A couple of house rules

Be on time
Switch off mobile phones
Switch off mobile phones
Put away laptops

Being present = Participating actively
Het basisvak Toegepaste Natuurwetenschappen

htt //
http://www.phys.tue.nl/nfcmr/natuur/collegenatuur.html
h t l/ f / t / ll t ht l

Applied Natural Sciences
Leo Pel
e‐mail: phys3nab@tue.nl 
p y @
Chapter
p 26
Direct Current Circuits
Direct-Current

PowerPoint® Lectures for

University Physics, Thirteenth Edition
– Hugh
g D. Youngg and Roger
g A. Freedman

Lectures by Wayne Anderson

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education Inc.
LEARNING GOALS

• How to analyze circuits with multiple resistors in series

or parallel.

• Rules that you can apply to any circuit with more than
one loop.

• How to use an ammeter, voltmeter, ohmmeter, or

potentiometer in a circuit.

• How to analyze circuits that include both a resistor and a

capacitor.

• How electric power is distributed in the home.

4
Ohm’s Law

Vemf  iR

Now let
let’s
s visualize the same circuit in a
different way, making it clearer where
the potential drop happens and what
part of the circuit is at
p
which potential

5
Resistances in Series

Series: Resistors are connected such that all the current in a 
circuit must flow through each of the resistors are
circuit must flow through each of the resistors

Vemf  V1  V2 6
 Resistors in Series

For each resistor we can apply Ohm’s Law
Vemf  iR1  iR2  iReq

… where
h Req  R1  R2
We can generalize this result to a circuit 
g
with n resistors in series:
n
Req   Ri
i 1
Series Resistors have resistance LARGER than the
largest value present.
7
Resistances in Parallel 

In this case, the voltage drop across each resistor is

In this case, the voltage drop across each resistor is 
equal to the voltage provides by the source of emf
8
Resistance in Parallel

The current in each resistor
Vemf Vemf
i1  i2 
R1 R2

The total current in the circuit 

must equal the sum of these currents i  i1  i2
Rewrite as:
Rewrite as:

Vemf Vemf  1 1 
i  i1  i2    Vemff   
R1 R2  R1 R2 
9
Resistance in Parallel 

Vemf Vemf 1 1 
i  i1  i2    Vemf   
R1 R2  R1 R2 

1 1 1 1
i  Vemff  
Req Req R1 R2
=
n
1 1

Req i 1 Ri

Parallel Resistors have resistance SMALLER than

the smallest value present.
10
11
Series versus parallel combinations

• Requivalent = 2 + 2 = 4 Oh
Ohms

• I = 8V / 4 

• Power = i2R = 16 Watt total (8 Watt for each bulb)

• Requivalent = (½ + ½)-1 =1 Ohm

• I = 8V / 1 

• Power = i2R = 64 Watt total (32 Watt for each bulb)

12
13
Example: Network of Resistors

Consider the network of resistors shown 
below

Calculate the current flowing in this circuit.
14
Example: Network of Resistors
R3 and R4 are in series

R34  R3  R4

Now note that R34 and R1 are in parallel

1 1 1 R1 R34
  or R134 
R134 R1 R34 R1  R34
15
Example: Network of Resistors 

And now R2, R5, R6, and R134 are in series

R123456  R2  R5  R6  R134
R1 R34
R123456  R2  R5  R6 
R1  R34
R1  R3  R4 
R123456  R2  R5  R6 
R1  R3  R4
Vemff
i
R123456
16
Complex circuits

17
Gustav Kirchhoff

1824 – 1887

German physicist

Invented the spectroscope and

founded the science of spectroscopy

Discovered the elements cesium and

rubidium invented astronomical
spectroscopy

18
Kirchhoff’s Rules 

• A junction is a point where 
three or more conductors 
meet.

• A loop is any closed 
conducting path. 

• Loops start and end at the 
Loops start and end at the
same point.

19
Kirchhoff’s Rules : CURRENT

• A junction is a point where three 
or more conductors meet.

• Kirchhoff’s junction rule:
i hh ff’ j i l

The algebraic sum of the 
currents
t into any junction is 
i t j ti i
zero: I = 0.

20
Kirchhoff’s Rules : CURRENT

• Kirchhoff’s junction rule: The algebraic sum of the 
into any junction is zero: I = 0. 
currents into any junction is zero: I =0

g ( y )
• Conservation of Charge in time (steady state currents)

21
Kirchhoff’s Rules VOLTAGE

• A loop is any closed conducting path. 

• Kirchhoff’s loop rule: The algebraic sum 
of the potential differences in any loop 
of the potential differences in any loop
must equal zero: V = 0. 22
Potential Rises and Drops in a Circuit

Vab    Ir  IR

  Ir  IR  0
The net change in 
p
potential must be 
zero for a round trip 
in a circuit. 

23
Kirchoff’s Rules VOLTAGE

• Kirchhoff’s loop rule: The algebraic sum of the potential 
differences in any loop must equal zero: V = 0.

• Conservation of Energy!

Lose PE
Gain PE going
i
going across
through resistors
the (Voltage
battery drops)
(EMF)

24
Sign convention for the loop rule

Lose potential as you

move in direction of
current across resistor

Gain potential as
you move in
direction of EMF

25
   Ir  IR  0

   Ir
I  IR  0

26
Problem‐Solving Strategy – Kirchhoff’s Rules

Conceptualize

Study the circuit diagram and identify all the elements.

Identify the polarity of each battery.

Imagine the directions of the currents in each battery.

Categorize

Determine if the circuit can be reduced by combining 
series and parallel resistors.

,p q
If so, proceed with those techniques

If not, apply Kirchhoff’s Rules
27
 Problem‐Solving Strategy, cont.

Analyze
1. Assign labels and symbols to all known and unknown quantities. 

2. Assign directions to the currents.

1. The direction is arbitrary, but you must adhere to the assigned 
y, y g
directions when applying Kirchhoff’s rules.

3. Apply the junction rule to any junction in the circuit that provides new 
pp y j yj p
relationships among the various currents.
4. Apply the loop rule to as many loops as are needed to solve for the 
unknowns.
unknowns
1. To apply the loop rule, you must choose a direction in which to travel 
around the loop.
2. You must also correctly identify the potential difference as you cross 
various elements.
5. Solve the equations simultaneously for the unknown quantities.
28
Problem‐Solving Strategy, final

Finalize

Check your numerical answers for consistency.

If any current value is negative, it means you guessed 
the direction of that current incorrectly.

The magnitude will still be correct

The magnitude will still be correct.

29
EXAMPLE 1
EXAMPLE 1

30
A single‐loop circuit

Find Current in circuit, Vab, and Power of emf in 
each battery!
each battery!

31
A single‐loop circuit

Start at “a”: -4I

32
A single‐loop circuit

Start at “a”: -4I – 4V

33
A single‐loop circuit

Start at “a”: -4I – 4V -7I

34
A single‐loop circuit

Start at “a”: -4I – 4V -7I +12V

35
A single‐loop circuit

Start at “a”: -4I – 4V -7I +12V -2I

36
A single‐loop circuit

Start at “a”: -4I – 4V -7I +12V -2I – 3I = 0

37
A single‐loop circuit

Start at “a”: -4I – 4V -7I +12V -2I – 3I = 0

8V = 16I so I = 0.5 Amps

Start at “a”:
a : 4I + 4V +7I -12V
12V +2I + 3I = 0

16I=8V so I = 0.5 Amps 38

A single‐loop circuit

Vab? Potential of a relative to b?

Start at b,
b move to a:

39
A single‐loop circuit

Vab? Potential of a relative to b?

Start at b,, move to a: Vab = +12

40
A single‐loop circuit

Vab? Potential of a relative to b?

Start at b, move to a: Vab = +12 – 2(0.5 A)

41
A single‐loop circuit

Vab? Potential of a relative to b?

Start at b, move to a:

Vab = +12 – 2(0.5 A) - 3(0.5 A) = 9.5 V

42
EXAMPLE 2
EXAMPLE 2

43
Charging a battery
• 12V power supply with unknown internal resistance “r”

44
Charging a battery

• 12V power supply with unknown internal resistance “r”
• Connect to battery w/ unknown EMF and 1 internal 
resistance
it

45
Charging a battery

• 12V power supply with unknown internal resistance “r”
• Connect to battery w/ unknown EMF and 1 internal 
resistance
it
• Connect to indicator light of 3 carrying current of 2A

46
 Charging a battery

• 12V power supply with unknown internal resistance “r”
• Connect to battery w/ unknown EMF and 1 internal 
resistance
it
• Connect to indicator light of 3 carrying current of 2A
• Generate 1A
Generate 1A through run‐down battery.
through run down battery

47
Charging a battery

• 12V power supply with unknown internal resistance “r”
• Connect to battery w/ unknown EMF and 1 internal 
resistance
it
• Connect to indicator light of 3 carrying current of 2A
• Generate 1A
Generate 1A through run‐down battery.
through run down battery
• What are r, EMF, and I through power supply?

48
Charging a battery

• Junction rule at “a”:
• 2A + 1A = I or +2 + 1 – I = 0
• I = 3 Amps
I 3A
• Loop rule starting at “a” around (1)
• +12 V –
+12 V – 3A(r) –
3A(r) – 2A(3) = 0
2A(3) = 0 => r=2
r = 2 

49
Charging a battery

• Junction rule at “a”:
• 2A + 1A = I or +2 + 1 – I = 0
• I = 3 Amps
I = 3 Amps
• Loop rule starting at “a” around (2)
• ‐E + 1A(1)  – 2A(3) = 0 => EMF (E ) = ‐5V
• Negative value for EMF => Battery should be “flipped”

50
Charging a battery

• Junction rule at “a”:
• 2A + 1A = I or +2 + 1 – I = 0
• I = 3 Amps
• Loop rule starting at “a” around (3)
• +12 V  –
+12 V 3A(2) – 1A(1) E = 0
3A(2) 1A(1) +E > E = ‐5V  (again!)
0 =>     5V (again!)
• Check your values with third loop!!

51
Charging a battery

• What is the power delivered by the 12V power 
supply, and by the battery being recharged? 
• What is power dissipated in each resistor?

52
Charging a battery

• What is the power delivered by the 12V power 
supply, and by the battery being recharged? 
• Psupplied = EMF x Current = 12 V x 3 Amps = 36 Watt
• Pdissipated in supply  = i2r  = (3Amps)2 x 2 = 18W 
• Net Power = 36 – 18 = 18 Watts

53
Charging a battery 

• What is the power delivered by the 12V power supply, 
and by the battery being recharged? 
• PEMF = E x Current = ‐5 V x 1 Amps = ‐5 Watt
• Negative => power not provided – power is being 
stored!

54
Charging a battery

• What is power dissipated in each resistor?
• Pdissipated in battery  2 p )2 x 1 = 1W 
in battery = i r  = (1Amps)
(
• Pdissipated in bulb = i2r  = (2Amps)2 x 3 = 12W 

55
Charging a battery

• Total Power: +36W from supply 
• ‐ 18 W to its internal resistance r
18 W to its internal resistance r
• ‐ 5 W to charge dead battery
• ‐ 1 W to dead battery
1 W to dead battery’ss internal resistance
internal resistance
• ‐ 12 W to indicator light.

56
EXAMPLE 3
EXAMPLE 3

57
A complex network

• Find Current in each resistor!  Find equivalent R!!

1 1

1
+
1V
1 2

58
A complex network

• Step 1: Junction Rule!  
• Define current directions and labels

1 1

1
+
1V
1 2

59
A complex network

• Step 1: Junction Rule!  
• Define current directions and labels

I1 + I2 I1 I2

+
1V I3

I1 – I3 I2 + I3

60
A complex network

• Step 1: Junction Rule!  
• Define current directions and labels

I1 + I2 I1 I2

+
1 V I3

I1 – I3 I2 + I3

• Lots of ways to do this – none is

necessarily better than another.

• Direction WILL affect final signs in your

answer.
61
A complex network

• Step 2: Loop Rule!
• Define loop directions and labels

1 1

1
+
1V
1 2

62
A complex network

• Step 2: Loop Rule!  
• Define loop directions and labels

1 1
Loop 1
1
+
1V
1 2

63
A complex network

• Step 2: Loop Rule!  
• Define loop directions and labels

1 1

1
+
1V
1 2

Loop 2

64
A complex network

• Step 2: Loop Rule!  
• Define loop directions and labels
Loop 3
1 1

1
+
1V
1 2

65
A complex network

• Step 2: Loop Rule!  
• Additional loops available!

1 1

1
+
1V
1 2
Loop 4

66
A complex network

• Step 2: Loop Rule!  
• Additional loops available!

1 1

1
+
1V
Loop 5
1 2

• Any closed path will work.

• Extra loops good for checking

67
A complex network

• Step 3: Make Loop Equations!

68
A complex network

• Step 3: Make Loop Equations!

69
A complex network 

• Step 4: Solve equations (substitution or matrix)
11

5 • I1 = +6 A
6
-1
• I2 = + 5 A

• I3 = -1 A
7
11 4
So direction
incorrect
So I2 is really going from b to c

R V/I 13/11 1.2Ω

R=V/I=13/11=1.2Ω

70
A complex network

• Step 5: Check with extra loop equations!

1 1

1
+
1V
Loop 5
1 2

71
EXAMPLE 4
EXAMPLE 4
 Example: Kirchhoff’s Rules 

To analyze this circuit, we need to assign currents flowing through the 
resistors
We can choose the directions of these currents arbitrarily
73
 Example: Kirchhoff’s Laws 

At junction b
i2  i1  i3
At junction a
i1  i3  i2
But this equation gives us the
same information as the
f h
previous equation!

We need more information
to determine the three currents – 2 more independent equations

74
Example: Kirchhoff’s Laws

To get the other equations we must apply Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule.

This circuit has three loops

This circuit has three loops.
Left

R1, R2, Vemf,1

Right
g

R2, R3, Vemf,2

Outer

R1, R3, Vemf,1, Vemf,2

75
 Example: Kirchhoff’s Laws

Going around the left loop counterclockwise starting at point b we get

i1 R1  Vemf ,1  i2 R2  0  i1 R1  Vemf ,1  i2 R2  0

Going around the right loop clockwise starting at point b we get
i3 R3  Vemf ,2  i2 R2  0  i3 R3  Vemf ,2  i2 R2  0

Going around the outer loop
clockwise starting
l k i i
at point b we get
i3 R3  Vemf ,2  Vemf ,1  i1 R1  0
But this equation gives us no new
information!

76
 Example: Kirchhoff’s Laws 
We now have three equations
i1  i3  i2 i1 R1  Vemf ,1  i2 R2  0 i3 R3  Vemf ,2  i2 R2  0

And we have three unknowns i1, i2, and i3
We can solve these three equations in a variety of ways

( R2  R3 )Vemf ,1  R2Vemf ,2
i1  
R1 R2  R1 R3  R2 R3
R3Vemf ,1  R1Vemf ,2
i2  
R1 R2  R1 R3  R2 R3
 R2Vemf ,1  ( R1  R2 )Vemf ,2
i3  
R1 R2  R1 R3  R2 R3

77
Using voltmeters and ammeters
What do Ammeters and Voltmeters do to circuits?

Ammeters measure flow

of current PAST a point.

Ideally, they should NOT

influence the current

Ideally,
d ll R(ammeter) = 0!

Put them IN SERIES with

circuit “legs”

78
Using voltmeters and ammeters

What do Ammeters and Voltmeters do to circuits?

Voltmeters measure
potential difference
across (or between)
points
i t iin th
the circuit.
i it

Ideally, they should NOT

influence the current

Ideally, R(voltmeter) = !

Put them in parallel!

79
D’Arsonval galvanometer
• A d’Arsonval galvanometer measures the current through it.
• Many electrical instruments, such as ammeters and 
voltmeters, use a galvanometer in their design.
lt t l t i th i d i

80
I fs Rc  ( I a  I fs ) Rsh

V fs  I fs ( Rc  Rs )
fs=full scale
81
Ohmmeters and potentiometers

• A potentiometer measures the emf of a source 
without drawing any current from the source. 

known

If I2=0
0 then
th ε2= I Rcb

Calibrate by known sources

Measure voltage of unknown with no current

???

82
D’Arsonval galvanometer

First commercial ECG

Willem Einthoven
1860 1927
1860-1927

1924: Nobelprice for electrocardiogram

83
Ohmmeters

• An ohmmeter is designed to measure resistance. 

84
 Capacitors

Capacitors are devices that store energy in an electric field.

Capacitors are used in many every‐day applications
Heart defibrillators
Camera flash units
Camera flash units

Capacitors are an essential 
part of electronics.
Capacitors can be 
micro‐sized on computer 
chips or super sized for
chips or super‐sized for 
high power circuits such as 
FM radio transmitters.

85
 Q
C
Vab

The SI unit of capacitance is called one farad (1 F), in honor of

the 19th-century English physicist Michael Faraday.

1 F = 1 farad = 1 C/V = 1 coulomb/volt

86
 RC Circuit

So far circuits containing sources of emf and resistors:

currents in these circuits did not vary in time
t i th i it did t i ti

Now circuits that contain capacitors as well as sources of emf and 
resistors : circuits have currents that vary with time

Co s de a c cu t t
Consider a circuit with

a source of emf, Vemf, 

a resistor R, 

a capacitor C

87
 RC Circuits 
We then close the switch: current begins to flow in the 
circuit, charging the capacitor

The current is provided by the
source of emf, which maintains
f f hi h i i
a constant voltage

When the capacitor is fully 
charged, no more current flows in the circuit

When the capacitor is fully charged, the voltage across the 
plates will be equal to the voltage provided by the 
source of emf and the total charge qtot on the capacitor 
source of emf and the total charge  on the capacitor
will be qtot = CVemf
88
 Capacitor Charging 
Going around the circuit in a counterclockwise direction we can write
q
Vemf  VR  VC  Vemf  iR   0
C
We can rewrite this equation
remembering that i = dq/dt

dq q dq q Vemf
R   Vemf   
dt C dt RC R

The solution of this differential equation is The term Vc is negative since

the
e top
op p
plate
aeo of the
e capac
capacitor
o is
s
  
t connected to the positive -
q (t )  q0 1  e   higher potential - terminal of
  the battery. Thus analyzing
counter clockwise leads to a
counter-clockwise
… where q0 = CVemf and  = RC drop in voltage across the
capacitor!
89
 Capacitor Charging 
We can get the current flowing in the circuit by differentiating the charge 
with respect to time
 t 
  
t
Math Reminder: dq  Vemf   
q (t )  q0 1  e   i  e
 RC 

  dt  R 
The charge and current as a function of time are shown here ( = RC)

90
Capacitor Discharge
Circuit resistor R and a fully charged capacitor C,charge q0

Current will flow in the circuit until the capacitor is completely

Current will flow in the circuit until the capacitor is completely 
discharged, current loop:
q dq q
iR  VC  iR   0  R   0
C dt C
91
 Capacitor Discharge
 t 
The solution for the charge is:  
q  q0 e  RC 

Differentiating charge we get the current: 
 t 
dq  q0   
i  e
 RC 
dt  RC 
The equations describing the time dependence of the charging
The equations describing the time dependence of the charging 
and discharging of capacitors all involve the exponential 
factor e-t/RC
The product of the resistance times the capacitance is defined 
as the time constant  of an RC circuit
We can characterize an RC circuit by specifying the time 
constant of the circuit
92
Charging a capacitor: The time constant is  = RC.

In ONE time constant:
• Current drops to 1/e of initial value (about 36%)
• Charge on capacitor plates rises to 
Charge on capacitor plates rises to ~64%
64% of maximum value
of maximum value

93
Example: Time to Charge a Capacitor

Consider a circuit consisting of a 12.0 V battery, a 50.0  resistor, 
and a 100 0 F capacitor wired in series.
and a 100.0  F capacitor wired in series

The capacitor is initially uncharged.

Question:

How long will it take to charge the capacitor in this circuit to

How long will it take to charge the capacitor in this circuit to 
90% of its maximum charge?

94
Example: Time to Charge a Capacitor 

 
t

q  t   q0 1  e RC

 
We need to know the time corresponding to
q  t  / q 0  0 .9 0

Rarrange the equation for the charge on the capacitor as a 
t
function of time to get
g 
0 10  e
0.10 RC

t   RC ln(0.10)
( )  11.5 ms
Math Reminder: ln(ex)=x 95
 Example: RC Circuits 

A 15.0 k resistor and a capacitor are connected in series 
and a 12 V battery is suddenly applied. The potential 
diff
difference across the capacitor rises to  5 V in 1.3 s. 
th it i t 5Vi 13

Question:

What is the time constant of the circuit?

96
 Example: RC Circuits 

Answer:   
t

Idea: Charging of the capacitor: q (t )  q0 1  e 



 
with q0  CVemf and   RC; V t   q t  / C

V t   Vemf 1  ett /RC  1 3 s, we have
att t  1.3 h V t   5 V
 
t

V ((t))  Vemf  1 e 
RC

 
   
V 1.3 s  5 V  12 V 1 e  
 1.3 s / RC

 5 V  12 V / 12 V  e  
 1.3 s / RC

ln 7 / 12   1.3
1 3 s / RC
RC    1.3 s / ln 7 / 12  2.41 s
M a th re m in d e r:
 
ln e x x
97
  t 
Vemf  
Discharge capacitor i
R
e  RC 

98
Power distribution systems

Circuits, lines, loads, and fuses…

99
Household wiring

• Why it is safer to use a three‐prong plug for electrical 
appliances…

100
Summary

101
Summary

102
103