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Overview of Diesel Particulate Filter Systems sizing approaches

Article  in  Applied Thermal Engineering · April 2017

DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.04.096

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 Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Overview of Diesel particulate filter systems sizing approaches

Antiopi-Malvina Stamatellou, Anastassios Stamatelos ⇑
University of Thessaly, Mechanical Engineering Department, Volos, Greece

h i g h l i g h t s

Application of particulate filters to large Diesel engines is moving at slow pace.

Rational sizing of the filters becomes essential in these applications.

An overview of Diesel particulate filter systems sizing approaches is presented.

An improved filter sizing methodology is necessary for large engines.

Filter system design improvements may significantly reduce filter size.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Although application of Diesel particulate filters in modern automotive Diesel engines is commonplace,
Received 24 January 2017 their introduction to large Diesels as locomotive or marine engines is moving at a slower pace. One
Revised 4 April 2017 important reason for this delay is the large volume of filter required which is not easy to accommodate
Accepted 9 April 2017
in this type of equipment. Thus, rational sizing of the filters becomes essential in these applications. It is
Available online 26 April 2017
observed that DPF systems for large Diesel engines are usually oversized. Possible reasons are discussed
in this paper. With the present status of technology and the concern for compact and cost-optimized
exhaust treatment systems a new design methodology is needed. This paper summarizes progress in
the specific fields of application and attempts to formulate a filter sizing methodology that would lead
to feasible solutions with regard to space requirements and backpressure penalty.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
2. Filter backpressure characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
3. PM emissions standards for various engine categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
3.1. Marine engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
4. Effect of engine size and power on DPF size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
5. Factors affecting average pressure drop in diesel filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
5.1. Engine-out particulate emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
5.2. Filtration efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
5.3. Vehicle driving mode or engine operation mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
6. Effect of filter size on regeneration behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
7. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546

1. Introduction standards become increasingly stringent for heavy duty engines

and off-road machinery, Diesel particulate filters are also intro-
Today, application of Diesel particulate filters (DPF) [1] is com- duced to these engine categories. On the other hand, the evolution
monplace in automotive Diesel engines. As particulate emissions of emissions standards and aftertreatment technology resulted in
the priority of NOx aftertreatment by means of SCR (selective cat-
⇑ Corresponding author. alytic reduction) over particulate in heavy duty engines [2–6]. DPF
E-mail address: stam@uth.gr (A. Stamatelos). may be applied in the near future to big inland waterway vessels,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.04.096
1359-4311/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
538 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546

Nomenclature

Dp pressure drop [Pa] N number of open channels

L filter length [m] Af total filtration area [m2]
D filter diameter [m] Vd engine displacement [m3]
cpsi cells density [cells/in.2] w soot layer thickness [m]
ww filter wall thickness [m]
a channel Dp coefficient Abbreviations
R ideal gas constant [J/molK] DPF Diesel Particulate Filter
l dynamic viscosity of exhaust gas [kg/ms] SiC Silicon Carbide
Mg molecular mass of exhaust gas [kg/kmol] SOF soluble organic fraction
k0soot layer permeability [m2] VOF volatile organic fraction
kw ceramic wall permeability [m2]
d channel hydraulic diameter [m]
qs soot layer density [kg/m3]

or even to ships in specific congested areas with strict emissions

regulation. Filter material is Silicon Carbide (SiC), Fig. 1, and cor-
dierite [7] (2MgO-2Al2O3-5SiO2, Fig. 2). Filtration efficiency varies
in the range 70–95% of total particulate matter. Higher efficiency,
exceeding 95% is reported in the literature for the solid particulate
fraction, which involves elemental carbon and metal ash. However,
much lower efficiencies are reported for the soluble organic frac-
tion (SOF) of the particulate [8–10]. A large variety of filter system
design concepts and regeneration techniques (filter cleaning by
incineration of the accumulated particulate) exist to date, at vari-
ous production stages [11–19]. Table 1 presents a classification
according to the main regeneration techniques employed. Different
regeneration techniques may be combined in a single system (e.g.
engine management combined with catalytic fuel additives)
[20,21].
The need for a compact size of DPF to be fitted underhood, close
to the engine to keep exhaust temperatures high, along with the
mass produced of millions of units since 2000, resulted in compact
sizes of DPF for passenger car application [17,20].
On the other hand, DPF for large engines are not yet mass pro-
duced and in several cases tend to be rather oversized. The reasons
could be related to the low degree of commercialization, but also to Fig. 2. Cordierite filter for an off-highway machine.
some unrealistic requirements of conformance tests that are dis-
cussed here. As a matter of fact, most of the systems in production
stage are oversized, leading to higher installation costs, unneces- Fig. 1 shows a photo of SiC Particulate filter for a 2-L automotive
sary reduction in useful space and other side effects. These prob- Diesel engine, with a higher magnification photo showing the soot
lems could be partially eliminated by proper sizing of the filter. layer deposited inside the channel and an electron microscopy
The reduction of filter size, in addition to the reduction of the photo showing the texture of the different porous layers. Fig. 2
equipment cost, leads to increased filter temperature levels, due shows a cordierite filter for an off-road machine (loader). Cordier-
to reduced thermal inertia and heat losses of the filter. ite is selected in most cases for off-highway machinery. The design

Fig. 1. SiC Particulate filter for a 2-L automotive Diesel engine, with higher magnification photo showing the soot layer deposited inside the channel and an electron
microscopy photo showing the texture of the different porous layers [22].
 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546 539

Table 1
Classification of existing DPF systems according to regeneration techniques employed [17].

Active regeneration Passive regeneration

Continuous regeneration
Discontinuous regeneration
Generation of reactive agents: Generation of reactive agents:
Plasma regeneration (Ozon, OH-radicals, NO2) CRT System (NO2 production upstream DPF)
Micro wave regeneration
Exhaust gas Burner Catalytic fuel additive
Electric Heater Catalytically coated Filter
Electric oven (dismantling filter)
Engine management increases exhaust temperature
(e.g. post – injection, EGR, compressor bypassing)

and mass production of filters with more channels per unit inlet
Dp channel: pressure drop from flow friction within the
area has reduced filter size, since a smaller filter size may accom- channels.
modate the same soot mass with similar backpressure levels.
Dp soot: the accumulated soot acts as an additional filter and
Moreover, as explained above the filter stays warmer and imposes additional pressure drop.
regenerates more frequently. Due to the interaction of a significant
number of parameters with filter size, before formulating a As seen in this Figure, exhaust backpressure of an engine with a
sizing methodology, it is useful to discuss the effect of each specific filter installed increases almost linearly with exhaust flow-
parameter. rate assuming a constant exhaust temperature (the effect of
Current commercially available DPF systems for heavy duty exhaust temperature is seen separately in Fig. 4). The data of this
engines demonstrate significant variations in substrate size, as nor- Figure are produced by simplified modeling of filter pressure drop:
malized with respect to engine volumetric efficiency and nominal When one takes into account the effect of exhaust temperature on
power. It seems that, after three decades of DPF application, there exhaust density, the effect of exhaust gas flow rate on the three
is no universally acceptable philosophy of filter sizing for the speci- above-mentioned components of filter Dp may be approximated
fic engine category. On the other hand, substrate sizing turns out to by the following expressions [24,27]:
play an essential role in overall performance, reliability, cost and
a  l  R  T  L  m_
feasibility of a DPF system. A role which becomes increasingly crit- Dpchannel ¼ 4
ð1Þ
ical as the engine size increases. Mg  N  p  d
The purpose of this paper is to present an overview of the situ-
R  T  l  ww  m _
ation in the different Diesel engine categories and suggest rational Dpwall ¼ ð2Þ
guidelines for filter sizing, taking into account the boundary condi-
M g  p  Af  k w
tions for each engine category and application.
RT lm _
Dpsoot ¼ W ð3Þ
M g  p  Af  k p
2. Filter backpressure characteristics
where the dynamic viscosity of the exhaust gas is approximated by
A fundamental requirement for a specific DPF system is to pro- the following expression:
duce an acceptable backpressure which does not significantly
affect fuel consumption [23]. This sets a lower limit to filter size. l ¼ 3:55  107  T 0:679 ð4Þ
Pressure drop across the filter is normally produced by the follow- Different ceramic filter composition yields a different increase in
ing factors [23–26] (see Fig. 3): pressure drop over a given time, because of the variation in mean
pore size and porosity distribution. However, the requirements for

Dp wall: affected by porosity distribution, mean pore size and high filtration efficiency led to optimized ceramic filtration proper-
wall thickness. ties producing specific, acceptable levels of pressure drop

Fig. 3. Variation of the three components of filter pressure drop versus exhaust gas flowrate (Sic DPF, 5.66  6 in.).
540 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546

Fig. 4. DPF backpressure as function of engine exhaust gas temperature and flowrate (5.66  6 in. filter, 2-L engine).

(<200 mbar). The calculations of Fig. 3 are assuming a 144 mm
diameter  152 mm length SiC DPF with 200 cpsi, 0.4 mm wall
thickness, 9 lm mean pore size and an exhaust gas temperature
of 200 °C. The variations of soot permeability (kp in Eq. (3)) with
the type of soot deposition are even more pronounced. Moreover,
soot particles demonstrate a significant ability for water adsorption
[28] and hydrocarbon adsorption, which may significantly decrease
permeability as water and hydrocarbons impregnate the porous
structure of the soot.
As regards exhaust temperature, as shown in Fig. 4, filter back-
pressure increases with exhaust gas temperature, due to the
increase in exhaust gas velocity. However, the calculations of this
diagram are considering only dry soot, without the effects of
adsorbed water and hydrocarbons that complicate matters [8].
Backpressure levels should be kept low, because backpressure
reduces engine torque and increases brake specific fuel consump-
tion (bsfc) of the engine.
An increase in exhaust backpressure leads to an equivalent
decrease in engine mean effective pressure, as approximated by
the following expression [29]:
I
W cycle ¼ pdV þ ðpin  pex Þ  V d ð5Þ
The effect of DPF backpressure on the engine fuel consumption
may be assessed based on the additional fuel consumption
required to restore engine output. For example, an increase of
200 mbar in average filter backpressure leads to a 2% deteriora-
tion in brake specific fuel consumption [29]. Naturally, fuel
consumption increase is also affected by the vehicle driving
mode.
Exhaust backpressure of a loaded filter increases rather sharply
with the particulate mass accumulated in the filter channels (see
Fig. 5, based on calculations with Eqs. (1)–(3)). Keeping a low level
of DPF loading requires frequent regeneration.

Fig. 5. Effect of soot loading on filter backpressure (5.66  6 in. filter, 2-L engine).
 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546 541

Fig. 6. Effect of varying filter size (varying filter length with constant diameter of 5.66 in.) on the pressure drop characteristics of a 2-L car engine with constant exhaust gas
temperature of 200 °C.

Fig. 6 shows exhaust backpressure levels produced by different

filter sizes on a passenger car engine, as function of exhaust flow
(200 °C exhaust gas temperature).

3. PM emissions standards for various engine categories

The PM emissions’ standards for passenger Diesel Cars were

0.14 g/km in the European Regulation Euro 1 in 1992 (European
Driving Cycle, Maximum Speed 120 km/h, Total Distance
11.3 km). They were reduced to 0.1 g/km (1996) and further to
0.05 g/km (Euro 3/2000). From this point on the DPF became nec-
essary. In 2014 the limit became stricter to 0.005 g/km. The same
standards are valid for light trucks.
The evolution of European Legislation was different for Heavy
Duty Vehicles. Until 1999 only steady-state test was performed
on the vehicle engine (ECE R-49, 13 points). Emission standards,
expressed in g/kW h weighted over the 13 points, were 0.36 g/
kW h in 1992. They dropped to 0.02 g/kW h in 2000 (Euro III)
and further to 0.01 g/kW h in 2013 (Euro VI). Since 1999 the engine
Fig. 7. Combined DPF and SCR after-treatment device for off-highway Diesel engine
is subjected to a transient test as well. The limit was set to 0.01 g/ (EPA Tier 4, <560 kW, EU Stage IIIB) [30].
kW h in 2013. After 2000 the DPF is gradually introduced in Heavy
Duty Vehicles in order to conform to the standards [16].
Similarly, EU Stage IV emission standards for non-road diesel formance improved. According to EU Stage III/B (2012) emissions
engines were introduced in 2014, setting the limit in PM emissions standards for rail traction engines PM emissions for locomotive
to 0.025 g/kW h. Fig. 7 shows a DPF combined with an SCR device engines are limited to 0.025 g/kW h which would need a DPF.
to meet these requirements. To represent emissions during real Fig. 8 shows a more compact, optimized DPF installed by the
conditions, a new transient test procedure—the Non-Road Tran- engine manufacturer for a 2000 kW (76.3 L displacement) locomo-
sient Cycle (NRTC)—was developed in cooperation with EPA. The tive engine. A total of 10 £12  8 in. monoliths are included in the
NRTC is run twice—with a cold and a hot start. The results are package (about twice the engine displacement – see Fig. 9). To acti-
weighted 10% for cold start and 90% for hot start. The test is used vate filter regeneration, internal engine temperature management
in parallel with the steady-state test, ISO 8178 C1, referred to as strategies as A/F reduction, compressor bypassing and post-
the Non-Road Steady Cycle (NRSC) [31]. injection are employed by the engine ECU to substantially raise
Application to larger Diesels as locomotive or marine engines is the exhaust temperatures to the required levels.
moving at a slower pace [32]. Nevertheless, there exist hundreds of EU Stage III A legislation also includes Inland Waterway Vessels
retrofits to locomotive engines, in countries with strict emissions which were allowed to emit up to 0.5 g/kW h PM in 2009. The limit
standards like Switzerland [11]. Although most retrofits were will be gradually adjusted to 0.015 g/kW h in 2020 for engines with
rather oversized, clean engines may also be produced by incorpo- Net power greater than 300 kW. The legislation is less demanding
rating a compact DPF close to the engine (Fig. 8). In this way, a for Vessels with Net power less than 300 kW and may be accom-
more rational filter volume is attained and the overall system per- modated without DPF.
542 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546

Fig. 9. Internal design of the MTU DPF of Fig. 8. External dimensions

L  W  H = 2.72  2.1  0.9 m [33].

Fig. 8. SiC particulate filter for a locomotive engine (MTU rail engine 16 V 4000
RX4, 1: DPF, 2: engine) [33].

3.1. Marine engines

For the purpose of emission regulations, marine engines are

divided into three categories based on displacement per cylinder.

Category 1 concerns small engines with less than 5 L displace-

ment per cylinder.

Category 2 concerns medium sized engines with 5–30 L per
cylinder, with technology similar to locomotive engines (up to
8000 kW), used to provide propulsion for tugboats, supply ves-
sels, fishing vessels, etc. also used for auxiliary power genera-
tors in ships.

Category 3 marine diesel engines typically range from 2500 to
70,000 kW, powering container ships, oil tankers, bulk carriers,
cruise ships.
Emission control technologies for the last category engines are
difficult to implement, mainly due to the residual fuel they are
burning (a by-product of distilling crude oil to produce lighter
products). This fuel has high viscosity and density, which affects
ignition quality, as well as high ash, sulfur and nitrogen content
in comparison to marine distillate fuels. Residual fuel parameters
are variable because its content is not regulated. As an example,
PM emissions of a large container vessel 2-stroke engine burning
residual fuel with 2.05% sulfur lie in the range of 1.1–1.75 g/kW h
(as PM2.5), for engine load ranging between 10–70% [34]. A crude
oil tanker’s two-stroke engine, fuelled with residual fuel, was mea-
sured to a weighted PM mass emissions factor of 1.60 g/kW h for
the main engine and 0.141 g/kW h for the auxiliary engine [35].
Emissions from marine diesel engines have been regulated since
1999 through a number of rules, applicable to different engine cat-
egories, overlapping with the regulations for mobile, land-
based off-road machinery. The most recent are the 2008 Category
1/2 Engine Rule, introducing Tier 3 and Tier 4 emission standards
for marine diesel engines. The Tier 4 emission standards are mod-
eled after the 2007/2010 highway engine program and the Tier 4
non-road rule, with an emphasis on the use of emission aftertreat-
ment technology. To enable catalytic aftertreatment methods, the
EPA established a sulfur limit of 500 ppm in marine fuels (not
residual fuels). The 2009 Category 3 Engine Rule, introduced Tier
Fig. 10. Soot filter for a yacht Diesel engine. Filter regeneration effected by the two
burners at the left of the picture [36].
2/Tier 3 standards in harmonization with 2008 Amendments
to IMO MARPOL Annex VI.
Fig. 10 shows a DPF for a large yacht Diesel engine. The DPF sys-
tem volume may be demanding in these applications and size opti-
mization is critical in certain applications. Special measures could
be taken to significantly reduce filter volume. As an example, com-
pact high speed ferries could be equipped with low volume filters
that will be engaged only at engine startup in the harbor [37].
Regeneration of this type of DPF could be effected by dismantling
the monoliths and placing in an electric oven regeneration facility
every one or two days.
4. Effect of engine size and power on DPF size
The large oversizing of DPF for off-highway and larger Diesel
engines can be seen in the example of Fig. 11. In this Figure, filter
volume for Diesel particulate filters OEM installed in Diesel pas-
senger cars is plotted versus nominal engine power [17,20,39]. In
the same diagram, a series of Diesel filters offered by a specific
DPF manufacturer is plotted as function of the engine nominal
power suggested for retrofitting. Correlation of filter volume to
 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546
engine power should be straightforward, since engine power is
directly related to exhaust gas flowrate that is the major engine
operating parameter affecting filter backpressure (Figs. 3–6). A lin-
ear regression to the data for the specific manufacturer shows that
suggested DPF volume in liters is correlated to the nominal engine
power by the following relation:
V filter ¼ 0:2Pengine  1:2
where Vfilter is expressed in liters and Pengine is in kW.
If one compares the respective data for the passenger car appli-
cations on the same Figure, it is apparent that filter size in passen-
ger cars is significantly smaller for the same engine nominal
power. The situation is better depicted in Fig. 12, where the ratio
of filter volume to engine displacement is plotted. Volume of the
DPF offered for retrofitting off-highway machinery is several times
(up to 9 times) higher than engine displacement, while the volume
of DPF applied by the car manufacturers as OEM equipment is only
a little larger than engine displacement volume. This oversizing of
DPF for off-highway engines can only in part be attributed to the
higher engine-out emissions of this engine category. A typical PM
emissions limit of 0.02 g/kW h is prescribed for off-road machinery
compared to a limit 0.01 g/kW h placed for heavy duty vehicles. Of
course, a retrofit filter size for the same displacement older Tier
engine would require a larger filter size relative to a new engine
of the same size/power output but with much lower engine-out
particulate emissions. As already discussed in the example of
Fig. 8 (locomotive engine), careful DPF system design and its place-
ment close to the engine may lead to low filter volume also for
these large Diesel engines.
A hint to the reason for filter oversizing in retrofitting applica-
tion may be found if one studies the California Air Resources Board
(CARB) certification procedure for Diesel exhaust after-treatment
systems [40]. Certification according to the level 3 requires the
attainment of 85% or greater efficiency of the filter in the reduction
of particulate matter.
This certification takes into account the type of engine applica-
tion (stationary, power generation, off-highway machinery, etc.)
and the type of engine (Diesel, with or without turbocharger, with-
out Exhaust-Gas Recirculation (EGR), mechanically or electroni-
cally controlled, certified off-road engines meeting 0.2 g/bhp-h
80
70
60
filter volume [dm3]
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 50
Fig. 11. Filter volumes in liters offered by a specific DPF manufacturer as function of engine power [38], compared to DPF volume for mass production passenger cars.
543
diesel PM or less based on certification or in-use emission testing).
A minimum Exhaust Temperature level is set for Filter Regenera-
tion (e.g. 400 °C by use of catalyst in fuel), which must be kept
for a minimum of 30 min, to allow the completion of regeneration.
During the test, the engine is allowed to operate for a maximum of
300–720 consecutive minutes below the above-mentioned passive
regeneration temperature. The manufacturer may set a minimum
ð6Þ
number of cold start and 30 min idle sessions before filter regener-
ation is required (from 10 to 24 cold starts, see the example of
Fig. 13). Also, a number of hours of operation is set (say 2000 h
or more) before disassembly and cleaning of the filter is required.
Finally, a specific fuel is employed for the test (California diesel fuel
with less than or equal to 15 ppm sulfur or up to 20% biodiesel
blend).
The diluted and cooled diesel particulate that is collected during
emissions testing consists of two types of particles: (a) fractal-like
agglomerates of primary particles 15–30 nm in diameter, com-
posed of carbon and traces of metallic ash, and coated with con-
densed heavier end organic compounds and sulfate; (b)
nucleation particles composed of condensed hydrocarbons and sul-
fate [42]. However, the soot layer collected on the DPF wall has a
modified texture and composition [34].
As an example, Fig. 14 presents the results of Thermogravimet-
ric Analysis (TGA) and Heat Release Analysis by Differential Scan-
ning Calorimetry (DSC) of two soot samples received from a
central channel of a SiC filter installed on a 2-L displacement,
common-rail, high pressure injection (up to 1500 bar) Diesel
engine. The first sample was taken after prolonged engine opera-
tion (filter loading mode) at 1800 rpm–30 N m engine operation
point (250 °C filter wall temperature) and the second sample after
filter loading at 1800 rpm–70 N m operation point (350 °C filter
wall temperature) [43].
A careful inspection of the results of Fig. 14, reveals desorption
of water vapor in the interval 50–100 °C, followed by desorption of
adsorbed hydrocarbons (Volatile Organic Fraction of the particu-
late) in the interval between 350 and 500 °C. At soot sample tem-
peratures higher 500 °C one observes significant mass reduction
associated with heat release due to the ignition of the dry soot.
Obviously, the composition of particulate emitted by the Diesel
engine varies with load. Operation at lower load produces higher
y = 0.0002x - 0.0012
off-highway
engines
automove
engines
100 150 200 250 300 350 400
engine power [kW]
544 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546

Fig. 12. Ratio of DPF filter volume to engine displacement for selected off-highway engine retrofits and passenger car OEM applications.

Fig. 13. Recorded filter backpressure levels during a CARB certification test that lasted about 30 days [41].

VOF content in the particulate, whereas operation near full load
produces dry soot, due to the higher exhaust has and filter temper-
atures [22]. It is known from the literature that VOF may be oxi-
dized at temperatures as low as 200 °C (in the presence of
catalysts) and also may desorb from the particulate at higher tem-
peratures, or even re-adsorb at low temperatures [44]. If one takes
into account that adsorption capacity of the soot layer depends on
the accumulated soot mass and adsorbed hydrocarbons and water
(at low temperatures, below 100 °C) may significantly decrease
soot layer permeability lp (see Eq. (3)), it becomes clear that a filter
of large size and heat capacity, placed at a distance from the
engine, may produce very high pressure drop, thus requiring over-
sizing of the filter. For example, if the certification test requires
numerous cold starts (Fig. 13) and the filter is far downstream from
the engine, significant filter oversizing may be required.
Adsorption and desorption of soot volatile organic fraction is
frequently observed in real world operation of Diesel engines
equipped with DPF. Numerous experiments and tests have been
conducted that show this behaviour. Fig. 15 is an example of this
type of tests, that demonstrates the desorption phenomena of vola-
tile hydrocarbons from soot.
The experiment was carried out with a 2-L displacement, com-
mon rail automotive Diesel engine that was subjected to load steps
on the engine bench. In the recorded HC emissions signal (green
line), hydrocarbon desorption is apparent at various load steps in
this experiment. At time = 4000 s, engine operation point is chan-
ged from 3000 rpm/40 N m to 2450 rpm/100 N m. The effects on
the filter wall temperatures are measured by thermocouples T/
C9, (centerline) and T/C8 (periphery) [8].
The regeneration process is extremely complex and monitoring
filter backpressure only vaguely hints to the evolution of soot mass
in the filter. This is confirmed by recent research works applying
dynamic neutron radiography to the measurement of 3-D distribu-
tion of soot in the filter channels [45–48].
5. Factors affecting average pressure drop in diesel filters
As discussed in the previous sections, the selection of filter size
for a specific engine application should be based on the average
pressure drop of the filter in typical engine operation. Filter size
must be adequate to keep backpressure levels lower than the
 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546 545

tests or 0.1 g/kW h for heavy duty vehicles and 0.2 g/kW h for off-
road machinery.

5.2. Filtration efficiency

The effect of engine soot emissions on the filter loading rate is

significantly affected by filtration efficiency, since the filter loading
capacity will be determined by the integral of particulate emis-
sions multiplied by filtration efficiency for a required period of
time between regenerations. Total particulate matter emissions
of an engine at a given operating point consist of a number of dif-
ferent substances. Filtration efficiency varies for each category of
substances. For example, filtration efficiency of SiC or cordierite fil-
ters is higher than 95% for dry soot, (mainly produced at high
engine load); however it drops significantly at part load operation,
due to the low efficiency of the filter in collecting the volatile frac-
tion of particulates which is higher at part load.

Fig. 14. Results of Thermogravimetric (TGA) and Heat Release (DSC) Analysis of two 5.3. Vehicle driving mode or engine operation mode
soot samples received from a filter channel, the first loaded with the 2-L
displacement, common-rail Diesel engine operating at 1800 rpm–30 N m (250 °C Prevailing vehicle driving modes or engine operation modes
filter wall temperature) and the other at 1800 rpm–70 N m (350 °C filter wall affect DPF loading rate in several ways: there exist engine opera-
temperature) [43].
tion points associated with high particulate emissions and a high
solid fraction in the particulate emitted. Fortunately, these opera-
tion points are associated with high exhaust gas temperatures,
400 TF in (oC) TF wall centre (oC) 160 which favour partial or complete regeneration of a well-designed
TF wall periphery (oC) ΔP filter (mbar)
DPF system.
Speed (rpm/100), Torque (Nm),

Speed (rpm/100) HC (ppm C1)

Torque (N.m) A criterion affecting the sizing of mainly passively regenerated
Filter backpressure (mbar),

300 120 filters is the engine-out PM/NOx ratio. The CRT requires a mini-
Temperature (oC)

mum NOx/PM ratio for proper operation, and thus its operation
HC (ppm C1)

depends on the vehicle’s duty cycle. A successful passive operation

200
100
0 0
0 1200 2400 3600
Time (sec)
temperatures are measured by thermocouples T/C9, (centerline) and T/C8 (periphery) [8].
Fig. 15. Desorption of soot volatile organic fraction can be observed in the recorded
HC emissions signal (green line) at various load steps in this experiment. At
time = 4000 s, engine operation point is changed from 3000 rpm/40 N m to
2450 rpm/100 N m. The effects on the filter wall temperatures are measured by
thermocouples T/C9, (centerline) and T/C8 (periphery) [8]. (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)
200 mbar threshold set by engine manufacturers. Average pressure
drop of the filter will be determined by the following factors:

engine out particulate emissions (steady state and transient
mode)

filtration efficiency of the DPF

prevailing vehicle driving modes or engine operation modes

regeneration frequency
5.1. Engine-out particulate emissions
As already discussed in Section 3, engine-out particulate emis-
sions of modern vehicle Diesel engines have been significantly
reduced by engine design and engine management measures. Typ-
ical average emissions are of the order of 0.2 g/km in the legislated
80 of the filter requires that the exhaust gas reaches a sufficient tem-
perature and meets certain conditions. The regeneration of the sys-
tem can be enhanced, within certain limits, by increasing the size
of the catalyst and the filter and/or by increasing the noble metal
40
loading in the catalyst. Nevertheless, if the application is unsuit-
able or the duty cycle is too cold, the filter may be plugged with
soot or experience uncontrolled regenerations [49,50].
6. Effect of filter size on regeneration behaviour
As mentioned above, regeneration frequency of a specific DPF
system depends on the vehicle driving conditions or prevailing
engine operation modes.
Active regeneration systems are normally installed in passenger
cars and heavy duty vehicles, as well as locomotives and yachts
(where burner systems are a common choice). Regeneration is acti-
vated when DPF backpressure exceed certain levels. Passive regen-
eration by use of catalysts is also present in car and vehicle
systems. Frequent activation of regeneration refrains the engine
of excessive exhaust backpressure, but at the same time could dis-
sipate energy for regeneration. For this reason, fuel consumption
increase is limited by optimized DPF design and placing the filter
closer to the engine, profiting from the use of fuel additives or cat-
alytically coated filters. Reduction of DPF size, inside the backpres-
sure range permitted by engine manufacturers, generally improves
regeneration behaviour due to the faster heating of the filter. For
this reason, DPF size should not normally exceed twice the engine
displacement volume.
7. Conclusions
Although the need of ceramic particulate filter size optimization
is well established in practical applications of Diesel Particulate Fil-
ter, the manufacturers’ approaches do not yet converge in this area.
546 A.-M. Stamatellou, A. Stamatelos / Applied Thermal Engineering 121 (2017) 537–546
Filter oversizing is not uncommon, especially in off-road and large
engine applications.
Filter backpressure rise characteristics is the main factor affect-
ing filter sizing in real world applications. This is determined by
engine soot emissions, prevailing vehicle driving mode or engine
operation modes, average filtration efficiency and regeneration fre-
quency. The situation is complicated by adsorption – desorption
phenomena of volatile organic fraction and water vapour, which
modify significantly filter pressure drop characteristics during
low exhaust temperatures’ operation.
Careful study of filter sizing approaches in the various fields of
applications reveals that at least in the case of off-road machinery
and large engines, a certain degree of oversizing is applied by sev-
eral DPF manufacturers. The most probable cause of this tendency
is the demanding tests for type approval, which may impose severe
boundary conditions to the size optimization problem, especially
when the filter is distant from the engine and part load engine
operation prevails.
Filter system design improvements, raising filter temperature
levels, may significantly reduce filter size and overall system per-
formance. As a rule of thumb, filter volume should by no means
exceed twice the engine displacement volume.
Application to large marine engines which consume residual
fuel is a special case with very high particulate emissions that can-
not be filtered by a rational filter size. In this case, a reduced size
DPF could be configured that would only collect smoke emitted
at start-up of the main or the auxiliary engines.
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