LOGIC

September 26, 2019

Proposition

A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false

but not both.
The truth value of a proposition is true if the proposition is true or
false if it is false.

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 2 / 24

Proposition
2 × 2 = 4.
2 × 2 = 5.
The Earth is at.
STOP!
Today is September 14.
x + 3 = 4.
x + 3 = 4 when x = 1.
x + 3 = 4 when x = 2.
How are you doing?
All cows are brown.
This sentence is false.

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 3 / 24

Compound Propositions

Types of Compound Propositions and Connectives

Type Connective Symbol Other words
Negation not ∼ it is not the case that
Conjunction and ∧ also, moreover
Disjunction or ∨ unless
Conditional if..then → only if
Biconditional if and only if ↔

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 4 / 24

Truth Value of Compound Propositions

Remark: The truth value of a compound proposition is completely

determined by the truth values of its component propositions, together
with the way in which they are connected together.

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 5 / 24

Negation

A negation transforms a proposition into its opposite value, that is, ∼ p

is true whenever p is false and ∼ p is false whenever p is true.
Truth Table:
p ∼p
T F
F T

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 6 / 24

Disjunction

A disjunction is true as long as one of the disjuncts that comprise it is

true.
Truth Table:
p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 7 / 24

Conjunction

A conjunction is true if and only if all conjuncts are true.

Truth Table:
p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 8 / 24

Conditional

The truth of the condition expressed in proposition p is sucient

to guarantee the truth of proposition q .
Truth Table:
p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Remarks:
The truth values of p → q are not the same as those of q → p.

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 9 / 24

Biconditional

It is a statement of equivalence and the two component

propositions are joined by if and only if.
They are either both true or both false.
Truth Table:
p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 10 / 24

Hierarchy of Connectives

When more than one connective is used in a compound

proposition, the standard priority list is as follows: ∼, ∧, ∨, →, ↔.
If no grouping symbols are present, connectives will be applied in
this order from left to right.

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 11 / 24

Hierarchy of Connectives

Examples:
1 p ↔∼ q ∨ r is the same as p ↔ ((∼ q) ∨ r)

2 p ∨ q → (r ↔ s∧ ∼ t) is the same as (p ∨ q) → (r ↔ (s ∧ (∼ t)))

3 p → q → r is the same as (p → q) → r

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 12 / 24

Tautology, Contradiction, and Contingency

1 A compound proposition that is always true, no matter what the

truth values of the propositions that occur in it, is called a
tautology.
2 A compound proposition that is always false is called a
contradiction.
3 A compound proposition that is neither a tautology nor a
contradiction is called a contingency.

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 13 / 24

Tautology, Contradiction, and Contingency

Determine whether the following compound propositions are

tautologies, contradictions or contingencies.
1 p∧ ∼ p
2 p∨ ∼ p
3 p →∼ p
4 (∼ p ∧ q) → (∼ (q → p))
5 ((p → q) ∧ (q → r)) → (q → r)
6 [(p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ p ∧ r)] → (q ∨ r)
7 [(p → q) ∧ (q → r)] → (p → r)

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 14 / 24

Symbols and Translation

1 It is not the case that A ∼A

2 D and C D∧C
3 Either P or E P ∨E
4 If N then F N →F
5 B if and only if R B↔R

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 15 / 24

Negation

1 Rolex does not make computers. ∼R

2 It is not the case that Rolex makes computers. ∼R
3 It is false that Rolex makes computers. ∼R
NOTE: ∼ is always placed in front of the proposition it negates

NOTE: ∼ cannot be used to connect two propositions

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 16 / 24

Conjunction

1 Tiany sells jewelry, and Gucci sells cologne. T ∧G

2 Tiany sells jewelry, but Gucci sells cologne. T ∧G
3 Tiany sells jewelry; however, Gucci sells cologne. T ∧G
4 Tiany and Ben Bridge sell jewelry. T ∧B
NOTE: ∧ is used to translate "and", "also", "but", "however", "yet",
"still", "moreover", "although"," and "nevertheless"
NOTE: Last example is equivalent to "Tiany sells jewelry, and Ben
Bridge sells jewelry."
NOTE: "Mary and Louise are friends." is not equivalent to "Mary is a
friend, and Louise is a friend."

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 17 / 24

Disjunction
1 Aspen allows snowboards or Telluride does. A∨T
2 Either Aspen allows snowboards or Telluride does. A ∨ T
3 Aspen allows snowboards unless Telluride does. A∨T
4 Unless Aspen allows snowboards, Telluride does. A∨T
NOTE: in ordinary language "unless" is equivalent in meaning to "if
not"
NOTE: in propositional logic, we equate "unless" with "or"
Example: The following are equivalent
1 You won't graduate unless you pass freshman English.
2 Either you pass freshman English or you won't graduate.
3 If you don't pass freshman English, then you won't graduate.

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 18 / 24

Conditional

1 If Purdue raises tuition, then so does Notre Dame. P →N

2 Notre Dame raises tuition if Purdue does. P →N
3 Purdue raises tuition only if Notre Dame does. P →N
4 Cornell cuts enrollment provided that Brown does. B→C
5 Cornell cuts enrollment on condition that Brown does. B→C
6 Brown's cutting enrollment implies that Cornell does. B→C

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 19 / 24

Necessary and Sucient condition

Denition: Event A is said to be a sucient condition for event B

whenever the occurrence of A is all that is required for the occurrence
of B . On the other hand, event A is said to be a necessary condition for
event B whenever B cannot occur without the occurrence of A.

Example: Having a u is a sucient condition for feeling miserable,

whereas having air to breathe is a necessary condition for survival.
1 Hilton's opening a new hotel is a sucient condition for Marriott's
doing so. H→M
2 Hilton's opening a new hotel is a necessary condition for Marriott's
doing so. M →H

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 20 / 24

Biconditional

1 JFK tightens security if and only if O'Hare does. J ↔O

2 JFK's tightening security is a sucient and necessary condition for
O'Hare's doing so. J ↔O

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 21 / 24

Examples
1 Prozac relieves depression and Allegra combats allergies, or Zocor
lowers cholesterol. (P ∧ A) ∨ Z
2 Prozac relieves depression, and Allegra combats allergies or Zocor
lowers cholesterol. P ∧ (A ∨ Z)
3 Either Prozac relieves depression and Allegra combats allergies or
Zocor lowers cholesterol. (P ∧ A) ∨ Z
4 Prozac relieves depression and either Allegra combats allergies or
Zocor lowers cholesterol. P ∧ (A ∨ Z)
5 Prozac relieves depression or both Allegra combats allergies and
Zocor lowers cholesterol. P ∨ (A ∧ Z)
6 Prozac relieves depression and Allegra or Zocor lowers cholesterol.
P ∧ (A ∨ Z)
7 If Merck changes its logo, then if Pzer increases sales, then Lily
will reorganize. M → (P → L)
8 If Merck's changing its logo implies that Pzer increases sales, then
Lily will reorganize. (M → P ) → L
Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 22 / 24
Examples

1 Megan is not a winner, but Kathy is. ∼M ∧K

2 Not both Megan and Kathy are winners. ∼ (M ∧ K)
3 Either Megan or Kathy is not a winner. ∼ M∨ ∼ K
4 Both Megan and Kathy are not winners. ∼ M∧ ∼ K
5 Not either Megan or Kathy is a winner. ∼ (M ∨ K)
6 Neither Megan nor Kathy is a winner. ∼ (M ∨ K)

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 23 / 24

Problem

Renowned economist Harold Carlson makes the following prediction:

"The balance of payments will decrease if and only if interest rates
remain steady; however, it is not the case that either will not remain
steady or the balance of payments will decrease."
What can we say about Carlson's prediction?

Math in the modern world September 26, 2019 24 / 24