Current Electricity: Q Δ t Δ Q Δ I 

Current Electricity 1
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1. ELECTRIC CURRENT
Electric current across an area held perpendicular to the direction of flow of charge is defined to be
the amount of charge flowing across the area per unit time. If charge ΔQ passes through the area in
time interval Δt at uniform rate the current I is defined by
ΔQ
I ...(i)
Δt
If rate of flow of charge is not steady then instantaneous current is given by
Q dQ
I  lim  ...(ii)
t 0 t dt
The S. I. unit of current is ampere (A). Smaller currents are more conveniently expressed in
milliampere (1mA = 10-3 A) or microampere 1μA  10 6 A . .
Illustration: 1
Two boys A and B are sitting at two points in a field. Both boys are sitting near assemblence of
charged balls each carrying charge +3e.A throws 100 balls per second towards B while B throws
50 balls per second towards A. Find the current at the mid point of A and B.
Solution: 100e
Let mid point be C as shown
A C B
Charge moving to the right per unit time = 100 × 3e = 300e
50e
Charge moving to the left per unit time = 50 × 3e = 150e
Movement of charge per unit time is 300e –150e = 150e towards right
I = 150e = 150  1.6  10–19 A = 2.4 × 10–17 A.
Illustration: 2
Flow of charge through a surface is given as Q  4t 2  2t (for 0 to 10 sec.)
(a) Find the current through the surface at t = 5sec.
(b) Find the average current for (0 – 10 sec)
Solution:
(a) Instantaneous current
dQ d
I  (4t 2  2t)  8t  2
dt dt
at t = 5 sec;
I = 8  5  2  42 Amp
(b) Average current
Q Q 4  (10)2  2  10 420
I     42 Amp.
t t 10 10
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2 Current Electricity
2. ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)

To maintain a steady electric current, the conductor cannot be isolated; it must be part of a closed
circuit that includes an external agency or device (figure). This device is required to transport the
positive charge from B back to A, i.e., from lower to higher potential and thus maintain the potential
difference between A and B. The external device will need to do work for transporting positive
charge from lower to higher potential. Such a device is the source known as source of
electromotive force abbreviated as emf. It is the analogue of the pump in the water flow.
+
-
A R
B
The external source, as said above, does work on taking a positive charge from lower to the higher
potential.
A natural way of characterizing the external source of energy is in terms of the work that it needs to
do per unit positive charge in transporting it from lower to higher potential. This is known as
electromotive force or emf of the device, denoted by ε .
ε  Vopen
The emf of a source is thus the potential difference between its two terminals in open circuit i.e.
when no external resistances are connected.
3. OHM’S LAW
In case of certain substances (such as iron, platinum etc) at constant temperature the current which
flows is directly proportional to the applied voltage.
If a potential difference V causes current I in a substance then,
V  I or V  IR
Where R is a constant called as resistance of substance. This law is called ohm’s law and the
substances which obey it are called ohmic or linear substances. The inverse of resistance is called
as conductance, represented by G. Unit of conductance is mho or siemen.
Illustration: 3
The current in a conductor is 5 A when the voltage between the ends of the conductor is 12V.
(i) What is the resistance of the conductor?
(ii) What will be the current in the same conductor if the voltage is increased to 42 V?
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Solution:
(i) Given that I = 5A; V = 12 V; R = ?
V 12V
R   2.4
I 5A
(ii) It the voltage applied becomes 42 V
V 42V
I   17.5A
R 2.4ohm
4. COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES
Resistances in Series Combination
When some conductors having resistances R1,
R2 and R3 etc. are joined end-on-end as Figure,
the are said to be connected in series. It can be
proved that the equivalent resistance or total
resistance between points A and D is equal to
the sum of the three individual resistances. Being
a series circuit, it should be remembered that (i) current is the same through all the three conductors
(ii) but voltage drop across each is different due to its different resistances and is given by Ohm’s
Law and (iii) sum of the three voltage drops is equal to the voltage applied across the three conductors.
There is a progressive fall in potential as we go from point A to D as shown in figure.
 V = V1 + V2 + V3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 (Ohm’s Law)

But V = IR
Where R is the equivalent resistance of the series combination.
 IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 or R = R1 + R2 + R3
1 1 1 1
Also   
G G1 G 2 G 3
As seen from above, the main characteristics of a series circuit are :
1. same current flows through all parts of the circuit.
2. different resistors have their individual voltage drops.
3. voltage drops are additive.
4. applied voltage equals the sum of different voltage drops
5. resistances are additive
Resistances in Parallel Combination

Three resistances, as joined as shown in figure are said to be connected in
parallel. In the case (i) p.d. across all resistances is the same (ii) current in
each resistor is different and is given by Ohm’s Law and (iii) the total
current is the sum of the three separate currents.
V V V
I  I1  I 2  I3   
R1 R 2 R 3
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V
Now, I where V is the applied voltage.
R
R = equivalent resistance of the parallel combination.
V V V V 1 1 1 1
    or   
R R1 R 2 R 3 R R1 R 2 R 3
Also G = G1 + G2 + G3
Resistances in Mixed Combination

If resistance are arranged in series-parallel mixed grouping, we apply method of successive reduction
to find equivalent resistance.
To calculate the equivalent resistance between the points a and b, the network shown figure, may
be successively reduced as described below :
Illustration: 4
Three resistors of values 4 ohm, 6 ohm and 7 ohm are in series and a potential difference of 34 V
is applied across the grouping. Find the potential drop across each resistor.
Solution:
34V
The current through the circuit   2A
(4  6  7)ohm
potential difference across 4 ohm resistor = IR = 2 A × 4 ohm = 8 V
potential difference across 4 ohm resistor = 2 A × 6 ohm = 12 V
potential difference across 4 ohm resistor = 2 A × 7 ohm = 14 V
Illustration: 5
Two resistance 3 ohm and 2 ohm are in parallel connection and a potential difference of 12 V is
applied across them. Find
(a) the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination,
(b) the circuit current and
(c) the branch currents.
Solution:
(a) Two resistors R1 and R2 are in parallel. Their equivalent resistance R is given by
1 1 1
 
R R1 R 2
R 1R 2 23 6
or R    1 .2 
R1  R 2 2  3 5
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(b) The circuit current = Circuit voltage/Circuit resistance
12V
 10 A
1 .2 
(c) The current through 2 ohm resistor
3 3
I2  I   10   6A
23 5
The current through 3 ohm resistor
2 2
I3  I   10   4A
23 5
(Also I3 = I – I2 = 10 A – 6 A = 4 A)
Wheatstone Bridge
Figure shows the fundamental diagram of wheatstone a
bridge. The bridge has four resistive arms, together with a I I 2
1
source of emf (a battery) and a galvanometer. The current R R 1 2

through the galvanometer depends on the potential
difference between the point c and d. The bridge is said to  c G d
be balanced when the potential difference across the R R Unknown 3 4
galvanometer is 0 V so that there is no current through the I

I 3
4
Standard
galvanometer. This condition occurs when the potential arm
b
difference from point c to point a, equals the potential
difference from point d to point a; or by referring to the other battery terminal, when the voltage
from other point c to point b equals the voltage from point d to point b. Hence, the bridge is
balanced when
I1R 1  I 2 R 2 …(i)
if the galvanometer current is zero, the following conditions also exist:
ε
I1  I 3  …(ii)
R1  R 3
ε
and I2  I4  …(iii)
R2  R4
Combining Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii) and simplifying, we obtain
R1 R2
 …(iv)
R1  R 3 R 2  R 4
from which we get
R1 R 3
R 1R 4  R 2 R 3 or  …(v)
R2 R4
Equation (v) is the well known expression for balance of the wheatstone bridge. If three of the
resistances have known values, the fourth may be determined from Equation (v). Hence, if R4 is the
unknown resistor, its resistance can be expressed in terms of remaining resistors
R2
R4  R3 …(vi)
R1
Resistance R3 is called the standard arm of the bridge and resistors R2 and R1 are called the ratio arms.
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5. RESISTIVITY AND ITS ORIGIN

The resistance of a resistor (an element in a circuit with some resistance R) depends on its
geometrical factors (length, cross-sectional area) and also on the nature of the substance of which
the resistor is made. It is convenient to separate out the ‘size’ factors from the resistance R so that
we can define a quantity that is characteristic of the material and is independent of the size or
shape. Consider a rectangular slab of length l and area of cross section A. For a fixed current I, if
the length of the slab is doubled, the potential drop across the slab also doubles. (It is the electric
field that drives the current in the conductor and potential difference is electric field times the
distance). This means that resistance of the slabs doubles with the doubling of its length. That is,
A
R  l. Next, imagine the slab as being made of two parallel slabs, each of area . If for a given
2
voltage V, the current I flows across the full slab, it is clear that through each half-slab, the current
I 1
flowing is . Thus, the resistance of each half-slab is twice that of the full slab. That is, R  .
2 A
Combining the two dependences, we get
l
R ...(iv)
A
ρl
or R ...(v)
A
where ρ is a constant of proportionality called resistivity. It depends only on the nature of the
material of the resistor and its physical conditions such as temperature and pressure. The unit of
resistivity is ohm m ( Ω m ). The inverse of ρ is called conductivity, and is denoted by σ . The unit of
σ is Ωm 1 or mho m-1 or siemen m-1.
l l
(a)
A/2
A/2
(b)
A perfect conductor would have zero resistivity and a perfect insulator would have infinite resistivity.
Though these are ideal limits, the electrical resistivity of substances has a very wide range. Metals
have low resistivity of 10-8 Ωm to 10-6 Ωm , while insulators like glass or rubber have resistivity,,
some 1018 times (or even more) greater. Generally, good electrical conductors like metals are also
good conductors of heat, while insulators like ceramic or plastic materials are also poor thermal
conductors.
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Origin of Resistivity
The motion of charge carriers (electrons) in a conductor is very different from that of charges in
empty space. In the latter case, under an external electric field, the charge carriers would accelerate.
In a conductor, on the other hand, when the current is steady, the charge carriers move with a
certain average velocity called as drift velocity.
At any temperature, the electrons in a metal have a certain distribution of velocities. When there is
no external field, all directions are equally likely, and there is no overall drift. In the presence of an
eE
external field, each electron experiences an acceleration of opposite to the field direction. But
m
this acceleration is momentary, since electrons are continually making random collisions with vibrating
atoms or ions or other electrons of the metal. After a collision, each electron makes a fresh start,
accelerates and gets deflected randomly again.
B
B’
We next define a physical quantity called current density vector, denoted by j. The direction of j is
the direction of flow of positive charge (or opposite to the direction of drift of electrons in a metal).
The magnitude of j is the amount of charge flowing per unit cross sectional area per second. Thus,
if S is an area element, j. S is the amount of charge flowing across the area element per second.
If A is taken to be the cross-sectional area of a wire (with the direction of A along the conventional
current), j. A is nothing but the current through the wire. In this case, j is parallel to A, so

dI  j.ds

I  j.ds
I = jA
If the drift speed of electrons is υ d ' the amount of charge flowing across a unit cross-sectional area
in unit time is contained in a cylinder of base of unit area and height υd i.e., in a volume 1 ×
υ d = υ d (Fig.). If n is the number density of electrons in the metal, i.e., the number of electrons per
unit volume, the total magnitude of charge contained in the cylinder of volume υd is n e υd . Therefore,
j  n e υd
and I  n e d A x=d t
Here, e is the magnitude of electronic charge. E
Then we can rewrite
A
E
j   σE
ρ
The more familiar form V = IR is in terms of directly measurable quantities like V and I, while the
 
form j = σ E relates the basic vector quantities of the problem, namely, current density vector
and the electric field vector.
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Illustration : 6
Estimate the average drift speed of conduction electrons in a copper wire of cross-sectional area
1.0 × 10-7 m2 carrying a current of 1.5 A. Assume that each copper atom contributes roughly one
conduction electron. The density of copper is 9.0 × 103 kg/m3, and its atomic mass is 63.5 amu
Solution:
The direction of drift velocity of conduction electrons is opposite to the electric field direction, i.e.,
electrons drift in the direction of increasing potential. The drift speed υd is given by
υ d  I / neA  .
Now, e = 1.6 × 10-19 C, A = 1.0 × 10-7 m2, I = 1.5 A. The density of conduction electrons, n is
equal to the number of atoms per cubic metre (assuming one conduction electron per Cu atom as
is reasonable from its valence electron count of one). A cubic metre of copper has a mass of 9.0 ×
103 kg. Since 6.0 × 1023 copper atoms have a mass of 63.5 g.
6.0  10 23
n  9.0  106 = 8.5 × 1028 m-3
63.5
which gives
1 .5
υd  = 1.1 × 10-3 m s-1 .
8.5  10  1.6  10 19  1.0  1.0 7
28
Illustration : 7
A potential difference of 100 V is applied to the ends of a copper wire one metre long. Calculate
the average drift velocity of the electrons. Compare it with thermal velocity at 27 0C. (use the
results of Previous Illustration). given   5.81 107 1m 1
Solution:
Since ΔV  100 V, l  1m .
ΔV 100
 electric field    100Vm 1
l 1
Also, conductivity σ  5.81  10 7 Ω 1m 1
N = 8.5 × 1028 m-3
 5.81  10 7  100
 d  E = 0.43 m s-1
en 1.6  10 19  8.5  1028
6. TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTANCE

The resistance of most conductors and of all pure metals increases with temperature. But in carbon
the resistance decreases with temperature. There are some alloys where there is no change of
resistance with temperature. If R0 and R be the resistance of a conductor at 0°C and °C, then it
is found that
R = R0(1 + )
where  is a constant called the temperature coefficient of resistance.
R  R0

R 0 .
and the unit of  is K–1 or °C–1.
If R1 and R2 be the resistance of a conductor at temperatures 1°C and 2°C, then
R1 = R0(1 + 1) and R2 = R0(1 + 2)
R 2  R1
and  
R 1 2  R 2 1
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Illustration : 8
The resistivity of a ferric-chromium-aluminium alloy is 51 × 10–8 -m. A sheet of the material is 15
cm long, 6 cm wide and 0.014 cm thick. Determine resistance between (a) opposite ends and
(b) opposite faces.
Solution:
(a) As seen from figure (a) in this case,
 = 15 cm = 0.15 m
A = 6 × 0.014 = 0.084 cm2 = 0.084 × 10–4 m2
 51 10 8  0.15
R=    9.110 3 
A 0.084 10  4
(b) As seen from figure (b) here
 = 0.014 cm = 14 × 10–5 m
A = 15 × 6 = 90 cm2 = 9 × 10–3 m2
 R = 51 × 10–8 × 14 × 10–5/9×10–3 = 79.3 × 10–10 
7. GROUPING OF CELLS
If a cell of emf  and internal resistance r be connected with a resistance R the total resistance in the
circuit is (R + r).
The current through the circuit I  

Rr
R
Potential difference acros the ends A and B of R  IR 
Rr
Thus, although the emf of the cell is , the effective potential difference it can deliver is less than 
and it is given by
VAB    Ir
The quantity VAB is called the terminal potential difference of the cell and this is also the potential
difference across the external resistance R.
If R  , VAB  , the emf of the cell.
Cells in Series
Let there be n cells each of emf , arranged in series. Let r be the internal
resistance of each cell. The total emf is n and the total internal resistance is
n
nr. If R be the external load, the current I through the circuit I  .
R  nr
Cells in Parallel
In m cells each of emf  and internal resistance r be connected in parallel and
if this combination be connected to an external resistance R, then the emf of
the circuit = .
The internal resistance of the circuit = the resistance due to m resistances each
r
of r in parallel = .
m
 m
Now the current through the external resistor R  
r mR  r
R
m
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Mixed Grouping of Cells
Let n identical cells be arranged in series and let m such rows be connected in parallel. Obviously
the total number of cells is nm.
The emf of the system = n
The internal resistance of the system = nr/m
The current through the external resistance R
n mn
I 
nr mR  nr
R
m
Illustration : 9
Six cells are connected (a) in series, (b) in parallel and (c) in 2 rows each containing 3 cells. The
emf of each cell is 1.08 V and its internal resistance is 1 ohm. Calculate the currents that would
flow through an external resistance of 5 ohm in the three cases.
Solution:
(a) The cells in series.
Given that  = 1.08V, n = 6, r = 1 ohm, R = 5 ohm
The total emf = n = 6 × 1.08 V
The total internal resistance nr = 6 × 1 = 6 ohm
n 6  1.08
The current in the circuit I s    0.589 A
R  nr 56
(b) The cells in parallel,
Here  = 1.08 v, m = 6, r = 1 ohm, R = 5 ohm
m 6  1.08 6.48
Ip     0.209 A
mR  r 6  5  1 31
(c) The cells in multiple arc with n = 3, m = 2
mn 6  1.08 6.48
I    0.498 A .
mR  nr (2  5)  (3  1) 13
Arrangement of Cells for Maximum Current

Considering the case where total number of cell (mn) is given and it is required to find the condition
for maximum current.
In this case the product mn, , r and R are constants and m and n alone can be varied to get I
maximum.
mn
For I max denominator (mR + nr) should be minimum in equation I  . This happens when
mR  nr
mR = nr or R = nr/m.
Hence the current through the external resistance R is a maximum when it is equal to internal
resistance of the battery nr/m.
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8. KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
These laws are more comprehensive then Ohm’s law and are used for solving electrical networks
which may not be readily solved by the latter. Kirchoff’s laws, two in number, are particularly
useful (a) in determining the equivalent resistance of a complicated network of conductors and (b)
for calculating the currents flowing in the various conductors. The two laws are :
(i) Kirchhoff’s Point Law or Current Law (KCL)

It states as follows :
in any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point (or junction)
is zero.
Put in another way, it simply means that the total current leaving a junction is equal to the total
current entering that junction. It is obviously true because there is no accumulation of charge at the
junction of the network.
Consider the case of a few conductors meeting at a point A as in figure (a). Some conductors have
current leading to point A. Whereas some have currents leading away from point A. Assuming the
incoming currents to be positive and the outgoing currents negative, we have
I1 + (–I2) + (–I3) + (+I4) + (–I5) = 0
or I1 – I2 – I3 + I4 –I5 = 0 or I1 + I4 = I2 + I3 + I5
or incoming currents = outgoing current
Similarly, in figure(b) for node A
+I + (–I1) + (–I2) + (–I3) + (–I4) = 0 or I = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4
We can express the above conclusing thus : I  0 ... at a junction
(ii) Kirchhoff’s Mesh Law or Voltage Law (KVL)

It state as follows :
the algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in each of the conductors in
any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the e.m.fs. in that path is
zero.
In other words,  IR   e.m.f .  0
It should be noted that algebraic sum is the sum which takes into account the polarities of the
voltage drops.
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Working with Kirchhoff’s law
In applying Kirchhoffs laws to specific problems, particular attention should be paid to the alge-
braic signs of voltage drops and e.m.fs. otherwise results will come out to be wrong. Following
sign conventions is suggested :
(a) Sign of Battery E.M.F.
A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a
–ve sign. Keeping this in mind, it is clear that as we go from the
–ve terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal, there is a rise in
potential, hence this voltage should be given a +ve sign. If, on the
other hand, we go from +ve terminal to –ve terminal, then there is
a fall in potential, hence this voltage should be preceded be a –ve
sing. It is important to note that the sign of the battery e.m.f. is
independent of the direction of the current through that branch.
(b) Sign of IR Drop

Now, take the case of a resistor as shown in figure. If we go
through a resistor in the same direction as the current, then there is
a fall in potential because current flows from a higher to a lower
potential. Hence, this voltage fall should be taken –ve. However,
if we go in a direction opposite to that of the current, then there is
a rise in voltage. Hence, this voltage rise should be given a posi-
tive sign.
It is clear that the sign of voltage drop across a resistor depends on the direction of current
through that resistor but is independent of the polarity of any other source of e.m.f. in the
circuit under consideration.
Illustration : 10
Calculate the currents I1, I2 and I3 in the circuit shown in figure.
Solution:
Junction rule at C yields
I1 + I2 – I3 = 0 i.e., I1 + I2 = I3 ....(1)
while loop for meshes a and b yields respectively :
–14 – 4I2 + 6I1 – 10 = 0
i.e., 3I1 – 2I2 = 12 ....(2)
and, 10 – 6I1 – 2I3 = 0
i.e., 3I1 + I3 = 5 ....(3)
Substituting I3 from Equation (1) in (3)
4I1 + I2 = 5
Solving equations (2) and (4) for I1 and I2, we find
I1 = 2A and I2 = –3A
And hence equation (1) yields, I3 = –1A
The fact that I2 and I3 are negative implies that actual direction of I2 and I3 are opposite to that
shown in the circuit.
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9. HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT

When a current I flows for time t from a source of emf , then the amount of charge that flows in
time t is Q = I t.
Electrical energy delivered W = Q. V = V I t
Thus, Power given to the circuit, = W/t =VI or V2/R or I2R
In the circuit
. I = I2R + I2r, where
 I is the rate at which chemical energy is converted to electrical energy, I2R is power supplied to
the external resistance R and I2r is the power dissipated in the internal resistance of the battery.
An electrical current flowing through conductor produces heat in it. This is known as Joule’s effect.
The heat developed in Joules is given by H = I2.R.t
 r
Illustration : 11
A fuse made of lead wire has an area of cross-section 0.2 mm2. On short circuiting, the current in
the fuse wire reaches 30 amp. How long after the short circuiting will the fuse begin to melt?
Specific heat capacity of lead = 134.3 J/kg-K.
Melting point of lead = 327°C
Density of lead = 11340 kg/m3
Resistivity of lead = 22 × 10–8 ohm-h
Initial temperature of the wire = 20°C
Neglect heat loss.
Solution:
If L be the length of the wire, its resistance
L (22 108 )L
R 
A (0.2 106 )m 2
Heat produced in the wire in one second = I2R = (30)2 RJ
Heat required to raise the temperature of the wire to 327°C
Q = msT
= (LAd)(134.4)(307)J
The required to melt the wire
Q LAd  134.4  307
=  A
2
IR I  L
A 2d
= 2 134.4  307  0.0945 s
I
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Maximum Power Theorem
Consider the arrangement in which a resistance R is connected to a battery of emf  and internal
resistance r. Power P developed in resistance is given by
2R 
P (I  and P  I 2 R )
(R  r ) 2
Rr
 r
dP
Now, for P to be maximum 0
dR
 E2.
R  r 2  2R R  r   0
R  r 4
 R  r   2R
or R=r
The power output is maximum, when the external resistance equals the internal resistance i.e.,
R = r. This is called as maximum power theorem.
10. ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS
(i) Ammeter
It is an instrument used to measure currents. It is put in series with the branch in which current is to
be measured. An ideal Ammeter has zero resistance. A galvanometer with resistance G and current
rating ig can be converted into an ammeter of rating I by connecting a suitable resistance S in
parallel to it. (The resistance connected in parallel to the ammeter is called a shunt.)
Thus S(I – ig) = igG
ig G
 S
I  ig
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(ii) Voltmetre
It is an instrument to find the potential difference across two points in a circuit.
It is essential that the resistance Rv of a voltmeter be very large compared to the resistance of any
circuit element with which the voltmeter is connected. Otherwise, the voltmeter itself becomes an
important circuit element and alters the potential difference that is measured.
Rv >> R
For an ideal voltmeter Rv =  .
R1 G
R1 V
Rv
V
i g (G  R v )  V  Rv  G
ig
(iii) Metre Bridge
This is the simplest form of wheatstone bridge and is specially useful for comparing resistances
more accurately. The construction of the metre bridge is shown in the Figure. It consists of one
metre resistance wire clamped between two metallic strips bent at right angles and it has two points
for connection. There are two gaps; in one of them a known resistance and in second an unknown
resistance whose value is to be determined is connected. The galvanometer is connected with the
help of jockey across BD and the cell is connected across AC. After making connections, the
jockey is moved along the wire and the null point is from two resistances of the wheatstone bridge,
wire used is of uniform material and cross-section.
R S
B
G
A C
l1 100–l1
Metre scale
 K1
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The resistance can be found with the help of the following relation :
R 1

S  100  1 
R 1

S 100   1
l1
R S ... (1)
100  l1
where σ is the resistance per unit length of the wire and l1 is the length of the wire from one end
where null point is obtained. The bridge is most sensitive when null point is somewhere near the
middle point of the wire. This is due to end resistances.
(iv) Potentiometer
We already know that when a voltmeter is used to measure potential difference, its finite resistance
causes it to draw a current from the circuit. Hence the p.d. which was to be measured is changed
due to the presence of the instrument. Potentiometer is an instrument which allows the measurement
of p.d. without drawing current from the circuit. Hence it acts as an infinite-resistance voltmeter.
The resistance between A and B is a uniform wire of length , with a sliding contact C at a distance
x from B. The sliding contact is adjusted until the galvanometer G reads zero. The no deflection
condition of galvanometer ensures that there is no current through the branch containing G and the
p.d. to be measured. The length x for no deflection is called as the balancing length.
VCB = V p.d. to be measured.
If  is the resistance per unit length of AB.
x V 
V = VCB  VAB   AB  x
   
(v) The post Office Box

It is a compact form of the Wheatstone bridge. It consist of compact resistance so arranged that
different desired values of resistance may be selected in the three arms of Wheatstone bridge, as
shown in figure.
Each of the arm AB and BC contains three resistances of 10,102, and 103 , respectively. These
are called the ratio arms. Using these resistances the ratio R2/R1 can be made to have any of the
following values : 100:1, 10:1, 1:1, 1:10 or 1:100.
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The arm AD is a complete resistance box containing resistances from 1 to 5000. The tap keys
K1 and K2 are also provided in the post office box. The key K1 is internally connected to the point
A and the key K2 to the point B (as shown by dotted line in the figure). The unknown resistance X
is connected between C and D, the battery between C and the key K 1 and the galvanometer
between D and the key K2. The circuit shown in first figure is exactly the same as that of the
Wheatstone bridge shown in second figure.
Hence, the value of the unknown resistance is given by
R 
X  R  2 
 R1 
Illustration : 12
A battery of emf 1.4 V and internal resistance 2 ohm is connected to a resistor of 100 ohm
resistance through an ammeter. The resistance of the ammeter is 4/3 ohm. A voltmeter has also
been connected to find the potential difference across the resistor.
(a) Draw the circuit diagram.
(b) The ammeter reads 0.02 A. What is the resistance of the voltmeter?
(c) The voltmeter reads 1.1 V. What is the error in the reading?
Solution:
(i) The circuit diagram is shown.
(ii) Let the resistance of the voltmeter be R ohm. The rquivalent
resistance of voltmeter (R ohm) and 100 ohm in parallel is
100  R 100R

100  R 100  R
4
The resistance of the ammeter = 
3
100R 4
The total resistance of the circuit =   2
100  R 3
The current in the circuit as read by the ammeter = 0.02 A
1 .4
Now, 0.02 
100R 4
 2
100  R 3
or R = 200 
Resistance of the voltmeter = 200 
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100  200 200

(iii) The effective resistance between B and C =  
100  200 3
200 200 4
The potential drop across this resistance = circuit current   0.02   V  1.33V
3 3 3
The reading of the voltmeter = 1.1 V
The error in the reading of the voltmeter = 1.1 – 1.33 = – 0.23 V
11. RC-CIRCUIT
A circuit with resistance and capacitor is termed as RC circuit. Consider a simple form of RC
circuit shown in figure.
Charging:
Let us assume that the capacitor in the shown network is uncharged for t < 0. The switch is
connected to position 1 at t = 0.
Now, ‘C’ is getting charged.
If the charge on capacitor at time ‘t’ is q and current in loop is I.
Writing the loop rule, 1 S R
q
 IR  E  0 I
C I 2
dq q E C
 R E
dt c
dq
 RC  EC  q
dt I
dq 1
  dt
EC  q RC
q dq 1 t
Integrating 0

EC  q RC 0
dt 
q 1
- ln | EC - q |0  .t
RC
EC  q  t
 ln 
EC RC
 q  EC[1  e  t / RC ]
 At t = 0, q = 0
and at t =  , q = E C (the maximum charge.)
thus, 
q  q max 1  e  t / RC  i
dq q max  t / RC E  t / RC
i  e  e i max = E/R
dt RC R
E
i  i max e  t / RC where i max 
R
t
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Time Constant τ 
It is the time during which the charging would have been completed, had the growth rate been as it
began initially. Numerically it is equal to RC.
Discharging:
Consider the same arrangement as we had in previous case with one difference that the capacitor
has charge q0 for t<0 and switch is connected to position 2 at t = 0. If the charge on capacitor is q
at any later moment t then the loop equation given as
Flip the switch to 2
q
 IR  0
C
dq q
 R 
dt C
dq  1
  dt
q RC
Integrating, at t = 0, q = q0
t  t, q  q
dq
q 1 t
 q0 q

RC 0
dt 
q t
 ln  or q  q 0 .e  t / RC
q0 RC
q 0  t / RC
i e
RC
 EC  t / RC
i e
RC
i  i 0 e  t / RC
‘-ve’ sign indicates that the discharging current flows in a direction opposite to the charging current.
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Illustration : 13
A 10 F capacitor is charged through a
resistance of 0.1M from a battery of 1.5V.
Calculate the time required for the capacitor to
get charged upto 0.75 V for situations shown in
figure (A) and (B).
Solution:
In case of charging of a capacitor through a resistance.
 q
q  q 0 [1  e  t / CR ] i.e., e  t / CR  1   ...(1)
 q0 
But as for a capacitor q = CV.
q V 0.75 1
   ...(2)
q 0 V0 1.5 2
So substituting the value of (q/q0) from equation (2) in (1)
et/CR = 2 i.e., t = CRloge2 ...(3)
So for circuit (A), C = 10 F and R = 0.1 M
So, t = 10–5 × 105 loge2 = loge2 = 0.693 s
In circuit (B) as capacitor is directly connected to battery, it gets charged instantaneously
 t = 0.
Illustration : 14
Capacitor C1 of capacity 1 F and capacitor C2 of capacity 2 F are separately charged fully by
a common battery. The two capacitors are then separately allowed to discharge through equal
resistors at t = 0. (a) In which circuit the value of current is more at t = 0? (b) In which circuit the
capacitor loses 50% of its initial charge sooner?
Solution:
(a) As in case of discharging of a capacitor through a resistance,
dq q 0  t / CR
q  q 0 e  t / CR , i    e
dt CR
q0 CE E
i.e., (i) t  0    [as q 0  CE ] ...(1)
CR CR R
i.e., the current at t = 0 is independent of capacitance in the circuit, and as here E and R is same for
both the circuits, the current at t = 0 will be same (= E/R and maximum) in both the circuits.
(b) In case of discharging of a capacitor through a resistance as
q 
q  q 0e  t / CR , t  CR log e  0 
q
So time taken for 50% of the charge to leak through the resistance
 q0 
t  CR loge    CR log e 2
 q 0  (50%)q 0 
t 1 C1R 1 1 F  R 1
i.e.,    [as here R 1  R 2  R ]
t 2 C 2 R 2 2 F  R 2
i.e., the capacitor C1 will lose its 50% charge sooner than C2.
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SOLVED OBJECTIVE PROBLEMS
1. n identical cells, each of emf  and internal resistance r, are joined in series to form a closed circuit.
One cell (A) is joined with reversed polarity. The potential difference across each cell, except A, is
2 n 1
(a) (b) 
n n
n2 2n
(c)  (d) .
n n2
Ans. (a)
Solution: See the figure
(n  2) i
i 
nr A r B
VB  VA  ir  
(n  2)  n  2  2
 r   1   .
nr  n  n
2. An ammeter and a voltmeter are joined in series to a cell. Their readings are A and V respectively.
If a resistance is now joined in parallel with the voltmeter.
(a) both A and V will increase (b) both A and V will decrease
(c) A will decrease, V will increase (d) A will increase, V will decrease.
Ans. (d)
Solution:
When a resistance is joined in parallel with the voltemeter, the total
resistance of the circuit decreases. Current will increase and ammeter reading
will increase. Potential difference across the ammeter increases thus V A
potential difference across voltmeter decreases.
3. An ideal cell is connected to a capacitor and a voltmeter in series. The reading V of the voltmeter
(added in parallel with resistor) is plotted against time. Which of the following best represents the
resulting curve?
V V
(a) (b)
t t
V V
(c) (d) .
t t
Ans. (b)
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Solution: This is basically an RC circuit, charging from a cell. The resistance (R) of the voltmeter is the
resistance in the circuit. The voltage across R = circuit current  R = reading of the voltmeter (V).
Thus the nature of the V-t curve is the same as the nature of the I-t curve.
4. The charge on a capacitor decreases  times in time t, when it discharges through a circuit with a
time constant  .
(a) t   (b) t   ln 
 1
(c) t =  ln(–1) (d) t   ln  1   .
 
Ans. (b)
Solution: Q  Q0e t /   Q0 / 
t /  1 t
 e   or e t /    or  ln  .

9, 10 mA
5. A milliammeter of range 10 mA and resistance 9 is joined in a
circuit as shown. The metre gives full-scale deflection for current I
when A and B are used as its terminals, i.e., current entres at A and
leaves at B (C is left isolated). The value of I is 0.1 0.9
A B C
(a) 100 mA (b) 900 mA
(c) 1 A (d) 1.1 A.
Ans. (c)
Solution: ig  10mA  0.01A 9
ig 0.9
VA  VB  (I  i g )0.1  ig  9.9
0.1
or I  0.1  10i g
I (I-ig) I
10  0.01 A B
or I  1A .
0.1
6. The charge flowing through a resistance R varies with time t as Q = at – bt2. The total heat produced
in R by the time current ceases is
a 3R a 3R a 3R a 3R
(a) (b) (c) (d) .
6b 3b 2b b
Ans. (a)
Solution: Q  at  bt 2
dQ
i  a  2bt
dt
i =0 for t  t 0  a / 2b , i.e., current flow from t =0 to t  t 0 .
t0
a 3R
The heat produced   i R dt . Putting the value of i we get heat produced =
2
.
0 6b
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7. Capacitor C1 of capacitance 1 microfarad and capacitor C 2 of capacitance 2 microfarad are

separately charged fully by a common battery. The two capacitors are then separately allowed to
discharge through equal resistors at time t  0 .
(a) The current in each of the two discharging circuits is zero at t = 0
(b) The currents in the two discharging circuits at t = 0 are equal but not zero.
(c) The currents in the two discharging circuits at t = 0 are unequal
(d) Capacitor C1 loses 50% of its initial charge sooner than C 2 loses 50% of its initial charge.
Ans. (b) and (d)
Solution: Instantaneous charge on a capacitor,
q  q 0 e t / RC
 CVe  t / RC
Instantaneous current i( t )  dq / dt
 1   t / RC V  t / RC
 CV e  e
 RC  R
At t = 0, i 0  V / R
Since V and R are the same for both capacitors, the initial current in the two is same and is non-zero.
During discharge: instantaneous charge
q ( t )  q 0 e  t / RC
Let q   q 0 / 2 at t  t ,
q0
Then  q0 e  t / RC
2
t  RC ln 2
If 1 and  2 are the times in which the two capacitors lose 50% of their charge.
1 RC1 ln 2 C1 1
Then   RC ln 2  C  2
2 2 2
 1   2 / 2 .
8. Three resistances R, 2R and 3R are connected in parallel to a battery. Then

(a) The potential drop across 3R is maximum
(b) The current through each resistance is same
(c) The heat developed in 3R is maximum
(d) The heat developed in R is maximum.
Ans. (d)
Solution: In parallel combination, potential drop across each resistance is same.
V2
Heat developed 
R
V2 V2 V2
H1  H2  H3 
R 2R 3R
 Heat developed in resistance R is maximum.
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9. A wire of resistance 10 is bent to form a circle. P and Q are the
points on the circumference of the circuit dividing it into a quadrant P
and are connected to a 3V battery having internal resistance 1 as Q
3v, 1
j
shown in the figure. The currents in the two parts of the circle are
5 15 4 12
(a) A and A (B) A and A
26 26 25 25
3 9 6 18
(c) A and A (d) A and A.
25 25 23 23
Ans. (d)
1
Solution: Resistance of smaller section   10  2.5
4
3
Resistance of bigger section   10  7.5
4
The two resistances are in parallel. Resultant resistance
7.5  2.5 7.5  2.5
   1.875
7.5  2.5 10
3 3 24
i   A
1  1.875 2.875 23
4
 1.875
18
Current in smaller section  23  A
2 .5 23
24
 1.875
23 6
Current in bigger section   A.
7 .5 23
10. A uniform wire has electric resistance R. The wire is cut into n equal parts. All wires are put parallel
to each other and joined at the ends. The resistance of the combination is
(a) R/n (b) R / n 2
(c) R (d) none of these.
Ans. (b)
l
Solution:  R 
A
 R l
R
Hence, resistance of each wire is
n
For the resistance of the combination,
1 n n n
    ........ n times
R R R R
n
 n
R
R
R  .
n2
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11. In the circuit shown in figure the heat produced in the 5 ohm resistor due
to the current flowing through it is 10 calories per second. The heat
generated in the 4 ohms resistor is
(a) 1 calorie/sec (b) 2 calories/sec
(c) 3 calories/sec (d) 4 calories/sec
Ans. (b)
Solution : Let I1 be the current flowing in 5 resistance and (I – I1) in 4 and 6 resistance.
The heat generated in 5 resistor is 10 cal/s = 4.2 × 10 J/s
 4.2 × 10 = I12R
4.2  10
 I1   8.4  2.9 amp ...(i)
5
Since AB and CD are in parallel.
 The potential difference remains the same between C and D; and between A and B.
 (I – I1) (4 + 6) = I1 × 5 on solving using I1 from (i) we get
(I – 2.9) 10 = 2.9 × 5
 I – 2.9 = 1.45
 I = 4.35
Heat released/sec in 4  resistance will be = (4.35 – 2.9)2 × 4
= 8.4 J/s
= 2 cal/s
12. The current i in the circuit (see figure) is

1 1
(a) amps (b) amps
45 15
1 1
(c) amps (d) amps
10 5
Ans. (c)
1 1 1 90
Solution.    Req = 20  V = IR
R eq 30 60 30  60
2
I  0.1 Amp.
20
13. A piece of copper and another of germanium are cooled from roop temperature to 80° K. The
resistance of
(A) Each of them increases (B) Each of them decreases
(C) Copper increases and germanium decreases (D) Copper decreases and germanium increases
Ans. (D)
Solution. Copper is a metal whereas Germanium is semi-conductor.
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SOLVED SUBJECTIVE PROBLEMS
1. What’s the effective resistance of following circuits?
R R R
R
A C B R R
(a) R C R R (b) R
R
C D
Solution:(a) It is a Wheatstone bridge that is balanced. Hence the central resistance labeled ‘C’ can be
pulled out.
 R eq  R
(b) The R 11 is in parallel with a balanced Wheatstone bridge.
R.R R
 R eq   .
RR 2
2. An ohm-meter is used for measuring the resistance of a circuit between two terminalsof given
circuit. (all resistances are in Ohm)
What would be the reading of such an instrument used for the circuit between points
(a) AB (b) AC (c) BC
Solution:
(a)   = 25 
(b) (c)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6  3 1
= +  R = 24  = + + =  R=9.
R 40 60 R 15 30 90 90
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3.
A
i1

5 
1
B
(a) Find i and i1 in the shown network,
(b) Poential difference across A - B
Solution: (a)
Req =6 
24
i= = 4A
6
i 4
i1 = = = 0.25A
16 16
i
(b) VAB = 4 ×
4
4
=4× = 4 volt.
4
4. Using Kirchoff’s current law and ohm’s law. Find the magnitude
and polarity of voltage V between junctions A and B. Also
find the values of unknoun currents i1, i2 and i3.
Solution: i1 + i2 + i3 + 8 – 30 = 0
V V V
i1 = i2 = i3 =
2 6 4
V V V
+ + + 8 = 30
2 6 4
1 1 1
V     = 22
2 6 4
623
V = 22 decreases from A to B.
 12 
V = 24 volt
i1 = 12 A
i2 = 4A, i3 = 6A,
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5.
Find VCE and VAG

 
20
Solution: i1 = = 1A
20 5
5
40
i2 = = 2A
20
 
VCE  VC  VE  VC  VB  (VB  VH )  (VH  VE )
 10  10  5  5V
VAG = VA  VG  (VA  VB )  (VB  VH )  (VH  VG )
 6  1  10  7  2  30V .
6. Solve for the power delivered to the 10  resistor in the circuit shown.
2V
60V
Solution: Let us use super-position pirinciple

2 6 2 6 1
I= = , I1 = × = 0.17 10
20 23 3 23 15
1
3 2V

60 660 66
I= =
10 23 15
 5  15 230 1 10
11 60V
1 66 6
I1 = × = = 0.26
11 23 23
Net current in 10  = 0.17 + 0.26 = 0.43
p = i 2R
= (0.43)2 × 10 = 1.85 W
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7. Find the effective resistance of netwrok between A & B
Solution: A & B are symmetric points

Now current in A to C is same as from D to B and similarly
A to E to B has to be same
 E is no true point
2r
8r 16r
.2 r
3  3 8
8r 14r R= r
 2r 7
2 3
8. Find potential at A, B, C, D, E (i) if A is grounded (ii) If D is grounded.
34  10
Solution: Current in the circuit  2A
246
Potential at A = 0
at B = 34
at C = 34 – 4 = 30
at D = 30 – 10 = 20
at E = 20 – 8 = 12
Potential at D = 0
at E = – 8 volt
at A = – 20 volt
at B = 14 volt
at C = 14 – 4 = 10 volt.
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9. In the given circuit, E1
E1 = 3E2 = 2E3 = 6 volts, R1 = 2R4 = 6, R3 = 2R2 = 4, C= 5 F. Find the R1
current in R3 and the energy in the capacitor. C
E2
Solution. R2 R3
Applying kirchoff’s law in ABFGA
6 – (i1 + i2)4 = 0 ...(i) E3 R4
Applying kirchoff’s law in BCDEFB
i2 × 3 – 3 – 2 + 2i2 + (i2 + i1)4 = 0 ...(ii)
Putting the value of 4(i1 + i2) = 6 in (ii)
3i2 – 5 + 2i2 + 6 = 0
1
 i2   A
5
Substituting this value in (i) we get
 1
i1  1.5      1.7A
 5
Therefore current in R3 = i2 + i1 = 1.7 – 0.2 = 1.5 A
To find the p.d. across the capacitor
VE – 2 – 0.2 × 2 = VG  VE – VG = 2.4 V
1 1
 Energy stored in capacitor = CV 2 =  5  106  (2.4) 2 = 1.44 ×10–5 J
2 2
10. In the circuit shown in figure, E, F, G, H are cells of emf 2, 1, 3 and 1 volt
respectively, and their internal resistances are 2, 1, 3 and 1 ohm
respectively. Calculate
(i) the potential difference between B and D, and
(ii) the potential difference across the terminals of each cells G and H.
Solution
Let I2 current flow through the branch BAD
and I1 current flow through the branch DCB
 By Kirchoff’s function law, current in branch DB will be I2 – I1 as shown in the figure.
Applying Kirchoff’s law in loop BDAB
+ 2(I2 – I1) + 1 + 1 × I2 – 2 + 2I2 = 0
 2I1 – 5I2 = –1 ...(i)
Applying Kirchoff’s law in loop DBCD we get
–2 (I2 – I1) + 1 + I1 – 3 + 3I1 = 0
 3I1 – I2 = 1
Solving (i) and (ii) we get I1 = 6/13 amp
and I2 = 5/13
To find the p.d. between B and D, we move from B to D.
5 6
VB      2  VD
13 13 
 VB – VD = 2/13 volt
6 39  18 21
p.d. across G  3  3   volt [ the cell is in discharging mode]
13 13 13
6 19
p.d. across H  1  1   volt [ cell is in the charging mode]
13 13
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11. Calculate the steady state current in the 2-ohm resistor shown in the circuit in the figure. The
internal resistance of the battery is negligible and the capacitance of the condenser C is 0.2 microfarad.


C
4
6V

Solution
When the current becomes steady then the branch containing capacitor will be ineffective as no
current will be flowing through it. The circuit can be redrawn as
It is clear from the figure that resistance 2 and 3 are in parallel
 2I1 = 3I2 (as p.d. across the two resistors will be same)
Applying Kirchoff’s law in loop ABCDEFGA starting from A in the clockwise direction
–I1 × 2 – I × 2.8 + 6 = 0, i = i1 + i2
 –I1 × 2 – (I1 + I2) × 2.8 + 6 = 0
 2 
 –2I1 – 2.8 I1  I1   6 = 0
 3 
 5
 6  2  2.8   I1
 3
 6 = 6.67 × I1
6
 I1 
6.67
 or I1 = 0.9 A
Applying Kirchoff’s law moving in clockwise direction starting from battery we get
+ 6 – 10I – 400 I – 800 I = 0
 6 = 1210 I
6
 I  4.96  103 A
1210
The voltmeter and 400 resistor are in parallel and hence p.d. will be same
 10000 I1 = 400 I2
Applying Kirchoff’s law in loop ABCDEA starting from A in clockwise direction.
– 400 I2 – 800 I + 6 = 0
 6 = 400 I2 + 800 (I1 + I2)
 6 = 400 I2 + 800 (0.04 I2 + I2)
From (i) putting the value of I1
 6 = 1232 I2
 I2 = 4.87 × 10–3 Amp.
 Potential drop across 400 resistor = I2 × 400

= 4.87 × 10–3 × 400
= 1.948 volt = 1.95 volt
 The reading measured by voltmeter = 1.95 volt.
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12. In the circuit shown in figure E1 = 3 volts, E2 = 2 volts, E3 = 1 volt and R = r-1 = r2 = r3 = 1 ohm.
(a) find the potential difference between the points A and B and the currents through each branch.
(b) if r2 is short circuited and the point A is connected to point B, find the currents through E 1, E2, E3
and the resistor R.
Solution (i) Applying Kirchoff’s law in loop CPQDC up starting from
P moving clockwise
I1r1 – E1 + E2 – I2r2 = 0
 I1 × 1 – 3 + 2 – I2 × 1 = 0
 I1 – I2 = 1 ...(1)
Applying Kirchoff’s law in CDSTC starting from C moving clockwise.
I2r2 – E2 + E3 + I3r3 = 0
 I2 × 1 – 2 + 1 + I3 = 0
 I2 + I3 = 1
 I2 + I1 + I2 = 1
 I1 + 2I2 = 1; I3 = I1 + I2 ...(2)
Subtracting (i) from (ii) I1 + 2I2 – I1 + I2 = 0
 I2 = 0
 I1 = 1 Amp.
 Current through branch PQ is 1 amp.
Current through branch CD is 0 amp.
Current through brnahc TS is 1 amp.
p.d. from A to B, VA – VB = 0 × R + I1r1 – E1
 VA – VB = E1 – I1r1
= 3 – 1 = 2 Volt
(ii) Applying Kirchoff’s law in PQDCP starting from P moving clockwise
I1r1 – E1 + E2 = 0
 I1 – 3 + 2 = 0
 I1 = 1 amp
Applying Kirchoff’s law in CDSTC starting from C moving

clockwise
– E2 + E3 – I3r3 = 0
 –2 + 1 – I3 = 0
 I3 = –1 amp
The –ve sign of I3 indicates that the direction of current in branch CTSB is opposite to that assumed.
Applying Kirchoff’s law in ACDBA starting from A moving clockwise
– (I1 + I2 + I3)R – E2 = 0
 (1 + I2 – 1)R = 2
I2 = 2 Amp.
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13. A battery of 10 V and negligible internal resistance is connected across the diagonally opposite
corners of a cubical network consisting of 12 resistors each of resistance 1 Ω (fig.). Determine the
equivalent resistance of the network and the current along each edge of the cube.
D I
C
I/2 I
I/2
A B
I/2 I
I/2
I I C
D
I/2
A
3I I B I/2
E 10V
Solution:
The network is not reducible to a simple series and parallel combinations of resistances. There is,
however, a clear symmetry in the problem which we can exploit to obtain the equivalent resistance of
the network.
The paths AA, AD and AB are obviously symmetrically placed in the network. Thus, the current in
each must be the same, say, I. Further, at the corners A, B and D, the incoming current I must split
equally into the two outgoing branches. In this manner, the current in all the 12 edges of the cube are
easily written down in terms of I, using Kirchhoff’s first rule and the symmetry in the problem.
Next take a closed loop, say, ABCCEA, and apply Kirchhoff’s second rule:
 IR  1 / 2IR  IR  ε  0
where R is the resistance of each edge and ε the emf of battery. Thus,
5
ε IR
2
The equivalent resistance of the network R eq is :
ε 5
R eq   R
3I 6
For R = I Ω , R eq  5 / 6Ω and ε = 10 V, the total current (= 3I) in the network is
3I = 10 V / (5/6) Ω = 12 A i.e., I = 4 A
The current flowing in each edge can now be read off from the figure.
14. A two way switch S is used in the circuit shown in the figure. First the capacitor is charged by putting
the switch at position 1. Calculate heat generated across each resistor when the switch is shifted to
position 2.
60V 10
1 0.1F
S
2
6
4 3
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Solution:
Initially the switch was in position 1. Therefore, initially potential difference across capacitor was
equal to the em.f. of the battery i.e., 60 V
1
 initially energy stored in the capacitor was U  CV 2
2
1
  0.1  60 J  180J
2
2 q
When switch is shifted to position 2 capacitor begins to discharge + –
and energy stored in the capacitor is dissipated in the form of heat
in the resistor. i
6
For a current I, applying Kirchoff’s law i i1
i1  i 2  i 4 i2 3
And 6i1  3i 2  0 , or i 2  2i1
1 2
 i1  i and i 2  i
3 3
But heat generated per unit time in the resistance is i 2 R
 The heat generated across 4,6 and 3 resistances are in ratio 4i 2 : 6i12 : 3i 22  6 : 1 :2
Total heat generated in the circuit per unit time  P1  P2  P3  U
 Heat generated across 4 is P1  120 J
Heat generated across 6 is P2  20J and heat generated across 3 is P3  40J
Since during discharging, no current flows through 10 , therefore heat generated across it is equal
to zero.
15. A battery of emf 1.4 V and internal resistance 2 ohm is connected to a resistor of 100 ohm resistance
through an ammeter. The resistance of the ammeter is 4/3 ohm. A voltmeter has also been connected
to find the potential difference across the resistor.
(i) Draw the circuit diagram.
(ii) The ammeter reads 0.02A. What is the resistance of the voltmeter?
(iii) The voltmeter reads 1.1 V. What is the error in the reading?
Solution :
(i) The circuit diagram is shown.
(ii) Let the resistance of the voltmeter be R ohm. The equivalent resistance of voltmeter (R
ohm) and 100 ohm in parallel is 100R/(100 + R).
The resistance of the ammeter 4/3 .
 100R 4 
The total resistance of the circuit =    2 
 100  R 3 
The current in the circuit as read by the ammeter = 0.02 A
1 .4
Now, 0.02 
100R 4
 2
100  R 3
gives the resistance of the voltmeter is R = 200 
100  200 200
(iii) The effective resistance between B and C =  
100  200 3
200 200 4
The potential drop across the resistance = circuit current   0.02   V  1.33V
3 3 3
The reading of the voltmeter = 1.1 V
The error in the reading of the voltmeter = 1.1 – 1.33 = – 0.23V
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Current Electricity: Q Δ t Δ Q Δ I 

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Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Current Electricity: Q Δ t Δ Q Δ I 

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Current Electricity 1

2. ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)

 V = V1 + V2 + V3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 (Ohm’s Law)

Resistances in Parallel Combination

Resistances in Mixed Combination

source of emf (a battery) and a galvanometer. The current R R 1 2

be balanced when the potential difference across the R R Unknown 3 4

galvanometer is 0 V so that there is no current through the I

5. RESISTIVITY AND ITS ORIGIN

6. TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTANCE

The current through the circuit I  

Arrangement of Cells for Maximum Current

(i) Kirchhoff’s Point Law or Current Law (KCL)

(ii) Kirchhoff’s Mesh Law or Voltage Law (KVL)

(b) Sign of IR Drop

9. HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT

10. ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS

(v) The post Office Box

100  200 200

SOLVED OBJECTIVE PROBLEMS

7. Capacitor C1 of capacitance 1 microfarad and capacitor C 2 of capacitance 2 microfarad are

8. Three resistances R, 2R and 3R are connected in parallel to a battery. Then

12. The current i in the circuit (see figure) is

SOLVED SUBJECTIVE PROBLEMS

1. What’s the effective resistance of following circuits?

Find VCE and VAG

Solution: A & B are symmetric points

8. Find potential at A, B, C, D, E (i) if A is grounded (ii) If D is grounded.

 Potential drop across 400 resistor = I2 × 400

Solution (i) Applying Kirchoff’s law in loop CPQDC up starting from

Applying Kirchoff’s law in CDSTC starting from C moving

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