Beruflich Dokumente
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Stabilization
Design Guide
Alaska Department of
Transportation & Public Facilities
FHWA-AK-RD-01-6B
Alaska Soil Stabilization Design Guide
by
R. Gary Hicks
Professor Emeritus
Department of Civil Engineering
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon 97331-2302
Prepared for
State of Alaska
Department of Transportation and Public Facilities
Research & Technology Transfer
Fairbanks, AK 99709-5399
February 2002
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13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words)
This guide presents information on the types of soil stabilization techniques that have or can be used in the
state of Alaska. It covers techniques including asphalt, cement, lime, mechanical, chemical, and other methods.
For each method there is a discussion on materials and design considerations, construction issues, and expected
performance and costs. The appendices include a glossary of terms, a reading list on prior stabilization used in
Alaska, a discussion on the soils in Alaska, and a slide presentation summarizing the highlights of the guide.
N/A
17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF 18. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 20. LIMITATION OF ABSTRACT
REPORT OF THIS PAGE OF ABSTRACT
The author wishes to acknowledge the technical The contents of this report reflect the views of the
support provided by the following ADOT&PF author, who is responsible for the facts and the
personnel: accuracy of the data presented herein. The con-
• Billy Connor and Steve Saboundjian— tents do not necessarily reflect the official views
Research or policies of Alaska DOT&PF or the Federal
• Leo Woster and Dave McCaleb—Northern Highway Administration. This report does not
Region constitute a standard, specification, or regulation.
• Tom Moses, Newt Bingham, Bob Lewis, and
Scott Gartin—Central Region
• Pat Kemp and Bruce Brunette—Southeast
Region
They assisted by providing the information
needed to evaluate current practices. Thanks also
to Peggy Blair of Oregon State University who
typed the guidelines. Sue and Russ Mitchell of
Inkworks in Fairbanks, Alaska, provided techni-
cal editing and layout.
Table Page
2.1 Material Categories and Characteristics ....................................................................... 10
2.2 Application of Different Stabilizing Agents ..................................................................... 12
5.1 Cement Requirements for Various Soils ....................................................................... 25
5.2 Criteria for Soil-Cement as Indicated by Wet-Dry and Freeze-Thaw Durability Tests ... 25
6.1 Properties of Different Types of Lime ............................................................................ 28
7.1 Desirable Limits for Plastic Properties of Granular Stabilized Base Materials .............. 35
7.2 Suggested Particle Size Distribution for Aggregate Surfaced Pavements .................... 35
9.1 Chemical Products Evaluated by Alaska DOT&PF ....................................................... 38
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1 Guide to Selecting a Method of Stabilization................................................................. 13
3.1 Structural Design System for Pavement with Stabilized Layers .................................... 15
3.2 An Illustration of the Loss of Performance That Results from Debonding of
Cemented Layers (Based on Mechanistic Modeling) .................................................... 16
4.1 Guide to the Selection of Asphalt Materials for Stabilization ......................................... 19
4.2 Factors Affecting the Design and Behavior of Asphalt Stabilized Materials .................. 22
4.3 Diametral Modulus Testing ............................................................................................ 23
5.1 Subsystem for Base Course Stabilization with Cement ................................................ 26
5.2 Recommended Stress Ratio-Fatigue Relations for Cement Stabilized Materials ......... 27
6.1 Variation in Compressive Strength as a Function of Lime Content and Time ............... 30
6.2 Effect of Lime on Optimum Moisture Content and Density ........................................... 30
Form of
Stabilization
Cement and
Cementitious Blends
Lime
Bitumen
Bitumen/Cement
Blends
Granular
Miscellaneous Blends
Implement
Pavement Design &
Materials Collect
Mix Design Feedback
Figure 3.1. Structural Design System for Pavements with Stabilized Layers
then they are treated, for design purposes, as binder content, and σ is the tensile stress in the
subbase layers. Unbound materials are considered cemented material. For cemented materials, the
to be anisotropic and their stiffness is stress value of the exponent a in the above equation is
dependent (that is, it varies depending on where it usually about 12, which means that a small
is located within the pavement structure). change in the tensile stress in the cemented
material will result in a large change in the fa-
3.3.2 Bound Materials tigue performance of the material.
Bound materials can be classified as either In other words, small changes in layer thickness
cementitiously bound materials or asphalt-bound (as a result of poor construction control or appli-
materials as described in the following sections. cation of construction tolerances), density, or
3.3.2.1 Cementitiously Bound Material. Materi- uniformity can lead to major deficiencies in long-
als bound with sufficient amounts of cementitious term performance. This is why you should use
binders to achieve significant tensile strength are conservative values of the materials characteris-
considered cemented materials and should meet a tics of cemented materials for structural design.
fatigue performance criterion for structural Bonding between layers is another critical aspect
design. For design purposes, cementitiously of the design of pavements incorporating ce-
bound materials are considered to be isotropic mented layers. The Alaska DOT&PF mechanistic
and their stiffness is not stress dependent. design procedure assumes there is full bonding
The fatigue behavior of cemented materials can between all layers. If cemented pavement courses
be described by a relationship that takes the form are constructed in more than one layer, it is vital
that these layers bond together to act as a single
structural layer. The possible effect of not achiev-
(3.1) ing bonding between stabilized layers is illus-
trated in Figure 3.2.
where N is the number of stress repetitions to
failure, K and a are constants dependent on
Alaska Soil Stabilization Design Guide 15
350
Thickness of Cemented Layer (mm)
325
Debonded Bonded
300
275
250
135 mm Asphalt
Cemented
225 debonding
Cemented
CBR 4
200
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Equivalent Standard Axle Loads
Figure 3.2. An Illustration of the Loss of Performance that Results from Debonding of
Cemented Layers (Based on Mechanistic Modeling)
A relatively wide range of materials is suitable for Both methods require mixing to be carried out at
asphalt stabilization, including materials that have or near optimum fluid (asphalt plus moisture)
been pretreated with lime. Figure 4.1 summarizes content. The fine aggregate particles are preferen-
the broad selection process to determine an tially coated, leaving the coarse particles rela-
appropriate asphalt stabilizing agent, while Table tively uncoated with asphalt. You can place it
2.2 indicates material types suitable for stabiliza- immediately, but you must be careful with initial
tion with asphalt and asphalt/cement blends. compaction to prevent instability. The foamed
asphalt process results in materials with the
4.2.2 Asphalt Materials desirable properties of asphalt mixtures: durabil-
Bituminous stabilization may be carried out with ity, flexibility (crack resistance, stabilization of
any of the following materials: fines against weakening by moisture), better
• hot asphalt cement, cohesion, and decreased permeability.
• cutback asphalt, The performance of hot asphalt stabilized materi-
• asphalt emulsion, either as cationic or anionic als varies with the quality of the material stabi-
emulsion, and lized. A maximum plasticity index of 6–15 for the
• the above with cementitious binders used in material to be stabilized is recommended for this
conjunction. type of treatment (Figure 4.1). Secondary addi-
Typical binder contents range from 4% to 8%. tives such as fly ash, cement works flue dust, or
lime may be added to alter the characteristics of
4.2.3 Stabilization with Hot Asphalt the finished product or to make it more amenable
to treatment with the asphalt binders.
Stabilization with hot asphalt involves a tempo-
rary change of state of the stabilizing agent by
BITUMINOUS STABILIZATION
Soil Classification GW SM GW SM GW SM
(GW-GM) (SW-SM) (GW-GM) (SW-SM) (GW-GM) (SW-SM)
SW (Depending on (GW-GC) (SM-SC) (GW-GC) (SM-SC)
particle size
distribution)
Degree of Particle Preferential coating All particles well All particles well
Coating of fine particles coated coated
% (by mass) = 0.75 (0.05 A + 0.10 B + 0.50 C ) (4.1) You can successfully use a mixture of portland
cement and asphalt to improve the properties of
where: low-grade pavement materials by increasing
A = % retained on 2.36 mm (#8) sieve, stiffness and reducing permeability. Also, adding
B = % passing the 2.36 mm (#8) sieve but cement promotes the removal of excess water and
retained on the 75 µm sieve (#200), and helps the emulsion to break.
C = % passing the 75 µm (#200) sieve.
4.2.7 Water Quality
4.2.5.2 Conditions of Mixing. The soil moisture
content influences how efficiently the emulsion The quality of compaction water used in asphalt
gets distributed throughout the soil. Dry soil stabilization is not critical. Salty water has been
used with no apparent harm. You may have to be
*
This is often limited by the natural moisture content of
the aggregate.
Degree of pulverization
before mixing
Properties of material
Bitumen content
BITUMINOUS Kind and grade
MATERIAL
Amount to be mixed
with soil and sand
Ambient temperature
Type of mixer
Mixing time
Temperature
Ambient temperature
Method and degree of
compaction
Delay between mixing
and compaction
COMPACTION
AND CURING
Moisture content during
compaction
Figure 4.2. Factors Affecting the Design and Behavior of Asphalt Stabilized Materials
22 Alaska Soil Stabilization Design Guide
Alternatively, the resilient modulus (E) may then cutbacks and emulsions, if rain is likely before
be estimated using the equation: the process is completed.
To achieve good results with asphalt-stabilized
E ( MPa) = 2.2 × ITS (kPa) + 168 (4.2)
materials in the field, you must
A minimum value of ITS of 100 kPa (14.5 psi) is • thoroughly mix the stabilizing agent
recommended. throughout the soil,
• ensure that the soil is compacted at a uniform
4.4 Construction Factors Affecting
moisture condition, and
Design Considerations
• ensure adequate aeration of emulsion and
You should stabilize with emulsion and cutback cutback-stabilized materials to allow the
asphalts when conditions are dry and warm. In excess moisture and/or volatiles to escape.
hot, dry areas, medium- to slow-setting cutback
Asphalt stabilized materials are much slower
asphalts can be used, depending on the soil type,
setting than cementitiously treated materials, and
but in cooler areas, medium- to rapid-setting
you must not allow traffic on these materials until
cutbacks would be required.
they have gained adequate strength. A limited
Foam asphalt stabilization is not subject to cli- amount of controlled traffic after setting is advan-
matic restrictions for mixing and compaction. tageous before sealing.
You must in all cases prewet the soil with water
4.5 Expected Performance and Costs
to achieve better dispersion of the asphalt binder.
It is quite difficult to add water after the mixing Asphalt stabilized materials (using emulsions)
has been carried out. have been widely used in Alaska with varying
degrees of success. Local materials have been
When preparing test specimens of mixes incorpo-
stabilized or pavements recycled using asphalt
rating asphalt binders other than hot asphalt, it is
emulsions. Typical costs of using emulsions in
essential that you aerate the mixture before
highway construction in Alaska are not available.
compacting. The time of aeration should be
enough for the excess water to escape from 4.6 References
emulsions and volatiles from cutback asphalt.
Don’t stabilize with asphalt binders, particularly Asphalt Institute, Asphalt Cold Mix Manual,
Manual Series No. 14, 3rd Edition, 1989.
Asphalt Institute, A Basic Asphalt Emulsion
Manual, Manual Series No. 19, 3rd Ed.,
March 2000.
Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Association,
Basic Asphalt Recycling Manual, 2001.
Chevron USA, Bituminous Mix Manual, Chevron
Asphalt Division, San Francisco, 1977.
Puzinauskas, V. P., and R. N. Jester, “Design of
Emulsified Asphalt Mixtures,” NCHRP
Report 259, Transportation Research Board,
1984.
Salomon, A., and D. E. Newcomb, Cold In-Place
Recycling Literature Review and Mix Design
Procedure, MN/RC-2000-21, Minnesota
DOT, August 2000.
Figure 4.3. Diametral Modulus Testing
(Courtesy of OEM, Corvallis, OR)
Alaska Soil Stabilization Design Guide 23
5.0 CEMENT STABILIZATION
Maximum Allowable
AASHTO Soil Group Unified Soil Group Weight Loss, Percent
A-1-a GW, GPP, GM, SW, SP, SM 14
A-1-b GM, GP, SM, SP 14
A-2 GM, GC, SM, SC 14
A-3 SP 14*
A-4 CL, ML 10
A-5 ML, MH, CH 10
A-6 CL, CH 7
A-7 OH, MH, CH 7
*The maximum allowable weight loss for A-2-6 and A-2-7 is 10%.
1.0
0.8
Stress Ratio, S
0.6
0.0
2 3 4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Repetitions, N
180 days
Compressive Strength (MPa)
60 days
3
21 days
2
7 days
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Lime (mass percent)
Figure 6.1. Variation in Compressive Strength as a Function of Lime Content and Time
1.9
0% lime
1.8
Dry Density (t/m )
3
1.7
5% lime
1.6
1.5
1.4
8 12 16 20 24 28
% Moisture
Figure 6.2. Effect of Lime on Optimum Moisture Content and Density
30 Alaska Soil Stabilization Design Guide
lime modification, add enough lime so that Compaction Process
additional quantities do not result in further
changes in PI. The initial rate of reaction with lime allows time
to achieve adequate compaction and riding
For lime stabilization, use pH testing to determine qualities of lime-stabilized materials. If you are
whether a soil is reactive to lime and to estimate seeking high strengths, you need to perform early
an approximate lime content, augmented by 28- compaction to achieve as high a density as pos-
day unconfined compressive strength (UCS) test- sible. Delayed compaction lowers the density but
ing to establish the optimum lime content. The this is not as severe as cementitious binders.
optimum lime content occurs when the plot of
UCS vs. lime content peaks. An additional 1% is 6.3.2 Evaluation and Use of
usually used to allow for losses and mixing varia- Materials Stabilized with Lime
tions. Sugars and reactive organic materials can The evaluation techniques and methods for
retard the development of cementitious bonds materials stabilized with lime are similar to those
with both cementitious binders and lime. used for cementitious binders. Lime is often used
Production Factors to modify materials, particularly those with high
plasticity. If modification without achieving high
The following factors significantly affect the strengths is the aim, the stabilized material can be
quality of lime-stabilized materials: reworked one or two days after initial compac-
• quality of water, tion. If high strengths are required, you need to
• quality of lime, exercise careful control over field procedures,
• uniformity of mixing and curing, particularly moisture control, early rolling, and
• compaction, and effective curing. Hydration cracking of lime-
• clay content. stabilized materials is not usually a major
problem.
Adding lime normally promotes granulation of
the material being stabilized. In materials that are The similar range of materials for subgrade,
difficult to break down, the lime-material mix is subbase, and base can be treated with lime or
sometimes moist cured, from a few hours to a cement. Certain conditions will favor the use of
day, after light rolling to reduce contact with air, lime. Quicklime and, to a lesser extent, hydrated
and then remixed. The initial lime addition may lime are particularly suitable for treating wet
be a portion or the whole of the design lime con- plastic clay subgrades. They provide effective
tent. This process is sometimes called mellowing. working platforms from otherwise untraffickable
situations. Lime slurry is not suitable for this
Lime will diffuse slowly throughout clays and
application.
stabilize the lumps. Unless high early strength is
particularly important, it is unnecessary to seek Lime is effective in modifying excessive plastic
fine granulation. About 80 to 90% of the soil’s properties of subbase and base materials. Such
clods should pass the 26.5-mm sieve. If tempera- modification of base materials is a widely ac-
tures are low at the time (< 15˚C), then more cepted and successful practice. At lime contents
attention should be given to breakdown. of less than about 3%, the risk of undesirable
shrinkage cracking is low, and it would rarely be
Using quicklime to establish a working platform
necessary to take special measures to combat
on a wet clay is a useful construction expedient
reflective cracking.
and uses the exothermic reaction of the lime as it
hydrates to reduce the moisture content of the The use of lime slurry may have advantages in
soil. urban areas since it reduces environmental issues
p= (6.1)
Materials produced by mechanical stabilization D
have properties similar to conventional unbound where
materials and can be evaluated by conventional p = % passing sieve size,
methods for unbound granular materials. Alaska d = particle size
DOT&PF has added silt and/or clay to gravel D = maximum particle size, and
containing little or no fines. n = 0.45 to 0.50 for most materials.
Alaska DOT&PF, Project History—Dennis Road Koehmstedt, Paul L., Soil Stabilization for
and Cushman Extension, 1975. Remote Airfields, Final Report to ADOT&PF,
Alaska DOT&PF, Project History—College Road January 1981.
Recycle, 1982. Kozisek, P. E., and J. W. Rooney, Soil
Alaska DOT&PF, Project History—Alaska Stabilization Test Strips—Bethel, Alaska,
Highway—MP 1253 to 1235, July 1984. Final Report to Alaska DOT&PF, January
Alaska DOT&PF, Project History—Shishmaref 1986.
Airport Improvements, 1992. McHattie, Robert L., Final Evaluation of
Alaska DOT&PF, Project History—Sheep Creek Experimental Features Projects, AK8701A
Road Rehabilitation, 1993. and AK8701B, internal Alaska DOT&PF
Alaska DOT&PF, Project History—Goldstream memo, January 31, 1994.
Road Rehabilitation, 1994. McHattie, Robert L., Subbase Treatment Using
Alaska DOT&PF, Project History—Steese EMC2 Soil Stabilizer, Interim Report, Alaska
Highway Overlay, MP11-22, 1995. DOT&PF, October 1997.
Brownfield, Boyd J., “Perma-Zyme—A New McHattie, Robert, Billy Conner, and David Esch,
Approach to Road Stabilization,” Alaska Pavement Structure Evaluation of Alaska
DOT&PF M&O Newsletter, fall 1994. Highways, FHWA-AK-RD-80-1, Alaska
Coetzee, N. F., “Product Evaluation: Presto DOT&PF, March 1980.
Roadbase Sand Confinement Grid,” Naske, Claus M., Alaska Road Commission
ADOT&PF Final Report, June 1983. Historical Narrative, prepared for Alaska
Danyluk, Lawrence S., Stabilization of Fine- DOT&PF, June 1983.
Gravel Soil for Road and Airfield Construc- Oglesby, C. H., and R. G. Hicks, Highway
tion, AI-RED-86-30, Final Report to Alaska Engineering, John Wiley and Sons, 1982.
DOT&PF, April 1986, 44 pp. Peyton, H. R., C. F. Kennedy, and J. W. Lund,
Esch, David, Internal memos on frost suscepti- Stabilization of Silty Soils in Alaska—Phase
bility, 1974. II, report to Alaska Department of Highways,
Esch, David, Internal memos on frost suscepti- June 1966.
bility, 1978. Peyton, H. R., and J. W. Lund, Stabilization of
Gartin, R. Scott, and David C. Esch, Treated Base Silty Roads in Alaska, University of Alaska,
Course Performance in Alaska, FHWA-AK- Fairbanks, November 1964.
RD-91-13, Alaska DOT&PF, June 1991. Phukan, Arvind, A Literature Search for
Gentry, Charles W., and David C. Esch, Soil Substitute Materials in Frost Protecting
Stabilization for Remote Area Roads, AK-RD- Layers, AK-RD-82-7, Final Report to Alaska
86-08, Final Report to Alaska DOT&PF, DOT&PF, May 1981, 53 pp.
August 1985, 142 pp. USDA, Exploratory Soil Survey of Alaska,
Hopper, Thad, Tracy Moore, and Dave Sterley, February 1979.
Council Grounds Trail Experiment Soil Vita, Charles L., Ted S. Vinson, and James W.
Stabilization, ADOT&PF Southeast Region, Rooney, Bethel Airport CTB-AC Pavement
October 1997. Performance Evaluation, Final Report to
Kinney, Thomas C., and M. Reckard, Effects of Alaska DOT&PF, March 1981.
Salts on Road Embankment Stability Under
Freezing and Thawing Conditions, AK-RD-
87-09, Final Report to Alaska DOT&PF,
December 1986, 34 pp.
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