predetermined time interval.
a. View finder c. Light tight box
b. Shutter d. Holder of sensitized material

18. Its primary use in photography is focusing the light to the subject.
a. Light tight box c. Lens
b. Shutter d. View finder

19. It refers to the nearest distance at which the lens is focused with a given
particular diaphragm opening.
a. Depth of field c. Focal distance
b. Hyper-focal distance d. Scale bed

20. It is the distance measure from the nearest to the farthest object.
a. Depth of field c. Scale bed
b. Hyper-focal distance d. Focal distance

21. Which among the following is not a primary color?

a. Red c. Yellow
b. Blue d. Green

22. It is a microscopically small photograph.

a. Microphotograph c. Photomacrograph
b. Photomicrograph d. Macrophotograph

23. The normal developing time of a paper or film.

a. 1 to ½ minutes c. 20 to 30 minutes
b. 5 to 10 minutes d. 30 to 60 minutes

24. In enlarging a photograph what would be the ideal paper for printing?
a. Chloride paper c. Contact paper
b. Bromide paper d. Chloro-bromide paper

25. This refers to the absence of all colors.

a. White c. Blue
b. Red d. Black

26. A lighting condition wherein subject in open space casts a transparent shadow.
a. Hazy c. Cloudy bright
b. Cloudy dull d. Bright

27. To view watermarks in disputed documents, what particular method of

photography is utilized?
a. Bounce light c. Transmitted light
 b. Side light d. Reflected light

28. Its primary function is to prevent the contamination of two chemical solutions in
chemical processing in photography.
a. Development c. Fixation
b. Stop- bath d. Bleaching

29. Which among the following comprises the essential parts of a camera?
a. Body, Lens, Shutter, Holder of sensitized material, View finder
b. Light tight box, Shutter, Holder of sensitized material, View finder
c. Body, Lens, Range finder, Lens, Holder of sensitized material, Shutter
d. Light tight box, Shutter, Range finder, Lens, Holder of sensitized material

30. A lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative material.
a. Wide angle lens c. Long lens
b. Normal lens d. Telephoto lens

31. Mechanism that is used to measure the angle of convergence of light coming
from a subject as seen from two apertures.
a. Focusing scale c. View finder
b. Scale bed d. Range finder

32. It is a magnified picture of a small object produced by connecting the lens of a

camera with the ocular of a compound microscope.
a. Microphotograph c. Photomacrograph
b. Photomicrograph d. Macrophotograph

33. Attributed as the person who first discovered first true photography.
a. William Henry Fox Talbot c. Louis Jacques Daguirre
b. Thomas Wedgewood d. Joseph Nicephore Niepce

34. Basic film exposure with an ASA rating of 100 at bright sunlight with normal
subject.
a. 1/30 f-8 c. 1/60 f-4
b. 1/125 f-11 d. 1/250 f-8

35. In police photography, to obtain a general view of the scene we use a camera at
what a particular level?
a. Elevated c. Bird’s eye view
b. Eye level d. Worm’s eye view

36. The wave length of electromagnetic energy expressed in millimicrons in

reference to visible light is:
a. .001 to 100 c. 400 to 700
b. 300 to 400 d. 700 to 1000

37. Photography is defined as drawing with what particular element?

a. Light c. Film
b. Camera d. Developer
38. It refers to a lens that is characterized as by the thicker at the center and thinner
sides.
a. Positive lens c. Convex lens
b. Negative lens d. Concave lens

39. It is the film with the widest range of sensitivity to the various energies of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
a. Infrared c. Orthochromatic
b. X-ray d. Panchromatic
40. The first use of photography in police work is in what particular field?
a. Crime prevention c. Surveillance work
b. Identification files d. Crime scene investigation

41. The chemical processing step wherein the latent image recorded on the paper or
film becomes visible.
a. Fixer c. Stop bath
b. Bleacher d. Developer

42. Refers to the process of taking pictures with the use of microscope.
a. Microphotography c. Macrophotography
b. Photomicrography d. Photomacrography

43. The primary controlling factor of the sharpness of image refers to:
a. Hyper-focal distance c. Focusing
b. Focal distance d. Focal length

44. Infrared radiation is also referred to as:

a. Laser light c. Black light
b. Coherent light d. Heat rays

45. The emulsion speed rating of films expressed in logarithmic values refers to:
a. ISO rating c. DIN rating
b. ASA rating d. BSI rating

46. Commonly used hardening agent in an acid fixing solution.

a. Hypo or silver halide c. Sodium Sulfate
b. Potassium Aluminum d. Acetic Acid

47. Chemical used as an accelerator in a developer solution.

a. Hydroquinone c. Sodium Carbonate
b. Sodium sulfite d. Potassium bromide

48. Refers to the product of illumination and time.

a. Exposure c. Sensitized material
b. Development d. Photograph

49. Chemical used in developing to prevent fogging.

a. Potassium bromide c. Sodium carbonate
b. Sodium sulfite d. Boric acid
50. A homogeneous mixture which absorbs and transmits differentially light rays
passing through it.
a. Stop bath c. Filter
b. Fixer d. Dektol

51. An instrument which measures the intensity of light falling on the subject, which
indicates the proper F stop and the shutter speed to use with a specific film. Also
known as a light meter.
a. Range finder c. Shutter
b. View finder d. Exposure meter

52. It refers to the taking of photographs of arrested persons for identification

purposes.
a. Rouge gallery c. Booking
b. Line –up d. Mugging

53. A light sensitive material placed inside the camera.

a. Filter c. Negative
b. Paper d. Film

54. It is a coating which consists of light sensitive silver salts in a gelatin medium
used for all photographic films and papers.
a. Solution c. Dektol
b. Halides d. Emulsion

55. A sheet of brass which has chromium plated surface on one side use for
producing a highly glossy picture.
a. Platen c. Developer
b. Tripod d. Ferrotype plate

56. It includes the inability of the lens to image straight lines.

a. Aberration c. Chromatic aberration
b. Distortion d. Spherical aberration

57. The tonal difference between the darkest and lightest portion of a negative or
print.
a. Degree c. Hue
b. Contrast d. Light

58. A photographic positive made while exposing the photographic paper being held
tightly against a negative.
a. Print c. Negative print
b. Contact print d. Positive print

59. Commonly known as “hypo” the purpose of this solution is to harder the gelatin
emulsion on the film and to dissolve all undeveloped and unexposed silver
halides.
a. Developer c. Emulsion
b. Clearing or fixing bath d. Dektol
60. The inability of a lens to focus both horizontal and vertical plane at the same
time.
a. Aberration c. Coma
b. Astigmatism d. Distortion

61. The simplest type of camera.

a. View finder type c. Twin lens reflex type
b. Single lens reflex type d. View or press camera type

62. Using this camera, the entire coverage is seen behind the lens, the image is
reflected to the viewer and it enables the photographer to compose and focus the
objects being photographed.
a. View finder type c. Twin lens reflex type
b. Single lens reflex type d. View or press camera type

63. This type of camera will eliminate parallax error and will work well with all lenses,
but difficult to focus under dim conditions.
a. View finder type c. Twin lens reflex type
b. Single lens reflex type d. View or press camera type

64. In this type of camera the image being photographed can be seen in flat surface
as reflected by the mirror behind the viewing lens. The viewing screen will help
the photographer in the accurate composition of the object to photograph as he
looks into the camera at his waist level.
a. View finder type c. Twin lens reflex type
b. Single lens reflex type d. View or press camera type

65. The biggest and most sophisticated type of camera.

a. View finder type c. Twin lens reflex type
b. Single lens reflex type d. View or press camera type

66. This camera is useful in law enforcement photography especially in the

reproduction of document and photomicrography wherein minute object can be
enlarged and composed accurately in the large viewing screen of this type of
camera.
a. View finder type c. Twin lens reflex type
b. Single lens reflex type d. View or press camera type

67. Usually this camera is made up of a lens located at the peephole of the camera.
More often the focusing system of this camera is in the view finder itself.
a. View finder type c. Twin lens reflex type
b. Single lens reflex type d. View or press camera type

68. This type of camera can provide an excellent focusing system especially at dim
light condition.
a. View finder type c. Twin lens reflex type
b. Single lens reflex type d. View or press camera type
 69. Which among the camera is utilized by means of a tripod?
a. View finder type c. Twin lens reflex type
b. Single lens reflex type d. View or press camera type

70. This filter is used in excessively bright light and would protect the camera lens
from accidental scratches and abrasions.
a. Contrast filter c. Neutral density filter
b. Correction filter d. Polarizing filter

71. The most dependable device that will measure the brightness of light.
a. Extinction meter c. Photo-electric meter
b. Light meter d. Flash unit

72. It refers to a lens which forms a real image on the opposite side of the lens.
a. Positive lens c. Convex lens
b. Negative lens d. Concave lens

73. It is thinner on the middle than the edge and this lens forms a virtual image on
the same side of lens. Also known as a diverging lens because of its power to
swerve rays of light that passes through it.
a. Positive lens c. Convex lens
b. Negative lens d. Concave lens

74. The failure of the lens to produce a point image of an object point.
a. Astigmatism c. Anastigmatic lens
b. Curvature of field d. Distortion

75. A combination of two achromatic lens with almost the same focal length.
a. Simple meniscus lens c. Anastigmatic lens
b. Rapid rectilinear lens d. Process lens

76. Court recommended size of photograph submitted as evidence.

a. 5 x 7 c. 8 x 9
b. 5 x 6 d. 8 x 10

II. PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

1. Fingerprint patterns are____, as all fingerprint experts agree.
a. Always inherited c. Inherited as mendelian characteristics
b. Sometimes inherited d. Never inherited

2. In the process of developing impressions, the fingerprint powder should be

applied as soon as the ridges become visible;
a. Across the ridge c. In the direction of the ridge trend
b. In the interspaces d. In the center of the ridge
3. Refers to a fingerprint pattern wherein the ridge flow from one side to the other
without recurving, and ridges rising in the center.
a. Plain arch c. Plain whorl
b. Tented arch d. Plain loop

4. A pattern, in which the ridges flow from one side to another without recurving,
usually forms a slight upward curve in the center having resemblance of an arch.
a. Plain arch c. Plain whorl
b. Tented arch d. Plain loop

5. It is a fingerprint pattern in which the ridge or downward slant from the little
finger toward the radius bone or the thumb.
a. Loop c. Radial loop
b. Ulnar loop d. Tented arch

6. The system of fingerprinting is referred to as:

a. Poroscopy c. Dactyloscopy
b. Podoscopy d. Palmistry

7. In taking the fingerprint, it is a must to instruct the subject to:

a. Stiffen the fingers
b. Relax the fingers
c. Wash both hands before taking the prints
d. Expert pressure on the inking process

8. It is a ridge in the center of the fingerprint pattern which may resemble a rod,
loop, or a spiral in the interior of the pattern.
a. Core c. Delta
b. Loop d. Bifurcation

9. A German criminologist who discovered that fingerprinting for identification

purpose were already used in the Far East during the Tang dynasty from 618 to
906 A.D.
a. Henry Faulds c. Robert Heindle
b. Dr. Nehemiah Grew d. Alphonse Bertillon

10. Regarded as the “Father of Fingerprints”.

a. Sir Edward Richard Henry c. Alphonse Bertillon
b. Sir Francis Galton d. Gilbert Thompson

11. Basis of fingerprint identification.

a. Pores c. Friction ridges
b. Ridges d. Latent print

12. Fingerprinting is universally used as a valuable method of identification due to

following reason; except:
a. Fingerprints are not changeable
b. There are no two identical fingerprints
c. Wounded or burned out patterns will re-appear
d. It is formed in the nine month of pregnancy
 13. Period of a person’s life wherein papillary ridges are formed and developed.
a. 3rd month of fetal life c. At birth
th
b. 6 month of infancy d. 3 months after birth

14. Nucleus of the fingerprint pattern which may resemble a loop, spiral or rod.
a. Delta c. Ridge
b. Core d. Whorl

15. Minimum identical characteristic detail to justify the identity between two points.
a. Nine c. Fifteen
b. Twelve d. Eighteen

16. A British scientist who devoted his work to the study of fingerprint and
established his system of fingerprint classification in England.
a. Sir Francis Galton c. Samuel Clemens
b. Sir Edward Richard Henry d. Gilbert Thompson

17. An American who first utilized fingerprint classification to prevent forgery in New
Mexico.
a. Sir Francis Galton c. Samuel Clemens
b. Sir Edward Richard Henry d. Gilbert Thompson

18. First Filipino expert on fingerprinting.

a. Atty. Agustin Patricio c. Atty. Lorenzo Sunico
b. Gen. Rafael Crame d. Col. Jose Lukban

19. First judicial decision within Philippine jurisprudence relying on the science of
fingerprinting.
a. People of the Philippines Vs. Medina, 59, Phil. 330
b. People of the Philippines Vs. Ponferada, 54 Phil. 68
c. People of the Philippines Vs. Arseni, 34 Phil. 750
d. People of the Philippines Vs. Pacana, 47 Phil. 48

21. Papillary or friction ridges may be located at:

a. Fingers c. Soles of the foot
b. Palms d. All of the above

22. The fingerprint classification which is used in the United States.

a. Henry System c. Beni’lion System
b. Batley System d. Galton System

23. Which among the following is considered as a basic type of ridge characteristics?
a. Ridge endings c. Dots
b. Bifurcation d. All of the foregoing

24. Study of the characteristics formed by the side of the papillary dirges as a means of
identification.
a. Edgeoscopy c. Podoscopy
b. Poroscopy d. Chiroscopy
25. In taking fingerprints the absolute control of the subject’s hand is:
a. Necessary c. Optional
b. Unnecessary d. Excessive

26. Usually occupational damage to ridge formation is;

a. Temporary c. Lasting
b. Permanent d. Stable

27. An inking pad which requires no ink or roller.

a. Porelon c. Inkless pad
b. Special pad d. None of these

28. If the same digits of both hands are missing, the impression is held to be:
a. Plain whorl meeting c. Arches
b. Loops d. Dependent on ridge tracings

29. Referred to as outer terminus:

a. Delta c. Bifurcation
b. Dots d. None of these

30. Failure to clean the slab after using it produces:

a. Impression of false markings c. Pattern reversals
b. Accentuation of patterns d. Difficulty in photographing

31. In taking fingerprints_____ are rolled away from the body of the subject.
a. All fingers c. Both thumbs
b. All fingers except the thumbs d. Both little fingers
32. Impressions which are taken simultaneously on the fingerprint card are referred to
as:
a. Rolled impressions c. Fragmentary impressions
b. Plain Impressions d. Visible impressions

33. Known for his rule which states that “No two individuals in the world are
exactly the
same size and that human skeleton does not change after 20 years.
a. Darwin c. Galton
b. Mendel d. Bertillon

34. The easiest means of discovering latent fingerprint is to view the area:
a. Obliquely c. Directly
b. About half an inch distance d. About one inch distance

35. Fingerprint pattern in which two or different type of pattern are represented.
a. Accidental loop c. Whorl
b. Double loop d. Central pocket loop
 36. A distinct fingerprint pattern with two separate loops, with its respective
shoulder
and deltas.
a. Double loop c. Central pocket loop
b. Accidental loop d. Whorl

37. A fingerprint pattern with a single loop but has two deltas.
a. Accidental loop c. Whorl
b. Double loop d. Central pocket loop

38. What pattern bears a downward slant of ridge from the thumb toward the
little
finger?
a. Tented arch c. Ulnar loop
b. Radial loop d. Loop

39. A fingerprint pattern which one or more ridges enter on either side of the
impression by a recurve and terminate on the same side where the ridge
has
entered.
a. Tented arch c. Ulnar loop
b. Radial loop d. Loop

40. It is triangular shaped and formed by the bifurcation of a ridge at the outer portion
of
the pattern.
a. Latent prints c. Core
b. Ridge d. Delta

41. The three basic types of ridge characteristics are:

a. Enclosure, long ridges and upthrusts
b. Criss-crossing ridges, incipient ridges and spurs
c. Ridge endings, dots and bifurcations
d. Type lines, converging ridges and recurving ridges

42. A single ridge that bifurcates and meets again to form a single ridge is called:
a. Enclosure ridge c. Short ridge
b. Dot ridges d. Resembling a loop

43. Which part of the human body has no papillary ridges.

a. Soles of the foot c. Finger
b. Palm d. none of the above

44. Points often missed in rolling impression.

a. Bifurcation c. Delta
b. Core d. Ridge

45. Fingerprints left at the crime scene which may be an impression or imprint.
a. Latent print c. Loop
 b. Pattern d. Arch

46. Which among the following is not considered as a basic of fingerprint pattern?
a. Loop c. Whorl
b. Arch d. Accidental

47. A fingerprint pattern in which the ridges form a sequence of spirals around core
axis.
a. Whorl c. Double loop
b. Central pocket loop d. Accidental

48. Refers to the study of sweat gland openings found on papillary ridges as a means
of
identifications.
a. Poroscopy c. Podoscopy
b. Edgeoscopy d. Dactyloscopy

49. A ridge which forks out into two ridges.

a. Delta c. Core
b. Bifurcation d. Pores

50. Fingerprints pattern in which the downward slant or ridges from the little finger
toward the thumb.
a. Ulnar loop c. Arch
b. Bifurcation d. Whorl

51. To help identify a subject who is an alien, the most vital information to be obtained
at the Bureau of Immigration and Deportation is…
a. Educational attainment of the alien c. Occupation of the alien
b. Residence of the alien d. Port of entry of the alien

52. In tracing a suspected person at large in a criminal case, the least vital among the
following would be…
a. His appearance and how he dresses c. His occupation or means of
livelihood
b. Known associates and companion d. Where the suspect hang’s out

53. What does the first two digit of a person’s Social Security Number indicates?
a. The occupation of the member at the time of registration.
b. The month of registration
c. The income bracket or group where the member belongs.
d. The region where the member originally registered.

54. In determining the identity of an unknown dead body found in a river, wherein no
identifying papers are to be found, and the body is badly mutilated and swollen,
which among the following means of identification is least dependable?
a. Fingerprints c. Scars on the body
b. Tattoo markings on the body d. Measurement of the body
 55. In reporting a missing person, which among the following is the most vital
information
necessary to locate the said person?
a. Clinical or medical history of the person
b. Personal traits and habits
c. Mental attitude ad condition at the time of the disappearance
d. Physical description

56. Given to a complete set of ten fingers as they appear on a fingerprint card
generally based
on pattern type, ridge tracing or ridge count.
a. Henry System c. Fingerprint Classification
b. Battley System d. Classification Formula

57. It constitutes approximately 65% of all fingerprints.

a. Loops c. Whorls
b. Arches d. Accidentals

58. That part of the fingerprint wherein we find the core and delta.
a. Bifurcation c. Type lines
b. Pattern area d. None of these

59. Refers to innermost ridges that run parallel, diverge and surround or tend to
surround the
pattern area.
a. Delta c. Core
b. Divergence d. Type lines

60. A smooth spreading apart of two ridges which have been running parallel of nearly
parallel.
a. Island c. Divergence
b. Dot d. Convergence

61. A small ridge attached to another ridge.

a. Island c. Bifurcation
b. Dot d. Appendage

62. In ridge counting of loops, which among the following is not counted?
a. Delta c. Intervening ridges
b. Core d. Both A and B

63. When the trace is whorls is on the outside or core outside of right delta three or
more
ridges, the trace is determined to be;
a. (I) Inner c. (M) Meet
b. (O) Outer d. None of these

64. Represents the total numerical value of the even numbered fingers plus one
over the
total number numerical value of the odd numbered fingers plus one.
a. Primary c. Key
 b. Secondary d. Final

65. In the classification, this is always shown in capital letters with the right hand
over the
left.
a. Primary c. Key
b. Secondary d. Final

66. It tells us the classification of the thumbprints on the fingerprint card and
appears
showing the right hand over the left hand.
a. Major division c. Key
b. Primary d. Final

67. If all fingers are amputated or missing at birth, the classification will be;
a. M 32 W MMM c. M 30 W MMM
M 32 W MMM M 30 W MMM
b. M 31 W MMM d. None of these
M 31 W MMM

68. If one finger is amputated, it is given a classification with that of;

a. The opposite finger c. The first finger
b. The next finger d. The last finger

69. It consists of recordings of all friction of ridges present on the palmar surfaces
of the
hands and the inner surfaces of the fingers. They are commonly utilized to
make
accurate and conclusive comparisons with all latent prints obtained during the
investigation of a major case.
a. Major case print c. Special case print
b. Fingerprint chart d. None of these

70. In trying to obtain prints on fingers of a dead person which is stiff or when
rigor
mortis has set in, injection of a tissue builder by a hypodermic needle at the
joint of
the finger up to the tip of the finger is undertaken. Which among the following
is the
most commonly utilized tissue builder.
a. Glycerin c. Saline solution
b. Water d. Both A and B

III. FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY

1. The most reliable and delicate test for the determination of the presence of blood by
means of an optical instrument.
a. Precipitin test c. Microscopic test
b. Spectroscopic test d. Florence test

2. It is used to characterized and locate seminal fluid.

a. Florence test c. Barberio’s test
b. Microscopic examination d. Acid Phosphate test

3. A test used if the powder particles of nitrates are deeply embedded in the clothing, the
visible result of which is the fact that nitrates are converted to a dye.
a. Walker’s test c. Microscopic test
b. Diphenylamine test d. Spectroscopic test

4. An examination which is used to determine the general group to which the fiber
belongs.
a. Chemical test c. Fluorescence test
b. Florence test d. Burning or ignition test

5. A reliable test which is used to identify and compare ballpoint pen ink.
a. Spot test c. Paper chromatography
b. Chemical test d. Dissolution test

6. A rapid and convenient method of determining the density of small glass fragments.
a. Density gradient test c. Immersion method
b. Flotation method d. Polish mark examination

7. A test which shows the constituent elements of glass which is key to establish the
origin of the glass samples examined.
a. X-ray diffraction c. Spectrographic analysis
b. Ultra violet examination d. Physical property examination

8. Simon’s reagent and shabu combined will yield what visible result/
a. Yellow c. Green
b. Blue d. Red

9. Used to determine human semen under microscopic examination.

a. Spermine nitrate c. Spermatozoa
b. Hemochromagen crystals d. Choline periodic test

10. Positive result of marijuana if combined with HCl.

a. Yellow fluorescence c. Blue specks
b. Effervescence d. No reaction

11. A person who fired a gun would be positively identified when DPA solution is used
with the visible result of:
a. Blue specks c. Orange brown specks
b. Bluish fluorescence d. Green specks

12. Fundamental unit of heredity.

a. Sperm cell c. Gene
b. Egg cell d. DNA

13. Which among the foregoing is not usually used specimen in DNA typing?
a. Hair c. Blood
b. Bones d. Semen

14. A very large molecule made by linking together a series of repeating units.
a. Gene c. Nucleotide
b. Polymer d. Double helix

15. The production of amino acid is controlled by a sequence of how many bases on the
DNA molecule.
a. Two c. Four
b. Three d. Five

16. The circulating tissue of the body.

a. Semen c. Cells
b. Blood d. Muscles

17. A man of average built would normally have how many quarts of blood?
a. 6 quarts c. 8 quarts
b. 7 quarts d. 9 quarts

18. It is a stray yellow colored liquid, and comprises about 65% of the blood.
a. Platelets c. Leucocytes
b. Fibrin d. Plasma

19. It is the oxygen carrier of the blood.

a. Plasma c. Erythrocytes
b. Hemoglobin d. Fibrin

20. Reliable and easy way to test blood even when it is decomposed and stained with
contamination.
a. Benzidine test c. Phenolphthalein test
b. Van Deen’s test d. Precipitin test

21. Stage of blood examination wherein the actual proof that subject is definitely blood.
a. Preliminary test c. Precipitin test
b. Confirmatory test d. Blood typing and grouping

22. Test to determine whether blood is of human origin or not.

a. Preliminary test c. Precipitin test
b. Confirmatory test d. Blood typing and grouping

23. Positive result in the preliminary examination for semen in Barberio’s test.
a. Picric acid c. Napthol diazonium
b. Spermine Picrate d. Anthraquinous chloride

24. Coffee when given to drunken persons is what kind of antidote?

a. Cathartic c. Physiological
b. Chemical d. Demulcent

25. Animal fiber may be best described by:

a. It is composed of protein
b. Gives yellow fluorescence under u.v. light
c. It burns fast
d. It has acid like odor when burned

26. Restriction enzymes are used to cut out sequences of DNA having different_____
a. Length c. Weight
b. Width d. Height

27. How many different bases are associated with the make-up of DNA?
a. Two c. Four
b. Three d. Five

28. DNA requires the pairing of A (adenine) to ____

a. C (cytosine) c. T (thymine)
b. G (guanine) d. A (adenine)

29. G (guanine) is to be paired with______ in a double helix configuration.

a. C (cytosine) c. T (thymine)
b. G (guanine) d. A (adenine)

30. The base sequence of T-G-C-A can be paired with the base sequence of____ to
complete a double helix configuration.
a. A-C-G-T c. G-T-A-C
b. C-A-G-T d. A-T-G-C

31. When gunpowder explodes, this would determine the approximate time of firing of
the gun?
a. Soot c. Gases
b. Nitrates and nitrites d. Metallic fragments

32. In determining whether the hair is of human or animal origin what should the chemist
examine under the microscope?
a. Parts of the shaft c. Parts of the hair
b. Parts of the tip d. Parts of the root

33. A fiber which burns rapidly and the fumes turns blue litmus to red, it is:
a. Cotton c. Fiber glass
b. Silk d. Steel wool

34. It is the part of the hair which is referred to as a race determinant?

a. Cortex c. Medulla
b. Cuticle d. Shaft

35. A test for fiber used in determining whether it is of human or animal origin.
a. Ignition test or burning c. Chemical analysis
b. Fluorescence analysis d. Microscopic analysis

36. Kind of ink is wherein the use of chemical bleaches is ineffective.

a. Carbon c. Nigrosine
b. Logwood d. Gallotanic
37. Refers to any agent which neutralizes poison and its effects.
a. Emetics c. Alkaloids
b. Antidotes d. Tetanics

38. Which among the following exhibits bluish fluorescence when exposed to u.v light?
a. Blood c. Saliva
b. Semen d. Urine

39. Oldest known explosive.

a. Black powder c. Dynamite
b. Smoke powder d. TNT

40. Deals with the study and identification of body fluids.

a. Immunology c. Posology
b. Serology d. Pharmacology

41. Study which deals of poison, their origin, physical and chemical properties,
physiological action, treatment and method of detection.
a. Forensic Chemistry c. Posology
b. Toxicology d. Forensic Medicine

42. A substance which when introduced into the body is absorbed in the blood stream
and acting chemically is capable of producing noxious effect.
a. Drugs c. Poison
b. Dangerous drugs d. Antidotes

43. Refers to poisons which produces inflammation in the mucous membrane and
characterized by vomiting, pain in the abdomen and purging.
a. Corrosives c. Narcotics
b. Irritants d. Tetanics

44. When a substance acts directly upon the spinal cord producing immobility or
stiffness to the parts to which they are attached, it is classified as:
a. Corrosives c. Narcotics
b. Irritants d. Tetanics

45. In criminal investigation metallurgy plays an important application in:

a. Counterfeit coins c. Bombs and explosives
b. Theft and Robbery d. Restoration of tampered serial numbers

46. Agents which depress or retard the physiological action of an organ.

a. Corrosives c. Tetanics
b. Sedatives d. Narcotics

47. According to the methods of isolation, what poison is isolated by means of

distillation?
a. Volatile poisons c. Metallic poisons
b. Non-volatile poisons d. Tetanics poisons

48. When the effect of a poison is marked by disturbance of function or death within a
short time, the poisoning is classified as:
a. Acute poisoning c. Chronic poisoning
b. Sub-acute poisoning d. Suicidal poisoning

49. When the action of the poison is marked by disturbance produced in distant from the
site of application, it is classified as:
a. Local c. Combined
b. Remote d. Acute

50. Refers to that branch science which treats of the form and quantity of medicine to be
administered within a certain period.
a. Pharmacy c. Toxicology
b. Posology d. Pharmacology

51. The application of chemical principles in the examination of evidence.

a. Forensics c. Instrumentation
b. Criminalistics d. Forensic Chemistry

52. To positively determine the presence of blood in stained material, what test is used?
a. Takayama test c. Barberio’s test
b. Phenolphthalein test d. Florence test

53. According to the method of isolation, volatile poisons may be isolated by means of
what process?
a. Extraction c. Distillation
b. Dilution d. Dialysis

54. Which of the following is not an accurate test for the presence of alcohol in the
human body?
a. Saliva test c. Fecal test
b. Harger breath test d. Drug test

55. A disturbance produced by poison on that part with which the poison came into
contact.
a. Acute c. Remote
b. Local d. Combined

56. A material which is used to improve the quality of the paper.

a. Sizing material c. Gelatin
b. Rosin d. Starch

57. By adding Million’s reagent, a pink color would be formed if it is present.

a. Rosin c. Casein
b. Starch d. Gelatin

58. Oldest ink material known to man.

a. Logwood c. Carbon
b. Nigrosine d. Gallotanic

59. Only type of ink wherein age may be determined.

a. Logwood c. Carbon
b. Nigrosine d. Gallotanic
60. It refers to the obscuring of writing by superimposing ink, pencil or other marking
material.
a. Erasure c. Indented writing
b. Obliterated writing d. Contact writing

61. The process in reproducing physical evidence by plaster moulds.

a. Casting c. Moulage
b. Cementing d. Pickling

62. Major component of a glass.

a. Lime c. Soda
b. Silica d. Lime

63. Highly irritant poison which causes local destruction of tissues and causes nausea.
a. Corrosives c. Tetanics
b. Irritants d. Asthenics

64. Poisons which produces stupor and less feeling.

a. Neurotics c. Depressants
b. Irritants d. Narcotics

65. A super cooled liquid which possess high viscosity and rigidity.
a. Lime c. Glass
b. Soda d. Gel

66. An organic bacterial poison.

a. Strychnine c. Brucine
b. Ptomaine d. Chloroform

67. This test is used to detect the presence of semen particularly in stained clothing.
a. Microscopic test c. Florence test
b. Barberio’s test d. Ultraviolet test

68. The best method in comparative soil analysis.

a. Chemical examination c. UV light examination
b. Density gradient test d. Microscopic test

69. To know whether a paper is not easily torn, what test is utilized?
a. Accelerated aging test c. Opacity examination
b. Bursting strength test d. Microscopic examination
70. A gas with a rotten egg odor usually made by decaying body.
a. Chloride c. Carbon dioxide
b. Ammonia d. Hydrogen sulfide

71. A condition whereby males have no spermatozoa in their seminal fluid.

a. Aspermia c. Sterility
b. Oligospermia d. Rigidity

72. It is the scientific study of serums which describes the analysis of antigen-antibody
reactions.
a. Serology c. Biology
b. Posology d. Serumnology

73. An incendiary device made of glass bottle filled with gasoline or any inflammable
mixture with a piece of absorbent cotton for a fuse or wick.
a. Tear gas c. Molotov bomb
b. Molotov cocktail d. RDX

74. Cheapest form of solid oxidizer in an explosive mixture.

a. C-4 c. Ammonium nitrate
b. RDX d. TNT

75. Most utilized and important military explosive.

a. C-4 c. Ammonium nitrate
b. RDX d. TNT

76. Earliest substance used for writing.

a. Leaves c. Linen
b. Paper d. Egyptian papyrus

77. Agents which produce intestinal evacuation.

a. Emetic c. Antidotes
b. Cathartics d. Demulcents

78. A product of decomposition found nearly in all solids.

a. Sedentary soil c. Primary minerals
b. Clay minerals d. Organic constituents

79. For radial cracks it states that stress lines on radial crack will be at right angle to the
rear side.
a. RFC rule c. Flotation
b. 3 R’s rule d. Immersion

80. Normally responsible for reaction of the blood clot.

a. White blood cells (leucocytes)
b. Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
c. Blood platelets (thrombocytes)
d. Fibrinogen

IV. FORENSIC MEDICINE

1. Builder of the first pyramid, he was considered as the first or earliest recorded medico-
legal expert.
a. Antitius c. Paulus Zacchias
b. Imhotep d. San Juan de Bautista

2. First chief medico legal officer of the Philippine Commonwealth.

a. Dr. Sixto delos Angeles c. Dr. Gregorio T. Lantin
b. Dr. Pedro Solis d. Dr. Enrique V. delos Santos
3. Regarded as the Father of Forensic Medicine.
a. Antitius c. Paulus Zacchias
b. Imhotep d. San Juan de Bautista

4. Earliest known forensic pathologist or police surgeon, who performed the autopsy of
Julius Caesar, reporting that out of the 23 stab wounds, only one penetrated the chest
cavity between the first and second rib which was Caesar’s proximate cause of death.
a. Antitius c. Paulus Zacchias
b. Imhotep d. San Juan de Bautista

5. First chief of the Medico Legal Division of the Bureau of Investigation.

a. Dr. Sixto delos Angeles c. Dr. Gregorio T. Lantin
b. Dr. Pedro Solis d. Dr. Enrique V. delos Santos

6. This states that the greater number of points of similarities and variations between two
persons, the greater the probability of the conclusion to be accurate.
a. Prima Facie evidence rule
b. Conclusive evidence rule
c. Law of multiplicity of evidence in identification
d. Chain of custody of evidence

7. Color of blood when exposed to the atmosphere.

a. Red c. Reddish-brown
b. Clay d. Black

8. It has for its characteristics as, bright scarlet in color, with high oxygen content and
leaves the blood vessel with pressure.
a. Arterial blood c. Menstrual blood
b. Venous blood d. Human blood

9. Dark red in color, with low oxygen content and usually does not spill far from the
wound.
a. Arterial blood c. Menstrual blood
b. Venous blood d. Human blood

10. This blood contains a high number of deodorleins bacillus, it does not clot and has
acidic reactions.
a. Arterial blood c. Menstrual blood
b. Venous blood d. Human blood

11. A condition in which foreign matters are introduced in the blood stream blocking the
blood circulation in the finer capillaries and arterioles.
a. Infection c. Hemorrhage
b. Embolism d. Hematoma

12. It is the disorder of the fluid balance due to the peripheral deficiency, characterized
by the decreased blood volume, its flow, hemo-concentration and renal deficiency.
a. Infection c. Hemorrhage
b. Shock d. Hematoma
13. Extravasations or loss of blood from the circulation due to inflicted wounds in the
cardio-vascular system.
a. Infection c. Hemorrhage
b. Shock d. Hematoma

14. The growth and development of micro-organism in the location of the injury or
wound.
a. Infection c. Hemorrhage
b. Shock d. Hematoma

15. Effusion of blood into the tissue underneath the skin due to the rupture of blood
vessels as a result of the application of a blunt force.
a. Contusion c. Hemorrhage
b. Shock d. Hematoma

16. Wound produced to man’s instinctive reaction of self-preservation to repel attacks or

an aggressor.
a. Defense wound c. Patterned wound
b. Self-inflicted wound d. Mutilated wound

17. A wound which resembles the shape or object of the instrument which caused it.
a. Defense wound c. Patterned wound
b. Self-inflicted wound d. Mutilated wound

18. Pulverization of the body into ashes with the use of intense heat.
a. Exhumation c. Charring
b. Cremation d. Pounding

19. Prescribed depth of a grave under P.D. 856, Section 19 of the Code of Sanitation.
a. At least ½ meters deep c. At least 1 and ½ meters deep
b. At least 1 meter deep d. At least 2 meters deep

20. A person who died of a communicable disease must be buried within…

a. 6 hours after death, unless the local health officer permits otherwise
b. 12 hours after death, unless the local health officer permits otherwise
c. 24 hours after death, unless the local health officer permits extension
d. 48 hours after death

21. A significant difference between the male and female skull is that in males, the
supercialiary ridges are____ than compared with females.
a. Less sharp c. More pointed
b. Sharper d. Smoother

22. Female pelvis diameter is___compared with male pelvis.

a. Greater c. Lesser
b. Equal d. Less significant

23. How many minutes is necessary persistent cessation in respiration, circulation and
brain function is sufficient to declare a person clinically dead?
a. 10-15 minutes c. 30-45 minutes
b. 15-30 minutes d. 45-60 minutes
24. A simple test used to determine cessation of respiration by placing water or mercury
in a container on top of the chest of a person and no visible movement is noticed.
a. Winslov test c. Barberio’s test
b. Florence test d. Kastle Meyer test

25. A muscular change characterized by the softness of the muscles and in which it no
longer responds to mechanical or electrical stimulus due to the dissolution of proteins.
a. Stage of primary flaccidity c. Rigor mortis
b. Stage of secondary flaccidity d. Livor mortis

26. In tropical countries, hair and nails are detached from a dead body in how many
days?
a. 7 c. 21
b. 14 d. 28

27. Maggots are seen in dead bodies particularly in warm countries within how many
days from death?
a. 1 c. 3
b. 2 d. 4

28. Refers to a fracture where there is a break in the bone, loss of alignment of the
affected bones and separation of fragment bones.
a. Simple fracture c. Communicated fracture
b. Compound fracture d. None of these

29. Bleeding usually in the cavity or organs in the body.

a. Internal hemorrhage c. Contusion
b. Hematoma d. Internal wound

30. Abrasion due to contact with a rough, hard object.

a. Imprint abrasion c. Friction abrasion
b. Pressure abrasion ` d. Graze

31. Reduction of oxygen in the blood.

a. Hypoxia c. Hypercapnea
b. Asphyxia d. None of the foregoing

32. Refers to an abrasion due to pressure applied and with accompanying movement
over the skin.
a. Pressure abrasion c. Impact abrasion
b. Imprint abrasion d. Graze

33. A nervous disease marked by seizures with convulsion and loss of consciousness.
a. Epilepsy c. Catalepsy
b. Apoplexy d. Uremia

34. Refers to the accumulation in the blood ordinarily eliminated in the urine; specifically
a toxic condition seen in urinary suppression, marked by nausea, vertigo, vomiting,
coma and convulsion.
a. Epilepsy c. Catalepsy
b. Apoplexy d. Uremia

35. Livor mortis or post mortem lividity is completed in how many hours when the blood
has already clotted or diffused to different parts of the body wherein the discoloration is
permanent and darker in color?
a. 12 hours c. 36 hours
b. 24 hours d. 48 hours

36. In blood grouping, should there be no agglutination with either group A or B what
would be the particular blood group of the sample?
a. Group A c. Group AB
b. Group B d. Group O

37. Period of time wherein human bones will not exhibit changes.
a. 10 years c. 30 years
b. 20 years d. 40 years

38. It is the formation of a soft, friable and brownish white greasy substance in the soft
fatty tissue after death.
a. Saponification c. Mummification
b. Rigor mortis d. Maceration

39. A discoloration of the body after death when the blood tends to pool in the blood
vessels of the most dependent portions of the body and starts 20 to 30 minutes after
death and is completed by 12 hours.
a. Rigor mortis c. Maceration
b. Primary flaccidity d. Livor mortis

40. Average time for the stomach to empty its contents after meals.
a. 2 to 3 hours c. 4 to 5 hours
b. 3 to 4 hours d. 5 to 6 hours

41. Rate of growth of human hair.

a. 0.4 to 0.5 mm. / day c. 0.6 to 0.7 mm. / day
b. 0.5 to 0.6 mm. / day d. 0.7 to 0.8 mm. / day

42. A person is considered dead if the rate of fall of body temperature is about:
a. 10 to 15 degrees Fahrenheit c. 20 to 25 degrees Fahrenheit
b. 15 to 20 degrees Fahrenheit d. 25 to 30 degrees Fahrenheit

43. Sudden inflammation of the pancreas cause by infections carried in the blood
stream. It may follow obstruction of the pancreatic duct and subsequent congestion of
the gland.
a. Perforated peptic ulcer c. Acute intestinal obstruction
b. Generalized peritonitis c. Acute Pancreatitis

44. A break or solution in the continuity of the skin.

a. Wound c. Bruise
b. Trauma d. Scratch

45. A wound which inflicted in the body which is so serious that it will endanger one’s life.
a. Non-mortal wound c. Trauma
b. Mortal wound d. Coup injury

46. A collection of blood underneath the skin.

a. Contusion c. Petechiae
b. Bruise d. Hematoma

47. Straining or tearing of tendons, ligaments and muscles causing skin discoloration
and extreme pain.
a. Sprain c. Fracture
b. Contusion d. Dislocation

48. It is a fracture wherein a break of the skin and bone is evident.

a. Simple c. Comminuted
b. Compound d. Dislocation

49. A displacement of the articular surface of the bone without external wounds.
a. Sprain c. Hematoma
b. Fracture d. Dislocation

50. In gunshot wounds, where there is evident burning of tissues and blackening of the
skin, it may be ascertained that it is near contact fire meaning that the distance of the
body to the gun is approximately:
a. 6 inches c. 18 inches
b. 12 inches d. 24 inches

51. A physical injury which is found at the site and also the opposite site of the
application of force.
a. Extensive injury c. Contre coup injury
b. Coup injury d. Coup and contre coup injury

52. A physical injury found at the site of the application of force.

a. Extensive injury c. Contre coup injury
b. Coup injury d. Coup and contre coup injury

53. A wound produced by a blunt instrument such as log and stone.

a. Punctured wound c. Lacerated wound
b. Hack wound d. Incised wound

54. When the person was stabbed by an ice pick, what wound would be exhibited?
a. Punctured wound c. Lacerated wound
b. Hack wound d. Incised wound

55. Wound produced by butcher’s knife.

a. Punctured wound c. Lacerated wound
b. Hack wound d. Incised wound

56. The basic building blocks of DNA are as follows ACGT, A stands for what?
a. Adenine c. Adenum
b. Adenide d. Adenoid
57. In crimes which took place twenty years ago, what sample should be obtained for
DNA testing.
a. Fingernails c. Skeleton
b. Hair d. Teeth

58. It is inherited from the mother found in the mitochondria which is in the cell body.
a. Nuclear DNA c. Mitochondrial DNA
b. Helix d. DNA nucleus

59. Period of time wherein human bones will not exhibit changes.
a. 10 years c. 30 years
b. 20 years d. 40 years

60. A complete, continuous, persistent cessation of respiration, circulation and almost all
brain function of an organism.
a. Somatic death c. Molecular death
b. Cellular death d. Apparent death

61. Manner of walking of a person which may be natural or secondary.

a. Mannerism c. Gait
b. Tic d. Body language

62. This muscular change upon death lasts about 20 to 30 minutes and is characterized
by the relaxation of the muscles and loss of their natural tone.
a. Stage of primary flaccidity c. Cadaveric spasm
b. Post mortem rigidity d. Secondary flaccidity

63. Approximate time for the completion of one case for DNA testing.
a. Minimum of 2 weeks c. Minimum of 6 weeks
b. Minimum of 4 weeks d. Minimum of 8 weeks

64. Period of time wherein the body would completely skeletonized, under normal
conditions in tropical countries.
a. 1 month c. 6 months
b. 3 months d. 12 months

65. In cases of suicide, what would be the noticeable muscular change?

a. Cold stiffening c. Instantaneous rigor
b. heat stiffening d. Putrefaction

66. Fixed discoloration of the blood clot inside the blood vessels or has diffused to
different parts of the body.
a. Diffusion lividity c. Rigor mortis
b. Clotting of the blood d. Hypostatic lividity

67. Approximate average amount of semen per ejaculation under normal conditions.
a. 2 to 2.5 cubic centimeters c. 5 to 10 cubic centimeters
b. 2.5 to 5 cubic centimeters d. 10 to 15 cubic centimeters
68. DNA is found in all nucleated cells of the body, it is regarded as the fingerprint of life.
What does it stands for?
a. Deonatural acid c. Deoxyribonucleic acid
b. Dynamic natural anti-body d. Deoxyribunucleic acid

69. A powerful tool in identification which points to the source of biological evidence by
matching it with samples from the victims, suspects and their relatives.
a. DNA profiling c. Instrumentation
b. Serology d. Forensics

70. Body fluids routinely tested because they are good sources of cells.
a. Saliva and tears c. Urine and semen
b. Semen and saliva d. Semen and blood

71. Human being’s tissue attached to the body which may undergo DNA testing.
a. Hair c. Skin
b. Bone d. Fingernails

72. It is the dissolution of the tissues by the digestive action of its bacteria and enzyme.
a. Primary flaccidity c. Cadaveric spasm
b. Post mortem rigidity d. Putrefaction

73. Conclusive evidence that the subject person is a female.

a. Possession of vagina c. Possession of estrogen
b. Possession of ovaries d. Possession of progesterone

74. A person with big face and prominent cheek bones.

a. Hippocratic face c. Myxedema face
b. Mongolian face d. Facies lionine

75. Conclusive evidence that a person is a male.

a. Presence of testis c. Possession of penis
b. Presence of androsterone d. Possession of testosterone

76. A whitish foam at the mouth and nostrils due to mucous secretion of the respiratory
track after death.
a. “Cutis anserina” c. Champignon d’ ocume
b. Washerwoman d. Cadaveric spasm

77. Conclusive evidence that the subject person is a female.

a. Possession of vagina c. Possession of estrogen
b. Possession of ovaries d. Possession of progesterone

78. A type of burn produced as a result of the body coming into contact with a moving
object.
a. Thermal burn c. Radiation burn
b. Friction burn d. Electrical burn

79. A condition of a woman who has had one or more sexual experience but not had
conceived a child.
a. Moral virginity c. Physical virginity
b. Demi-virginity d. Virgo-intacts

80. Refers to the action of bacteria to a dead body.

a. Flaccidity c. Lividity
b. Rigidity d. Putrefaction

81. A condition of exposure to cold temperature of certain parts of the body which
produces mechanical disruption of cell structure characterized by cold stiffening and
diminished body temperature.
a. Gangrene c. Trench foot
b. Frostbite d. Immersion foot

82. Failure of adequate heat elimination related to the breakdown of sweating

mechanism.
a. Heat cramp c. Heat stroke
b. Heat exhaustion d. Burning

83. In determining the sex by analyzing the skeleton, which part is not used?
a. Skull c. Sternum
b. Pelvis d. Tibia

84. A serious burn involving skin, nerves, muscles and bones, considered as the most
severe burn causing death due to loss of fluids and electrolytes in the body and massive
infection.
a. Sunburn c. 2 degree burn
b. P” degree burn d. 3’d degree burn

85. A person who is devoid of oxygen for around 3 to 5 minutes would die, the cause of
death would be:
a. Stupor c. Asphyxia
b. Stroke d. Exhaustion

86. Most effective method in determining sex of an individual.

a. Gonodal test c. Genital test
b. Social test d. Chromosomal test

87. Its medico-legal importance is to approximate the time of death.

a. Cadaveric spasm c. Muscular contraction
b. Putrefaction d. Rigor mortis

88. Defloration is the laceration of the hymen due to:

a. Masturbation c. Sodomy
b. Fingering d. Sexual intercourse

89. In cellular or molecular death, death of individual cell occurs in:

a. 20 to 30 minutes c. 12 to 24 hours
b. 3 to 6 hours d. 24 to 36 hours

90. Most noticeable sign of death.

a. Cessation of respiration
b. Progressive fall of the body temperature
c. Insensibility of body and loss of power to move
d. Cessation of heart action

91. It applies to disease or trauma kills, wherein there is no chance for complication or
sequelae to develop.
a. Proximate cause of death or secondary cause of death
b. Immediate or primary cause of death
c. Cardio-respiratory arrest
d. Nocturnal death

92. An injury or disease which survived for a prolonged interval which allowed the
development of serious sequelae which becomes the cause of death. It is usually
common to cases involving stab wounds.
a. Proximate cause of death or secondary cause of death
b. Immediate or primary cause of death
c. Cardio-respiratory arrest
d. Nocturnal death

93. Their presence in the cadaver would indicate that death has occurred more than 24
hours hence are useful to proximate the time of death.
a. Flies c. Bees
b. Earthworms d. Butterflies

94. A complete study of a dead body, undertaken by a trained physician.

a. Autopsy c. Medical examination
b. Embalming d. Post-mortem examination

95. Average time of decomposition for tropical countries such as the Philippines.
a. 12 to 24 hours c. 36 to 48 hours
b. 24 to 48 hours d. 48 to 72 hours

96. After death, the metabolic process inside the body ceases, heat is no longer
produced and the body slowly loses its temperature.
a. Algor mortis c. Cadaveric spasm
b. Rigor mortis d. Suspended animation

97. Transient loss of consciousness with temporary cessation of the vital functions of the
body.
a. Death c. Suspended animation
b. Coma d. Rigor mortis

98. Hair on the body surface is usually.

a. Thick c. Fine
b. Tapering gradually to fine points d. All of the above

99. Characterized by no breathing and heart action, chill in the body and non-existent
reflexes.
a. Death c. Suspended animation
b. Coma d. Rigor mortis
100. The larger the area of contact between the forces applied on the body, the lesser is
the damage inflicted to the body.
a. Kinetic energy c. Time
b. Vital reaction d. Area of transfer

V. POLYGRAPHY

1. An examination wherein an informal interview of the subject is undertaken between 20

to 30 minutes.
a. Post test interrogation c. Actual interrogation
b. Pre test interview d. Lie detection test

2. Which among the following is not a required qualification for a polygraph examiner?
a. Criminology graduate c. Technical know how
b. Honesty d. Integrity and morals

3. Which among the foregoing is not part in the conduct of a polygraph examination?
a. Pre test interview c. Post test interview
b. Instrumental test d. Psychological test

4. Which among the following is not included in recording the psycho-physiological

response of the subject?
a. Use of water therapy c. WAT/ Word Association Test
b. PSE/ Psychological Stress Evaluator d. Polygraph machine

5. A person who is capable of detecting deception with the use of instrumentation or

mechanical device.
a. Interrogator c. Medico-legal officer
b. Detective d. Polygraph examiner

6. Which among the following statement is not among the limitations of the Polygraph?
a. It is only as accurate as the examiner is competent.
b. It is admissible as evidence.
c. It is an aid and not a substitute for investigation.
d. It is a scientific diagnostic instrument which records responses.

7. An invaluable aid in investigation, it refers to the instrumentation in the detection of

crime or a scientific police method.
a. Photography c. Lie detection
b. Chemistry d. Medicine

8. Questions in connection to the matter under investigation.

a. Relevant c. Control
b. Supplementary d. Irrelevant

9. Refers to a query having no bearing or weight to the case under investigation.

a. Relevant c. Control
b. Supplementary d. Irrelevant
10. A test usually administered as part of the standard test to draw a better conclusion.
a. Relevant c. Control
b. Supplementary d. Irrelevant

11. This measures, detects and graphically displays voice modulation.

a. Word association test c. Truth serum
b. Psychological stress evaluator d. Water therapy

12. In this examination stimulus and non –stimulus words are read to the subject who in
turn is instructed to answer as quickly as possible.
a. Word association test c. Truth serum
b. Psychological stress evaluator d. Water therapy

13. A test conducted wherein the subject is instructed not to produce verbal response.
a. Peak of tension c. Narrative
b. Silent answer d. Guilt complex

14. Using the psychological stress evaluator, a lying subject or when a person is under
stress, the frequencies….
a. Tends to disappear c. Increases
b. Rises d. Stops

15. This test is not concerned with the answer whether it is yes or no, what is relevant is
the time of response in relation to delay of the answer.
a. Word association test c. Truth serum
b. Psychological stress evaluator d. Water therapy

16. A test undertaken when the subject is not aware of the details of the offense for
which he is under scrutiny.
a. Guilt complex c. Peak of tension
b. Silent answer d. Narrative

17. When response and control questions are consistently similar this is administered.
a. Guilt complex c. Peak of tension
b. Silent answer d. Narrative

18. This test uses hyoscine hydrobromide drug administered hypodermically which
produces a state of delirium.
a. Hypnotism c. Narco-synthesis
b. Narco-analysis d. Administration of truth serum

19. It is based on the maxim “in vino veritas”; meaning in wine there is truth.
a. Hypnotism c. Intoxication with the use of alcoholic
beverage
b. Narco-analysis d. Administration of truth serum

20. In this examination, psychiatric sodium pentothal is administered.

a. Hypnotism c. Intoxication with the use of alcoholic
beverage
b. Narco-analysis d. Administration of truth serum

21. Most common and scientific method of detecting deception.

a. Polygraphy c. Truth serum
b. Polygraph d. Interrogation

22. Devised an instrument capable of continuously recording pulse rate, respiration and
blood pressure.
a. William Marston c. John Larson
b. Angelo Mosso d. Sticker

23. Psychological response to any demand.

a. Reaction c. Pressure
b. Stress d. All of the above

24. For male subjects, what is the amount of air pressure is to be utilized in the system
on cardio or vent.
a. 30 mm c. 90 mm
b. 60 mm d. 120 mm

25. A subject must have at least how many hours of sleep considered fit for polygraph
examination.
a. 5 c. 7
b. 6 d. 8

26. Type of question related to the facts of the case and is answerable by NO.
a. Relevant question c. General question
b. Irrelevant question d. Immaterial question

27. A question to the subject and is answerable by YES.

a. Relevant question c. General question
b. Irrelevant question d. Immaterial question

28. An act of discovery, indicative of the fact that something is hidden or obscure.
a. Fear c. Detection
b. Deception d. Reaction

29. An inhibition of previous activity of an effect, organ or organism as a result of

stimulation.
a. Response c. Detection
b. Deception d. Reaction

30. Refers to an emotional response to a specific danger, which appears to go beyond a

person’s defensive power.
a. Response c. Stimuli
b. Reaction d. Fear
31. This component drives the chart paper under the recording pen simultaneously at
the rate of 6 to 12 inches per minute.
a. Cardiospygmograph c. Galvanograph
b. Keymograph d. Pneumograph

32. Part of the galvanograph attached to the left fingers of the subject.
a. Finger electrode plate c. Rubber convoluted tube
b. Diacritic notch d. Keymograph

33. This component record changes of the subject’s blood pressure and pulse rate.
a. Cardiospygmograph c. Galvanograph
b. Sphygmomanometer d. Pneumograph

34. It records the subject’s skin resistance to a small amount of electricity.

a. Cardiospygmograph c. Galvanograph
b. Sphygmomanometer d. Pneumograph

35. This component records the changes in the breathing of the subject.
a. Cardiospygmograph c. Galvanograph
b. Sphygmomanometer d. Pneumograph

36. Kind of lie wherein a person assumes another identity to deceive others.
a. Black lie c. Red lie
b. White lie d. Yellow lie

37. Deviation from normal tracing of the subject in the relevant question.
a. Reaction c. Specific response
b. Normal response d. Positive response

38. Chart tracing of subject when irrelevant questions were answered.

a. Reaction c. Specific response
b. Normal response d. Positive response

39. Normal time interval for pre-test interview.

a. 20 to 30 minutes c. 60 to 90 minutes
b. 30 to 60 minutes d. 90 to 120 minutes

40. The primary objective of post test interview.

a. To thank the subject c. To make the subject calm
b. To obtain confession d. To explain polygraph test procedures

41. The purpose of pretest interview.

a. To prepare subject for polygraph test c. To obtain confession
b. To make the subject calm d. To explain polygraph test procedures

42. Test undertaken when both relevant and control relevant and control questions are
similar in degree and consistency.
a. Guilt complex test c. Peak of tension
b. Silent answer d. None of the above

The number of basic tracings in a modern polygraph.

a. 3 c. 5
b. 4 d. 6

44. The number of basic tracings in a modern polygraph.

a. 3 c. 5
b. 4 d. 6

45. Did you hide Senator Lacson in your beach resort? Is an example of interrogation in
lie detection which is:
a. Control question c. Relevant question
b. Irrelevant question d. Leading question

46. Developed the systolic blood pressure method for detecting deception.
a. William Marston c. John Larson
b. Harold Burtt d. Leonard Keeler

47. He noted that respiratory and systolic blood pressure changes were signs of
deception.
a. William Marston c. Leonard Keeler
b. Harold Burtt d. John Larson

48. Italian scientist who used hydrospygmograph procedure for persons charged with
the commission of a crime.
a. Angelo Mosso c. Lombroso
b. Veraguth d. Vittorio Benussi

49. Pioneer who first used the term psychogalvanic skin reflex.
a. Angelo Mosso c. Lombroso
b. Veraguth d. Vittorio Benussi

50. Who first incorporated the galvanograph with measurement, respiration component
and blood pressure?
a. Harold Burtt c. Leonard Keeler
b. Hans Gross d. John Larson

51. A primitive practice of detecting deception whereby controversies are settled by

means of duel, the victor will be spared from the consequences and the loser will be
pronounced guilty.
a. Ordeal c. Combat
b. Trial by Combat d. None of these

52. Practice even by Roman Catholic Church in 1150 AD this Indian practice of ordeal
based on the premise that a person conscious of their crime and fearful of punishment
from God would feel a suffocating sensation on their throat thus preventing them from
swallowing the object of the ordeal.
a. Bread chewing ordeal c. Rice chewing ordeal
b. Cheese chewing ordeal d. All of these
53. A form of trial undertaken when the accused is asked to fast for twelve hours and
then asked to swallow a small amount of rice and drink a dark colored water, if this acts
as an emetic the accused rejects all the rice, he is then pronounced innocent.
a. Red hot iron ordeal c. Red water ordeal
b. Rice chewing ordeal d. Balance ordeal

54. Practice in the early 600 B.C. this is undertaken by determining the veracity of the
statement of the accused by placing him on a scale of balance and in the other scale a
counter balance. He is then asked to go down while exhortation on the scale is given,
when the accused is placed on the scale and found to be lighter than before he is
acquitted.
a. Boiling water ordeal c. Donkey’s tail ordeal
b. Balance Ordeal d. Red hot iron ordeal

55. The polygraph examination enjoys general acceptance among varied authorities,
except the court because it possess a high degree of reliability. The results are
estimated to be more than__% accurate.
a. 70 c. 80
b. 75 d. 90

56. The polygraph examination enjoys general acceptance among varied authorities,
except the court because it possess a high degree of reliability. The results are
estimated to be more than__% accurate.
a. 70 c. 80
b. 75 d. 90

57. The best indication of deception in polygraph examinations is the simultaneous

specific response in the ___tracings.
a. 2 c. 4
b. 3 d. None of these

58. If a Yes answer is given by the subject, the examiner marks this on the chart.
a. X c. +
b. XX d. –

59. Conducted immediately after the completion of the first test while blood pressure cuff
is still deflated. This is used to stimulate lying subjects into specific responses to the
subsequent relevant questions and to afford the lying subject an opportunity to try to
distort the Polygraph examination tracings which would eventually result in exposing his
deception.
a. Silent Answer Test c. Mixed Questions Test
b. Card Test d. Guilt Complex Test

60. As part of customary test procedures, the polygraph examiner should prepare a list
of not more than questions to be asked in a planned sequence.
a. 10 c. 15
b. 12 d. 20
VI. FORENSIC BALLISTICS

1. Rifling in the bore of small arms is primarily designed for:

a. Increase the speed of the bullet
b. Decrease the amount of recoil
c. Increase impact damage
d. Prevent the bullet from turning end over in the air

2. Scientific examinations of bullets and firearms presumably used in the commission

of a crime.
a. Interior ballistics c. Terminal ballistics
b. Exterior ballistics d. Forensic ballistics

3. A result of wear and tear, corrosion, erosion which affects the normal operation of a
firearm.
a. Factory defect c.Individual intentional characteristics
b. Precipitate d. Individual accidental characteristics

4. Cannelure is used in firearms identification to determine.

a. Manufacturer of the firearm c. Type of gun
b. Manufacturer of the bullet d. Weapon that fired the shot.

5. A barrel of any firearm is legally classified as:

a. Part of the firearm c. Accessory
b. Nomenclature d. Complete firearm

6. Rate of twist in the rifling of a rifle or pistol barrel.

a. Land c. Leed
b. Grooves d. Ogive

7. A test used to determine the distance from the bullet hole at which the gun was
fired.
a. Triangulation c. Alphanothylamine test
b. Photo-micrographic test d. Diphenylamine test

8. After repeated firing of a revolver, this is deposited frequently on the index finger of
the hand which the shooter used to fire the gun.
a. Powder burn c. Precipitin
b. Residue d. Dirt

9. To link a shell with a shotgun that fired it, in the laboratory examination it should be
given:
a. Wadding c. Pellets
b. Cap d. Wads

10. In firearms identification, it is essential to supplement the serial number with…

a. Caliber c. Make and model number
 b. Frame number d. All of these

11. It is a result when the firearm is shot at around 2 to 8 inches to the target.
a. Smudging c. Contact burn
b. Tattooing d. Contact wound

12. It is produced when the muzzle is held against the target or body when fired.
a. Smudging c. Contact burn
b. Tattooing d. Contact wound

13. In the effort to identify the shell with the revolver which fired it, which among the
following is essential?
a. Marks of the breechblock c. None of these
b. Marks of the firing pin hole d. Both A and B

14. In shots fired from an automatic pistol, the shell in most cases…
a. Will be found on the scene of the crime
b. Will remain in the chamber
c. Will be rarely found in the scene of the crime
d. Will be usually disposed by the perpetrator

15. When booking a fired bullet, the mark used to identify it is placed on.
a. Its base c. Its side and base
b. Its side d. Its nose

16. Danao made firearms or homemade weapons are usually classified as:
a. Flare guns c. Matchlock
b. Zip guns d. Freakish device

17. The most reliable of all individual characteristics, when fired cartridges are
concerned.
a. Extractor marks c. Chamber marks
b. Ejector marks d. Breech face marks

18. It literally means delay in discharge or the cartridge’s failure to explode on time.
a. Misfire c. Ricochet
b. Hang fire d. Key hole shot

19. A bullet fired from a firearm with an oversized or oily barrel or its lands have been
worn down would produce what kind of markings?
a. Slippage marks c. Rifling marks
b. Skid marks d. Shearing marks

20. Measuring device used to measure the velocity of projectiles.

a. Caliper c. Test bullet
b. Chronograph d. Bullet recovery box

21. Any metallic body referred to as a bullet.

a. Projectile c. Shell
b. Ball d. Missile
22. The science of dealing with the motion of projectiles at the same time it leaves the
muzzle of the firearm to the time it hits the target.
a. Interior ballistics c. Terminal ballistics
b. Exterior ballistics d. Posterior ballistics

23. The science which deals with the effect of the impact of the projectile on the target.
a. Interior ballistics c. Terminal ballistics
b. Exterior ballistics d. Posterior ballistics

24. Part of the firearm which strikes the firing pin.

a. Trigger c. Sear
b. Hammer d. Main spring

25. Applied to a shot gun which indicates bore diameter is equal to the diameter of the
lead ball whose weight in pound is equal to reciprocal gauge index.
a. Caliber c. Shot
b. Gauge d. Charge

26. An ancient smooth bore weapon designed to shoot a single round lead ball.
a. Shot gun c. Musket
b. Rifle d. Pistol

27. A smooth bore weapon designed to shoot a number of lead pellets in one charge.
a. Breechblock c. Ejector
b. Breech face d. Extractor

28. Part of the firearm which closes the rear of the bore against the force of the charge.
a. Breechblock c. Ejector
b. Breech face d. Extractor

29. Firearm mechanism which causes empty shell to be withdrawn from the chamber.
a. Breechblock c. Ejector
b. Breech face d. Extractor

30. Refers to the channels cut in the interior surface of the barrel.
a. Rifling c. Groove
b. Land d. Cannelure

31. Rearward movement of a firearm from firing.

a. Recoil c. Back fire
b. Force d. Shot force

32. Refers to the mechanical wear and tear of the bore due to sliding friction when the
bullet passes through it.
a. Erosion c. Corrosion
b. Rusting d. Decomposition

33. Distance that the rifling advances to make one complete turn.
a. Pitch of rifling c. Trajectory
 b. Choke d. Recoil

34. Needed for a cartridge to be considered as a complete unfired unit.

a. Bullet c. Gunpowder
b. Primer d. All of these

35. Most common individual characteristic that is visible on the base portion of the fired
cartridge.
a. Firing pin impression c. Extractor marks
b. Ejector marks d. Chamber marks

36. Failure of a cartridge to discharge.

a. Misfire c. Ricochet
b. Hang fire d. Key hole shot

37. Invented the gunpowder.

a. Chinese c. Van Amberg
b. James Forsythe d. Berthold Schwartz

38. Refers to a complete unfired unit of ammunition placed into gun chamber.
a. Cartridge c. Bullet
b. Primer d. Shell

39. The measurement of the bore diameter from land to land.

a. Gauge c. Caliber
b. Mean diameter d. Riflings

40. This part of the firearm strikes the primer causing the firing of the cartridge.
a. Hammer c. Trigger
b. Ejector d. Firing pin

41. Term used in referring to the tip of a bullet.

a. Breech c. Rim
b. Ogive d. Pitch

42. A smooth bore military firearm which has no rifling:

a. Shotgun c. Pistol
b. Rifle d. Revolver

43. A bullet covered with a thick coating of copper alloy to prevent leading.
a. Jacketed bullet c. Metal point bullet
b. Metal cased bullet d. Plated bullet

44. The tumbling of the bullet in its trajectory and hitting the target sideways.
a. Key hole shot c. Hang fire
b. Ricochet d. Misfire

45. A part of ballistics dealing with firearm identification.

 a. Interior c. Terminal
b. Exterior d. Forensic

46. Minimum requirement for conclusive conclusions in forensic ballistics.

a. 3 test bullets/ shells c. 5 test bullets/ shells
b. 4 test bullets/ shells d. 6 test bullets/ shells

47. It refers to the placement of the right and left specimen in side by side position.
a. Drag marks c. Juxtaposition
b. Positively matched d. Pseudo match

48. Pattern or curved path of the bullet in flight.

a. Range c. Velocity
b. Trajectory d. Yaw

49. Bullets containing nitrate compounds which is set on fire when it is projected.
a. Incendiary bullets c. Tracer bullet
b. Ball bullet d. Explosive bullet

50. Refers to the deflection of the bullet from its normal path after striking a resistant
surface.
a. Mushroom c. Ricochet
b. Key hole shot d. Misfire

51. Caliber in the firearm is measured in the barrel from what particular part?
a. From land to land c. From groove to groove
b. From land to groove d. From groove to land

52. Revolver is distinguished from pistol by:

a. Frame c. Slide assembly
b. Barrel d. Rotating cylinder
53. The term double action in a firearm means.
a. Cocks and releases the hammer simultaneously
b. Manually cocks the hammer
c. Auto-loads before firing
d. Double pressing of trigger

54. The capacity of the bullet to expand or after impact.

a. Mushroom c. Ricochet
b. Key hole shot d. Misfire

55. Regarded as the Father of Ballistics.

a. Albert Osborne c. Hans Gross
b. Col. Calvin H. Goddard d. Charles Waite

56. Raised portion between the grooves found inside the barrel.
a. Land c. Gauge
b. Caliber d. Rifling
 57. The unstable rotating motion of the bullet.
a. Yaw c. Velocity
b. Trajectory d. Gyroscopic action

58. A lead type bullet is usually fired from what particular firearm?
a. Rifle c. Pistol
b. Revolver d. Sub-machine gun

59. It refers to the helical grooves cut in the interior surface of the bore.
a. Rifling c. Ogive
b. Breaching d. Swaging

60. A primer with two vents or flash holes.

a. Bordan primer c. Boxer primer
b. Berdan primer d. Battery primer

61. Ballistics was derived from the Greek word____which means to throw.
a. Ballo c. Ballien
b. Ballista d. Any of these

62. This event was instrumental in the acceptance of ballistics in court proceedings
in the
United States.
a. St. Valentines Day Massacre c. Gunfight at the OK coral
b. Chicago Shootout in 1929 d. 9/11

63. Placed in the barrels of the firearm to impart a spin on the bullet that pass through
it.
a. Lands c. Rifling
b. Grooves d. All of these

64. The modern method of rifling which uses a hardened steel rod with several cutting
rings spaced down the rod.
a. Button rifling c. Polygonal rifling
b. Broach rifling d. Electrochemical rifling

65. The most common method of rifling used today, wherein the grooves are formed in
the barrel which hardens and polishes the inside of the barrel.
a. Button rifling c. Polygonal rifling
b. Broach rifling d. Electrochemical rifling

66. This produces a type of rifling called polygonal rifling, common in Glock, Steyr, IMI
and a few other manufacturers.
a. Button rifling c. Polygonal rifling
b. Broach rifling d. Hammer forged rifling

67. Part of exterior ballistics which refers to the sound created at the muzzle end of the
barrel.
a. Muzzle energy c. Muzzle noise
b. Muzzle blast d. Range
 68. A type of rimmed cartridge wherein the diameter of the rim is greater than the
diameter of the body of the cartridge case.
a. Rimmed type c. Belted type
b. Semi-rimmed type d. Rebated type

69. A type of firearm which the pressure upon the trigger both cocks and release the
hammer.
a. Automatic c. Double action
b. Single action d. Slide action type

70. A metallic cup charged with a priming composition, usually made up of potassium
chlorate, antimony sulfide and fulminate of mercury.
a. Primer c. Cartridge
b. Gunpowder d. Primer cup

VII. QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

1. It is committed by giving any payable instrument to bearer such as treasury or

bank notes the appearance of a genuine document.
a. Estafa c. Forgery
b. Falsification of document d. All of these

2. It applies to documents whether public, official or commercial wherein handwriting

or signature contained therein is imitated.
a. Estafa c. Forgery
b. Falsification of document d. All of these

3. The act of making it appears that persons have participated in any proceeding or
act when in fact they have not participated in any proceeding or act when in fact
they have not participated in any document.
a. Estafa c. Forgery
b. Falsification of document d. All o the foregoing

4. A person who alters by any means, the letters, figures, words or signs contained
in any bank or treasury note is liable for:
a. Estafa c. Forgery
b. Falsification of document d. All of the foregoing

5. It refers to the assessment or altered forged or suspected papers to determine if

they are genuine or otherwise.
a. Estafa c. Forgery
b. Falsification of document d. All of the foregoing

6. Iodine fumes is useful in questioned document examination because:

a. It can be used to develop secret writings
b. It can be used to determine whether erasures have been made
 c. It can determine the kind of ink used in writing
d. Both A and B

7. Which among the foregoing may be utilized as a means to carry out mechanical
erasures?
a. Rubber eraser c. Blade
b. Sharp knife d. All of these

8. An erasure with the use of ink eradicators.

a. Mechanical erasure c. Electronic erasure
b. Chemical erasure d. All of the foregoing

9. Instruments whose origin are known and proven; which are used in comparison
with a questioned document.
a. Simulated documents c. Standard documents
b. Falsified documents d. Forged documents

10. A document executed without the intervention of a notary public or any competent
public official by which some agreement or disposition is proved.
a. Public document c. Private documents
b. Official document d. Commercial document

11. To obtain conviction for the charge of possession of false bank or treasury notes
this is an essential requisite.
a. Intention to use it c. Intention to surrender it to authorities
b. Intention to keep it d. Intention to display it

12. A city mayor executed a document in his legal capacity as a local executive, that
document is classified as:
a. Public document c. Private document
b. Official document d. Commercial document

13. A document notarized by a notary public or any competent authority is legally

classified as:
a. Public document c. Private document
b. Official document d. Commercial document

14. A man who is unable to write may use this to legally signify a signature.
a. Crude x c. Thumb mark
b. Cross mark d. Both A and B

15. Refers to the design of letters which are fundamental to a writing system.
a. Copy book form c. Line quality
b. System of writing d. Writing movement

16. It refers to any abnormality or maladjustment in the typewriter which is reflected in

its product.
a. Defect c. Misalignment
b. Mal alignment d. Alteration
17. Enlarge photographic court exhibit usually referred to as bromide enlargements of
a document.
a. Standard document c. Collected documents
b. Questioned documents d. Display exhibits

18. The appearance of a paper when viewed by transmitted light, which discloses the
formation and texture of the sheet.
a. Lock-through of paper c. Cross marks
b. Watermarks d. Sidelight marks

19. It consists of chemical solutions.

a. Non aqueous ink c. Ink eradicators
b. Aqueous ink d. All of these

20. Any characteristic of handwriting which is sufficiently well fixed and unique to
serve as fundamental point in the identification of the writer.
a. Copy book form c. System of writing
b. Line quality d. Significant writing habits

21. Refers to any specimen of writing executed normally without any attempt to
change or control its identifying habits and its usual quality of execution.
a. Natural writing c. Cursive writing
b. Disguised writing d. System of writing

22. Jose Pidal in trying to alter in his own signature to hide his identity is using:
a. Natural writing c. Cursive writing
b. Disguised writing d. System of writing

23. Writing in which are for the most part joined together.
a. Natural writing c. Cursive writing
b. Disguised writing d. System of writing

24. Usual deviations found between repeated specimen of any individual handwriting
or in the product of any typewriter.
a. Normal variation c. Tremor
b. Natural variation d. Wrong hand writing

25. A person executing a signature while his arm is steadied and assisted produces
a:
a. Guided signature c. Scribble
b. Normal signature d. Handwriting signature

26. A preliminary embellished initial common to capital letters.

a. Embellishment c. Buckle knot
b. Beard d. Diacritic

27. A minute curve which occurs at the end of terminal strokes.

a. Hook c. Loop
b. Spur d. Staff
28. An oblong curve found in small letters f, g, h and l.
a. Hook c. Loop
b. Spur d. Staff

29. The introductory backward stroke added to the start of many capital letters in
which can also be seen occasionally in introductory strokes of small letters.
a. Embellishment c. Buckle knot
b. Beard d. Hitch

30. A loop made as a flourish which is added to a letter.

a. Embellishment c. Buckle knot
b. Beard d. Diacritic

31. Visible record in the writing stroke of the basis movement and manner of holding
the writing instrument.
a. Line quality c. Baseline
b. Rhythm d. Writing pressure

32. Additional unnecessary stroke for ornamental purposes.

a. Embellishment c. Diacritic
b. Hump d. Knot

33. Balance quality of movement of the harmonious recurrence of stress of impulse.

a. Line quality c. Baseline
b. Rhythm d. Writing pressure

34. Refers to the periodic increase in pressure or intermittently forcing the pen against
the paper surface with increase pressure.
a. Writing pressure c. Pen emphasis
b. Shading d. Natural variation

35. An imaginary line upon which the writing rests.

a. Line quality c. Foot
b. Baseline d. Hitch

36. A signature written by the forger in his own style of handwriting without attempting
to copy the form of the genuine signature.
a. Traced forgery c. Simulated forgery
b. Disguised forgery d. Simple forgery

37. A freehand imitation and regarded as the most skillful type of forgery.
a. Traced forgery c. Simulated forgery
b. Disguised forgery d. Simple forgery

38. Which among the following is an indication of genuineness of handwriting?

a. Continuity c. Skillful writing
b. Smoothness d. Tremor
39. Combination of the basic design of letters and writing movement as taught in
school.
a. Letter form c. Copy book form
b. Line quality d. System of writing

40. Document which is completely written and signed by one person.

a. Genuine document c. Holographic document
b. Disputed document d. Authentic document

41. A document which contains some changes either as addition or deletion.

a. Altered documents c. Obliterated document
b. Disputed document d. Inserted document

42. Signatures used to acknowledge delivery, purchase of goods and mail.

a. Complete c. Cursory
b. Formal d. Careless scribble

43. It refers to the smearing over a writing to make the original undecipherable.
a. Decipherment c. Obliteration
b. Restoration d. Interlineations

44. A class of signature for routine document or day to day correspondence.

a. Formal c. Cursory
b. Complete d. Careless scribble

45. Refers to a class of signature to acknowledge important documents.

a. Complete c. Informal
b. Cursory d. Careless scribble

46. A process by which a canal like outline is produced on a fraudulent document

underneath the genuine and tracing it with the use of a pointed instrument.
a. Carbon process c. Projection process
b. Indention process d. Transmitted light process

47. Type face defect wherein one side is printed heavier than the rest of its outline.
a. Off its feet c. Clogged type face
b. Twisted letter d. Rebound

48. It is the visible effect of bodily movement which is almost unconscious expression
of fixed muscular habits reacting from fixed mental impressions.
a. Handwriting c. Typewriting
b. Writing d. Writing movement

49. A writing instrument that makes detection of hesitation and pen lifts difficult.
a. Ball point pen c. Iron nutgall ink
b. Fountain pen d. Markers
50. Disconnection between letters or letter combination due to lack of movement
control.
a. Pen lift c. Patching
b. Retouching d. Retracing

51. A distinctive design which is translucent impressed on the paper during

manufacture.
a. Water marks c. Paper design
b. Fiber marks d. Wire marks

52. In utilizing a stereographic photomicrograph, what particular condition is

manifested?
a. Grainy image c. Overlapping
b. Two image d. Three dimensional image

53. An element which is added to complete another letter.

a. Spur c. Diacritics
b. Buckle knot d. Staff

54. It is a signature signed at a particular time and place, purpose and normal writing
conditions.
a. Complete signature c. Evidential signature
b. Standard signature d. Model signature

55. Periodic increase in pressure, characterized by widening of the ink stroke.

a. Shading c. Pen lift
b. Pen emphasis d. Pen pressure

56. The most reliable criterion in judging the authenticity of paper money.
a. Quality or sharpness of the engraving
b. Color of the seal
c. Wet strength of the paper
d. Watermarks

57. A coin given the appearance of a legal tender but made inferior or superior
intrinsic value to that of the genuine coin.
a. Priceless coin c. False coin
b. Mutilated coin d. All of these
58. It is a deviation showing free connecting and terminal strokes made by the
movement of the hand.
a. Tremor c. Genuine tremor
b. Tremors of fraud d. Deterioration

59. Any arcade formed in the body of the letters.

a. Staff c. Diacritics
b. Slant d. Humps

60. A type face ordinarily spaced 10 characters to the horizontal inch.

a. Pica c. Proportional spacing machine
b. Elite d. Adding machine
61. Developed the system of handwriting classification utilized by most police
departments.
a. Lee and Abbey c. Levine
b. Rolando Wilson d. Landsteiner

62. Developed the system of handwriting classification utilized by most police

departments.
a. Lee and Abbey c. Levine
b. Rolando Wilson d. Landsteiner

63. An act of diminishing the metal value of a genuine coin.

a. False coin c. Priceless coin
b. Counterfeit coin d. Mutilations of coin

64. It refers to the printing surface of a type block.

a. Character c. Pitch
b. Design d. Type face

65. Widening of the ink stroke due to added pressure on a flexible pen point.
a. Pen pressure c. Pen lift
b. Shading d. All of these

66. It represents the backbone or main stroke of letters.

a. Slant c. Staff
b. Diacritics d. Foot

67. It is the process of making out what is illegible or what has been effaced.
a. Decipherment c. Obliteration
b. Collation d. Comparison

68. An act of setting two or more items to weigh their identifying characteristics.
a. Comparison c. Conclusion
b. Collation d. Examination

69. An examination of documents wherein it is viewed with the source of illumination

behind it and the light passing through the paper.
a. Transmitted light examination c. Infrared examination
b. Oblique photography examination d. Ultraviolet examination

70. The art of attempting to interpret the personality of a person from his handwriting.
a. Questioned document examination c. Graphology
b. Polygraphy d. Psychology

71. An identifying typewriter characteristic which can be eliminated by cleaning the

machine or replacing the ribbon.
a. Transitory defect c. Permanent defect
 b. Alignment defect d. Defect

72. An identifying typewriter characteristic which can be eliminated by cleaning the

machine or replacing the ribbon.
a. Transitory defect c. Permanent defect
b. Alignment defect d. Defect
73. An angle or inclination of the axis of the letter relative to the baseline.
a. Foot c. Staff
b. Slant d. Hitch

74. An angle or inclination of the axis of the letter relative to the baseline.
a. Foot c. Staff
b. Slant d. Hitch

75. Going back over a defective portion of a writing stroke, it is a common defect in
forgeries and is also known as retouching.
a. Patching c. Erasure
b. Smeared over writing d. Interlineations

76. Refers to written documents in the ordinary course of business or in the regular
course of man’s activity. Also known as procured standards.
a. Requested standards c. Standard documents
b. Collected standards d. Holographic documents

77. Also known as “post litem motam” or dictated standards is a document which are
executed and prepared at one time upon request.
a. Requested standards c. Standard documents
b. Collected standards d. Holographic documents

78. Also known as formal signature it is executed in signing contracts, certifications,

checks and other important documents.
a. Complete c. Careless scribble
b. Cursory d. None of these

79. A signature usually executed in the conduct of a person’s daily affairs.

a. Formal c. Informal
b. Cursory d. Both A and B

80. For signing mail, receipts and other insignificant documents such as signatures
executed by celebrities to their fans.
a. Complete c. Careless scribble
b. Cursory d. Informal
ANSWER KEY:

POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

1. C 41.D 1. D 41. C
2. B 42. B 2. C 42. A
3. C 43. A 3. B 43. D
4. A 44. D 4. D 44. C
5. A 45. C 5. C 45. A
6. A 46. B 6. C 46. D
7. B 47. C 7. B 47. A
8. A 48. A 8. A 48. A
9. B 49. A 9. C 49. B
10. B 50. C 10. A 50. B
11. B 51. D 11. C 51. D

12. C 52. D 12. B 52. D

13. C 53. D 13. B 53. D
14. A 54. D 14. C 54. D
15. A 55. D 15. C 55. D
16. D 56. B 16. A 56. D
17. B 57. B 17. D 57. A
18. C 58. B 18. A 58. B
19. B 59. B 19. A 59. D
20. A 60. B 20. A 60. C
21. D 61. A 21. D 61. D
22. A 62. B 22. A 62. D
23. B 63. B 23. D 63. A
24. B 64. C 24. A 64.A
25. D 65. D 25. A 65. B
26. A 66. D 26. A 66. A
27. C 67. A 27. A 67. A
28. B 68. A 28. A 68. A
29. A 69. D 29. A 69. A
30. A 70. C 30. A 70. D
31. D 71. D 31. B
32. B 72. A 32. B
33. D 73. A 33. B
34. B 74. C 34. A
35. B 75. C 35. A
36. C 76. A 36. A
37. A 77. B 37. D
38. C 78. A 38. C
39. A 79. B 39. C
40. B 80. A 40. D

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY FORENSIC MEDICINE

1. B 41. B 1. B 41. B 81. B

2. D 42. C 2. C 42. D 82. B
3. A 43. B 3. C 43. D 83. D
4. C 44. D 4. A 44. A 84. C
5. C 45. D 5. D 45. B 85.C
6. B 46. B 6. C 46. D 86. A
7. C 47. A 7. C 47. A 87. D
8. B 48. A 8. A 48. B 88. D
9. C 49. A 9. B 49. D 89. A
10. B 50. B 10. C 50. B 90. D
11. A 51. D 11. B 51. D 91. B
12. C 52. A 12. B 52. B 92. A
13. B 53. C 13. C 53. C 93. A
14. C 54. D 14. A 54. A 94. A
15. B 55. B 15. A 55. B 95. B
16. B 56. A 16. A 56. A 96. A
17. A 57. A 17. C 57. C 97. C
18. D 58. C 18. B 58. C 98. C
19. B 59. D 19. C 59. A 99.B
20. A 60. B 20. B 60. A 100. D
21. B 61. C 21. A 61.C
22. C 62. B 22. A 62. A
23. B 63. A 23. A 63.C
24. C 64. D 24. A 64.C
25. A 65. C 25. B 65. C
26. A 66. B 26. A 66. B
27. C 67. C 27. C 67. B
28. C 68. B 28. C 68. C
29. A 69. B 29. A 69. A
30. A 70. D 30. A 70. D
31. B 71. A 31. A 71. A
32. A 72. A 32. A 72. D
33. A 73. B 33. A 73. B
34. A 74. C 34. D 74. D
35. A 75. B 35. A 75. A
36. A 76. D 36. D 76. A
37. B 77. B 37. B 77. A
38. B 78. B 38. D 78. B
39. A 79. B 39. B 79. D
40. B 80. C 40. A 80. D

POLYGRAPHY FORENSIC BALLISTICS

1. B 31. B 1. D 41. B
2. A 32. A 2. D 42. A
3. D 33. A 3. D 43. A
4. A 34. C 4. B 44. D
5. D 35. D 5. D 45. A
6. B 36. A 6. C 46. A
7. C 37. C 7. C 47. C
8. A 38. B 8. B 48. B
9. D 39. A 9. A 49. C
10. B 40. B 10. C 50. C
11. B 41. A 11. A 51. A
12. A 42. A 12. D 52. D
13. B 43. B 13. D 53. A
14. A 44. B 14. A 54. A
15. A 45. C 15. A 55. B
16. C 46. A 16. B 56. A
17. A 47. B 17. D 57. A
18. D 48. C 18. B 58. A
19. C 49. B 19. A 59. B
20. B 50. C 20. B 60. C
21. A 51. B 21. A 61. A
22. C 52. C 22. B 62. A
23. B 53. C 23. C 63. C
24. B 54. B 24. B 64. B
25. A 55. A 25. B 65. A
26. A 56. D 26. C 66. D
27. C 57. B 27. A 67. B
28. C 58. C 28. A 68. A
29. A 59. B 29. D 69. C
30. D 60. B 30. C 70. A
31. A
32. A
33. A
34. D
35. A
36. A
37. D
38. A
39. C
40. D
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

1. C 41. A
2. B 42. D
3. B 43. D
4. C 44. C
5. D 45. A
6. D 46. B
7. D 47. A
8. B 48. A
9. C 49. B
10. C 50. A
11. A 51. A
12. B 52. D
13. A 53. C
14. D 54. C
15. A 55. B
16. A 56. A
17. D 57. C
18. A 58. C
19. C 59. D
20. D 60. A
21. A 61. A
22. B 62. B
23. C 63. D
24. B 64. D
25. A 65. B
26. B 66. C
27. A 67. A
28. C 68. A
29. D 69. A
30. C 70. C
31. A 71. A
32. A 72. C
33. B 73. B
34. A 74. A
35. B 75. A
36. D 76. B
37. C 77. A
38. A 78. A
39. D 79. D
40. C 80. C