l - cLAsS

\ Experiment No.l
MA Of a First Order Lever
Aim: To determine the mechanical advantage of a first order lever.

Material required:
A half metre scale, Weights, Retort stand, thread and hangers.

Theory:
o Levers work on the principal of moments which states that:
Clockwise moments of load about fulcrum = Anti-clockwise moments of effort about the
fulcrum
Load(L) x load arm(LA) = E f .iort(E) x ef f ort arm(EA)
o Mechanical advantage of a lever is the ratio of the load to the effort.
Load(L) :-J' -'-"""\-'-
MA:_ ------ \-/ _EffortArm(EA)
rrA
Effort(E) LoadArm(EA)

Procedure:

1. Balance the half-meter scale by suspending it through a thread to a retort stand.

2- Adjust the position so that the scale balances horizontally and note the centre of gravity.
3. Keeping the C.G position, same suspend two known weights on either sides of the scale and adjust
the position of the weights so that the scale is in equilibrium.
4. Note the perpendicular distances from the two weights to the c.G.
5. Follow the same procedure using different weights.

Precautions:

1. Centre of gravity should not be altered.

2. While noting the perpendicular distances the scale should be balanced.

Result:

Mechanical Advantage of the first order lever can be >1,<1 or:1.

Diagram:

4*[ig{6ng:g 1 **.4*** EiStattc.e 2 **"**-.*

Furce t
 Experiment No.-2
Laws of refraction

Aim: To veri$ laws of refraction and to show that with increase

increases.

Material required:
A drawing board, rectangular glass slab, pins, sheet of white paper, a protractor and sharply pointed pencil.

Procedure:
l. Fix a sheet of white paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins at the four comers of
the sheet.
2. Place a glass slab on the paper and mark its boundary ArBrCrDr with fine pencil.
3. Remove the glass slab. Draw any line AOr making an angle of 300 with the normal MOrN.
4. Put the glass slab back in position on the boundary line. Fix two pins Pr and Qz vertically on the line
AOr at least 5cm apart- and one pin close to the slab.
5. Look for the image of these pins in the slab from the opposite side CrDr and fix two pins Rr and Sr
so that they are in the line with the image of Pr and Q2 as seen through the slab and at least 5cm
apart.
6. Join the pricks of Rr and S1 to obtain the emergentruy. Draw a normal to M1N1 at the point 02.
Join OrOz to get the refracted ray.
7, Measure the angle of incidence and angle of refraction. Produce AOrforward and draw a
perpendicular from emergent ray on the extended incident ray.
8. Measure the lateral displacement andrepeat the experiment with different angles of incidence.

Diagram:
lft(}*i,ii{ Xit}

Afttl* $i ltldrdaa$*

,\J}*l* a{
14 Glast
fii)$*a*. s1 l)r'.. \.
, \
I \
1

'1.-
r+ l'\ i n.

t-S:*rS, SspiS.et{T.eF1

Snrmrgrmf Rny

Precautions:
1. Angles to be measured accurately.
2. Encircle the points to mark the points marked by pins clearly.

Result:
1. The incident ray, refracted ray and normal lie on the same plane at point of incidence.
sin i
2. sln r p (constant):

3. -Lateral displacement increases with increase in angle of incidence.

 Experiment No'- 3
Angle of Prism
method'
Aim: To find angle of prism by optical
a glass prism, a sheet of
paper' a pencil
few pins,
Material required:A drawing board,

the angle of prism'

surfaces of a prism is cared
Tff:T_; berween the two refracting

Procedure:
on the drawing board with
pins'
1. Take a sheet of white paper and fix it ,rlarv ABC of the glt
2.Placeaglassprismalongitstriangularbaseonthepaper.MarktheboundaryABCoftheglassprtsm
the two refracting
Xy X,y, from the base of the prism cutring
3. r3ffff.;:il.r"r;Jij;fi*, and

surfaces AB and AC resPectivelY'

4. Place two pins P and Q on the incident ray ' .---^-^^r+1^o
XY
from the same refracting
refract
outline and observe ^ine frnm
the image of the pins
5. place back the prism on the
surface AB' a straight rine. Draw a line
through the
prace two more pins R and S in such a way
that all appe$in
6.
Ac and obtain the emergent
X'Y' on rerracting surrace
7 . mlT;::ff*T::T":?"1;:,::'T;*,
RS and GH meet at a point
o'
the prism such that the ravs
8. flr:LT#:;:["Jll.ff;"side
9. MeasureanglesoH.Theanglemeasuredistwicetheangleofprism.

,T:"t.;;"Jrnurp and ravs of light.

p.n., to draw boundary of the prism paper'
il""i;#n*tJ verticat to the olane of the
2. The pins ,r,out,l t ure sharp,ip *d "*utily the greaier accuracy in finding
the
pins ,nJJu" atleast o .*.ii f.oria..
3. The distance between the
ray'
direction of incident ray and emergent

Result:

Angle of Prism A =

Diagram:
x'

t-

s
 Experiment No.-4
Refraction through a prism

Aim: To trace the ray of light through a glass prism.

'""){opur Ro7^\-
Materials required:
A Glass prism, Drawing board, Paper Pins, Scale, Pencil and Protractor.
Nffi}i,
o When light ray passes through a prism it refracts and bends towards the base. The angle between the
incident and emergentruy is called angle of deviation.
. The relation between the angle of incidence(i), angle of emergence (e), angle of prism(A) and angle
of deviation (D) is given by the following expression
i*e--A+D
Procedure:
1. A paper is fixed on the drawing board placed on the table.
2.Place the given glass prism on the paper and using the pencil, mark the outline ABC of the prism on the
paper.
3. Remove the prism, and using the scale and pencil, normal NN' is drawn to the face AB at the point E.
4. Using the protractor, measure an angle 30o from the normal and draw a line PE making an angle 30o with
normal.
5. Fix two pins P and Q on this line place back the prism on the outline.
6. Viewing the pins from the face AC of the prism, two other pins R and S are fixed so that P, Q, R and
S are in a line. Later remove the pins.
7. A line SF is drawn to meet on the face AC through the marks of R and S and draw a normal through

8. Extend the line PE and SF backwards to meet at point G.

9. Measure angles MFS (angle of emergence) and HDS (angle of deviation).
l0.Repeat the experiment for another values of angle of incidence (i) and the corresponding angle
of deviations is measured.

Precautions:
l. Angle of incidence should be between 30" and 50o.
2. Prism should not be disturbed.
3. Pins should be in vertical position.

PE - lr,r+*il6$t rslr li-Artl++f ireldtne*

EF -**frrcted rey Cr -Ang** *f r*fr*cff*n
FS.Amsrycntr€ry d* -Anglc o.f cmarperc.*
A.A*g$taf th+pri*m d*.Angfs of dtdatlsn
Results:

1. The relation LR + LO: Li + Le is verified.

 -s:: '
rt ).1
/." '.:,'

ExPeriment No'-5 i ,!
;'
of convex lens t l-'..
:'
Focal length *d'*'gnification
'

.,

I Aim:Tomeasurethefoca11engthandmagnificationofaconverging(convex1ens).

Material required :
A candle and a meter scale.
A convex lens and rturd, A screen,
converge to a
Theory:
axis when incident on a convex lens ,after refraction
o Light rays paranel to principar
length'
and focus is ca,ed focal
. 1i'*iitf:.t;:H""" the optic centre irr.
t".rrlnJ, i*ug, dit;t from lens then the focal length/is
o If z is object distance rro*
determined by using the formula:
! =L _L
f uu
. Magnification of lens ^:'ffi
Procedure :
1'Findtheapproximatefocall.englhbyfocusinganimageofadistantobjectontoascreen.The
'r, object shourd be a distance
rrom the lens
[;[X+#:effi"#,';; n Effi,,a:.{;11,'ffi?**d
"r, focus possible
image of the is inthe sharpest
ffifr$H3;:1tm:lmr*fiHlJH:"J,",*r,n"
it'
and most clearly visible on rc-^^ +"'o^,-rlle to the centre of the lens) and then
4.withametrestick,measurethedistanceu(fromthecandletothecentreofthelens)andtl of the lens)' Record these
v (from;h*;;iilug. on th" s"r.", to the centre
measure the distance
values of z
values'
3 ard 4.Do this at least four more times' Some
5. change the varue of u andrepeat steps
air"lrilrirJJ i*ug" and some to give a magnified
one'
be chosen to give u
should
,#;;ff
r/v- r/u ]^ilii;
deteimine focal length of
lens'
6. Now use m: v / u
7 Find the magnification using
'
Diagram: **nvex t-ens

- -t-t
n
,,,ii:,ri: 1i
A H
ffi
i{l
$1

FI
E$H
$t W
db

' -i. -n"peat

^Precautions: of times'
the experiment a. nuybel
sharp as possible'
2. Make ,*" tftJi-uge is in clear.and
and along a straight line'
I;;;;;u"nita
3. Screen *d

*.tflttuo.al object method

: "

lenglh of convex lens by distant

lens formula:
2. Mean,utt"'Jfocal length f by
be > 1' <1 and equal to
1 '
lens can
3. Magnificati*
"f 'on"i
t
I

Experiment No.-6
i

Specific heat capacity of a solid

Aim: To determine the specific heat capacity of a solid.

Material required:
A Calorimeter with stirrer,a spring balance, A Thermometer, a solid, a tripod stand, Burner, A water bath.

Theory:
o Specific heat capacity of a solid is defined as the amount of heat required by the solid to show a rise
in temperature by 1K.
o When two substances of different temperature are mixed together, transfer of heat takes place till
both the bodies acquire equilibrium temperature.
Heat lost by a hot body = Heat gained by a cold body

Procedure:
1. Fill the beaker about half way with water and start heating it.
2. Weigh the solid metal, and then lower it into the beaker of hot water by means of a thread.
3. While the solid is being heated,weigh the inner chamber of calorimeter and the stirrer, together.
4. Fill the inner chamber of the calorimeter about half way with cool water andweigh it again.
5. Place the inner chamber of the calorimeter into the calorimeter jacket and place the lid on, then record the
temperature of the cold water.
6. Record the temperature of the hot solid when the temperature becomes steady.
7. Now quickly transfer the solid from the hot water to the calorimeter without splashing any water.
8. Place the lid onto the calorimeter and stir the water very gently and record the final equilibrium
temperature

Precautions:
1. Thermometer temperature to be recorded carefully.
2. Water should not splash while placing the solid into the calorimeter.
3. The lid of calorimeter should be closed as soon as the solid is placed in the calorimeter.

Result:
Specific heat capacity of the solid is:
Diagram:
Slirrxng stick

lfl$i.rle{ed,
lid
{** fir*s$ute.}
{n$
ilrnrnrnaE*!
$nner
vessel 5.#t*t*r
u**xtll
Sir
BSeils

ealm$mstBr
 Experiment No.-7
Melting point of Naphthalene

Aim: To determine the melting point of naphthalene using a heating curve.

Material required:
*ffi.t
,,aYaPur Ro'-1+:

A test-fube, i thermometer, retort stand, a beaker, Bumer, Tripod stand, naphthalene balls and stop clock

Theory:

Melting point of a substance is the temperature at which a solid changes into liquid at constant temperature.

Procedure:
1. Powder the naphthalene balls and place it in a test-tube.
2. Keep the thermometer inside the test-tube and clamp the test-tube to a retort stand.
3. Fill the beaker partially with water and place the test-tube inside it.
4. Heat the water with the bumer. Note down the temperature after every 20 minutes with stop clock.
5. When naphthalene starts to melt the temperature becomes constant for some time.
6. Allow naphthalene to melt completely while measuring temperature.
7. Draw temperature v/s time graph to determine melting point of naphthalene.

Precautions:

t. Test -tube should not touch the sides or bottom of the beaker
,)
Level of water in beaker should be more than the level of naphthalene in test-tube.
J. Packing of the powder should be uniform without any big air gaps in between the solid particles

Result:

Melting point of naphthalene is:

Diagram

a
 -.";*1:': :: '''.];:,;:
\" /
.ll-,1 .
Experiment No.-8 !€;":Ay-
Resonance and Air Column i, ,' i "ii'":'"''t:;'l'l
''.'','-',i',,. '' '

Aim: To verify that the frequency of sound emitted due to vibration in air column depends:Or1'

Material required:
and a scale
Two tuning forks, a measuring cylinder and a rubber hammer
.

Theory:
o frequency of air column becomes equal to
Resonance in an air column takes place when the natural
the forced frequency of the tuning fork'
at which resonance is
o If the frequency of the tuning fork increases the length of the air column
produceddecreases. f f "i)
Procedure:
1. Take a measuring cylinder and partially fiIl it with water.
hammer'
2. Take a tuning rorr urra a rubber hammer and strike the tuning fork on the rubber
are passes down to the
3. place the vibrating tuning fork horizontally above the cylinder. Sound waves
tube and reflect back at the water surface to hear a mild
sound'
4. Keep changing the level of water and keep the vibrating tuning fork on the mouth of the measuring
cylinder until one hears maximum sound'
5. Note down the length of air column in the measuring cylinder with a scale'
6,Followthesameprocedurefortheothertuningfork.

Precautions:
l.Slowlyreducingthelevelofwaterinthemeasuringcylinder.
2. Tuning fork should not touch the mouth of the cylinder'

Result:
to the frequency of the sound emitted'
The length of the vibrating air column is inversely proportional

Diagram:

'r**-*---l
l-*----l

-.*-r'
'\*-----..2/

Cylindrical Glass Container t

J
 Experiment No.-9
Ohm's Law

Aim: To verify Ohm's law and determine the resistance of given resistor'

Material required :
A unknown resistor, an ammeter, a voltmeter, battery eliminator, a plug key, rheostat and

Theory: difference
It states that the current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
constant.
(v) across it considering all physical conditions remains
VoI
V=IxR (R:Resistance)

Procedure :

1. Arrange the apparatus as per the circuit diagram'(given below)

must tight. Take care to connect the
2. Make the connections as per circuit diagram. All connections
ammeter and voltmeter with their correct polarity'
and voltmeter and record them'
3. Determine the zero error and least count of the ammeter
4. Adjust the rheostat to pass a low current'
the ammeter and voltmeter are showing
5. lnsert the key K and slide the rheostat contact to see whether
deflections ProPerlY.
voltmeter'
6. Adjust the rheostat to get a small deflection in ammeter and
7. Record the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter'
gradually'
8. Take atleast five sets of readings by adjusting the rheostat
g. Plot a graph with V along y-axis and I along x-axis'
10. The graph will be a straight line which verifies ohm's law.
gives resistance of the wire'
11. Determine the slope of the V-I graph. The slope

Precautions:

1. All the electrical connections must be tight'

2. Voltmeter and Ammeter must be of proper range'
3.Thekeyshouldbeinsertedonlywhiletakingreadings.

Result:
1. Mean value of V/I from observations, R:
2.TheResistance from the slope of V v/s I graph:

Circuit Diagram: EATTERY

+r.t.i.- K ,"+....
_"{
;I,
!-***-=*'
t{ }"$ "**r4,j1t,rua1.A"'*
RHE0STAT

1.

i
 Experiment No.-10
Resistance in Series and Parallel

Aim: To determine the equivalent resistance in series and parallel circuit.

/ Material required :
and connecting
Trvo unknoun resistors, an arnmeter, a voltmeter, a battery eliminator, a plug key, rheostat
uires.

Theory':
has only one path to
Series circuit- A circuit in which resistors are all arranged in a chain, so that the current
talie. The equivalent resistance in series circuit is
Rs=Rr+Rz+Rs
paranel circuit - A circuit in which each resistor is connected in a separate path and receives the same
voltage, and the total circuit current is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents. The equivalent
resistance in parallel circuit is
l_1_1*1
Rp R1 R2 R3
Procedure :
1. Arrange the apparatus for series as per the circuit diagram.(given below)
2. Make the connections as per circuit diagram. All connections must tight. Take care to connect the
ammeter and voltmeter with their correct polarity.
3. Determine the zerc error and least count of the ammeter and voltmeter and record them.
4. Adjust the rheostat to pass a low current.
5. Insert the key K and slide the rheostat contact to see whether the ammeter and voltmeter are showing
deflections properlY.
6. Adjust the rheostat to get a small deflection in ammeter and voltmeter.
7. Record the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter.
8. Take at leastfive sets of readings by adjusting the rheostat gradually.
9. Calculate the equivalent resistance-using the formula. Repeat the procedure for parallel circuit.
Precautions:

1. A1l the electrical connections must be tight.

2. Voltmeter and Ammeter must be of proper range.
3. The key should be inserted only while taking readings'
Result:
1. Mean value of R in series circuit
:
2. Mean value of R in parallel circuit:

Circuit Diagram:
fr1 R^ H

&Bftery

Oirc$it dlagr*** tnr rnxi.*tote iil *erls$ Pdraltpl'comhirlalion GfirBsl.sisre Rr, & &fid ts,