ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

IN BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA

AMIR PASle

* Urban culture, architecture, housing, master-builders

* The Bazaar-core of the town

1l The mosque complex-nucleus of the settlement

*Christian elements in Islamic architecture-

'Islamic.influence in Christian architecture

* Sarajevo, Mostar... heritage destroyed in the 1992-94 war

'"Reconstruction and preservation

The colourful cultural life nurtured in Bosnia and

Hercegovina for centuries has embellished this land
with marvelous structures. Each of its different
communities which blended together have contributed
to the creation of a harmoniously diversified culture.
Mosques, churches, and synagogues, houses, schools,
and markets of Bosnia- and Hercegovina symbolize
the spirit of multicultural unity which has been the
essence of the Bosnian identity.

This architecture represents an undeniably distinct

cultural identity. Its ruins will continue to speak for
themselves until reconstruction .

. Ekmeleddin ihsanoglu

Foreword by
Ekmeleddin iHSANOGLU
 ORGANISATION OF THE ISLAMIC CONFERENCE
RESEARCH CENTRE FOR ISLAMIC HISTORY, ART, AND CULTURE

ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
IN BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA

AMIR PASIC

Translated by
Midhat Ridjanovi6

Foreword by
Ekmeleddin lhsanoqlu

Istanbul / 1994
STUDIES ON THE HISTORY AND CULTURE OF BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA, NO.2
PC/94-2
ISBN 92-9063-050-7

Organisation ofthe Islamic Conference (OIC)

Research Centre for Islamic History, Art, and Culture (IRCICA)

Location: Yildiz Sarayi, Seyir Kosku Barbaros Bulvan Besiktas, istanbul, Turkiye
Mailing address: P.O. Box 24 , Besiktas 80692 , lstanbul-Turkiye

Printed at Ylldlz Matbaacihk A~ . 1994

Cover design: Hatice Polat

Index and layout : Acar Tanlak

Transcription of Bosnian Words

A large number of Bosnian words appear in this book. They are either proper nouns
(names of Bosnian places, persons, institutions, etc.) or common nouns used to de-
note various aspects of the life-style specific to Bosnian Muslims, and as a rule loan
words from Turkish. Words of Arabic and Persian origin were also largely adopted in
their Turkish form.

All the Bosnian words in this book are written in the Latin alphabet of the Bosnian
(Serbo-Croatian) language. The sound values of the letters correspond roughly to
those of other European languages. The sounds peculiar to Bosnian are explained
below.

Letter Pronounced approximately as the bold-faced letters in

Pasic, Amir
English Turkish
Islamic architecture in Bosnia and Hercegovina /by Amir Pasic; translated by c cats satsa
Mithat Ridjanovic; foreword bv Ekmeleddin lhsanozlu. - Istanbul: Research Centre -c or c chip c;ok
for Islamic History, Art, and Culture, 1994. •
viii, 259 : ill.; 27.5 cm.-(Studies on the history and culture of Bosnia and
dz or dj joy carni
Hercegovina; no. 2) . j yes yemek
Bibliography: p.228-235. lj value bilye
Includes index. nj onion Konya
ISBN 92-9063-050-7 S shoe §eker
I.Architecture. Turkish-Bosnia and Hercegovina 2.Architecture, Islamic-Bosnia
and Hercegovina ' I. Ridjanovic, Midhat ·11.lhsanoglu, Ekmel~ddin III.Title Z measure ajans
IV.Series

720.94792

III
 FOREWORD

This book is about a centuries-old heritage now being gratuitously

destroyed.

The colourful cultural life nurtured in Bosnia and Hercegovina for centuries
has embellished this land with marvelous structures. Each of its different
communtties which blended together have contributed to the creation of a
harmoniously diversified culture. Mosques, churches, and synagogues,
houses, schools, and markets of Bosnia and Herzegovina symbolize the spirit
of multicultural unity which has been the essence of the Bosnian identity for
centuries. This spirit Or'llullticultural coexistence, kept intact from the 15th
century onwards through different periods and under different
circumstances in the history of Bosnia, is threatened today by a dreadful and
iniquitous attack on the Bosnian nation and its cultural heritage.

The Serbian aggression struck a heavy blow to the Bosnian historical

heritage. In their monstrous policy of annihilation of the unique Bosnian
character, Serbs, and lately Croats too, not only attacked the Bosnian people
with the most lethal weapons at their disposal but also subjected them to the
worst kind of torture. From the beginning of the war in April 1992 until now,
the massacre and mayhem of innocent people became more brutal day after
day. Cities, houses, monuments, and most of the architectural and literary
heritage of the country were turned to rubble. The atrocities perpetrated
against the people of 'B os n ia and Hercegovina have added a new tenn to the
vocabulary of genocide and vandalism in their twentieth-century version:
"ethnic cleansing", The outrageous plan of the aggressors is to "clean '! a
major part of the Bosnian territory and merge it with Serbia, which involves
the annihilation of the Bosnian cultural identity by an "eradication of the
culture", another inhuman policy devised by Serbs.

This genocide and eradication of culture are perpetrated on a land where

once reigned an atmosphere of peaceful coexistence of communities of
different ethnic. cultural, and religious origins. A system of rights and values
based on mutual respect between different communities was established in
Bosnia and Hercegovina as early as the fIfteen hundreds. Islam, introduced
to Bosnia by Ottoman Turks in the 15th century, defended and preserved
the Christtan population and their property on this land. For centuries,
communtties of Orthodox, Catholic. and Judaic faith lived together
peacefully with Muslims. under the Islamic principle which teaches that
there is no enforcement in religion. Unfortunately, the aggressors' fanatic
ideas managed to sway milltons of people, and prevented those communities
from carrying this ethic into the civilised world of the last decade of the 20th
century. Furthermore, the world community has been quasi-indifferent to
such flagrant and repeated violations of basic human rights in the middle of
Europe. In spite of persistent breaches of the right of the Bosnian people to
life. liberty, security, to freedom of religious belief and cultural identity, the
world powers and international organisations have adopted an utterly

v
insensitive attitude. Their indifference also threw serious doubts on the CONTENTS
concept of universal human rights, because if this concept is not workable in Page
the geographical context in which it originated, it is to be questioned whether Preface 1
it can have any validity or applicability on a universal scale. While Chapter I Introduction
An Ou tline of the History of Bosnia and Hercegovina (Medi eval Bosnia. Bosnia and Herce-
continuing its heroic struggle for survival, the Bosnian nation does not give govina a s an a d m in is trative unit of the Ottoman State. Mu slims. post-Ottoman period)
4
up the hope that the world will regain its moral sense and take action to stop Chapter II Urban culture
the aggression against its existence, its identity, and its territory. Co m mo n e lements of Islamic c ity 13
Th e or ig in a n d d evelopment of s everal cities (Foj n lca a n d Kresevo , Foca. Livno. Tr avnik.
This book is probably the first comprehensive review of the arts and Ba nja Luka , S araj evo a n d Mostar) .
20
architecture of Bosnia and Hercegovina published in the English language. It Th e bazaar - the core of the town 40
is one of the products of a large-scale research project on the history and Wa ter a n d the ci ty 43
culture of Bosnia and Hercegovina which was undertaken by IRCICA soon Mahalas - residential m icro region 45
after the beginning of the war. Th e mosque com p lex-the nucleus of the s ettlement 50
Chapter III Architecture

The Centre's first publication in this field was a study on the demographic Mosque (space of the mosque. domed mosques. basic typ es of mosques. mosques without
d omes . d ecoration of mo sque. the Karadjozbegova Mosque)
history of Bosnia and Hercegovina, by Dr. Adem Handzic. The present book, 53
Memorial a rc h itectu re 70
second in the series, resulted from extensive research carried out under the
Educatio nal fa ctlittes (m ekteb, medresa , tek ija ) 74
coordination of the Bosnian architect and urban planner Dr. Amtr Paste, who Co m m u na l fa cilities (tr affi c n etwork. bridges. water supplies. h amam, clo ck-tower) 80
joined the Centre after the beginning of the war. This book holds a special Business fa cilities (hans a n d caravansaries. beztstans, shops and storehouses. dalre. mills.
place in this series of publications, because it is a record of indisputable bakeries)
93
evidences of the Bosnian national and cultural identity. Chapter IV Housing 103
Origin a n d d ev elopment of the house 108
The centuries-old architecture of Bosnia and Hercegovina represents an Houses in Mostar 116
unquestionable national existence and a distinct cultural identity. Its ruins Functlonnal division of the hous e 121
will continue to speak 'for themselves until reconstruction and prove that Furniture a ri d household eq u ip men t 127
such attempts as "ethnic cleansing" and "eradication of the culture" of the Influ ences a n d rela tionships 131
Other kind of housing struc tures
Bosnian nation will never be possible. 135
Chapter V Buildings and Builders
Matertals a n d structures 141
Hoping wholeheartedly that the time for peace and reconstruction is not too
Builde rs 151
far away. I would Iike to express my appreciation to Dr. Amir Pasic for his Chapter VI Decorative Arts
scholarly contribution to the right cause of his country. My special gratitude Ca llig ra phy 157
goes to Professor Midhat Ridjanovic for the excellent translation and editing Or name n ta l Ar ts (book a r t . textile. em broide ries and carpets. wood-carving. m etal
of the text. I would also like to thank my colleagues Zeynep Durukal and h andiwork. stone d ecorations)
162
Acar Tanlak for their contributions in flnaltstng this publication, as well as Chapter VII Characteristics of the Islamic Architecture in Bosnia and Hercegovina
the staff of the Yi ldi z printing house. (Co nve r tlo n to [sl am. the Iexlcal Influence of Isl am. s ettlements and houses. Islamic e le-
men ts in C h r istia n a r c h itectu re. intluences of pre-Ottoman period. Christian architectural
ele me n ts in mosques. C h ris tia n int1u ences in housing co ns t ructio n )
Prof.Dr. Ekmeleddin Itisanoqlu 181
Director General. IRCICA Peculiarity of the house . 196
February 1994 Chapter VIII Preservation of Architectural Heritage in Bosnia and Hercegovina
(Saraj evo. Mostar. con te m por a ry Islamic architecture. heritage d estroyed in the 1992-93
war. proposal for reconstruction and preservation.)
199
Appendices
1. List of Isl amic monuments in Bosnia a n d Hercegovina 209
2. List of destroyed Islamic monuments in Bosnia and Her cegovina 212
3. Bibliography 226
4. List of illustration 239
5. Glossary 242
6. Index of names 247

VI VII
 PREFACE

This book is a survey of the Is larnic cultural heritage in Bosnia and Hercegovina, es-
pecially of its architecture, generally regarded as the main art form of Islamic civiliza-
tion. Most extant books on Islamic architecture focus on public buildings with
moriurnenta l characteristics. The present monograph , however, airns to present inte-
gral urban structures with different components and their interrelations.

Is lam appeared and developed "in a historically iInportant region, from which it spread
to thre e continents. For many centuries now it has been one of the most significant
fa c tors influencing the s plritua l and material development of nations across Asia ", Af-
rica , a n d , to a lesser ex t e n t . Europe. particularly the Balkan lands of Bosnia-Herce-
govina, Kosovo , and Macedonia. The rnajor ity of the people living in these lands in
origin. upbringing, and education relate closely to Is larnic culture and civilization,
which may not be mirrored as much in religious practices as through a complex
s p ir it u a l physiognomy with which every individual identifies hiInself.

Due to the large nurnber of Mus lims in Bosnia and Hercegovina and other regions of
the Balka n peninsula , the influence of Is larnic culture is also evident in the non-Is-
la mic e n vir on ru e rrt s of the area. as well as further beyond. This, therefore, requires a
study of the Is larnlc culture so that those el ements of modern civilization that devel-
oped under the influence of Is lam 111ay be better understood.

The town of IVIostar is described in greater detail because it can be used as an exam- ,
pl e of the his tory of Bosnia and Hercegovina. The Is larnlc architecture and urban
culture of Mostar largely created in the period between the 16th and the 19th centu-
ri es as an integral part of Ottoman culture. Most attention is devoted to housing
units, both because they represent the largest segment of the architectural heritage
and b ecause of their specific Bosnian characteristics , not encountered in other re-
gi ons of the Ott0111an Empire. Mostar is compared with other importa nt cities in "
Bosnia -H ercegovina: Sarajevo , Banja Luka, Travnik . and Foca. Well-known structures
with Is larnic characteristics in other parts of Bosnia-Hercegovina are merrttoned , as
w ell.

The most unportarit fact to bear in mind about Bosnia and Hercegovina is that it was
here that different ideologies , c u lt u r e s , and civilizations met or collided; here were
torn asunder great empires and religions , here was drawn the line marking the first
a n d 1110St tar -reaching division of Christianity into Orthodoxy and Catholicism.
Equally important was the religious and cultural tolerance of the Ottomans . which
gave rise to numerous Christian and Jewish places of worship and other cultural
a ss e ts of inestiInable historical value.
 I
INTRODUCTION

Despite evident differences steuuning from social and national dls tinctioris , a unique
Is larnic culture has developed which has for centuries defined the Is lamic people's
view of the world, moral and esthetic norrns , tradition, way of life. ideals. psychology.
social institutions, and behavior. The Holy Qur'an is the book of Islam, the last of the
celestial religions. that was revealed to Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h).

The Arabian peninsula was the cradle of Islarn. Its southern parts depended on
agriculture and trade .

This area was inhabited by peoples with an ancient culture based on different beliefs,
cus torns and rituals.

The North of the peninsula was characterized by vast deserts and oases. Peoples in
this area mainly lived on s tock- breeding that consisted of sheep and goats as well as
camels: thus they led a more modest life.

The holy Qaaba in the city of Mecca was built by Abraham. Since that time it was
circumambulated by Muslims during the pilgrimage.

Mecca also flourished as the most important center of trade and culture in the
peninsula.

The caravans of trade that were loaded here travelled to Syria, Yernen,and the city of
Kufa.

linguistic and literary taste was very advanced in Mecca at the tirne when the Prophet
emerged.

Is lamic belief had spread all over the peninsula and the life style began to be shaped
by the Is la mic identity when Prophet Muhammad passed away in Mecca in 632 .

The Mus lim mujahids began to spread the lnessage of Islam from the North to the
East and West of the peninsula during the period of the Four Righteous Caliphs.

Is larn spread up to Morocco in the West, the walls of istanbul in the northwest, Trari- '
soxiana and northwestern India in the East during the first half century of the Hegira.

Various peoples with different languages, cultures, arts and social compositions lived
in this 'w id e geographical area .

They influenced one another and ass umed a new identity by becoming Muslirns.
They. however, also kept their own identities within the principles specified by Islam.

Thus. Is larnic Civilization carne into being and contributed greatly to the history of
hurnaruty.

Movernerits of culture. art and learning that emerged within this framework were
inf1uenced by the different identities of these peoples under the Is larnic principle of
tawhid.

3
An Outline of the History of Bosnia and Hercegovina
The oldest setrlernerrts found on the territory of present-day Bosnia and Hercegovina
date back to the Paleolithic Age and represent the Mousterian culture.
They are located in central Bosnia.
Archeological finds indicate that. during the Neolithic Age . there were two groups of
s ettlemerits with different socio-cultural characteristics. one in the Bosnia river valley
and another in the valleys linked with the Neretva river.
There is also evidence of relatively large settlements in the Bronze Age. Two cultural
groups are known to have lived here during the Iron Age, starting from the middle of
the 8th century B.C.: the Illyric group in the South and the Panonic group in the
North.
The struggle of the native Illyrians against the invading Romans was a protracted ag-
oriy which lasted almost two centuries and culrninated in the definitive inclusion of
this region in the Reman Empire.
Remains of Roman settlements, thermal baths, houses, temples, sculptures and
artistically fashioned artifacts testify to the new level of civilization introduced by
Roman legionaries and colonists and to the Romanized Illyrian population which set
upon it the s ta mp of its own spirit and traditions. In the early Middle Ages, the region
of today's Bosnia was a temporary settlement area for migrant cornmuruttes.
A variety of nations sojourned in the territory before moving on elsewhere. until
finally the original population was replaced by a new one of Slavic origin.
Frorn the long-lasting process of symbiosis involving the cultural heritage of the
indigenous and trnmigrant populations, a new Romano-Slavic entity emerged.
The tribal communitles gradually underwent transformations which led to the later
feudal structures.

The name of medieval Bosnia was mentioned for the first time in the year 948 A.D. in
the book De administrando imperio by the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII
Porphyrogenitus .

Position of Bosnia and Hercegovina in Europe

Illyrians are the oldest ethnic group known to have lived in this territory. Different
sites dating from the Bronze and the Iron Ages, Le., fr0111 about 2 ,000 B.C. to the be -
ginning of the Christian era, have provided arnple and varied archeological evidence
for students of European history and culture.

They also revealed the continuous contacts between Illyrians and the Greek colonies
on the Adriatic coast during the last centuries before Christ, which left many
interesting examples of cultural symbiosis. In the first centuries A.D ., the natural
wealth of the country attracted the Romans.

4 5
Medieval Bosnia. The country's constitutional and socio-political integrity dates frorn
the middle of the 12th century. At that time, several "b a n s" ruled in different parts of
Bosnia. The rnost powerful ruler of the period was Ban Kulin (1180-1204), who made
Bosnia a signifIcant factor in Balkan politics. Ban Kulin's 1189 Charter, preserved in
the St. Peters burg Academy of Arts and Science, is not only an important diplornatic
docurnent that deals with socio-political circurnstances of its time , but the oldest
docurnent written in a living. corrternpor ary, national language in the entire Slavic
world.
In the second part of the 14th century Bosnia became a kingdom. It was the most
powerful Slav state in the Balkans, In 1377, Tvrtko I Kotromanic (1353-1391) carne to
the throne under the Hungarian influence , as the "King of the Serbs and Bosnia and
the Coastland". He and his successors laid clairn to the throne of the disintegrating
S erbian Empire. Meanwhile, opposing this kingdom, in 1448, Stefan Vukcic took
power in the southern part of country, and assumed the title "Herceg of St. Sava". It
was frorn this title that the region of Hercegovina acquired its name.
Iku.nh in the lOth crnlury
l1nVliM flI»e In the limo
011,,0 KuHn IIHO·I: IJ.I
UOUltVl. U:aIl: In 1"- lime
Rel ations with the governrnents of neighboring countries played a significant role in
the mutual battles between feudal lords. Leaning to one side or another was a ploy
often us ed in battles for property and other advantages.
The remains dating from the period between of the 12th and the 15th centuries in-
clude sorne three hundred fortified towns and a number of palaces and churches.
They show peripheral reflections of the Mediterranean and Central European Roman-
esque and Gothic styles and , in certain cases, of Byzantine art.
FrOIn the religious viewpoint, medieval Bosnia was not unified. The so-called Bosnian
Church" was the dominant religion of the time. There was also a sizable Catholic com-
muriity as well as small groups of Orthodox along the left bank of the Drina river.
The aesthetic and artistic ideas of the religiously tolerant medieval Bosnian society are re-
flected in the srnall number of illuminated manuscripts which have been preserved. A
rich repository of those ideas, however , is to be found in the art of the stecak; medie-
val tornbstones, sorne 70 ,000 of which are found, in clusters of varying numbers ,
throughout the country. In their reliefs and inscriptions crudely carved in stone is
mirrored the distinct and unique reality of life in the Bosnian valleys, on the periph-
ery of the great European cultures.

01 LInG T'nko Il.\l·tl91 Bosnia and Hercegovina as an administrative unit of the Ottoman State. A century
lIonlcu orlh Um.nhn
_Iale in the 1~ lh nnllu)
before conquering Bosnia, the Ottoman Turks "vis it e d " these territories for the first
Dmnhkllertel:Dvlnll III time. In the a uturnn of 1386 the Ottornans carne to these regions for the flrs t time and
lilt JoKNlIl h ill( (If 11111

I f~ h lc nillry reached the Neretva ' river. Later they made other incursions. From then on, the
strings of almost all important political and milltary actions in this region were held
. . ... . .. lr.uJe lU\11 tll.,11 mult .
• Sc n ~lI'C1\b by the Ott0111an Sultan and his regiments stationed on its borders .
I n'' lll In ' lit 10th ( Cll M)·

o D~,I /ll lllhlU Inwn"

." c..'u \h1llltJIOU~'
The political circurnstances were favorable for the Ottoman conquerors. The local feu-
i lown, BOO thdr \uhllrh, dal lords invited the Ottornans as "allies" in their mutual battles. Thus, in battles
fought in 1435 between the Kosaca's and the Pavlovic IS , the Ottomans sometimes
supported one side and sometimes the other.
HISTORIC
MAP
OF TI lE MEDIEVAL
BOSNIAN STATE
Vladislav, the Herceg's eldest son, pursued a policy similar to his father's and the
Turks sometimes fought on his side, too . Such relations with Ottomans were charac-
Map of medieval Bosnia
teristic for that time. The king of Naples, the Hungarians, and the Venetians also al -
lied themselves with Ottomans occasionally if it served them in their battles against
The medieval Bosnian state was gradually weakened by several factors which un- thetr opponents.
dermined its social structure and integrity, namely:
internal battles caused by opposing interests of individual feudal lords,
constant changes in the size of the Bosnian state brought about by fluctuating po-
wer of local lords and the central government, as well as by changmg relations
with neighboring states,
lack of the shared national consciousness (frequently a feudal lord from one state
or e t h n ic tribe would join forces with one from another state or from an ethnically
different tribe). .
4
1\ IYIH:' of d ua lis tic religion known a s Boq otntl, ortglnally a her esy d ertvered from C h rts tla ru ty.

6 7

Th e B",n i411 ~,., "nround 1606
Borders or " nJ. b
• • - • - - Bord... or the ~I., In 1718
SllI'l1jcvo . The a:~'er or .he c)'lb'
Bosnia and Hercegovina as a part of the Ottoman State
In rnid-15th century Ottornan armies penetrated the territory of Bosnia. The Bosnian
Kingdom fell in 1463. Several subdivisions were created as military and adrninis tra-
tive units (sa nclialc) of the Ottoman State. From 1463 to 1528, Ottornans and Hun-
garians fought successive wars claiming parts of the territory. In 1580, Bosnia be-
carne a beglerbeglulc. a province with the highest military and administrative rank
within the provincial organization of the Ottornan State. Its first seat was In Banja
Luka , rnoving to Sarajevo in 1639. then to Travnik in 1697, and back to Sarajevo in
1850. By 1463 the medieval feudal society of Bosnia was structurally destroyed. A
considerable proportion of former feudal lords, especially from the petty nobility, soon
adapted to the Ottornan spahi-timar feudal system.
In introducing their rule the Ottomans acted in a way which did not disrupt the ear-
lier socio-econornic establishrnent. Their policy was one of a conservative adjustment
to local conditions with the aim of gradually removing the pre-existing and Irrtrod uc-
illg the new Ottoman social order.
Every Christian could become a land-owner (spahija) if he was of noble origln and
loyal to the State. Even mariy powerful Christian feudal lords became owners of large
estates and thus retained a great part of their heritage. If they converted to Is lam they
acquired the title of beg and were able to advance to the highest positions , including
the position of Grand Vizier.
The largest part of the Bosnian population was Itving outside of the township areas. It
was divided into two categories with regard to their dominant economic activity: land-
tillers and livestock raisers. the former being mostly Muslims. the latter Christians.
The basic unit of social structure of the livestock raisers was a form of extended fam-
ily organized on a cooperative basis and known as the zaclruga. Each consisted of 20
to 60 members, Iiving in a common houshold headed by an elder who represented his
cornrnunity before authorities. paid taxes, settled debts, and looked after the affairs of
the cooperative in general.
8 9
These social institutions survived numerous rulers and their different systems of
administration, from the Byzantine era through the Ottoman period until our own
day, keeping as its main characteristics an extraordinary sense of group loyalty and a
permanent fear of urban civilization.
Followtng the Siege of Vienna in the period between 1683 and 1699, the borders of
the Bosnian beylerbeylik were almost identical with those of present day Bosnia and
Hercegovina. The Ottoman State recognised the inherttarice rights of Bosnia's feudal
lords. Muslim lords In the region enjoyed considerable independence. This enabled
thern to rise ill. open rebellion against reforms unposed from Istanbul In the 19th
century and to seek Bosnian autonomy. The strongest expression of this rebellion
was the uprising by Captain Husein Gradascevic in 1831, which continued for years
and was suppressed only in 1850.
During the period of Ottoman rule , the population of Bosnia gradually embraced Is-
lam. This process created a basis for new cultural and civilizational developments of
an Islarnic and Middle-Eastern character. But here, arnidst medieval Bosnia's distinc-
tive traditions, on the extreme periphery of the Ottornan state and in direct daily
contact with the Mediterranean and Central European world, emerged a most re-
marka ble example of reconcilation and coexistence of peoples of different origins. The
structure of this civilization, especially its urban part, assumed a peculiar Bosnian-
Is lamlc character, which itself exhibited clear regional variations.
The religious pluralisrn of medieval Bosnia persisted to a certain extent. The Bosnian
Church expired. while Catholicisrn was in the hands of Franciscans, who obtained
from Sultan Mehrnet II special guarantees allowing thern to carry out their work. Most
of the Orthodox land-owners adapted to the new feudal system, while the Church or-
ganization itself recovered with the 1557 restoration of the Pee Patriarchate . Orthodox
Serb and Vlachs groups , s mall In number and clustered near the eastern border with
Serbia clur ing most of the Ottornan period at that time, later spread to western areas.
Muslims. Islam, the dominant religion of the Ottornan State, was very influential in so-
cial. cultural, and economic life. Islam had appeared in Bosnia even before its con-
quest by the "Ottomans. However , in the decades following the Ottoman conquest of
Bosnia, Is lam became the most prominent spiritual dimenston in Bosnian life. Islam
was accepted by all social classes, from the peasantry to the aristocracy. The majority
of the Bosnian population adhered to Islarn. In this way, a particular group of people
of Slavic ortgin and Islamic faith carne into being, This group differed fr0111 the "
remaining population in its social, political, and econornic characteristics as well.
Contemporary studies have shown that the number of people of foreign origin living
among Bosnian Mus lims was negligible. In the course of rnore than four centuries,
Bosnian Mus lims as a population group developed a culture of their own, incorporat-
ing and assirnilating elements of both western and eastern civilization. Duriri.g the
second half of the 16th century, Jewish refugees fr0111 Spain settled In Bosnia, espe-
cially in Sarajevo, and developed a distinctive life style. in which most of their tradi-
tlorial cultural and artistic elernents were well preserved. Throughout the Ottoman
period , justice and tolerance "prevailed within this religiously cornplex community. in
which people of different faiths were often close relatives. Ottomans showed an un-
precedented and examplary tolerance towards various Christian denominations all
through their centuries-long rule. Religious differences were to become grounds for
political manlpulation only at later times.
Pos t-Ottoman p e riod. Following a long period of decline of the Ottoman State, the
European powers decided at t h e Congress of Berlin to have Austria- H ungary assume the
a d minis t ra t io n of Bosnia and Hercegovina in 1878. This m a rked the end of over four
ce n t ur ies of Otto m a n rule and the beginning of new socio-economic relations in the
region. Bosnia was set on a path t oward s Central European civilization. This orientatio n
was m arked by a n ew economic and administrative system, as well as by a m o re clear-cut
religious d ifferentiatio n within the Bosnian society.
DUling World War II, the kingdom of Yugoslavia disintegrated. In April 1941, the govern-
m e rit ca pit u la ted to Nazi rule and , together with the king and his entourage, fled abroad.
The country was occupied and divided among Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria.
Bosnia and Hercegovina became a par-t of the so-called Independent State of Croatia,
created under foreign occupation.
The concept ofa federal Yugoslavia prevailed among the lea d e rs ofTito's Par-tisans. W ithin
~he Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Hercegovina become a separ-ate
federal unit, equal in status to the other five Republics (Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia,
Montenegro , and Macedonia). This was, actually, a recognition of the country's historical
existence.

c::::::J Serbl. nnd Montenegru 'III the wa" In 1876nB

c:=:J E..'~pllru l(1n ! of Serbin Atld Montenegro In 1878
UOllllht&Hcl7.cgovlnR In 1878
BulDn,lo In 1878.
~ 'Thrrf!onc'I whhln lhcOllumutl llnlc
c:=:J Tcrrilorlo'l within AtJ!lllro·HuQgury after f878
- - - State bord ers allcr the Congrc:M or Berlin in 1878 Vranduk: A settlement founded i n pre-Ottoman times
- Botdct1 of Yugo,lnvla Me r 1945

Bosnia and Hercegovina as a part of
the Austro-Hunqarian. monarchy
After World War 1, with the establishment of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes,
later renamed to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ("Yugoslavia", in fact, means the country of
South Slavs), a basis was created for the realization of a pan-Serbian hegemony aiming to
achieve ethnic unity for Serbs and their dominant position among the South Slavs. This
idea had been formulated much ear-lier, in 1844, in the formula "Serbs - together and eve-
rywhere," launched in a secret document prepar-ed by the Serbian Minister of Internal M-
fairs Ilija Garasanin and entitled "Nacertanije'' ( Plan).5
In the period between the two ' World Wars Bosnia and Hercegovina was divided for the
flrst time in its long history, which was a step towards the achievement of Serbian ideals.
In order to destroy the identity of the country, the goverrunent divided it into several ad-
ministrative units. Subsequently, as a consequence of increasing conflicts between Ser-
bia and Croatia, Bosnia and Hercegovina was divided into thirteen administrative units
by the 1939 Cvetkovic-Macek agreement. These units were then added to the newly-
formed regional entity called the Banovina of Croatia.
However, the centralist and unitarian policy based on the ruling totalitarian ideology con-
tinued after World War" II. It brought about new ethnic and inter-Republic tensions, w hich
come to a head in the late sixties. In order to resolve these tensions, the regime had to re-
SOli to a policy of ideological repression while at the same time recognizing and, by the
Constitution of 1974, formally affirming the individual federal units as sovereign states
within a loose federation.
The loosening of Yugoslavia, originally a Serbian creation devised to enhance their na-
tional interests, angered Serbian nationalists and revived their expansionist policy, expe-
cially after Tito's death in 1980. Serbian actions took increasingly aggressive forms. After
the secession of Slovenia and Croatia in 19 9 1, and a same orientation of Macedonia,
Bosnia a~d Hercegovina also held.a referendum in which the majority of the people voted
for independence from the curtailed "Yugoslavia" (Le. Serbia and Montenegro). Serbian
nationalists refused to accept this democratic decision. They argued in favour of keeping
BOSIlia and I!ercegovina within Yugoslavia or, at least, deviding it among Serbs, Croats,
and Muslims in the hope of eventual annexation of the Serbian pari: to Serbia (and
presumably, of the Croatian section to Croatia), leaving Muslims, who made up 44 % of
the population of Bosnia and Hercegovina, without a state of their own. The unresolved
political disputes tliggered a brutal Serbian aggression on the now sovereign
internationally recognized Repu bic of Bosnia and Hercegovina.

5 Belgrade was th e greatest Ottoman city in the western part of the State from the 16th to the 19 th
century, Its 78 mosques. 11 Turkish baths. six large cara va nse ra is. 45 inns. a n d all other buildings
with Isl amic chara c te ris tic s were later destroyed in the name of S erbian national gIOlY. .

10
11
 II

URBAN CULTURE

Common Elements of the Islamic Urban Settlement

A city reflects the ' whole life of a cornmunity. Several elernents are common to every
Islarnic town.
The choice of a living space is essentially determined by factors of safety and by the
necessity for proper performance of Islamic worship.
An irnportant elernent is security of access to the town, which required good roads to
connect it to other important locations, as well as safety within the town itself, which
called for fortification. A third comrnon element of Islamic settlements is the existence
of various public facilities (rnosques, schools, hospitals, public baths) which were
usually endowed by the monarch or a member of his family as a religious duty, or by
other rich persons, through the charitable religious foundation called valcuJ.
"A general and enduring characteristic of Islamic town planning and one which de-
rives directly frorn sunnah, is that the commercial and residential areas are kept
strictly apart. 116
The rnarket (bazaar, suq, carsija ) is the vital part of a city, usually located at an im-
portant junction on the main road, or near a fortification or a river crossing.
Housing areas are situated outside and often around the market, connected to it by a
network of usually narrow streets.
Houses are self-contained and detached with a courtyard and a garden enclosed by a
wall, particularly on the side facing the street.
Is lam favoured urban life because it rnade for easy access to mosques, public baths,
schools and other institution of religious irnportance.
This .urban rnilie u is found in every Islarnic environrnent, frorn the Magreb in the West
to Indonesia and Malaysia in 't h e east, and from Arabia in the South to Bosnia in the
North.
As a general rule, the Ottornans kept the basic pre-existing urban layout wherever
they settled.

In the transfonnation of existing settlements or in the creation of new ones, the con-
struction of a religious complex (mosque with a mekteb or medresa, musafirhana,
Imaret, several shops) represented the key element of change and, at the same time,
created the nucleus of the new town.

When they seized a fortified town with an ernpty space inside the walls, they would
build an annex to the existing structure. If an old town was overpopulated, they
would then build a new one on the grounds outside the city walls'? Medieval towns
and fortifications were very numerous in the Balkans in the pre-Ottoman period, the
main rnotivation for building them being defense frorn the Crusaders.

6
T. Burckhardt. ArtQfIslam. Common. Language and Meaning. p. 189.
7
A more detailed analysis is found in the book by S.H.Eldem: Turk Eoi, Ostnanli donemi I-III, Istanbul
1984-87.

13

Medievalfortresses and towns: Ljubuski, Blagaj, Sto lae, and Soko l
The cities d iffered in size , year of foundation , sur rounding terrain, purpose, structure,
use of rnatertals and building technology, and availability of water, all of which influ-
enced the livtng conditions of the inhabitants.
The building material used for city walls was mainly stone, while wood was predomi-
nantly used fo r hous ing u nit s within t h e fortress and for supporting structures. The
ci ties and fortifications in the Balkan area conquered by the Ottomans can be divided
into f hre e grou ps, each with a la rge number of common features: coastal towns ,
inland t owns and fortresses, and fort ified monastery complexes,
Coastal towns mainly originated in the antiquity. They were repeatedly demolished,
rebuilt, and remodeled over the centuries
The best fortified structures alnong them are the military citadels. Inside the walls are
densely fitted buildings for habitation, and other facilities. The use of gun-powder and
h eavy cannons required strengthening the original walls, which In G kedly changed
their appearance.
14
The fea tures of t h e inla nd towns were deter mined by t heir military function a n d loc a -
tion on a particula r t erra in, resulting in a remarkable view of the s u r ro u n d ings. They
were u sually s ituated on s teep c liffs o r very high hills, a n d cou ld be rea ched on ly fr om
one sid e , w h ich wa s mas sively fortified . Their a rch itect u re refl e cted b oth easter n a n d
western influences . External s t r uct u res were a d ded a s HIe t owns grew a n d : in the
c ours e of time, d evel oped int o bi g sett le m en ts . The average distance b etwe en n eigh-
bouring t owns wa s a bou t a d ay 's walk .
Travnik
The Ottomans rarely erected co mpletely n ew urban settlements (among the few such
towns are Rudo and Trebinje) , but generally built a new sect io n adjoining the medie-
valone (as in Bitola, Prilep, Travnik, arid Banja Luka). This process of adaptation of
former settlements and their expansion over the course of several centuries has so
thoroughly obliterated the older urban scheme and developed a new Ottoman-Balkan
urban pattern that the pre-Ottoman aspects of these urban agglomerations can
hardly be detected.f
Ottornari Turks quickly d eveloped the existing towns and established new settle-
merits , both small (lcasaba) and large (seher). In fact, the conversion of t h e local
population to Islam and the rapid development of trade and crafts were accompanied
by physical changes in the settlements. Numerous new crafts that the Ottomans
brought along with them were added to the existing ones. Association of craftsmen
(esna)l had a great impact upon the development of the Ottoman towns and signifi -
cantly contributed to their Middle Eastern character.
The Vakuf. The vakuf was a religious endowment created on the basis of Islamic
tenets, It was of enormous Importance for the development of urban settlements.
Various vakuf buildings, with their iInposing architecture, usually created the basic
urban skeleton of a city. In the continuously expanding Ottoman State, the state
devoted mos t attention to the governlnent and the army, while concern about cultural
and educational facilities was largely left to private Inrtiative, mainly through the in-
stitution of vakuf. The vakuf usually supported a free realization of the will of its
founders, and vakuf buildings served as a basis for the establtshment and further de-
velopmerrt of the settlements around them.
8
S ee l-l .R edztc: Studtje 0 fslwllslcq} artiitekionskoj bastini, Saraj evo 1983.
15
We should stress the Importance of the investors - persons of Bosnian origin occupy-
ing high adrnlnis'trative positions and frequently related to the sultan, AInong them
were Hercegzade Ahmet Pasa, son of Herceg Stjepan and son-in-law of Sultan Bayazit
II, become the Grand Vizier five times for more than eight years in the period between
1497 and 1516; Rustem Pasa Hrvat, son-in-law to Suleyman the Magnificent, was the
Grand Vizier for seventeen years, from 1544 to 1561, and Mehmed Pasa Sokolovic,
also the Sultan's son-in-law, was the Grand Vizier for fourteen years, from 1565 to
1579. There were many other highly positioned investors who contributed to the
developmerit of different towns or monuments.
Maglaj, Tesanj, Stolac, and Visegrad
The state had a vested interest in the establtshrnerrt of a city and its development be-
cause all important government officials lived there and, especially, because it was
there that artisan workshops were established to m~ke various items for the army. .
The word Icasaba denotes a small urban settlement and at the same time represents a
legal term, In order for a settlement to be named kasaba, it had to meet the following
minimal rcquirements.P
a ) It had to be permanently inhabited by a Muslim population filling at least one im-
portant residential district;
b) There had to be a mosque in which all of the five daily prayers would can be
performed;
c) It had to have a bazaar;
d) A particular day of the week had to be declared as its "market-day".
9
S ee Ad em Han d zic: "0 formiranju n eklh g ra d s k ih n asel]a u Bos ni 1I
1975 .
16
When these requtremerrts were met, an official request by the local administrators
would lead to an imperial edict granting a settlement the status of a kasaba. This en-
tailed exemption of the Mus lim population of the kasaba from taxes which members
of other religious groups were obliged to pay.
A typical Ottoman-Islamic settlement centered around bazaar or carsu which is
usually located at an intersection of regional roads, and the word carsija, as the core
of a future settlement, is etymologically related to the meaning 'square, intersection of
four roads '. Another requirement is for the settlement to be situated near a stream of
running water, often a river, and to adjoin one or both of its banks. One of its main
c om m u ruc a t io n lines is approximately parallel to the river. Thernosque, the
caravanserai, and the public bath were interconnected with two or three streets. From
this basic core of a town a whole network of small often Irregular street branches off
in all directIons. The shops, where more often that not consumer articles are both
made and sold, are dispersed throughout the city. Besides the usually small shops,
there were also several large buildings used as warehouses or for other trade
purposes.
The needs of the army, which was . constantly in motion, gave rise to the formation of
craft-and-trade centers in every town. A large variety of things were Inade in the ba-
zaar. SOIne fifteen guilds were involved in the equipping of a horseman. The bazaar
was a place of busy trading, and as a rule, did not contain family dwellings. In larger
towns there came into existence, moreover, a smaller peripheral bazaar, which took
some of the burden off the central one, such as at Vratnik and Hiseti in Sarajevo, in
Banja Luka. J!' and in Belgrade. 11
A further Importa.nt element in the formation of the cities is the administrative corn-
plex. In addition to their residential quarters, the provincial governors (valija) in
Banja Luka, Sarajevo, and Travnik erected a whole range of other public buildings as
t okens of their presence in the area and the power that they Wielded. The residences
h ave lnos~ly been demolished (the exception is the konak in Sarajevo), while the pub-
lic butld ings have been preserved through the institution of the vakuf,
In other towns (e.g. Belgrade and Bihac) the residential part was built on top of an
o ld e r structure of medieval origin. A characteristic example of a fortified residential
t own is Gradacac.
Gradacac
10 S ee All]a Bej tic, "Banj a Luka pod Turskorn upravorn". Nase s tu r ine I. S araj ev o 1953.
XVI vij ek u ." POI" XXV . S arajevo
11 Dlvn a Durtc-Zimolo , B eograd k ao orijentalna [ lUras p od Turcinui 1521-1867. Beo g rad 1977. p. 197.
17
 Sometimes . in a d d it io n t o a fortified residential area. there was another one by the
riv er. usually surrounded by pleasant greenery. (e .g. the inn for ove r n ig h t guests .
k onak in Travnik , Begovina a t Stola c), or further away from the m ajor s ettlement. e .g.
Havzi -P a stn Koriak at Bardovci, a n d the All-Pas a Rt zvanbegovica Konak at Buna n ear
Mos t ar.

Trebinje

Balkan -Is lamic cities are chiefly situated in valleys (Skopje. Bltola, Tetovo, Prtstina.
Nis ), but a ls o on hill slopes and the valleys beneath them (Belgrade. Foca, Sarajevo.
Ohrtd ), o r m ostly on slopes (Galicnik, Krus evo . Pocitelj), intertwined with greenery.

Pocitelj
Ed ucatio na l a n d c u ltural fa cilities we re m ostly fit t ed into the a rea a rou n d the b a za ar:
institutions of higher ed ucat io n (Muslim school or niedresa, independent d epart-
m ents . the dar-ul- tefsir, dar-ul-hadis) a n d libraries were locat ed in t he vicinity of the
bi g m osque . while primary ed ucatio n schools were built n ext to a peripheral m osque .
S u fi centers (te 1cij a ) were a lso u sually located further a way fro m the baza ar. but the r e
were some in t own centers a n d res iden t ial areas a s well.
Intrusions or con q ues t s by European a r m ies (e.g. Venetian and Austrian) in the 17th
a n d 18th cen t u r ies brought about a phas e of rapid fortification of the predominantly
Muslim settle men t s . Generally a s malle r. more eas ily d efendable part of a town was
fortified: for in stance Vratnik in Sarajevo or the a rea about the Stari Most (Old Bridge)
in Mostar. The smaller towns in border areas were completely encircled by walls
(Po crtelj, Trebinje) or s q ueeze d within the m edieval fortified areas. Since s ecurity was
a n important co n s iderat io n. an inhabitant of a Balkan -Islamic dwelling was protected
by a triple wall . the first went a ro u n d his own house complex. the second around the
baza ar with its controlled gates; the third was a thick w all with towers and c it a dels
a ro u n d the military complex.

Residential areas fo r t he most part surro unded t he bazaar. A maliala , a res ident ial
d istrict of fo rty t o fifty h ous es . had at its core a s mall m osque o r m escizid , (in Bos nia
this u sually de notes a m osque w it hou t a mina ret). In the immediate vic inity of t h e
m o sque w a s a m e/ct eb (primary s chool), a graveyard . a fountain. a bakery. a nd a foo d
s ho p. The Balka n Is lamic u rba n c u lture is m a rked by a k een sen s e of nature: builders
m ake good u s e of t he te rrain config uratio n. build on hill slo pes so a s t o offer a n ice
view o f t he valley. a n d pos it io n b uilding com p lexes in a way that will provide t hem
wi t h pl enty of s u ns h ine.

Water in e ve ry imaginable pla ce a n d in quantities well beyond p ractical n eeds . lush .

gree ne ry bendi n g ove r fa cades or acros s railin gs of staircas es leading to dioanhane
(u p pe r floo r h all ), t he s un c ut by the eaves a n d penetrat in g through lines of windows ·
d e e ply in to r oom s a n d creatin g colo r con t ras ts on different building materials are the
in dispens a bl e e le men ts of the p oetic a m b ie n ce of a Balkan Islamic dwelling. They a ls o
offe r e vidence of a highly d eveloped urban c u lt u re es tab lis hed for centu r ies . Maglaj. in the Bosna river valley

18 19

The Origin a nd De v elop m e nt of Several Se lected Cities
We now propose t o describe two main g roups of u rban settlements diffe ring in respect
of fo u n d a t io n and development:
- s ettlements founded in mediaeval tirnes, and continuing to exist in the Ottoman pe-
riod a s rnining centers (such as Fojnica and Kresevo), or market-places on a main
road (Fo cal. o r fortresses (Tr avnik , Pocitelj , Ostrozac).
- settle rn e n ts founded in the Ottoman period as administrative and government cen -
te rs (Sarajevo , Banja Luka ), or iInportant strategic points (the bridge in Mostar).
A rnajority of forttfled towns of the rnediaeval Bosnian state, such as Kraljeva Sutjeska
a n d Bobovac.I? mostly country seats of semi-independent local rulers, lost their im-
p ortance in the great Ottoman State with its d ifferent state organization.
Positions of selected settlements
12
Fo r more than a hun dred years Bobovac was the capital of the Bosnian King d om . It is situated on the
s ho rt est co rn m u nlcatto n lin e between the Sos na a n d the Drtna rivers. It wa s a typical exam p le of forti-
fle d arc hitect u r e of th e m edi eval lime, befo re the appearance of ca n nons . The fortr es s is five hundred
meters long. a nd wa lls s urro u nd ed th e settleme nt. In 146 3 Otto mans started s h elling Bo bo vac from th e
s u rro u nd ing hills , a nd the local ga rriso n s urrend ered the fo rtress q ui ckly. In 1626 Bobova c, as a for-
tr ess a nd settlem e nt. wa s aba n do ned.
20
Fojnica and Kresevo. These settlernents whose economic prosperity was based on
mining. date back to the ' 14 t h century. Fojnlca was also a market-place where impor-
tant cormnercial transactions took place. Merchants from Dubrovnik played a major
part in t h is trade. When Ottornan rule was established the exploitation of the rnines
in the Fojnica and Kresevo basins continued without interruption. For the Ottornan
s tat e, t oo , these settlernents were primarily irnportant for their rnines of silver, copper,
go ld, and lapis lazuli.
The transformation of these towns into Ottornan type settlernents was very slow dur-
ing the first century of Ottoman rule. Resistance was partly due to the activities of the
Ca t h o lic church, because it was in this area that the F ranciscans had founded t h e ir
moriastertes in the 13th c en t u ry, a n d because the Ottornans were careful to rnaintain
t h e local mining p rod uction.
According to the land registers frorn the year 1468/9, Fojnica, with its 329 house-
holds , h a d the largest population in all of the Bosnian sandzak. In the sarne year Kre-
s ev o had 299 hous eholds. As these settlements began to lose their former importance,
due to a s t a gnation in the mining industry, especially in respect of silver, t h e ir popu -
lation d ecreased so that in 1516 there were only 142 householders in Fojnica and 112
in Kres ev o , At the beginning of the 17th century. silver mining a t Fojnica was re-
s urned.
During this period the religious structure of t h e population also changed, as a conse-
quence of Muslirns moving into the area , but frorn the beginning of the 17th century
o n the process of converston to Islam was rather slow.
Kreseoo
21
.Foca. The town of Foca can serve as a model illustrating the standard mode of trans-
formation of a medieval Bosnian settlement into an Ottoman town. The medieval town
of Foca owes its development prtmarily to its favorable position. It is situated between
the Orina and the Cehotina rivers on the Dubrovnik road connecting the Adriatic
coast to the central areas of the Balkans. The embryo of the town was a market-
place.F' around which were built houses, shops, and workshops . The original urban
pattern created by what are now Prijeka Cars lja and Pazariste, and a part of the Ou b-
rovnik road, has remained unchanged.
Before 1465, when the Ottomaris conquered this area, there had been three important
buildings in Foca: a caravan station, on the Oubrovnik Road 650 meters south from
the confluence of the Cehotlna and the Orina, the Roman Catholic Church of Our
Lady on the south side of the market-place, and an Orthodox church with monastery
on the right bank of the Cehotina river.
The residential quarters lay.on the north side of the road, towards the confluence of
the Cehotina and Orina. Foca was not fortified. It thus differed from a big village only
by the market-place and the shops around it. Historical records mention that 95
shops were run by merchants frorn Oubrovnik and 82 by local merchants.I"
FOCA
P"-f M..... ... U~T"' IJS KON\ I"l",,,,,'"
Il. 1.'4\ .
Foca: an e xample of transformation of a medieval sett lement int o an Ottoman town
13 Th e m ark et-place. was ca lled by th e Latin word: mercatwII in pre-Ottoman tim es. a n d by the Sl avic
word try olliste or by Turkish root words pazarts! « a nd carsija in Ottoman times. This m arke t-pla ce was
m entioned for th e first tim e in 1366..
14 S ee: H.Redzic. Studije 0 lslattiskoj bastilli. "Urbani razvoj Face". Saraj evo 1983.
22
The changes in the structure of the population and the architectural transformation
of the settlement during the Ottoman period are recorded in numerous census books
- clefters. The new settlement did not spread in concentric circles around the mediae-
val Foca. Rather, its general plan of development was based on configurational and
socio-economic factors.
The oldest residential part, the Ortakolo mahala, is situated on the periphery of the
mediaeval settlement, its larger part occupying the valley towards the confluence of
the Cehotina · and the Orina. A second mahala was built on the right bank of the
Orina river. A third section of the town occupies a favo rable position on the right
bank of the Cehotina. The fourth, the Atik mahala, was built on the south side of the
Pazarrs te . the fifth was nestled in a land corner bounded by the two rivers, while the
sixth was attached to the Aladza Mosque on the right bank of the Cehotina river.
With the construction of its six separate sections , Foca was iInplicitly defined as a
spacious urban area spreading to both banks of the Cehotina river and along the
right bank of the Orina. In the 17th century the modern layout of Foca was already
established based on a plan drafted as far back as the second half of the 15th cen-
tury. The polycentric principle of urban development marked a great advancement in
relation to the medieval towns and settlements in Bosnia.
By building its mesdztd or mosque, the future mahala was allotted sufficient space for
further construction and growth. The choice of urban areas and their urbanization
were carried out with careful attention to the terrain, particularly with respect to
water utilization. Whenever it was possible, the Ottomans founded settlements on
b oth banks of a river or stream. Thus , t h e river becomes the spine of a settlement. Fo-
ca is a paramount example of this concern for water. From its very beginning, the
town was built on both banks of the Cehotina river. As the left bank of the Orina river
is very steep and unfit for construction Foca spread only along its right ba nk.
A co n t in u o u s development of Foca during the previous two and a half centuries was
a rres ted in the 18th century. The following century was also a period of stagnation in
the development of this interesting town in southeastern Bosnia.
Foca,1895.
23
Livno. Livno was founded in the 9th century as a varas. 15 and in medieval Bosnia
had a history stmilar to those of other s mall fortified towns. During the Ottoman pe-
riod, Livno was developing as a settlement in the borderland of the Empire. In Otto-
man sources it was first mentioned in 1485, as a settlement with 37 households and
26 inhabitants without permanent dwellings. The population were stock-raising
Vlachs, who lived a sernl-nornadic life. It was a policy of Ottoman rulers to organize a
type of "movable" economy in frontier areas where conditions had not yet become
stabilized .
Travnik. The Ottomans conquered the medieval fortress of this town, added to its
fortification, and stationed a powerful garrison there because Travnik was in the bor-
derland at the tune. After Jajce was conquered in 1527 and the border was moved
farther North, Travnik began to develop more intensively. This was particularly true in
the period between 1697 and 1850, when it was the seat of the Bosnian beglerbegluk.
There the Bosnian viziers built more than a hundred public facilities, including five
mosq ues , five rnekrebs , three medresas, eight public water taps, two fountains, and a
water supply system, and thus gave the town its Bosnian-Islamic urban and architec-
rural characteristic.

Livno, the Glavica Mosque with a clocktower

Within the next forty years there occurred profound changes in the development of
Livno. There arose an embryo of a new settlement with Ottoman characteristics, with
a developed handicraft economy and first Islarnic buildings. In 1537 Livno become the
seat of the sandzak of Klis, the border was moved further west, and crafts and trade
were developed to serve the needs of the military garrison. In that time, Livno was
fonnallya kasaba, with four mahalas , three mesdzids. and one mosque. In 1574 Livno
had seven Muslim mahalas and a Christian one, with 653 Muslim and six Christian
households. In the second part of the 17th century, the township of Livno began to
lose its former importance and started on a path of stagnation and decline.
Travnik
15
,-I word of Hungarian origin. is used in Bosnia. to d enote a s ettlement at the loot of a fortlflca-
Vnro.;:;.
tion. with a c h u r c h and a square .

24 25
Banja Luka. The first structure out of which the town developed was the medieval
fortress on the Londza hill. It was situated in a natural triangle formed by the Vrbas
river, the Suturlija stream, and the mountainous area of Sibovo.The fortress was con-
quered by the Ottomans in 1527, at the sarne time as Jajce. Settlement of the town
continued along the old road in the area of the Vrbas river. The first big investor was
Sofu Mehmed Pasa, who built a mosque, a caravanserai, a hamam, several shops, and
a pedestrian bridge over the Vrbas river.
In 1580 Banja Luka become the capital of the newly founded Bosnian ,beglerbegluk.
Until 1639, when the governing body of the Beglerbegluk was moved to Sarajevo,
Banja Luka acquired rnost of its Islamic style buildings. The greatest benefactor in
Banja Luka was Ferhat' Pasa Sokolovid, the first beglerbeg of Bosnia. He built a
mosque with t hree mausoleums (turbe), a medresa, a mekteb, a darul-hadis, a ha-
mam, a fountain, the clock-tower, the caravanserai, the bezistan with several shops,
the water supply system, and the governor's palace (saraj).
Banja Luka:a map of 1882.
26
Sarajevo. The oldest traces of human habitation in the area of present-day Sarajevo
go back to the third mlllermium B.C. There are also remains of a Roman colonia 8. 16 It
was Isa-Beg Isakovic.Vthe second Ottoman governor (sandzaJc-beg) of Bosnia, who
laid the foundation of a new town here in the middle of the 15th century. Its name
derives from the Turkish word saray meaning 'palace' or 'court'.
The choice of the location for the city was a deliberate act by the governor, mainly in
the light of the following factors:
1. There was already a fortress (Hodidjed).
2. There was a good east-west road along the Miljacka river valley and another one
crossing it at a right angle.
3. The existence of a marketplace in the area at a place called Stara Yaros.
4. Presumed existence of a colony occasionally inhabited by merchants from Dub-
rovnik (LaiinluJc).
5. The existence of a settlement the village of Brodac on the banks of the Miljacka
river at the foot of the hill topped by the Hodidjed fortress.
)
i ,I' . - -
; I~
Sarajevo in 1462
After having a bridge constructed across the Miljacka river (latter named Careva
cuprija, 'the Tzar bridge') at the main crossroads, Isa-beg Isakovic built a mosque, a
palace, a hamam. a barracks, and a hippodrome on the left bank, as well as a big car-
avanserai (Kolobara han) on the right bank close to a former square, on an axis to the
mosque. This structure , with its several adjoining shops, was the nucleus of the fu-
ture grand bazaar, to be called Bascarsija. The bazaar was thus set between the new
bridge, the Latinluk quarter, and a nascent Christian-Orthodox quarter (today's area
around the Old Orthodox Church). In the Brodac village, Isa-Beg had a dervish home
(ieleija) built with a guest-house (musaji.rhana) and a public kitchen (imaret), as well
as several water-mills.
16 Thus called because in the only archeological find bearing the colony's name all but initial letter Shad
been obliterated.
17 Isa-begova vakufnama written in 1462. contains many details about the urban development of Sara-
jevo .
27
 The surrounding settlements on hillsides were transformed into , housing micro-re-
gions, the mahalas, There, streets followed the natural configuration of the terrain,
while the bazaar itself was laid out in an orthogonal network, with streets parallel and
perpendicular to the Miljacka river. The name Saray-ovasi ("the plain around the pal-
ace") was merrtloried for the first time in 1455, and the form Sarajevo is first encoun-
tered in a letter written in Cyrillic by one Firuz Beg in 1507.

After the fall of the Bosnian Kingdom to the Ottomans in 1463, Sarajevo quickly
spread westward, through the Miljacka valley, and onto the surrounding hills. During
the last decades of the 15th century, two sandzak-begs, Mehmed Beg Minatovtc and
Ayaz Beg, built mesdzids , a hamarn, and several shops. This resulted in integrating
the Latin.luk quarter into the bazaar.

In the first decade of the 16th century Skender Pasa Mihajlovlc revived the Stara
Varas quarter. He had a bridge (known as Skendertja ) built there over the Miljacka
river and close to the bridge, on the left bank, a tekija, a musaflrhana and an imaret,
as well as a caravanserai, eleven shops, and several water-mills art the Kosevo stream
on the right bank of the Miljacka. In 1509 Firuz Beg had the Cifte hamam, several ,
shops in the bazaar, and a water supply system from the Sedrenik hill in the North to
the bazaar, as well as a medresa. In 1518 Mustaj Beg, the son of Skender Pasa, built
the first domed rnosq ue in the vicinity of the tekija constructed by his father. Mehmed
Beg, the son of Isa Beg, built a mesdzid with a medresa, and the first bezistan in the
bazaar. IS The second domed mosque was built in 1526 as a donation by Muslihudin
Cekrekcija, and a third one located in the bazaar was donated by Havadza Durak in
1528. Sarajevo: a panoramic view

In addition to the monumental domed mosques. many small mosques and mesdztds
In 1530 Sarajevo had 35 lnal~alas with 6 mosques and 23 mesdztds , two caravanse-
were built using traditional construction, methods and local material; they usually
rais , four ha marns , six tekijas, and several hundreds shops.
had wooden porches, four-eaved roofs, and stone or wooden minarets. In the course
of the 17th century construction slowed down considerably, but by this time the total
number of mosques had exceeded one hundred, with numerous mektebs, madrasas,
The biggest contribution to the development of Sarajevo, came from the sandzak-beg
and ten tekijas.
Gazi Husrevbeg Ferhatpaaic.U' Among some three hundred buildings built with his
donations, several are regarded as the most valuable structures in the whole architec- Although Islamic culture is dorninarrt in Sarajevo, it has never been a town of one re-
ture of Bosnia and Hercegovina: the mosque (1530/1, architect Ajim Esir Ali), ligion.
tianika): (a higher school of Sufi philosophy), the medresa (1537),20 the harnarn, the
, ca ra va n s e r a i, the bezistan, and the musafirhana with the imaret. Gazi Husrevbeg
then gave the Sarajevo bazaar, which came to be called the Bascarslja.f! and made
the city into the cultural and social center of Bosnia.

In the second part of the 16th century several important structures were built in
Sarajevo: the Brusa bezistan (1551) and four new domed mosques the Buzadzi Hadzi
Hasanova Mosque (1555/6), .t h e Ali Pasina Mosque (1560/1), and the Ferhad Pasa
Vukovic-Destsallc Mosque (1561/2). The Careva Mosque was remodelled and pro-
vided with a dome .

IS Burnt down in a big fire in 1697~

19 His fath er was from Hercegovina a n d his mother was the granddaugther of Sultan Beyazit.
20 The m edresa is knowns as Kllrs!1Illlya. because Its domes a re covered with lead (the Turkish word for
lead is kursuui;
21 From Turkish bo.s- care: "main bazaar". Sarajevo: The Old Orthodox Church, The Jewish Synagogue

28 29
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In the Latin1uk quarter, where merchants from Dubrovnik lived both in pre-Ottoman
and in Ottoman times, there was a Catholic church. 22
During the second half of the 16th century, at the time of the consolidation of the
Orthodox Church in the Balkans prompted by the restoration of the Pee Patriarchate,
the Orthodox population settled in the vicinity of the bazaar and built their church,
today known as the Old Orthodox Church.
In the sa me period Sefardic Jews, expelled from Spain, founded their community in
the central part of the bazaar, mostly in and around the Stjavus Pasa daire. In that
district the first synagogue was built in 1581.
More than 80 craftsmen carried on their business at Bascarstja. They were organized
in various esnaJs (guilds), each with its shops concentrated in a particular street of
the larger area of the bazaar. 23
More than fifty hans and caravanserais provided lodging for 2 000 guests with horses
and merchandise.
The Careva cuprija,24 the Latinska cuprija built in 1541, the ~eher-Cehajina cupri]a
(1585), the bridge near the village of Brodac, named Kozja Cuprija (1572), and the
Skenderija Bridge, made for easy communlcation between the two banks of the Mil-
jacka river.
The use of wood as construction material was the main reason for many fires in the
his tory of Sarajevo, especially in the area of the bazaar. In 1697 Prince Eugene of
Savoy broke through the Ottoman defense line,25 and set flre to Sarajevo, destroying
it almost corripletely. In the aftermath of this event the seat of the beglerbeg was
moved to Travnik, where it remained until 1851.1n the time following the return of the
beglerbegluk seat to Sarajevo, in 1851, the architecture of the city began to show
signs of West-European ,influences. They are visible in the new barracks at Bistrik,
the Jajce barracks, the Military and vakuf hospitals, and the Konak at Bistrik.In 1872
an Orthodox church in the vicinity of Bascarstja was built in a Byzantine-Baroque
style.
In 1879, the first year of the Austro-Hungartan occupation, a big fire destroyed over-
night the entire part of the town situated in the valley, from the Gazi Husrevbegova '
mosque westward. This fire reduced the bazaar area to half of its former size and
opened the way to a rapid transformation of Ottoman Sarajevo into a Middle Euro-
pean provinclal center.
22 It burned down for the ftrst time in a fire in 1697, was later rebuilt and flnally destroyed in the big fire
of 1879.
23 More than forty streets still bear names related to the craft that were (and still are. through to a lesser
degre practiced in them: Kujundztluk = "goldsmiU1's" street (from Turkish kuywncu "goldsmith"). Kovacl
= blacksmiths street (from the Slavic word kovac "blacksmith"), Saracl =sadd1er. Ascilul{ = place with
restaurants.
24 (~uprUu, is Slavic adaptation of the Turkish word Jcopn! "bridge".
25 His troops passed the Vrancluk fortress above the Bosnia river. 30 kilometers to the north of Sarajevo,
and used the road through the Bilino Polje. near Zeruca. Later. the Ottomans built a fortress at Bilino
Polje.
32
Mostar. The large area of Mostar has favorable living conditions. The mouritatns on
the north side of the town enclose the whole region within a typically Mediterranean
climate. This makes for very high temperatures in summer and moderate tempera-
tures in winter, a great number of sunny days in the course of one year, planty of rain
in au turnri and spring, refreshing showers in wann seasons, north-easterly winds in
winter, and pleasant southerly breezes in spring and auturnn.
Mostar has a remarkable position on the Neretva river and its tributary, the Ra-
dobolja. The Radobolja offers its inhabitants as many advantages as the Neretva takes
away because of its violent temper. Nevertheless, the valley along the Neretva is very
fertile, as well as allowing easy southward access to the sea and northward into the
interior. The valley of the Radobolja river, however, is surrounded by hills on all sides .
The residential part of the city first spread to the hillside of Stolac, a foothill of the
Velez mountain. The oldest housing center was the Atik or Sinan Pas ina mahala, to
be followed by the quarters of Brankovac, Bjelusine and, Mazoljice.
Building houses on hill slopes was advantageous not only from point of view of se-
curity, but also with regard to public hygiene because of the possibility of using rain
as a natural street cleaner. Not least of all, it provided a pleasant view of the valley.
The housing microregtons on the western bank of the Neretva originated at a later
period. The terrain had a very gentle downhill grade and the Radobolja with its arms
and little canals offered exceptional housing conditions.
Agricultural products typical of this climate were grown in the city gardens mostly on
the west bank of the Neretva and on land outside the city, 5 -15 krn away, the most
important alnong them being grapes. sweet cherries, apricots, peaches, pomegran-
ates. figs, and various vegetables. The craggy hills around the city were rich in sage
and heather, which rnade possible the developrnerit of apiculture.
A shop in the bazaar, a house in the mahala, a barn for a cow or perhaps a horse, a
vineyard ill. the vicinity of the city and several bee hives nearby the average city
dwelling craftsman from Mostar owned all of this!
Traces of the prehistoric era and the Roman days, discovered at more than one local-
ity, provide evidence that the valley of Mostar has been inhabited since very ancient
times . An old settlement in the Immediate vicinity of Mostar - the Old Town at Blagaj -
developed from a Roman settlement into an important medieval town which became
horne to Herceg Stjepan Vukcic, the ruler of the region in the 15th century, who gave
Hercegovina its name. .
A document written in 1440 refers to a fort next to a bridge on the Neretva river, as-
sociated with the name of Oost Radivoje, a member of Herceg Stjepan's suite. This is
in fact, the first historic reference to the locality of present-day Mostar. Another his-
toric record dated April 3, 1452, is letter by two Dubrovnik merchants informing their
wrote to their compatriots ill. the service of the Serbian king Djuradj Brarikovic that
Vladislav Hercegovic had fled from his father Herceg Stjepan and conquered, alnong
others, the bridge with adjoining forts on the Neretva river. 26
26
V. Corovld. Moster i njeqora srpsico-pravoslanna opiittna, Beograd 1933, page 9 : ". .vha preso quello ele
Togena c . Vra tar in S'utischa , Blagay et do castell al ponte ele Neretva" :
M. Vega in the book: Nascija srednjoojekonne boscuiske driave, Sarajevo 1957, gives the fasclmlle of the
original document with the translation and the correct elate .July 3, 1452.
33
In 1468 the Ottomans took Blagaj and, most likely, the fortresses close to the nearby
bridge over the Neretva. The small settlement around the bridge got its name from its
keepers, because mostar, in fact, means 'bridge keeper'. This settlement was first re-
ferred to as Mostar in 1474, when it was described as the seat of the Ottomans suba-
sa (police superintendent) Skender. 27
Because of the strategic importance of this crossing over the Neretva, the insecure
bridge was replaced by a new timbered one in the period of Mehmed Fatih's rule, be-
fore 1481. Since the main road from Bosnia towards the Adriatic coast used this
crossing over the Neretva, the bridge brought about a rapid expansion of the city and
a concomitant development of crafts and trade. The city became also the center of
culture and education in this part of the Ottoman State. It was rounded off as a
completed urban entity about 1670, and did not change significantly until 1878, the
year of the Austro-Hungarian .occupation.
The reign of S u leyrna.n II the Magnificent (1520-1566) was the tiIne of the greatest rise
and prosperity of the Ottoman State. In that period, huge wealth flowed into Istanbul,
brtnging about unprecedented economic and social progress. The Sultan's aspirations
after the glory of the antique world supported cultural development, especially the art
and architecture of Islam.
Numerous structures of extraordinary beauty were built in this period: mosques,
bridges, and harnams. It was at this tune that Ottoman architecture established cer-
tain spatial, constructional and decorative systems, based on its own aesthetic prin-
ciples. It was also during this period that the most important architectural moriu-
merits of Mostar carne into being: the Stari Most (Old Bridge), the large Karadjozbe-
gova and the Vucijakovica mosques together with some smaller ones, schools , Ira-
Inal11S , and a large rrurnber of other public buildings and housing structures.
I
The Stan Most
27
See Nedlm Ftlipovtc : "Pogl ed na osmanskl feudalizarn sa n aro cltlm osvrtom n a agrarne odnose."
Goriislljuk istorijslcog drustoa [--W-I IV. Saraj evo 1952. He c ite d the TU]Ju tahrir d efter from 1477. when
th ere ~ere only 20 households in Mostar, All the houses were on the left bank of the Neretva river. be-
tw een the bridge a n d the s q u a re (1lU.jdanl
34
Mostar's favorable geographic location caused it to be considered one of the most im-
portant cormnercial centers of the area with Widely developed connections to other
centers. This factor stimulated the development of craftsmanship, which thrived in
more than 30 different crafts.
The city was at its peak in the late 17th century, when its population reached 10 000,
when it boasted over 30 mosques, 7 medresas and several mektebs. 2 hamams, and a
number of other importan~ public facilities.
The dominant Muslim population developed their cultural activities to a considerable
extent during the Ottoman period. There were many learned persons, writers and po-
ets, some of whom some were famous and recognized far beyond from their native re-
gion. The city also became the seat of the muftija. (supreme religious leader of the
area) from lnid-17th century. Almost all trades and crafts were in the hands of Mos-
lerns in the 16th and 17th century.
Christians (Orthodox and Catholic) have always lived in the city along with Muslims,
with their nurnbers increasing since the early 18th century, The first record of Chris-
tian population in Mostar dates back to 1575. 2 8 The Orthodox population had their
own church in the 18th century and Mostar became the seat of the Metropolitan
(head of an ecclesiastical province) in 1767. Another Eastern Orthodox church, the
largest in all of Bosnia and Hercegovina, was built in Mostar in 1873.
Mostar: panorama, 1 9 0 8
Catholics built their first church in 1847 along with the Bishop's restderice at Vu-
kod ol. A cathedral was built at Podhum in 1866 to meet the needs of the Increastng
Catholic population. These two churches represent the last large-scale architectural
structures built during the Ottoman administratton.
28 Vl adirnir (Y
:o rovi c . ibid .. p.16
35
The Hercegovinian Sandiak as a part of the Bosnian Beglerbegluk was established at
the beginning of 1470 and lasted until 1878. Its seat was in Foca, then at Pljevlje and,
in 1833, it rn oved to Mostar. The sandzak-beg resided in Mostar from 1522 to 1530. 2 9
Mostar also becarne the seat of the regional JcadiluJc (area covered by a Jcadija - the
sharia judge) in the late 15th century.P? The kadija had legal authority and the vojvo-
cia with his 50 soldiers had police authority. All of those high officials had numerous
clerks under them, who also resided in Mostar.
The janissary headquarters with their commander (serdar) were also located in Mo-
star until the abohs hment of janissary troops in 1826.
The dizclar commanded the soldiers defending the bridge forts during the period up to
the establishment of a regular European-style army in the middle of the 19th century.
A captaincy was also set up in Mostar between 1700 and 1706 and was revoked in
1835. The offices of the captaincy and the dizdar were hereditary. Captains were cho-
s en frorn the farnily of Vucijakovic and the housing complex that they occupied is still
called Kapetanovina.
Mostar had its Mimar-Aga (builder), its ajans (representatives in the Bosnian gover-
nor's council), and, for a time, a musellim - the Pasa's representative.
A part of Mostar was walled in the Ottornan period, and the fortification was rein-
forced several tunes during the wars with Venice, especially after the armistice at
Karlovci. During the Holy Alliance War, mercenaries from Venice headed by Stojan
Jankovic attacked Mostar in 1687 and burned sorne housing areas on the west bank
of the Neretva, but could not penetrate within the walled part of the city. Another at-
tack , by the duke of Venice Mezzenigo in 1717 , was even less successful.

Two other rnajor armed conflicts in Mostar were the Basas' rebellion in 1782 and the
con flict between the feudal lords Ali-Aga Dedic and Ali-Aga Voljevica in the second
decade of the 19th century,

Mos t a r : Urban scheme

Mostar 1895: A viewfrom the south
29 H . Kr esevljakovic . Esnofi i obrti 11 Bo sni i H erz eqonini, II Mostar /1 4 6.'3-1878/. Zagreb. p . 72 .
30 Ibid .. p . 129.

36 37
But Mostar also had its share of other misfortunes. It was hit by the plague in 1507,
1689, 1731 and 1813, and a cholera epidemic raged through the city in 1845. There
are historic records about these epidernics as well as references to thern in folk po-
etry.

There are no records of the exact number of fires but we are certain abolit two big
ones, which occurred in 1852 and 1861/1862, burning down a large number of
shops and houses. A powerful earthquake occurred in 1563 and floods caused great
damage several times.

The conflict between Ali-Pasa Rlzvanbegovlc and Orner Pasa Latas brought about tu-
multuo us events in 1851.

Diseases, disasters, rebellions, and wars were elernents of a larger picture of the
weakening Ottornan State, which in turn weakened the economic potential of the city
and the Itving standards of its people .

The decline of the Ottoman State led to the occupation of Bosnia and Hercegovina by
Austria-Hungary in 1878. Mostar was taken on August 5, 1878. This date rnarked the
beginning of a new era, introducing radical changes in the economic and social
relations.

The foregoing outline of the historical developrnent of Mostar during the time of the
Ottornan State is meant to serve as a typical example of the transformation of an
urban environment in Bosnia and Hercegovina from a rnedieval settlement to an impor-
tant Ottoman-style town.

The Ottomans considered the rnedieval fortress next to the bridge as the central point
of the cornmunlcation system for this region. The fortress also became the nucleus
around which the city developed very rapidly. The bridge was replaced by a more solid
s t ru ct u re before 1481 , but only the stone bridge completed in 1566 was able to with-
stand the intense military and commercial traffic over it. The bridge was built most
probably within a period of two years from designs by Mimar Hajrudin with the
lTIOney collected in Hecegovinian counties (lcadilulc). The adjacent towers of Tara and
Halebija were rebuilt during the construction of the stone bridge.

The new bridge was a powerful stirnulus to the growth of the city. The bazaar was
considerably enlarged and the city fortification system was expanded and reinforced.
All cornrrrurricatiori leading to the Old Bridge was protected by the towers, which were
linked by walls . A systern 'o f towers and gates rnade up a genuine fortress next to the
bridge itself.

The main bastion (Labija) of the town walls was situated at Suhodolina , with the
co mma n d e rs " residence located nearby. These structures dominated the city. The
konak (the governor's residence) was restored by Ali-Pasa Rlzvaribegovic , who also
a d d e d another section to it. In that period he also had a second residence built for
hirn outside the city at a place also called Buna, close to the Buna river.

Mostar : Urban development

38 39

The Bazaar: t he Core of the Town
The bazaar, or carsija 3 1 is the vital focus of any Islamic town. It is usually located at a
road junction, at an important point on the main road, around an important fortifica-
tion, or at a river crossing. The bazaar attracted craftsmen and merchants of every
known kind. There was usually a central square with many small streets around it,
each designated for a particular craft. Craftsmen were organized in associations
(esnajl, rnuch in the way they still are in certain European countries. The esnaf was a
typically urban institution set up to stimulate development of the particular, craft and
to rnairita in a good balance between individual initiative and the solidarity in the
group. In Islarnic towns, these group never aspired to political power, as was often the
case with siInilar groups in western Europe.
The biggest bazaar in Bosnia and Hercegovina is the Bascars ija in Sarajevo, which
has all the structures typical of a large eastern bazaar: a mosque complex, a bezistan,
a hamam, a claire, and a multitude of shops.
Bascarsija in Sarajevo
The Austro-Hungarian survey at the end of the 19th century
31 In Bosnia and Hercegovina the word carsija is always used to refer to a Ottoman style bazaar.
40
The bazaar is the center of an Ottornan town's commercial zone, where most of the
town's econornic activities take place. In larger towns these activities spread out to
other points outside the rnain market, For example, in Istanbul, which was divided
into three separate sections, there were, besides the main bazaar, other smaller ba-
zaars in each of these sections. Belgrade had six bazaars. Banja Luka, consisting of
several completely separate settlements, had four smaller merchant-trade centers.
There was us ually no roorn in the bazaar for family houses.
In Mostar, the bazaar was formed on both sides of the Old Bridge, on the left bank
from behind the Halebija tower in the south to the clock tower in the east and to Si-
nan Pas ina Mosque in the north. The "upper" bazaar was located on the main road
and was called Velika Tepa, while the "lower" bazaar, called Mala Tepa,32 was situated
in the vicinity of the Koski Mehmed Pas ina Mosque. A third part of the bazaar was
called Kujundziluk and was situated between the Mala Tepa and the Stari Most. The
Prijecka business area was located on the right bank of the Neretva - from the Bridge
to the Tabacica Mosque and the tabhana (the tanners district). There was' a line of
important watennills in the area, too.
The bazaar in Mostar was particularly important during the construction of the Old
Bridge between 1550 and 1570 when only 'three donors had 153 shops an~ many
other facilities built there. The donors were Hadzi Mehrnedbeg-Karadjozbeg, Cejvan-
cehaja, and Nasuh-Aga Vucijakovic. Their donations gave rise to mosques, hamams,
mektebs, rnedresas, iInarets, shops, warehouses, water-mills, as well as water supply-
ing facilities. This period of 'intensive building gave the city all its public structures
and influenced the formation of the housing mlcroregions. the mahalas, which pro-
vided housing space to all those who worked in the bazaar. Evlija Cele bi, the famous
Ottornan traver-writer, described the bazaar very briefly: " It (i.e. Mostar) has a bazaar
with 350 solidly built shops." This estimated nurnber of shops is probably accurate
and the term "solidly built' no doubt refers to the stone partition walls and roof clad-
ding.
There were 30 different guilds in Mos tar. The following 11 existed in 1762: ekmekcizije
(bakers " guild), ierzije (tailors), baemakcije (shoemakers). dyers, cUT'cije (furriers), ce-
bed.zije (mariufacturers of shaggy homespun blanket), kujurict.zijo: (goldsrniths),
titnurd zija (blacksmiths, locksmiths. makers of sabres and rifles), iabaciztje (tanner's),
berber! (barbers) and duncizeri (builders). In 1875 these 11 crafts comprised 122
shops with 199 rnaster-craftsmen and 563 workmen.
The tanners' guild was the rnost developed. Their shops were the most solidly built
and a row of tanners' shops was located within the northern section of the city walls.
The tanners also had their own mosque, the only one of its kind. Red sahtijan or ka -
jser (goat leather), one of their products, was considered the best in the Islamlc world
at the time and was a valuable export commodity.
After watering rnany a garden and s upplying water to the inhabitants of the west
bank of the Neretva, the Radobolja river rarnified into several streams flowing through
the bazaar. There, it provide power for numerous rnills. A water-mill was particularly
precious at the tirne, and a leasehold on it was more costly than on a shop, a harnam,
or a house with a garden.
32 Tepa derives lrorn th e Turkish word for "hill": the Bosnian word ueliica and malo m e,111 "b ig" a n d
"small." Both places are on a h igh er level in relation to the Olel Bridge.
41
All business activity in the bazaar (outside the public facilities) was carried out in two
types of structures: shops and storehouses. Shops were srnall ground-floor structures
attached to each other C?n both sides of narrow streets. They were usually built of
wood, combined with lateral stone walls and stone roofcladding. They were raised a
little above the street level and closed with two horizontal wooden shutters in front
making up the so-called cepetiak: The lower shutter was used to sit on and work
when the shop was open . This means that people sat on the floor as they did at home.
There were also shops with storage r00111 behind them, because the downhill grade of
the bazaar made it fairly easy to construct them.
A third type of shop, the "storehouse" (magaza), was occasionally a two-story struc-
ture. At the ground floor was a shop, while the upstairs or the basement was used for
a storage. Thick stone walls, ceilings made with timber beams, vaulted stone roofs
with roof cladding made of stone slates, windows protected by it-on bars (demir) and
iron shutters were features of this new type of shop. Stone storehouses were built on
lots "cleared" by fire, a practice begun in the middle of the 19th century under Oal -
marian influence .
The bazaar in Mostar, in 1905
The mosques, the inns, and the
Stari Most and its fortifications.
quality, on a considerably larger
the ground. All these structures
public baths dominated the bazaar together with the
Those structures were built of cut stone of a higher
scale, separated from rows of shops, placed freely on
added to a harmonious composition of an outstand-
ingly urban character.
Those who worked in the bazaar used the bazaar's mosques for prayer during the day.
The harnams were used by all the inhabitants of the city.
42
It is very interesting to note that a major portion of the trade was in the hands of mer-
chants of Orthodox faith from the middle of the 19th century onward. Orthodox mer-
chants lived in several mahalas, especially at Bjelusine in houses that were slightly
different from those of the Muslims of the same economic class. They lived and
worked in the bazaar together with Mus lims and shared with then an almost identical
life -style .
Water and the City
From time Immemorial people were inclined to build their settlements near water as a
necessary element of life . Water, more than any other feature, characterizes an Is-
Iarnic settlement. It is easential to life and an indispensable e lement in ablutions. At
the sarne time, it is regarded as a kind of image of the soul, of its fluidity and purity.
"We made from water every living thing" (Qur'an XX1:30), this great Qur'anic truth
which has since become a scientific statement, may still be read in ornate Arabic let-
ters engraved even today on old stone fountains.
Mostar is fortunate to be located on the banks of the Neretva river, the jugular vein of
the whole region of Hercegovina. This life-generating quality of the Neretva is intensi-
fied through its tributary the Radobolja flowing into the Neretva in the immediate vi -
cinity of the Stari Most. The Neretva is an ice-cold rapid river, not easily accessible
because of its steep craggy banks. It was therefore not very useful to the inhabitants
around it . It was very hard and dangerous going down the bank to fetch water frorn it
in winter or on rainy days. People mostly used a pulley with a thick chain to take
water out of the Neretva. There were also stmilar smaller devices in the courtyards
adjoining the Neretva bed.
n
~
yJ
I
1iF..1 ._
,-
--
Sadrvan in Hafiz HavacUe's Mosque courtyard in Mostar
(photograph taken in 1905)
43
The Rado bolja contrasts to the Neretva by offering many possibilities for human use. Houses located on high hillsides used water from cisterns built tor comrnon needs in
At a very early stage in the development of the city, a large-scale system of canals was courtyards of the rnosques or other public structures. The larger housing complexes
constructed in residential areas on the west bank of the Neretva for the irrigation of had their own cisterns. The water at the Mus libegovic family household is interesting
gardens and for household needs. The Radobolja starts frorn springs at the village of for its capacity and convenient location.
Ilici, 2,5 - 3 km from the Old Bridge, soon dividing its waters arnong several beds and
uniting them again immediately before flowing into the Neretva. Numerous canals bi-
Mahalas - Residential Microregions
furcate successively from the riverbed and their network irrigates a large rrumber of
gardens in the housing areas of Podhum and, especially, in Cernica.
Canals crossing the bazaar were used to move the wheels of water-mills. The latter Mahalas were traditional neighbourhoods found in all parts of the Ottoman State.
were 19 in number and played an important role in the life of the city and its inhabi- They were residential areas with their own mosques, shops, schools, and other facili-
tants. Water from canals was also used by craftsmen, producers of blankets, tanners, ties needed in daily life. Every mahala had its own commurial spirit and mutual-aid
and others. system which contributed to the identity of each mahala and to a high degree of so-
There were also hamams in the town, one near the tannery, another close to Sinan cial cohesion. This was particularly true of small towns. Every mahala had its wealthy
Pasina Mosque at Mejdan. They were an important element of the highly developed and poor inhabitants. In some the wealthy prevailed over the poor, in others the poor
Ottoman housing culture and, at the same time, were connected to the cult of water may have outnumbered the better-off, but slum-like settlements were not known-to
brought to these parts by Islam. People meeting in a hamam, relaxed by the murmur exist. The poorer inhabitants were always under the patronage of the rich neighbor-
of the water within its interior, discussed their affairs and made business deals. 1100d families so that extreme social differences were greatly neutralized.
The first water supply system was built most probably in the 15th century and was
used originally for supplying water from the Neretva to the harnam at Mejdan. The
first water supply systern tapping the Radobolja had pipes installed across the Old
Bridge on the Neretva during the actual building of the bridge.
Evlija <;elebi recorded that Ibrahirn-efendija Rozriarnedzija had built the first water
supply system, which brought water through brass pipes over the Old Bridge to the
left bank of the Neretva and then caused it to flow in different directions to mosques,
rnedresas, and harnams. The first water supply system over the Old Bridge was made
of wooden stove pipes; the second was built in 1629/30 with earthen pipes, whose
remnants are still in evidence.
The water supply system from the springs Djevojacke vode (girls' waters) at Carina
was built before 1650. It supplied water for three fountains (sadrvan) and 12 public
water taps (ces mo ).
In 1885 the Austro-Hungarian adrninistration built a new water supply systern using
the water from the springs of the Radobolja. The housing units were not connected to
the water supply systern. Unless they used pulleys to take water from the Neretva,
households obtained their water from the Radobolja and its canals. Water was also
ta.ke n from the public fountain next to the rnosque or public water taps in the parts of
the city further away from the Neretva or the Rado bolja. The Buna river provided
water to houses close to its banks. Banja Luka: mahalas in the central part of the town
1. Haciztbeqoua ,2 . Dzoferoqtna. 3. Humcartja, 4 . Tabaci, 5 . Kubandoqa, 6. llidia, 7, Sofu Mehmed Paso. 8.
Osman-Seth, 9. Gomji Seher, 10. Sehitluk

The number of mahalas was indicative of the size of a settlement. In 1878 Banja Luka
had 37 mahalas, 1,741 houses, and 9,560 inhabttants.V In 1845 Sarajevo had 104
mahalas.P" Livno had 9 mahalas with 660 households.P'i

In Foca, which was an important town in Ottoman times, there were 17 mahalas with
a total of2,730 inhabitants in 1585,36 and 2,968 inhabitants in 1879. 37

33 See Alija Bejtlc: "Banja Luka pod Turskom vladavlnorn." Nase starine I. Sarajevo 1953.
34 See: Alija Bejtic: Ulice i trqot» Sarajena , Sarajevo 1973. pp.15-16.
35 Fehun Oz. Spaho. "Llvno u rantm tursklrn Izvortrna", POF 32-33, Sarajevo 1982-83. pp. 147-162.
36 The census of 1585 registered sixteen Muslim and one Christian mahala. At that time Foca had 545
Muslim and 11 Christian households.
37 In the Austro-Hungartan census of 1879 registered 2.329 Muslims, 638 Orthodox, and 1 Catholic, a to-
The Velagica house close to the Buna river in Blagaj
tal of 2.968 inhabitants.

44 45
 The inhabitants were predominantly Mushm. but the number of Christians began to
. ! / 1/1 grow from the beginning of the 18th century. They were only 10 in riumber in 1630,
/' /!
i ', . 1 /
by 1813, 339 Catholics were registered as living in Mostar and at Ilici. Mostar had
J./ / 684 houses with an Orthodox population in 1848, and 2,534 Orthodox inhabitants in
1856 . In 1879, a year after Austro-Hungarian occupation there were in Mostar 1,909
~/ houses with 2,535 households and 10,848 inhabitants, of whom 6,421 were Mushrns.
3,026 Orthodox, 1,366 Catholics, and 35 Jews. 3 8.In 1885 Mostar had 1,975 houses,
(/ 2,104 dwelling units occupied by 12,665 inhabitants, of whorn 6,442 were rnen and
6.223 women. There were 6,825 Musluns, 3,369 Orthodox and 2,359 Catholics, 98
) .Jews , and 17 followers of other religions. 39 Of the total number of inhabitants 7,035
were bachelors and 4,356 were married. When compared with the statistics from
! 1703, the latter number seems to be exaggerated. The number of housing units in-
creased up until the end of the 17th century to a nurnber which remained stable up
to the time of the Austro-Hungarian occupation.

Foca : 17 mahalas
In tile I 5 til century uierefoundcd: I. Hcunzabeqoua; 2. Fatime Sultan, 3. Mustafa Pasa: 4. AWe;
in tile I 6tll century: 5. DzqIerbegooa; 6. Hasan Naztrooa; 7.Dzafer Ceiebijina: 8.Meluneclbegooa;
P. Kaeli Osman; 10. Hadzi Mustafa; 11. Seih Pirtjina- Tabaci; 12. Hadz! Seferooa; 13. Varas;
14. Muminbeqooa;
in tile l Ztli century: 15. Hculz i Oemanooa; 16. Sulejman. beqooa, and 1 7. Ali Pas ina.

In Mostar, housing areas were built rather freely outside the city walls for a long pe-
riod of time. They were different from those near the bazaar close to the Old Bridge,
which were rnore compact and orderly. The first mahala originated in the Vicinity of
the Old Bridge around the Mejdan square, where the provincial governor Stnan-Pasa
built a rnosque in 1474. According to the register of real estates, the so call Tapu tahri
defier, Mostar had only 19 houses in that year.

The biggest population growth occurred around the middle of the 16th century as a
result of rapid economic development of the city. Mostar had several rnahalas on the
left bank in 1566, along with many rnesdzids and four mosques. In 1670, the city had
24 rriahalas. At this time it reached its peak number of inhabitants, which was not be The Roenarneddijina. mahala in Mostar,' above the Neretva river
exceeded until the arrival of Austria-Hungary. Evlija Celebi was in Mostar in 1633
and registered 3,040 solidly built houses and 53 mosques. Both figures are
38
exaggerated. In 1703 the population of Mostar was about 12,000. H . Kresevljakovlc: ibid .. p.'72.
39
Karla Peez: Mostar unci seine Kulturkreis, Leipzg 1891.

46 47
In the official documerrts, court registers 40 numerical data on the mahalas is given on
an annual basis. It appears that the city had 24 mahalasIn 1633 and 30 in 1670 .
Only t hree mosques were built in Mostar after 1663: Hadzi Ibrahima Cevre, .Kotlina
and Ali -Pase Rtzvaribegovica . The mahalas were usually named after the mosques and
mesdztds they were situated by. Since, apart from the bazaar mosques, most of the
others were centers of particular mahalas, the number of latter can be gauged fairly
accurately from the number of mosq ues. A total of 35 mosques were built in Mostar
during the Ottoman time. Since the Koski Mehmed Paslna Mosque, the Tabacica
Mosque, and the mesdzid of Sultan Javuz Selim II were within the area of the bazaar,
the number of the mahalas would have been 32.
The city developed first on the left bank close to the bazaar, then spread to the south
and north, passing onto the right bank close to the hill of Hum on the left bank of the
Radobolja around the middle of the 17th century. Mahalas first originated on the east
bank of the Neretva. This bank was considered healthier and safer. The commander's
residence was built there, as well as all administrative structures and some wealthy
persons' houses.
The following factors influenced the formation of a mahala: ground configuration,
safety, availability of roads, pleasant views of surrounding area, insulation, rivers or
s trearns. and orchards. Most mahalas in Mostar met these requirements, except for
the ones on the slopes of the Stolac hill, which had difficulties with running water,
and a group of mahalas at the foot of Hum which did not have adequate amounts of
sunshine. The same rriaha las were Inhabited both by Muslims and Christians.

Mostar had a clearly differentiated urban scheme taken over from the East: the
14
housing area was clearly separated from the business section of the town.
10
11
9 In the old part of the town, however, mos t of the earlier structures were preserved and
5
only a few new ones were built because the Austrians did not find this economically
~ advantageous and were reluctant to invest in it.
19
1
13
7
19
20

2
15
18
,31

26 17

3
27

12
32
21

Mostar- mahalas
The mahalas on the left bank: 1. Karadjozbegova (the mosque in this mahala was built in 1557)2. Cejvan-
(eh<:ljina -(1552) 3. Saric"a(1637) 4. Roznamedzfjina (before 1620): 5. Kjose .Iahlja Hodztna (before 1620) 6.
Sinan Pashia (1474) 7. Hadzl Salina (before 1612) 8. Husein Havadztna (before 1633) 9. Fatima Kaclun (before
1633) 10. Mernl Havadzlna (before 1633) II . Mehmed-cehajlna (befo re 1592) 12 . Kotlina (before 1768) 13.
Hafiz Havadztna (before 1633) 14 . Tere Jahijlna 15. Ahrneta C:uri~ije (before 1650) 16. Bajazlt Havadztna
(before 1612) 17 . Kotlevlna (before 1633) 18. Kamber Aglna 19. Hadzt Velijina 20 .Brankovac (the Nasuh-Aga
Vuciakovlc Mosque, 15 18) 21. All-Paslna (before 1847). The mahalas on the right bank: 22. Nezlr Agtna
(before 1550) 23 . Dervis Pastna (1592) 24. Hadzl Lanna (before 1633) 25 . Baba Beslrova (befo re 1633) 26.
.Jahija Esfelova 27. Sevri Hadzt Hasanova (before 1621) 28. Hadzl Memijina. known as Cernica (before 1650)
29. Ali Havadztna (before 1633) known as Raljevina 30. Hadzl Ahmet-Begova (1649/50). Rlclna 31. Zlrajlna
, 32 . Cevrina (before 1686)

40
An overview of several mahalas of Mostar (1. Karadjozbegova, 2. Roznameddijina,
The Inforrnatlon presented here is to be found in the court registers. so called sicl'iils, from the years
6 . Sinan-pasina,7. HadZi Balina, 8. Husein HavaclZe, 13. Hafiz Hauadde, 15. Ahmeta CUrCije, 28.
1633 (at the Institute for Orlental Studies in Sarajevo). '1768. 1828 and 1829 (at the Hercegovlntan Ar-
chives in Mostar). Cernica)

48 49
The Mus lim house was strictly isolated from the street, while the Christian one was In the urban composition of the city, a very important place is taken by religious
more open to public life. This is the only major difference between the Muslim and the structures, especially the mosques, which were usually located so as to dominate the
Christian parts of a rnahala. The houses at the Brankovac mahala offer a good exam- whole city area. The mosques were places were people of a neighbourhood got to-
ple. By its internal organization of space the Christian house differs somewhat from gether, and were therefore both social and spiritual centers of the mahalas. The
the Muslim one, but all the basic design elements are very much alike. The cult of mosque has a threefold purpose: socio-religious. educational, and political.
neighborhood is one of the basic principles influencing housing construction in this !l
"
part The philosophy of housing is deeply social and humane.
In the period of Austro-Hungarian occupation the city spread northward on the right
bank of the Neretva, where there was plenty of free space for building. The railroad
station and a new hospital were built in this part. The new structure reflect radical
changes in the economy, in administration, and in the life style of the general popu-
lace. The city was divided into eight areas: Carina, Brankovac, Bjeluaine, Old Town,
Luka, Cernica, Poclhurn, and Zahum.

The Mosque Complex: The Nucleus of the Settlement

The nucleus of a typical Ottoman-Balkan town or settlement is the religious complex
with accompanying buildings, which provided for the cultural, social, and judicial
needs of the inhabitants. Mahalas grew around these complexes, their size being
largely determined by the service capacity offered by the complex itself. This means
that an Ottoman town is not dominated by a single place of worship, as was mostly
the case in medieval Europe . As the Ottoman towns were administered by a central-
ized adrninistration in Istanbul, their basic structure was very much the same on the
entire territory of the empire.

The Gazi Husrevbegova Mosque Complex in Sarajevo

The mosque complex represented the center of the housing micro region, the mahala,
and consisted of a mosque, a mekteb, and a cemetery (harem or mezarlulc). Higher
schools, the medresas , were usually built near the most Important mosque of a city.

Every mahala also had at least one public water tap, which had both a utilitarian and
a human value because it was a place where spontaneous socializing took place.
Bosnians have always been very sociable and have derived great pleasure from talking
to people ill their homes, numerous coffee -houses, shops , or in and around the
Inosques.

Graveyards took up almost all empty spaces in the city giving it a special" visual d i-
merision - snow-white tombstones scattered over a green patch. Their inner peace
contrasting sharply with the busy life around them, they seemed to be located at
places where they could remind people of the transitoriness of human life on earth.
Tombstones not only mark the graves, their special features also symbolize the per-
son buried, his or her sex, profession, and social standing. The Ottoman-Balkan
tornbstones reflected both the indigenous influences of Bogornil tombstones (stecalc)
and the Turkish-Islamtc ones. They manifest outstanding workmans hlp and artistic
finesse, especially ill their rich and heterogeneous decorations and inscriptions.

Their decorative motifs were based in a domestic tradition but were amply enriched
by Islarnic features as well as, in many cases, by beautiful original creations. Carved
Arabic-alphabet inscriptions ill Arabic, Turkish, or Persian, together with other ele-
merits of the tombstone structure, often told stories about the lives of deceased per-
Mosque complex - nucleus of settle.nent
sons, so that they represent an important source for the history of the settlement, es-
pecially with regard to its notables and their contributions to the community at large .

50 51
 III
ARCHITECTURE

Islarnic art is characterized by a great integrative power, especially in the domain of

architecture, which is the rnost developed kind of art in all Islamic countries. The ar-
chitecture of Bosnia and Hercegovina during the Ottoman time shared all basic char-
acteristics of Ottoman Islarnic art.

The ruler's court, and more irnportantly the institution of the vakuf, supported archi-
tectural activity. During the Ottoman reign there was hardly any aspect of life that
was not influenced by vakuf. An endless number of religious, charitable, business,
and public institutions within the boundaries of the Empire were set up using the
systern of vakuf, All kinds of structures - from roads, bridges, and water-supply sys-
t ern, to moriurnerrtal religious structures - were built with vakuf endowments.

One of the twelve court generals, who was called bostanctzi-basa, s upervised garden-
e rs and masoris.v! Even the main architect of the empire was subject to him. In the
period of culrnination of the Ottoman state in the middle of the 16th century, the
position of the rnain architect was occupied by Kodza Mirnar Sinan (1538-1588).

In the Ottoman army there was a special branch of mechanics, which also included
builders, who were charged with building all the fortification structures, bridges, and
other rnilitary facilities. Construction activities were also administered at the level of a
s andzak. 42 Renowned builders were known to obtain aristocratic titles as well as
large estates. All of this bears witness to the fact that architecture held a position of
special irnportance in the socio -economic and state system of the Ottornan State.

In the general flowering of architecture handicrafts played an important role, espe-

cially those connected to work in textiles , stone, wood and metal, and, in conse-
quence, these crafts blossorned during the Ottoman period. Almost all of the artisans
worked at the bazaar. The bazaar was not only the main resource of the economy, but
was itself the prime model of the architectural and decorative art. The main character-
istics of Ottoman Islarnic architecture are contained in the monumental dorned
rnosques, the public butldings. and in urban residential structures.

Mosques

The religious architecture of Islam is inspired by the idea that man's esthetic sense is
a gift of God and should be cultivated to the utmost. In this architecture the search
for beauty and the rnethod of construction always go hand in hand, there can be no
s eparating of art from technology.

The Karadjozbegova Mosque complex. Mostar
The main concerns of Ottornan architecture were to connect the rational and the
d ecorative in a building systern and to accentuate the rnonolithic aspect of this archi-
t ecture. The typical structure is a cubic building surmounted by a hemispheric
c rown , the transitional zone between the sphere and the cube being composed. in the
interior , of triangular facets assembled in more or less open fan-shapes.

41
S ee Hu sref Redzt«: Isiamsku uinjetn ost, Beo grad 1982 . p . 39.
42 MOTll1l1WTlIa turcica , Book 1. p. 29 . Th e Institute for Ori ental studies. S araj evo .

52 53
After the Ottomans conquered the Byzantine Empire in 1453, they discovered the ar- The Byzantine influence was manifes ted in a "floating" dome on four pillars and
chltectura l marvel of Hagia Sophia with its Immense dome "suspended from the sky". combtnations of domes with half-cupolas. This model, however, was limited to the
This building prompted Ottoman architects to explore new methods of construction, large mosques in Istanbul. A single-space domed mosque was considered to be ade-
largely with the aim of building monumental mosques comparable to the Hagia So- quate for setting man apart from the endless external space of nature through a
phia. The great mosque of Sultan Selim II in Edirne, designed by Mimar Sinan, construction of pure geometrical bodies of the cube, the sphere, the cylinder, and the
showed that this aim was soon achieved. Prior to the construction of this mosque, Si- cone (the latter two making up the minaret).
nan and other architects had built many mosques of different dimensions and artistic
features, but most of them were rather small and modest buildings. The interior of the mosque contributes to an atmosphere of intimacy and is arranged
in such a way as to make possible absolute concentration of thought and perfect
Developing space within a mosque complex is perhaps the most iInportant task of an
peace.
architect working within the frame of Islamic architecture. "The artist who wishes to
express the idea of the 'unlty of existence' or the 'unity of real' has actually three
means at his disposal: geometry which translates it into the spatial order; rhythm,
which reveals it in temporal order and also indirectly in space; and light, which is to
visible forms what Being is to limited existence. "43
The oldest Arab mosques are characterized by a partly covered space, multi-aisled
porches, and recurring rectarigular surface of the same altitude, as well as by a lack
of emphasis on any particular part. The spread of Islam into colder climates required
a more enclosed space.
In the course of time, a spacious domed mosque became the basic model to which
everybody aspired. The dome (lcube) is a symbol of sanctity and leadership. In the pre-
Islamic period the dorne was a small tent made of leather where holy stones were
stored. The Seljuk type of mosque, called ulu 44 mosque - several square spaces
covered with identical cupolas - became a model for other subsequently built public
structures. Another type of structure of Seljuk provenance - a central dome
connected to a rturnber of small cupolas over the entrance porch - remained the
model used as a basis in searching for a perfect composition.

c J r
~ I
+ --- ~ .l
IT

o ~

:
1

E] ."

. , - _ .-
. .......
"

_:~~
.........
. ~

(~' )

Development of spatial structure of the mosque:

1. Arab Mosque: multi-naved porch 2. The Seljuk Ulu Mosque
3. Standard single-space domed mosque

The interior of the Gazi Husrevbegova Mosque in Sarajevo, the Sulejmanija. Mosque in Travnik and
43 T. Burckhardt: Art cfletatn. Common Lanquaqc and Meaniiu], p. 76. the FerhatpaSina in Banja Luka
44 1",/ ~ ro -r- , : :' l:is h for 'gr eat. large'.

54 55
All parts of the interior are equally valuable. Only the place of the mihrab - the im.am's .
niche - is emphasized: The mihrab has a symbolic meaning because it shows the di-
r ection to Mecca, to which the faithful must turn in their prayers.
The mihrab is indisputably a creation of sacral art. The form of the rnihrab is the fo-
cus of a particularly rich and profound symbolism, Sim.ilarity between the rnihrab and
a niche with a lamp is mentioned in the Qur'an (XXIV: 35 ).
The word Jami is also used for mosque. This Arabic word derives from a root meaning
't o assemble , to unite. ' Originally it referred only to a mosque which could also be
used for the obligatorily collective Friday noon prayers. These prayers regularly
included a sermon (hutba) for which a pulpit (mimber=minber) was constructed. The
prototype of the minber was a stool with three levels, which the Prophet used in his
rnoaque in Medina to talk to the faithful. Today's shape of the minber originated in
the Seljuk period: a narrow staircase with hand-rails on either side, a cone or
pyramid-s haped roof over the top landing, and a doorway at the foot of the stairs .
The interior of the mosque also included a gallery (mahfil) in front of the entrance wall
and a raised fenced seat (curs) adjoined to the left wall and used for lectures (vaz) un-
related to the ritual
The Ottoman mosque is in many ways reminiscent of the kind of tent (yurt) used by
Turkic nomads. The interior space of the mosque is almost a replica of the inside of a
yurt. The carpet which in a yurt was placed on the ground and made the space warm
and pleasurable, becarne a regular feature of the mosque, too. The cozy atmosphere of ,
a yurt's interior has been largely kept in the Ottoman house, the mausoleum, and the
mosque.
The minaret is used for the call to prayer. At the beginning of Islam, the muezzin
called from the roof of the mosque or any other raised surface. Later the minaret with
its tapering top pointing toward heaven acquired an irnportant symbolic meaning.
During the 16th century Istanbul and other major Ottoman cultural centers were the
sources of new concepts and ideas in sacral architecture. While Bosnian caravanse-
rais, bezistans, and hamams continued to be built acco rding to t he Ulu-rnosque style,
the domed mosques in Bo~nia and Hercegovina , wi th few exceptions , were b u ilt u s ing
n ew, up-to date ideas which had been conceived a mere decade earlier, in the archi-
tectural workshops of the capital. This Interesting phenomenon can be explained not
only by the dono rs' awareness that the capital boasted the greatest numb er of expert
a rchitects , b ut also by an even keener awareness of t he r ich a rtistic t raditio n of t he
old im.pe rial ci ty , that time -h o n o u r e d m etrop olis w hich , s ince its fo u n d a tio n by Con- .
stantine the G reat, had presented Europe wi t h grand edifices. These powerfu l Byzan-
tine traditions also inspired a rtistic c reatio n in Ottoman Is t a n bul, particularly in
arc h it ec t u r e , throughout the '16th century, and a lso exerted infl uence on t he artistic
a c t ivity eve n in the far -fl ung provinces o f t h e va s t Ottornan S tate.
Basic type s of mosques. So far no class ification of the various types of Otto man Is -
larnic architecture has been carried out in Bos nia a n d Herce govina. S uch a class ifi-
cation c o uld be based on typological var iatio ns w ith regard s t o t he or igin of the
b u ild ings and on the gradual acceptance of cer tain s patial a n d const r uct io nal con -
cepts wi thin each p articular type . The dorned m osques, cer tain ly t h e m ost r eprese n -
t a t ive ex a m ples of Is lamic m o numental a rch itect ure in Ma c e d onia, Ser b ia, Kos ovo
a nd Bos nia a n d H erce govina, may be cate gorized into fo u r b a s ic types.

Domed mosques. As early as the 15th century the Ottomans began to introduce into
the central Balkan area their by now well-defined and mature designs for a new kind
of domed temple, along with other typically Islamic buildings such as the medresa,
the hamarn, the bezistan, andthe caravanserai. They built various buildings in Mace-
donia , Kosovo, Saridzak and Serbia which bear the stamp of the Bursa and early Is-
tanbul styles. The Bursa style is evident in the Sultan Murat II Mosque (1436), and
the Isa k Beg Mosque (1438) in Skopje. The former is a three-riaved basilica with
hipped roof, while the latter is a multiroorn mosque covered by a central dome and
apse vaults . The dome is a rnassive construction, yet it has a perfect shape. A mini-
mum of decoration and a modest interior are the main peculiarities of this style.

The early Istanbul style retains the architectural decor of the Bursa style , but is ori-
ented toward a big space. The manner of construction and the building materials
were taken over from Byzantium. In the course of building, the local builders trained
in Byzantine times played an Important role. The most important structures erected
under the early Istanbul style are the Mehmed Fatth Mosque in Pristina (1461), the '
Gazi Isa Beg Mosque in Skopje (1475), and the Mustafa Pasa Mosque in Skopje
(1484). The Me hrned Fatih Mosque has a square room covered by a dome, spanning a
distance of 13.5 meters, which'suggests an aspiration to build a very large domed
mosq ue. This aspiration is also manifest in the Mustafa Pasa Mosque with a dome of
B a sic p lan of d omed mosques .
16.3 m in diameter. Gazi Isa Beg Mosque has a prayer space consisting of two square
a) T he m os que in NiS, b) t he K a radjozbeg ova Mosque in Mostar,
surfaces covered by domes of the same size, with an overall length of 20.5 m.
c) the Gazi H usre vb eg o va Mos q u e in Sarajevo , d)The Ha s anagin a Mosque at R ogovo,
e) The H adun Mosque in Djako vica , .fJ Pe rtiatp a bina Mo sque in B anja Luka

56 57
The rnost widespread type in the 16th century was the standard single-unit mosque
with a porch roofed by three small cupolas and one minaret adjoining the central
cube. Such rnosques were built in Macedonia, Bosnia and Hercegovina, and Serbia,
and there was hardly a town worthy of the name which did not boast at least one
such rnosque. Another less nurnerous but nonetheless interesting group of single-
unit darned rnosques are those built at Nis (1521 - 23), Novi Pazar, Skopje and Mazier
near Stari Trg (all of thern prior to 1550) with a porch roofed by only two small
cupolas. The portal is placed rnore to the left in relation to the symmetrical axis, and
a second accessory mihrab is found on the side of the front wall facing the porch. The ·
right half of the porch, specially designed for prayers has a higher floor level. This
interesting type of rnosque with a double-traved porch, whose direct analogies are to
be found in the older monurnents of Hadrianopolis in Asia Minor, occurs only in
Macedonia and Serbia and is not to be found elsewhere in the Balkans.

The AladZa Mosque in Foca

The Aladza Mosque in FoiSa, plan, cross section and tanh

58 59
The Ferhad Pasina Mosque in Banja Luka The Gazi Husrevbegova Mosque in sarajevo

60 61
The third type of Ifith-century Balkan Islamic structures is represented by elabo-
rately designed multi-urut domed mosques. These were most representative of the
period and were usually built by Ottoman provincial officials of the highest rank. The
difference between these buildings and mosques of the standard type was not so
much in the design of the central prayer cube as in their general composition which
included added side annexes and, sometimes , a protruding space fronted by the mi-
hrab and covered by a half-dome. Among the monuments of this type are the Jahja-
Paslna Mosque in Skopje (1504), the Gazi Husrevbegova Mosque in Sarajevo (1531),
and the Ferhad-Pasa Sokolovic Mosque in Banja Luka (1579). The first two were
originally built as multipurpose buildings used by dervishes, wliile the third was
s imply a singularly large place of worship.

The last group of domed mosques is typified by a twin building whose domes rest on
hexagonal or octagonal bases. These two type of bases, introduced into Ottoman ar-
.c hlt e c t u r e by the mature Mimar Sinan in his later years, soon appeared in Macedo-
Ilia, Serbia and Bosnia. We find one such mosque with a dome on an hexagonal base,
in. the small village of Rogovo near Prizren (1580), and another at Djakovica with an
octagonal base dome (the Hadun Mosque, 1594/5).

Examples of all the above-mentioned types of domed mosques may be found in the
contemporary architecture of the mother country. In fact, most of them originated in
Istanbul and a few in Edirrie or Bursa, from where they were introduced to other Ot-
toma n regions in the Balkan Peninsula. The architecture of the 16th century domed
mosques found iI1 these parts of the Empire showed great siInilarities in spatial de-
sign , the matertals used for building, and the actual construction technology. Most
fr equently they were completely identical to buildings found in the European part of
Turkey and in Asia Minor.
Sulejrnariija Mosque in Travnik
A separate sub-type is represented by the mosque with a wooden cupola inside a
pitched roof, like the Jahija Mosque in Skopje (1506), the Sarica and the Tabacica
mosques iI1 Mostar, or with wooden barrel vaults , like t h e Magribija Mosque in Sara-
j evo. A 1110St beautiful example of this sub-type of mosque is the Rozriamedzijlna
Mosque in Mostar. .

As usual, the basic building material was stone and brick , but while mosque facades
in Macedonia and Serbia were made by applying the ancient Byzantine technique of
picturesque alternation of layers of brick and stone as well as by inserting bricks be-
tween cut stone in the manner of cloisonne, the mosques in Bosnia and Hercegovina
were built without the multicolored elements and have only stone facades, sometiInes
c ove r e d by a layer of mortar and then whitewashed. However, domes throughout the
region used squinches or pendentives as a transitional structure connecting them to
the sq uare base on which they rested. The size of the domes was proportionate to the
total height of the rnosq ue.

Mosques without domes. Mosques covered with a hip roof structure were built dur-
ing the entire Ottoman era. In terrns of relative nurnbers , this is the dominant type of
mosque in the Balkans. Mosques of this type are frequently of modest dlrneris ions ,
alrhough there are a few monumental ones , like the Sulejmanija in Travnik. This
mosque is interesting because it consists of two floors: the ground floor is occupied
by a bezistan, and the upper floor is used for praying.

The Sejh Bagdadijin mesdZid in Sarajevo

62 63
Far away from the ,center of the State, in distant provinces, local creations material-
ized at the hand of domestic builders. Building materials for mosques were unbaked
bricks with a lot of wood, often used for minarets, too. In central and Northern
Bosnia, and in the Sandzak, mosques were built as log cabins.

Under the influence of the Fethija Mosque in Bihac, which had resulted from a trans-
formation of a medieval Gothic church', mosques of elongated projections and with
. high narrow windows were built 'in the Una river valley.

The Predojeoica Mosque at Plana near Bileca

Decoration in mosques. Decorative carvings were usually in stone, less frequently in

s t u c co or marble, covering the minarets , columns, accessory mihrabs. portals, win -
dows , and fountains , while interiors were decorated with shallow relief on stone furni-
ture , mihrabs. and mahflls. As with the architecture of domed mosques, decorative
carvings of the 16th century in these regions changed along with the changes of style
that characterized most of the other monuments of Ottoman art in the Balkan Penin-
s u la.
By the middle of the 16th century, the classical style completely prevailed as most
representative of the period and numerous lnosques under the influence of this style
were built in the Balkanss. The decorative stone ornaments became Inore widespread,
very strnilar to the colorful decoration on Sinan's monumental structures. The last
decades of this century bear witness to the sa me puritan reduction and rejection of
unnecessary decorative detc:lil 8S is evid ent in the 8rt of the capital at that time.
. Pi\
-~. ~l

The Sarica Mosque in Mostar

In the territory of ancient Hercegovina, at Bileca, Mostar, and in the surroundings of

Nevesinje and Stolac, there were , besides the domed mosques , many smaller mosques
with hip roofs, built under the influence of local architectural traditions. Minarets
took the shape of square- based towers reminiscent of the late Romanesque and the
!ate Gothic styles. On the other hand, Ottoman influences (stalactite decorations, low
domes, Turkish-style window shapes) can be seen in all the churches and syna-
gogues built in the period fro m the 16th to the 19th century.

Stone decoration in the AladZa Mosque in Foca

64 65
Colours reveal the interior richness of light. Light viewed directly is blinding: it is Both styles sprang from the court tradition of painter-decorators who used them in
through the harmony of colours that the divine unity reveals its true nature. The decorating the walls of sultans' and viziers' palaces, mosques, mausoleums, hamams,
Qur'an merrttories of light (nur) (XXN:35). Colored wall decorations, mainly floral in ~nd other public buildings, as well as from the famous patterns on faience tiles from
character, eornetirnes with the names of the first caliphs or iInportant quotations from Iznik and textiles from Bursa.
the Qur 'an written in stylized calligraphy and less frequently with siInple views of
Mecca, Medina, or Istanbul, covered not only the outer surfaces of the walls and the The prayer carpet, the rnihrab , and the minber met the modest requirements for all
arched parts of mosques but also hama Ins , tekijas, and even the interiors and types of religious service in a mosque. Being strictly opposed to idol-worship of any
porches of most domed mosques . kind, Islam, in contrast to Christianity. does not permit the representation of human
or aniInal shapes and forbids the use of any special objects in the actual ritual.
The number "o f such decorations can be inferred more from historical documents than
from discoveries on the site, but according to chroniclers and travelers' records it is
evident that subsequently added layers of mortar or lime hide a rich repository of this The Karadjozbegova Mosque. Karadjosbeg, brother of the grand Vizier Rustem-Pasa
type of pairrtirig. It can be seen nowadays on the walls of the 16th century mosques in (1544-52,1554-61) erected a "m os q u e as his mernortal in 1557. Kodza Mimar Sinan is
Foca , Sarajevo, Livno, and Mostar. cited as the builder. 45 Karadjozbeg had an iInmerse influence on the development of
Mostar, since he built a whole range of structures for public, sacral, and business
It is now obvious that decorative painting in l Gth-cerrtury mosques was carried out uses. He was also connected with the building of the Old Bridge.
a cco r d in g to a tacitly accepted method: the areas of the mosque more closely con-
n ected with the cult itself were more highly decorated. Inside. the dome was most
e la bo r a t e ly decorated, usually with a large painted rosette, and beneath it the sur-
faces of corner pendentives or squinches, the front wall facing Mecca, the decoration
becoming richer in and around the mihrab niche, while on the remaining walls the
decoration was mainly limited to sections between windows.

Outside, on the porch , the front wall of the mosque had the finest decoration, where,
somettmes both to the left and right of the portal, there were ela borately painted ac-
c essory rnrhra bs. It is generally believed that the painted floral ornaments and par-
ticularly the occurrence of entire fruit trees with fruits on the walls of the mosque,
were not accidental or inspired by folklo re, but rather represent a more profound ico-
nography in the fonn of pictorial transpositions of parts of the Qur'an that conjure up
a n cien t Islarnic images of heavenly landscapes.

Although the development of. style in this branch of Islamic art in Bosnia and Her-
cego vin a cannot be followed with as much certainty as that of architecture and its
s t o ne decorations, it is still possible observe two parallel trends dominating Islamic
decorative painting in the 16th century. One of them tended towards an expressive
stylization of densely painted tiny floral motifs, minute in form , rhythm, and harmony
(the Rumi and Hatay ornaments in the Aladza Mosque in Foca and the Ferhadija
Mosque in Sarajevo), while the other was a more realistic representation of large
plants, even of whole trees , as in the original paintings in the Karadjozbegova Mosque
in Mostar.

The Karadjozbegova Mosque

45
The m osque Is c ited In thre e lists of Mim ar Sinan works : Tezklret ul-Bunuyan , No 1-72. Tezklret ul-
Ebnlye No 1-75. a n d Tuhfet ul- Mlmartn No I-52 .
Wall decoration in the AladZa Mosque in Foca

66 67
The Karadjozbegova mosque was built in the iInmediate vicinity of the bazaar, by the
main road, in an area that was large enough for the whole range of structures usually
built as a complex: mosque, medresa, mekteb, han, and imaret (public kitchen for the "iCJ'~r
poor). Architecturally, it belongs to the simple domed type , with a porch under three

'~
s mall cupolas, a second porch, and a minaret.Y'The walls, the minaret and all interior
elements are constructed with cutstone. All cupolas are made of liInestone. The cen-
tral space is walled in by l.lrn thick walls, and makes an almost perfect cube (l0.8 m
by 10.8 In by 10.8 m) vaulted by a dome whose highest point is 16 In from ground
level. Transition from the square bases to the circular tambour is effected by means of
squinches decorated with stalactites with a roken frontal arch and eight wide spheri-
cal triangles.

~
~
.. The Karadjozbegova Mosque: position of wall paintings
j ..

!
The portal is of an irnposing size and is bordered with an attractively profiled oblong
~ c;' ,
I, stone frame. The space over the portal is in the form of an isosceles triangle, used for
an inscription ([arih) identifying the founder of the mosque and the year of construc-
tion. Ortar that was used for stone walls was rnade with a high proportion lime so
that, with the passing of time, the whole wall mass turned into rock. Motifs used for
decoration (stalactites, stylized flowers) are typically Ottoman. Frequently we find a
geolnetrical ornament. It is formed by two bands in shallow relief which cross each
other rnaking hexagonal areas and six-pointed stars.

The mihra b is highlighted by .a stone frame. The minber is architecturally stmilar to

min bers in this type of mosque. It consists of three principal parts: doorway leading to
a staircase with stone handrails, an upper pyramidal part borne by four octagonal
columns, and triangular structures covering the space under the stalrcase. The
rnahfil is a gallery adjoined to the inner side of the front wall. In the Karadjozbegova
Mosque it rests on four eight-sided columns. The fence around the rnahfil is deco-
rated with rnotifs of six-pointed stars and hexagons.
The interior of the Karadjozbegova Mosque

A high and light porch is supported on the outside by four monolith stone columns.
The capitals of the colurnns are decorated with stalactites. On the porch a transition
from the square base to the circular base of the cupola is made by pendentives. In
front of this porch. another spacious one with a slanting roof was built at a later
date. The entire structure was covered with lead. Adjoining the right front corner of
the central cube is a very slender 34.5rn high fourteen-sided minaret. The minaret's
balcony (sereJet) is decorated with stalactites.
46
The double porch appears in several of Mlmar Sinan's mosques: the Mihrtrnah Sultan Mosque at
Uskudar. in istanbul. built in 1548. the Rustem Pasa Mosque at Tekirdag built in 1553. the Karadjos-
begov,] Mosque in Mostar. the Rustern Pasa Mosque at Tahtakale in istanbul built in 1562. and the
Atik Sultan Vallde Mosque in istanbul built in 1583. The interesting fact is that the double porch is
found on Ilve building constructed Jar the family of Rustem-Pasa. See G. Gooodwin: A History qf Otto-
man Architecture. London. p . 213 .
The the lecturer's chair (curs) is situated in the corner left of the mihrab, It is made of
wood and covered with a rug.
The interior space is lit through five openings on each of the side walls, two on either
side of the portal, three on the mihrab wall, and eight in the dome ring. The lower
windows are rectangular, nicely profiled stone frames with built-in iron bars.
The original wall painting was darnaged during the rernodeling of the mosque in 1909.
On the basis of preserved details, however, it is possible to produce a rough recon-
struction of the original decoration, which stems frorn the 16th century and repre-
sents the artist's vision of landscape in Eden.
The mosq ue has been continuously in use since its construction. .

68 69
 When first sighted, the tombstones look almost identical. A closer look, however, will
discover differences that soon dispel any impression of monotony. The shape of the
gravestone indicates whether the deceased person was a man or a ~oman and what
his or her profession was. The rnemorial structures were constructed i l l local stone ~y
domestlc rnasters. They reflect strong influences of the pre-Ottornans gravestone In
Bosnia and Hercegovina called stecak.

Wall painting
Memorial Architecture r-- -- - ' .

An important aspect of Ottoman architecture is related to the Muslim tombstone

called niscu: or ba.stuk: and to the stone mausoleum called turbe. The beauty of these
morrurnerrts is apparent in their finished forms, cutting techniques and a combina-
tion of ornarnents and calligraphy. Their specific value stems frorn their unusual lo-
cation: they are situated close to mosques, busy roads, and even close to the houses
previously occupied by those buried in thern. Muslim graveyards, full of greenery
sharply contrasting with snow-white tombstones of different dimensions and forms,
are irnpressive oases of celestial serenity and earthly beauty.

The Sejh Jujino turbe in Mostar

Nisans

70
71
 The most valuable structures are those with a cupola. and an octagonal or a hexago-
Turbe. The mausoleums were built by prominent and powerful persons for them-
nal ground plan: the turbes of Gazi Husrevbeg and Murat Beg in Sarajevo. and of
selves or someone else. usually for someone of great religious standing. although this
Fer hat Pasa in Banja Luka.
practice is contrary to Islamic teaching. The turbes were built for the purpose of pro-
viding isolation and complete peace. They share all the features of the creative proc-
The second kind of tur be has four pillars carrying the cupola like a canopy. There are
ess which starts from the spatial concept of a tent to develop into a -d o m ed structure.
two four-pillared turbes at Alifakovac in Sarajevo and one close to Sinan's tekija, also
They r esemble mosques but are slmpler and do not have a porch.
in Sarajevo. With aorne turbes the cupola is made of wire rather than fully con-
structed, and serves only to mark the space under it. This is the case of the Sejh Ju-
jino turbe in Mostar and the turbes in Travnik.

The third kind is represented by the uncovered turbe with perforated walls and lat-
tice-work a s in walls around mosque courtyards. The "roof' of this walled space is a
usually large crown of a tree planted close to the grave inside the wall. The tree and
its crown are considered to be a part of the architecture , and not its external cornple-
l11ent. 4 7 -

Turbes of very modest diInensions a re very frequ ent. They are actually s imple tiny
l)( ll1SPS with 8 s ;ld rl lp o r hip r o nf. TI 1l' l11 ;lt ITi . 11 is locn l s to n e . u n ha k e-d brick o r w o or l .

~)

The turbes of Gazi Husrevbega a nd Murat Bega i n Sarajevo

The Ibrahim Beqouo turbe in Foca, the Sejh Jujino turbe in Mostar, and the Halii. BaSino turbe in
BanjaLuka 47 An o u ts ta n d ing exa m p le 01" this lyp(~ 01" m aus oleum is Sil1811 BIJY'S tur be at Ohricl in Ma ce d onia .

72 73
 The Gazi Husreub eqooo: Medresa in Saraj e vo

Medresas. In the c o u rs e of the 16th century te n m.d resas were built in Bosnia and
Hercegovina , five in Sarajevo. two in Foca, and one in Mostar, Caj nice , and Banja
Luka. By the end of the 17th century 54 new medresas were built. which raised the
total n um b er to 83. 48
The Gazi Husrevbegova (Kur-s umllja) medreaa in Sarajevo deserves special cornrnerit.
From its founding in 1537 to the end of the 19th century, it was considered the IUOSt
important centre of Is larnic education in the Balkans. Its curriculum included the
three disciplines of a classical university (theology. law, and philosophy) and, in ad-
dition to preparing its students for various religious functions, it served as a training
ce n t r e for sharia judges (/cadija). It can be rightfully considered the precursor of to-
day's Univers ity of Sarajevo.

J . 1 . . . . . . . - - 1_

.....I.. 1i..."'; ' e .... jl .

~ r-c: / r>.
-----; --~~
! /
//
A
'" ", /;

A lifakovac, Sarajevo
::/;~.~ .i ./ (' , '- 'y:

E d uca t io n a l Facilities

An integral part of the mosque complex was the mekteb, the primary religious school.
"
Mektebs were built eve ry w he re, but usually next to mahala mosques. The mahala
m ekte.bs were usually small, often one -room buildings. s imilar to residential struc-
tures. So m e m ektebs w ere two-storey hous es with s everal r00111S. Various locations of the mekteb in relation to the mosque

Although there were m any of them (about seventy in Sarajevo, for example). not a
s ingle o ne h a s b een pres erved in its original fonn. 48

74 75
Though a relatively s111a11 building. this medresa is a monument of high artistic value. One source lists eight rnedresas in Mos tar.f? the Karadjozbegova, the Dervts-Pastna.
Its s mall inner courtyard with its porticos and a sadrvan (water fountain) creates an the Roznarnedzijina, the Koski Mehrned Pas ina, the Cejvan-cehajina , the Hadzl Balina
interesting contrast to the towering dome and minaret of the ilnposing Gazi Husrev- and the Buka. They were located close to the mosque of the same name. They were
begova Mosque across the street from the medresa. built of cutstone and were provided with a saddle roof. although the Karadjozbegova
was covered with a row of vaults. In front of the structure toward the courtyard was
A m edresa usually had one lecture hall (dershana) and up to dozen ro01US for board- the porch. Four medresas in Mostar had public fountains. The largest medresa was
ing students. Some, like the Karadjozbegova in Mostar, also had a library with built- the Roz namedzijina with 10 rOOlUS and 2 lecture halls.
in bookcases. The courtyard is surrounded by porticos leading directly into all the
rOOI11S. each with its own fire-place. The vaulted roofs of the rooms with their tall
c h irn n eys created an orderly ensemble of a unique architectural rhythm. Books were
kept either ill the rnedresa or in a smaller building beside the mosq ue. The dorned
Osrnan Sahcli-efendi library (lcllt.ubhono) near tl1f' Careva Mosque in Sarajevo is a
ty p ica l ex a mplc of this type of library.

The Koski Mehmed Pas ina Medresa in Mostar, reconstructed in 1979

All these rnedresas have long since ceased to function and all the buildings have dis-
appeared except that of the Karadjozbegova medresa. A large section of the structure
The Mel uned. Pasa. Kulcaoicina: Mosque with medresa in Foca. used by the Koski Mehrned Pas ina Medresa was reconstructed in 1979.

The Koski Mehmed Pas ina Medresa in Mostar

The Sisman Agina Medresa in Pobitel]
49 S et' l-l.H nsandedjc: Sp om enici kulturc 11lrs1cog cioba 11 Mostaru, Sarajevo 1980.

76 77
Tekija (tekl{e , dervish lodge) are special buildings used by dervish orders for their rit-
ual a n d as housing for the Sejh (h ead of a dervish group). Beside the house there is
often a sl11a11 graveyard for the order's di gnitaries. S01l1e of t he tekijas even had sepa-
rate r00 111S o r whole buildings for guests iniusofirh ana) with a free kitchen (imareL).
Mus nflrha n as and Im arets also existed ind ependently from tekijas as s eparate insti-
tu ti oris (such as the Ga zi Husrevbegova Musafirhana in Saraj evo), and sornetunes as
a p a rt of a rich person's residential c om p lex,

..lolo" ;,,,' l .,
, 11" [" "- "'-1-'<
...,n l e : "'Ill ""-' "

... . :'\I m ro< l<

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:! ~ lJoC
.: ,",, (u i ..:h .U i l r>o..'f
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:'\- '"o.Jr: • .,U\J ~ nJ ~ ..rvc n ""lin l. u " f"'
J n n< l
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~(' w:On..J.J h ... , I M ~ ~ n
: ;-. ,-< jM .tK,J,J u l ~ "",..J .. c rv . J - t"I I II; ~

·.r.u il ' .....' m

;:'\ .. .. wn"n:.:f'1: >C' fl'.... lf

I '; fl " '(

\. Io.-.....JUc " 'l .t ii< f"r _ li n . ,, '1(' P ' CCC' \ 1.1 IB . .' ....

-.:~~ ~ . ~ - --n- - - ''--',

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. ~~·il:-,_=¢_: ~~-~ .;~j~~:0ii~~

, .'- : ~
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t.. -' ~ - >- -

The t elcija. at Blagaj

The Sinanova T'elcija. in Sarajevo

79
7'd
Co m m u nal Facilities

Streets and roads. The streets of every city may be likened to a living organisrn, but
with an iInportant dlfference : they are born. they develop , and they grow old, but they
rarely die a full death . They constantly adapt to new life -styles; they change in size
a n d appearance, and especially in their contents . The streets of the Ottoman city can
be divided into roads, streets, lanes and blind alleys . By Widening, streets becarne
squares (mejclan), or market-places (paza r). Musaia is a special square that served for
outdoor prayers.

Different type of streets in Mostar

In the mahalas, we can distinguish one part of the city network with a public charac -
ter, as a first stage: the public area only for the daily needs of one mahala: it is be -
tween the approaching road and the housing complex. The next stage starts .a t the
gate of housing complex: circulation continues in the enclosed wall area, ftrst, in the
selamlulc Isemt-prrvate unit), as a buffer zone, and finally : it ends in the liaremluk:
(protection private unlt), a basic unit of the Islamic society. With all intermediate
gates closed, the city resembled a series of boxes, the la r ge r one enclosing the smaller
all protecting the integrity of the respective social units, as well as maintaining a
compact structure of the Ottoman city as a whole .

'>.\1\ \.1 1-:.,0

t: IIO. " WI'! .

.: ~.' .. .

S tree t n etwo rk: S a r ajevo

The stre et network is totally integrated in to the u r ban system. Housing com plexes
we re conn ected to t h e bazaar s quare by a large n umbe r of streets, t h e baza a r itself
being the traffic n ucleus fro m which wiele and narrow streets branc hed out in a ll d i-
re ctions. each w ith s hops of o ne par t icu la r craft.

Th e bazaar a ls o contained all majo r public b uild ings, easily a cc es s ib le t o p e d estrians

and a lw a ys w it h in sight: Because of t h e special social funct ions of thes e buildings ,
t h ey were prote cted with .walls and appropriate gates. Th e inner s pace includ ed m a ny
d iffe re n t elements which emphasized t h e p ublic character of t h es e com p lexes . The
larger bazaar a r ea was a ls o freq ue ntly p rot ected wit h a wall a n d c ontrolled gates for
The stages of traffic network in a mahala
secu r ity reaso ns .

81
Bridges. No matter how much people used river valleys as communication lines, they
often needed to remove the lirnitations to free movement imposed by geographical
obstacles. The bridge, as a rnan -rnade link between two river banks, not only estab-
lishes a connection between two geographically divided areas, but also symbolizes the
victory of the human spirit over capricious nature , as well as a primordial social in-
stinct towards cooperation among the people Iivtng in each other's proximity.

Wood and stone were the main materials used in constructing bridges. Bosnia is rich
in wood and Hercegovina is rnainly rocky land. Therefore, the bridges in Hercegovina
were mostly built of stone, and in Bosnia mainly of wood. Their formal features re-
sulted from the nature of the materials used. There were two main types of bridge
structures: the stereothomic vaults built in stone, and the tectonic wooden construc-
tion with continuous beams over pillars. According to preserved records, an outstand-
ing bridge of the latter kind was situated near Foca on the Orina river. More compli-
cated, more expensive, and therefore less numerous were stone bridges . Some 50
such bridges , built in Bosnia and Herzegovina between the 15th and .the 19th
century, have been partly or completely preserved to our day.

The Mehmed Pase Solcolouida: Bridge on t he D r ina r iver

Stolae: an example of a simple stone bridge

The 1110St beautiful bridges were created in the second half of the 16th century at the The Arslanaqid Bridge on the Trebisnjiea river

tune of Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent and his grand viziers Rustern-Pasa Hrvat
and Mehmed-Pasa Sokolovic. The latter's bridge on the Orina in Visegrad is a work of
the greatest Ottoman architect Kodza Mimar Sinan, and the Old Bridge in Mostar of
his disciple Mimar Hajrudin. Also from this epoch are the Arslanagtca Bridge near
Trebinje, the bridge near the confluence of the tepa and the Orina rivers, and many
others .
Sernicircular or, rarely, pointed arches of these bridges for the most part spanned a
distance of 10-15 m. The span of a very "brave" arch might even be close to 30 meters.
Bridges over wide rivers would consist of several arches (at Buna 14, in Visegrad 11),
while those spanning deep riverbeds would have only one arch. In the lower part
bridges were usually built of resistant limestone, arches are often made of plaster,
and the finishing cornice and fences were of limestone boards. The roadway was
paved with cobblestones, separated by transversal stone thresholds.

82 83
The big and long bridges sometimes had a stone sofa in the middle, backed by a high
wall in the form of a portal decorated with ornamental patterns and containing in-
s c r ip t io n s about the construction of the bridge. Simple stone bridges were built by lo-
cal artists, especially in the latter part of the Ottoman rule in the Balkans.
The Stari Most (Old Bridge) in Mostar, on the river Neretva, gave its name to the city
of Mostar.
It was built in 1556 between two medieval towers on the location of a former wooden
bridge. The architect was Mimar Hajrudin, a disciple and collaborator of Kodza Mirnar
Sinan. The bridge is really one stone arch with a span of 28.70 meters. The support-
ing vault is 77 ern thick, four meters wide. and its height in summer when the water
is low is about 20 m. Three ribs rest on its vault. a middle one and two at equal dis-
tances on either side of it, to support the roadway. The entire construction is thus
c o n s id e r a b ly lightened.
'- ' -' -'-'
The Stari Most in Mostar: the down stream side, sections and urban position
84
The stone used for the bridge is the local tenelija, a lirnestone of exceptional physical
and chemical qualities. It is used for the entire bridge including the balustrade, and
its sides were cut so smooth that there was no need for an intervening adhesive ma-
terial. The roadway is made of limestone resistant to the wear of people and animals
crossing the bridge. Pieces of stone were joined to each other by iron clamps and then
filled with lead.
The basic architectural form of the bridge reflects an extraordinary marriage of con-
s t r u c t io n a l logic and beauty, rnaintained in its original form. The bridge has been an
object of adrniration by people COIning from both East and West: the poet and states-
man Dervis-Pasa Bajezidagtc (16th century) compared it to a rainbow. geographer
Hadzi-Kalfa said that its vault "will astonish all masters of the world" , Evlija Celebi,
the famous Ottoman travel-writer said that he "has crossed sixteen empires and has
not seen such a high bridge; the French traveler A. Poulet wrote in 1658 that this
bridge is "more courageous and more iInpressive than the Rialto in Venice".
The bridge was built within the previous ly constructed medieval fortification system
and represents the center of gravity for the entire urban network of Mostar. Some
twenty rnahalas have been built in the area around the bridge. The commercial zone
in its Vicinity makes up the historical core of the city.
The Old Bridge is a monument of exceptional value from an artistic and scientific
point of view, representing a masterpiece of bridge construction and architectural and
landscaping design.
The Stari Most in Mostar
85
Water-supply system. In keeping with Islamlc tradition, the Ottomans provided their
cities with water-supply systems of varying capacity. The pipes were made of wood, or
less commonly, ceramic bricks. The aqueduct near Skopje in Macedonia, built in the
6th century and probably enlarged in the 16th century, is the most important Otto-
man water supply line in the Balkan region. Of its arches, have been 55 preserved. In
the vicinity of Bar in Montenegro, the remains of two small aqueducts have also been
preserved.

Wooden wheels for transporting water from the river to a higher elevation were fre-
quently used in Hercegovina. In the 17th century a wheel with a water-tower was
built near Pocitelj to carry water to a nearby hamam on the principle of joined plates
with the help of ceramic pipes.

The sadrvan in the courtyard of the Karadjozbegova Mosque in Mostar

Hamams. The public baths or hamams were irnportant communal facilities that de-
veloped in cities provided with good water supply systems. A very small number of
them have been preserved.

Acesma
During the building of the - Old Bridge in Mostar in 1566, a water-supply line was
built by which drinking water was brought from the right to the left bank of the
Neretva with the aid of wooden pipes. From then on "water ran both over and below
the [Old] Bridge as writer Evlija <;elebi recorded. The line then branched out to supply
II ,
water to public taps or fountains in town squares, in front of mosques, in the court-
yards of caravanserais, and to a number of drinking fountains in the mahalas.
While drinking fountains were rnostly of sirnple construction, with one or two pipes
from which water ran constantly, the big fountains were built primarily to add to the
decorative splendour of mosques and, from the 17th century onwards, of rich per-
sons houses as well.
I
A hamarn included a centrally located anteroom (mejdan or sadrvan), which was used
as a resting place, as a transitional warming-up space (lcapalulc), a bathing
space(halvat), and a furriaceIcuihun). Large hamarns had several halvats, which were
entered through a comrnon anteroom. All of the rooms were lit through openings in
the dome, and all were heated under the floor. Sorne hamams had two separate sec-
tions for men and women, while the smaller ones were used by women only on cer-
tain days of the week, but when men were excluded.
The Ottomans borrowed the concept of the hamam from the Seljuks, who had in turn
borrowed it from the Arabs. The Arabs had carefully studied the entire cultural heri-
tage of Greece and Rome, so that the Roman termae were in fact at the root of public
baths in the Ottoman State. They eliminated from the tennae plan every room that
was not used for bathing.
The rnost beautiful hamarns were in Sarajevo, Mostar, Stolac, Blagaj, and Pocitelj. Of
the seven harnarns in Sarajevo only the Gazi Husrevbegov has been preserved.

86 87
 ........
;I>
-- ........
;I>

"" ""

I a sadrvun - me n 's bath anteroom

I b sadrvan - women 's bath anteroom
1 kapal uk - warmed up bathroom r
Ground plan rnejdan - massage room tn
halvat - basemen t room .....
tn .....
Jell ish poole (for ritual washing)
renifa - lavarorv
hazna - fire-room
culhan - place where ushcs are kept

reconstruction of original state

EAST ELEVATION
~m
The Gazi Husrevbeg Hamam in Sarajevo

A-AKESiTi
~

The Cejvan Begov Hamam in Mostar

Clocktowers. Clocktowers are high towers with clocks in square or, less frequently,
octagonal frames. built as a rule next to the main mosq ue. Only rarely were there two
of them in the aarne town . They appeared in the late 16th century in Skopje, in Banja
Luka, and in the course of the l Zth and 18th centuries in many other settlements.
The clocktower possibly originated under the influence of Italian campaniles. Clock-
towers were masstve structures with a square base of 3 -5 meters, and a hight of 10-
35 meters. In the interior of the clocktower there was a wooden staircase. a clock
mecharusm. and the bell - often a war trophy - which struck the time .
Hamam in Sto Lac

88
 The clocktower in Travnik

Twenty c lo ck towers were built in Bosnia and Hercegovina in the Ottoman period: in
Banja Luka (built before 1587 , 19 m high) , Sarajevo (built in the first part of the 17th
c ., 28 In), Mostar (17th c. , 15. In), Pocitelj (before 1664, 16 rnl, Livno (17th c. , 15 rn) ,
Graca ri ic a (17th c ., 27 In) Jaj ce (in one tower of the castle), Prusac (17th c ., 10 m), Te-
san] (1703 , 18. In ), Trebinje (18th c., 18 In), Stolac (16th c .), Travnik at Musala,
Travnik at Gornja Cars ija (1758), Gornji Vakuf (18th c ., 9 .00 m '), Donji Vakuf (1720 , 4-
I
10 In), Foca (1758 , 20 m) , Maglaj (18th c., 17 m), Prozor, Nevesinje (after 1664, 15m),
Gra dac a c (182 4 . 21.5 m ).
The c lock to wer in Sarajevo,

91
90
Style varied in accordance with the location. For exarnple, clocktowers in Mostar,
Pocitelj, and Trebinje were built under Dalrnatian inf1uence. Some other clocktowers
were styled somewhat like mo n nta in huts and rnanifested Central European influ-
ences. In Ottoman days clocks showed the tirne "a la turka", namely with the sunset
falling exactly at 12 o'clock. The unequal hours of daylight during the year required
constant control, so there was usually a small room in the clocktower. or close to it,
with basic astronomic equipment.
The clocktower in ~lostar
92
Business Facilities
Hans and caravansearais. Hans were large inns where travelers could stay overnight.
They were of various sizes and their outside appearance was not very different from
that of ordinary houses. The rooms for sleeping were usually on the first floor , while.
the ground-floor was used for stables and other auxiliary rooms. Travelers and guests
slept side by side. Bedding was not available and anybody who wanted to have it
would bring his own.
The hans were mainly privately owned and rnanaged in contrast to other public facili-
ties, which were adrnirus tered by vak ufs.
The sirnplest han was an oblong building with a large ir-on gate on one of the two
longer sides. There was a courtyard inside the building for horses and goods. The
roofed structure around the courtyard had a podiurn for sleeping on and several fire-
places on the outer walls. Remnants of such hans are found in Dobrun and Pocitelj.
Much more frequently hans were two-storey structures whose ground floor was re-
served for stables, storage of goods, and often a coffee-room. The upstairs consisted of
a large number of rooms around the central corridor (the Kukavicln han in Focal.
..
"
The Kukavii!in han in Foca.
93
Large hans in the big trade centers, Invarlably two-storey structures, had a closed, ap-
proximately square courtyard, with a fountain in the m.i.ddle. Around this courtyard
were porticos for loading and unloading goods, a storehouse, stables, sleeping rooms,
and a coffee-room. The interior courtyard with porticos about it was borrowed from
Hellenistic architecture. Arabs had adopted this pattern in the Mediterranean coun-
tries . They had not only taken over Hellenistic courtyards, but also developed and re-
fined them a rtistically by making spring water available within the architectural en-
semble. These innovations spread throughout their huge empire. Seljuks became ac-
quainted with this new type of courtyard in the Persian area, transferred it to Asia
Minor, and successfully incorporated it into their caravanserais . Finally the Ottornans
inherited it frorn the Seljuks.
In Sarajevo the Kolobara-han (151:h century), Tasli-han (15th century) and Morica-
han (17th century) we re of this type .
The Mo dea h an in Sarajevo
94
Big hans can be divided into . two groups:(1) a more or less square two-storey struc-
ture with a courtyard in its rniddle and upper-floor bedrooms entered through a wide
porch, and (2) an oblong building on pillars with courtyard a underneath it and two
large bedrooms devided by a corridor.
Only the biggest hans were built of stone and were often vaulted. Most of the hans
were built of unbaked bricks in a wooden framework, with wooden floor-constructions
and roof structures.
Ku rs urnli-han in Sarajevo, with two interior courtyards and a two-floored porch, with
riurnero us cupolas over square guest rooms, oriented toward an interior courtyard,
represents the pinnacle of Ottoman monumental public architecture in Bosnia and
Hercegovina. The second biggest preserved caravansearai, the Morica han, is also a
monumental building with regards to its spatial set-up.
In Mostar, the first known han was built by Cejvan-cehaja before 1558. It was located
the in the Kujundziluk. Other well-known hans were: the Karadjozbegov han (built
before 1570) close to his mosque, the Koski-Mehrned Pasatn han. the town's l:::rgest
and, in its time , the most modern in terms of utilities. The Djinovica han, the Sevin
han, the Hindu! han, the Cadrin han, the Lelekov han, the Baltin han, and the han of
the Orthodox parish.
All hans in Bosnia-Herzegovina were closed tmmediately after the Austro-Hungarian
occupation. Afterwards, they were either demolished or adapted for different
purposes.
Hindin. han in Mostar, photo 1946
95
Bezistans. In addition to individual shops and storehouses, special department
stores or b ezislaris were built in big commercial centers. They were used primartly for
selling valuable textiles, and were organized so that every sales man controlled his
own business. Structures of this kind were to be found in Sarajevo (3), Banja Luka (1)
a n d Tra v n ik (2).
The bezis t ans in Sarajevo were of t w o main types:
- a single oblong space divided into square sections by coltunns and arches and cov-
e red with do m es (t he Brusa-bezistan in Sarajevo, foundatio n of Rus tern-Pasa. built in
1551); the spatial layout of the Ulu Mosque seems to have served as the m od el fo r
this type o f lv-z is ta n .
5 the Taslihan with the ' Gazi Husrevbegov bezistan in Sarajevo. The two structures,
I
The B rusa be z istan in Sarajevo
96
- a basilical structure: street covered by a large barrel vault, with small shops on both
sides, also barrel vaulted ( the Gazi Husrevbegov bezistan, with 52 shops, built before
1555).
5 10 IS 10""
I I I
The Gazi Husrevbegov bezistan in Sarajevo
Bezistans were surrounded by massively built storehouses and shops, then entrances
were accentuated by monumental portals.
The functional link between the wholesale trade, usually carried out in the courtyard
of a han, and retail sale, done in bezistans , is apparent in a structural connection of
connected by a covered passage , represented the commercial center of Sarajevo until
1879.
Sarajevo's third bezistan was built in the second half of the15th century as an en-
dowment of Mehmedbeg, son of Isabeg Isakovic, the founder of Sarajevo. This bezis-
tan was heavily damaged in the fire in 1697, and was totally destroyed in a second
fire in 1842.
The beeisian. W ider the $tilejrnanijaMosque in Travnik
97
Shops and storehouses iduccu: and magaza) were mostly found in the bazaar itself.
They were built in continuous rows covered by a common roof. and separated by thin.
often wooden partitions. The front side of shops could be closed -by a cepenak; a hori-
zontal double door which was opened in daytime to expose the whole shop to the
street, and whose lower flap served for displaying articles on sale and frequently for
the shop-keeper to sit on. too. As a rule, a customer did not enter a shop. The
cepenak is so typical of Bosnian Ottoman-style shops that the word itself is used
figuratively to refer to bazaar trading in a general sense.

Shops in the Prijecka carsija,Mostar .[Reconstnj.cted layout)

'm
Illl
~: ~ il3l1 .
~I .

dl

A old shop in Sarajevo

A storehouse (magaza) in contrast to a shop was a massive structure with thick stone
or brick walls, and windows protected by iron gratings and shutters. The door was
also made of iron; the ceiling was a structure of densely lined beams or a stone vault.
There was also a type of shop with a storehouse attached behind it. While storehouse
were used only for keeping goods in storage, shops served for both manufacture and
sale. The combination of the shop with a storehouse behind it was almost the rule for
the bigger shops. which required ample storage space for the articles that could not jZl 1 2. ~ 4 "' . J~
be sold at the rate at which they were manufactured.
Storehouses in Mostar, at KujundZiluk (the groundj1.oor, facades and sections)

98 99
"The leather-workers sit with legs folded and heads lowered, while they cut and craft
the leather, or work on equipment for horses. Some just cobble footwear and their
shops look more - like household cupboards attached to the genuine shops of true
crafts men. A)J. .of them, together with that narrow street in which they work, typify a
part of the bazaar, living and breathing with it.
The daire was a separate type of commercial stone structures built around a common
courtyard and under a common roof. Access to them was through a vaulted door built
so that a horse with its load could enter. There were no other opening besides this.
There were five daires in Sarajevo.

Eaves on the shops are low and the street is so narrow that it resembles a sheltered
room into which the sunlight and the noises of the market penetrate only occasion-
ally. It is very damp in that narrow street, and there is a damp and still silence, inter-
spersed with the steady pounding of the craftsmen's hammers. Exceptionally a louder
shout can be singled out of a passer-by or of a customer sitting at a shop door lei-
surely negotiating a purchase and haggling about the price with patience and dignity.

Then there is silence again, only heightened by the well-orchestrated clatter of nu-
mero us hammers. The sounds of these blows fly through the air and collide with oth-
ers or with echoes reverberating from the opposite side of the street. In the end the
sounds all blend and shatter, creating the characteristic resonance of a working day
above that damp and dim narrow street. into which the sun never fully shines.
Two neighbours, leather-workers, sit in their shops, divided only by a wooden parti-
tion-wall rnade out of spruce-boards which have been a little disjoined by times. "50

The daire in Sarajevo

Mills were very useful structures. Water-mills were built on all accessible rivers. In
their architectural make-up they were very similar to other small business structures.
The building material used varied according to the climate. Mortar mills were built
usually close to the grain mills. Sorne documents a lso mention windmills b ut they
seem to have been very rare.

The bazaar in Mostar, 1905

50 This is how the Yugoslav writer Iva Andric. the winner of th e 1961 Nobel Prize for lit erature. describes the Water-mills on the Radobolja river in the bazaar of Mostar
a tm os p her e or small shops in the bazaar in Sarajevo.

100 lO!
Bakeries were special business facilities whose ovens occupied the space of a large .
room. Bakeries built further away from the bazaar were often an integral part of a
dwelling. Their number closely corresponded to the number of mahalas in an urban IV
settlernent.>!
H O USING

A house is more than a human residence with one or more rooms. It is also ·one of
rnan's basic means of survival and, on the psychological plane, a symbolic expression
of the cultural and personal self. 52 Islamic architecture aimed to bring men into a
hannonious relationship with his environment on all levels. First and basic was the
level of the room. which provided the necessary privacy. The second was the housing
cornplex, i.e., the house with all other structures and outdoor spaces which belonged
to a household. The third was the area of the bazaar, and the last, fourth level was
that of the city, with its numerous aspects and possibilities.

dCf<:';:~~~~~~ bakery
oven
Due to the irnportance of family as the basic social unit of an Islamic community, the
llij tm~ §3§3 . fI ~ I passage
hamerluk (place for
farnily house was made the basic structural cell of an urban settlement. It is a closed
kncading bread)
unit, turned to itself. Its occupants' almost mystical attachment to it was largely re-
·,Iillill!
anteroom

E=3EEBBE ~· [Q
lavatory
verandah with
stairs and balcony
sponsible for the remarkable cohesion of family life in the Bosnian Islamic society.
kitchen
room
A Balkan - Muslim dwelling is a complex composed of three parts:

r----------------, 1. the house per se,

2. the courtyard (avllja) with a ~itchen (mutjalc), a wood-shed, a toilet, a stable
I ,

r-
J
J
(ahar) for a cow or a horse, a pantry, a drinking fountain, a pergola: and often a
J
J flower garden,
I
J
9 3. a vegetable and fruit garden ibasca), with a lawn, a small pavillion, and,
J
I
J
.possibly, running water.
I
I
J
J
9
; - 1- - - - - - - - - -
J :s: of .1 &:ftIII
:c=

1'"IIlll ,\[
o
,,,111 1111\11

1.:'1",kl';I,..I'I.1 ,', 1"1'11',1

' I H I I I , . l r ti
I, [1, I ~ I II
/" " 111 "1 1 1' 1" 1111,1 11"" 1
1'111111"11111'1 "1 II"",
1," ., 11, ' 1 \
\ ' "1.111,1.,11
r .11' "d 1' .111 :.r '. ' "1. 111l l. L! 1
'.I ' '' ' "I ''' '' l l

The residential complex: basic structures

Houses with bakeries in Sarajevo
(after D. Grabriajan) 52 Here we present a picture of a typical Ottoman-Islamic city house. A village house. though different,
still shared many characteristic features of its urban counterpart. See Muhamed Kadld: Starinska
51 See Mililar-statistische Uebersicht von Bosnteii 1111([ Herzegovina . Wien 1881. seosJca kuca II Bili (The Old Village House in Bosnia-and Hercegovina). Sarajevo 1957.

102 103
 The entrance gate into the family courtyard was a barrier against impurities, because
of the great concern for hygiene in the dwelling section. The way from mud-covered
streets into that section was across the stone-paved courtyard, which was always
kept immaculately clean. Anything that was in any way impure was kept strictly out
of the house proper and located in the avlija. Nevertheless, the courtyard area was
very rationally used so that there was no hard and fast border between the house and
the courtyard, especially in the more modest dwellings.
J
H

D"II'c'I •. n ' uIly.l ul "r ~'u ",,: r ~'"fI

U l ll rly•• ,, 1 --fo_ _
_ Icll..h",n

The residential complex: principles of spatial-organization

Access to the housing complex and movement through it were determined by the lo-
cation of the doors and gates. The courtyard (avlija)was regularly separated from the
street by a thick wall were the main door called Jcapija, was located, the link between
the world of one's family and the outside world. Another function of the wall and the
kapija was to prevent strangers from upsetting the privacy of family life. In the larger
housing cornplexes there were two courtyards: an "economic" one, oriented to deal-
ings with the outside world, and a more intimate family courtyard. They were also re-
ferred to as the the "male" and the "female" courtyard respectively. A large number of
rnediurn-size and small housing complexes also had a space known as araluJc be-
tween the outside kapija and the door to the courtyard, roofed by the first floor of the
house . It was , in fact, a modest version of the economic courtyard.
Auxiliary structures were usually attached to the courtyard wall, which were there-
fore built quite thick. An alternative was to make the kapija the door to an auxiliary
structure through which one passed in order to go to the courtyard.
In the economic courtyard the most important structure was the stable with its hay
loft. The rnain facilities in the "female" or family courtyard were the kitchen, tl .e
drinking fountain, and the toilet.

A B c o E

Courtyard: the Alajbeqouica. house in Mostar

d ur k: house and Slain,

l i~hl: coun yurd
C.hHICU : communicat ion . san itarv
The kitchen in the courtyard , used rnostly in sumrner, was a small room with a
and kitchen space) .
hearth, which either did or did not have a chimney, and a number of shelves and
F G H
wooden chests for storage. An auxiliary pantry (ciler) was close to the kitchen or the
storeroorn.

If water was brought up to the house, the tap (cesma) with a stone trough underneath
-E-- cn u anc~
a: laval or )· it was usually placed between the kitchen and the toilet so that the clean water used
for cooking and washing would later drain out through the toilet and wash it. The
kapija was sometimes located so as to isolate the drinking fountatn from the toilet,
Householdfacilities in the courtyard (After D.Grabrijan) which in turn, was placed closer to the garden

104 105
 I __
~-=='~~

Courtyard of the Karabegova house in Mostar

1 !.,' H

E F G

i~ C~;~;,iill
An example of the kapija,
Courtyard of the Biscevica house in Mostar and position of the kapija in relation to the house

106 107
Gardens are an integral part of the Islamic residential culture. as well as a form 'of ar-
tistic expression. They originated as a kind 'of relief from the harsh environment of
Arabia. and are often described in religious writings as the earthly reflection of para-
dise . . cities was entirely Anatolian. In the 17th century the houses of Istanbul and Edirne
The sirnilarity of the gardens throughout the Islamic world provides additional sup-
port to claims about the unified character of Islamic art. The cult of the garden had a
strong influence on all types of decorative art.
The gardens of the rich differed from those of the less rich only in size, and they were
an equal source of refreshment and joy to all. Wherever possible, running water was
brought into the garden.
In Mostar, gardens developed under different conditions on the two banks of the
Neretva river. On the West bank. the Radobolja tributary was used to bring water to
the houses. which enabled abundant vegetation in the gardens. On the East bank,
however. water was gathered in cisterns and, in consequence. the gardens were more
modest.
Origin and Development of the House
The basic conception of the Ottoman-Anatolian house, begun inside the borders of
the Ottornan State, has spread over a period of almost 500 years to a vast area of
Europe and Asia and has survived up to the present. During this time, it has encoun-
tered varying influences. Nevertheless certain fundamental principles have been ap-
plied almost everywhere. 53
Due to the extensive utilization of non-durable construction materials (e.g. wood. un-
baked brick), houses were rather short-lived. Most of the ones preserved to our day
are less than 150 years old.
Throughout history. these houses maintained a characteristic style largely fashioned
by requirements of the Islamic way of life. In the wake of the Ottoman conquest this
style spread to Europe and established itself in certain parts of what are today Serbia,
Bosnia and Hercegovina. Macedonia. Bulgaria. and Greece. In the course of time it
developed new characteristics and absorbed some foreign traits. From the 15th and
16th centuries onward, the Ottoman type of house supplanted all other existing types
wherever Ottoman Turkish settlernents or local communities amenable to Ottoman
culture were found. It is not easy to define these areas precisely, for apart from the ,
existence of concentrated settlements. there were areas where infiltrations only had
occurred and, in some provinces. the Ottoman style rnade no more than a passing or
superficial impression.
In the eastward and Southward directions. however, the Ottoman house did not pro-
ceed fu rthei; than the Anatolian frontier. The Persian type of house which extended
from the Caucasus to Iraq and Arabia and the "Arab house" which predominated in
Syria set a lirnit to the expansion of the Ottoman type. Beyond this limit. we fmd only
individual locations in which the Turkish influence is clearly visible.
53 In his book 'Tiirt'£ rJi, Osmanli 'DiiT,cmi, I-III. (istanbul 1984-87). Sedad Hakki Eidem claims that the Ottoman house reflects an
Anatolian origin but that, in its spread to other parts of the world, it absorbed many foreign elements.
108
In the Aegean islands, where the Ottomans had established themselves, the influence
of the Anatolian house made itself felt to a degree but was restricted to the use of
typical decorative motifs. On the other hand. the style of the typical house in the big
were the standard models which were copied everywhere in the Near East and in the
south-east of Europe.
Even in the 19th century when the Ottoman Empire was already falling into decline.
the pervading influence of the Turkish house did not come to an end. In that period.
the houses and settlernents in territories which were gradually being severed frorn the
Empire were beginning to fall into ruins.
There are Muslim districts and settlernents which have remained largely untouched
by new developments and have therefore succeeded in retaining their former aspect.
Such settlernents have been used here as sources of typical models of Ottornan
houses.
The house has undergone many stages of development in the course of five centuries.
As can be expected. different types of houses were produced in the different regions
where the Ottoman style penetrated and took root. but where land. climate, and folk-
lore were so dissimilar. These differences arose from the use of local building mate-
rial, from different weather conditions, as well as from assimilation of local customs
peculiar to each region. It is a remarkable fact, however , that houses which were
hundreds of kilometers away from each other and which were built under vastly dif-
ferent conditions share a common basic plan. It is this plan that will be the focus of
our attention.
The house originating in Anatolia had two main components: individual well-defined
rooms, and roofed spaces (hajat) adjoining one or more rooms.
The Anatolian Turkish house bears some irnportant marks of the "removable. portable
tents of the nomads. " 5 4
5
A tent and a room compared with regard. to layout and use
(after 6. Ku~ukerman)
54
This th esis is ela bo ra ted in several works. particularly in Onder Kucukerrnaris The Turkish 'Ho us e in
Search of Spatial Identity. published in istanbul in 1991.
109
The main factors which have characterized the different types of houses can be clas-
silled as follows: ' dining room, a bedroom. or a work-room. This flexibility was enabled by a kind of
1. The climate (continental or Mediterranean) or, lnore specillcally, the amount and
type of precipitation (affecting the selection of roof type), and the topographic condi-
tions.
The climatic zones in Bosnia and Hercegovina
2. Geological features and type of soil, affecting the selection of building material.
3. Social conditions and type of economy in individual regions, as well as their rela-
tive wealth. A wealthy city saw rapid changes as old houses were superseded by new
ones reflecting the spirit of the new times.
In the basic design of the Turkish house, the hall had a special significance. It was
the commonly shared space which connected all the rooms issuing onto it. As well as
providing easy access to the rooms, it served as a gathering place for the entire family.
The parts of the hall which were out of the way had sofas and benches for sitting. On
the other hand, each room was designed so that it could serve any purpose of day-to-
day living,
110
Like the tents of the ' nomadic period, each romn could at any time be made into a
partitioned closet (musandera) built along one of the walls. with a section for the
mattresses and bedding (duseJcluJc), a storage section with bookshelves (dolaf) , and a
wash-closet (banjica or hamamdziks next to an earthenware stove. The outside wall of
the stove had a concave space for keeping a bucket with water, which was heated
when the fire was burning in the stove. Such multi-purpose rooms, multiplled in a
systemlc way, produced the basic design of an Ottoman house.
The internal organization and the formation of the rooms were closely related to the
structure of the building as a whole, which, while determining the external features
such as windows, doors, and size of the rooms, did not affect the fundamental prin-
ciples of the organization of the interior space.
The main feature which links the different types of houses is the layout of the differ-
ent parts. The Ottoman house usually consists of two floors . Even though there are
cases where a house has several floors, never does it have more than one main floor.
The other floors are usually used for auxiliary purposes. The main spaces for living
and receiving guests are always located on the upper floor. When there is only one
floor, it is always raised above the ground to protect it against humidity. Pillars were
often used for lifting the house off the ground, so that the space below remained
empty.
The house was divided into a harernluk: - the private section for family use, also re-
ferred to as the "women's" section, and a selamluJc - the part nearer the entrance
where guests were welcomed and business discussed, also known as the "men's" part.
This division originates from the tendency of separating the interior spaces of an Ot-
roman house from the outside world as well as from the Islamic custom of keeping the
womenfolk away from adult male strangers. In the larger houses the haremluk and
the selarnluk were two separate structures linked by an inner courtyard. In the case
of small houses, the men's section consisted of only one or two rooms in the part of
the house nearer the street. The two-fold division did not influence the general char-
acter of the house as it mainly concerned only the use of the rooms.
Different arrangements of the three basic elements of the Ottoman house - rooms,
halls and staircases - produce the following different types of house plans:
A: The type without a hall. This is the sitnplest type, consisting of one or more rooms
in a row, with an entrance from the courtyard or the street. This type occurs mostly in
the south~rn parts and was not widely used.
B: The type with an outside hall. This type represents the first step in the develop-
ment of the original Ottoman house. The covered hall connects the rooms with one
another. This arrangement had been taken over from the Hittites and the Greeks, but
the Ottomans made adjustments to suit their particular needs. Thus, the hall is open,
with pillars instead of walls. This open hall can be found even today, in the form of a
gallely, in the wanner areas. There are riurnerous subtypes, depending on the num-
ber of rooms.
111
 This was a very popular model, especially in Istanbul during the second half of the
18th and the first half of the 19th century. After this period , it begins to decline be-
cause of its over elaborate and costly ornateness. This type can be subcategorized ac- '

t '1 n ~
r-
cording to whether the hall was closed on all four sides or not, wether the staircase
was in the alcove between rO~Ins or at the side of the hall, according to the number of
:-
alcoves and staircases , the size and contour of the hall.
H
Il ... In addition to the four types of the house described above, there were housing struc-
tures which combined elements from two or more of the four types. Such combina-
A a tions, however , were rather rare as they required great architectural knowledge and
skills.

c D

~-- - - -- - ---- - -_._--- ---- -

: ....~"'r_-__,._;."="" "~ " ='-1

Basic types of house plan

SAFRAf\.3BOLU
(After S. H. Eldem)

C: The type with an inside hall. This type represents a further important step in the I " 'u fl~ Jl".1 It "lrf.n.d . ..

development of the house plan and is the most common type in the Ottoman State. It ~
: Jln llr' Il " Inl

:::;'; ho''' ''1 .~1I.'1

Y n , W'l.! f"O" n l ~ t1 .n.J .. ",
;~ ~'I:~~M un"" n.....
\ " ...... 1... ,.,I"f't'"
is also referred to as the "two-sided" type because it originated from the addition of ~ ~:l;;" '" ,........10. . ..
IJ
I}
1<1
'U 'UC'fc-ourn
N1lh
1,.·.It."

other r oo rn s on the outward side of the open hall. : -... -..

The inside-hall type was a great improvement from the point of view of economy and
hygiene. The hall is now sheltered; communicatton between the rooms is much eas -
ier , t h ou gh at the expense of a direct contact with nature. TIllS type was present
mostly in the cities, where spatial economy began to be a factor in the process of town
planning. In the early variants of this type the hall was only a space open on two
sides with a roof set on pillars. In the later variants these openings were closed with
glass panels. The hall was usually provided with wooden sofas on two opposite sides.

Alcoves as additions to halls can be found in some houses of this type. .They are
mos tly found between two adjacent rooms and were meant to enlarge the space of the
hall as well as to provide a rest from t h e square shape of the hall. The staircase was
placed either in an alcove or at one of two sides of the hall.

A subclassification of the inside-hall type of the house can thus be based on whether
there is an additional hall , one or two alcoves, or on the shape of the hall.

0: The type with a central hall. This type represents the last phase in the develop-
ment of the Ottoman house . The hall tsIocated in the center of the house and the
rooms are on all four sides. This layout completely protected the hall from damage
Houses in different: regions of the Balkan Peninsula
that might have been caused by the weather.
Safranbolu, Turkey (after R. Gunay), and Sarajevo, Bosnia (after D. Grabrijan)

112 113
 Cr.:>.=.T

EP' R. GREeCE

PLOVOI V.8UQARSKA
C'AJA <0

S'CORO floor

.o.PYrII cnpar

FAt Ad'
TETO\lO, MAKE.Do~r JA

Flpun cnpar

OHR ID. MACEDONIA

FACid'

. DJAKOVIC~ , KOSOVO
BELGRJ:\DE, SERBIA

Houses in dWe'·"'. . r regions of the Balkan Perun suto Houses in different: regions of the Balkan Peninsula
Plovdiv, Bugarska, Tetovo, Macedonia, and Djakovica, Kosovo Epirus, Greece, Ohrid, Macedonia, and Belgrade, Serbia
(after B. Kojie5) (after B. Kojic)

114 115
Of all the houses observed, it is the Kolakovica house at Blagaj that best illustrates
the d evelopment of the Ottoman-Bosnian house. What was first a s imple room-hall-
ro om house built in t h e 17th century was later considerably enlarged by the addition
of a big and a s m all room with projecting bay windows (casa le). As a result of this en-
largernent, t h e h a ll of the house assumed a cross-like s hape , whose one end widened
t o cr ea t e a veranda. The East side of the hall was connected to the family part of the
house. The house with an aralule, may be considered as a separate subtype. It was
quite frequent in parts of the town close to the Neretva.

As there was no division of rooms according to function, it was possible to make a

house bigger s imply by adding more rooms to it. Thus, the difference between a poor
family's house and one owned by a wealthy family was not in the basic concept but
rather in the number of rooms and the size of the house. Furthermore, a rich family
might have a summer and a winter house within the same complex or, in a single
str uct u re. s eparate sections for the family and guests.

1
IT] GEJ-
H S
JTIITJ
~
1.1 1.2 1.3
2

~ ~ HarQmluk
2.1 2.2
3

~
M

t£G H S
~ H SIC
H a
S

3.1 3.2 3.3

am
4

~ S H S

4.1 4.2
5

t[]jS

5.1
S
1Ga- ~ 5.2
o
S
H

•
S
...

II
R
H
M
r-oom
Ha.)O:.t
m~o.L( ·
p - Co_~
A - Q"t~ci,
6 7 G - 9Qrd~l)

ffiD}J
S S I [Ifk ~1I
S
Ka

•
a
5 - ~~Q,~Le
K - c ller
T - to~te1.

6.1 7.1

Development of the house in Mostar

A survey of the Kajtazova House in Mostar

118 119
 Fu nc tional division of the House

Multipurpose ro om. The basic unit of the Ottoman house is the multifunctio nal
roo m. Flexible use of a single roorn, without heavy fu r n it u r e and ltmtta t to ris as to sea-
sonal occupancy, is the m a in c haracteristic of an O tto mari -Bos riian d welling.

There was as a rule, no movable furniture in the roo m. Instead , t h ere were t w o fix -
tures: a wooden int e r n a lly p a rtit io n e d closet a lo ng o ne of t he w a lls (musandera), and
a w ooden built-in sofa covered with matt resaes ts ecija ; against o ne, t w o o r even t hree
walls. It was this basic set-up that e nabled a flex ible utilization of t he r OGlU.

/'

~
! 2 ~
~
~
/ /
/'
"
~

The rnu sariclera is fixed onto the wall with the door in it, opposite the one with win-
dows. The partition of the musandera next to the door is usually the dolo], a cup -
board. closed by a door for storing small objects. Next to it is the ciueekluk: the place
Jar keeping the bedding during the day. Under the dusekluk and the dolaf there is a
c u p b o a r d with shelves on which dishes are kept. Then comes the 1110St Important part
of the musaridera , the ho matncizik: ('little bathroom') situated i.n its corner and sepa-
rated from the room by a door reaching up to the ceiling. The floor of the harnarndztk
is made of wood and stone. sloping down toward a little drainpipe. Next to this small
bathroom is the furnace used for heating the roOlU. The furnace is shaped so that a
large copper vessel filled with water can be placed on it. The heated water was
scooped out with a big ladle (/cevce) or poured into an engraved copper jug (ibrUc) to be
used for bathi.ng. The bathroom is very important for personal hygiene. which is
strictly regulated in Is lam (e.g.. a rnarried couple should always have access to a
bathroom), If there was a 'fir e p la c e (aclialc) in the room. water was heated there and
hro ught to the lrarnarndz.lk.
The Kajtazova House in Mostar

120 121
 Our description is based all. an exarniriation of the following: all housing structures in
Houses in Mostar
the Old Town. area and several structures in other parts of the city (Bjelustne, Luka,
Donja Mahala. Cernica, Carina, and Brankovac). Three housing complexes were ob-
The town of Mostar is of average size and is suitable for observing the development of
served at Blagaj and two at Buna, small townships in the vicinity of Mostar.
the Ottoman house in t his area because , in addition to the main impact deriving from
t h e center of the E mpire, it m a y be used to illu s t rate local, indigenous influences from
Although nearly all the structures described are t w o -s t o ry houses, this does not mean
Dalmatia and Dubrovnik, only several dozen kilometers south of Mostar.
t h a t single-floor structures did not exist. The core of all structures investigated , how-
ever. is the same: one room adjoined to an open hall on the ground floo r, w ith the
The systematic observations reported in t h is section were made in the period b~tween
firs t floor b eing a replica of the gro~lnd floor.
1979 and 1991. It should be pointed out t h a t during the last hundred years or so , t he
largest n u m b e r of old houses w ere demolished or ruined so that o ur description of the
The next step in d evelopment is the addition of another room all. the ground floor in a
hous e may not be as complete as we should like it to be. The important thing, how-
s y m rn e t r tca l relation to the hall, the first floor being again a r e p lic a of the floo r be -
ever , is that the observations were made before t h e beginning of the c urrent hostilities
neath it.
in Bosnia a nd Hercegovina, which means that then may be used fo r restoration and
reconstruction a ft e r t he w ar.
At a later stage the favored house plan was a large square d ivided into four m ore or
less square spaces: three rooms adjoined a hall, located on the courtyard side of t h e
house. The rOOI11 all. the far side of the hall was smaller than the others to make s pace
1 for the door to the room located diagonally in relation to the hall. The same layout
was again repeated on the first floor.
I
I
B i In a subtype of this plan the ground floor room diagonal to the hall functioned as the
kitchen . while the same room on the first floor was used for smoking meat a nd fruits
1.1 1.2 1.3 frOI11 the srnoke generated by the kitchen fire downstairs.

2 In the n ext developrnerrt the hall was closed off on its third side by a new room. A
1110re complex variant is when the closet room (tiler or liud.zera.; is at the back of the
h all. A s eparate stage in the development of this type of of house is represented by the
duplication of the base room-hall-room, which produced a deep hall with two rooms
2.1 2.2 2 .3
o n e it he r side. The space of the upper level of the hall facing the avlija was u s e d as
3 jazlulc or Icarnerija (a type of veranda used especially on summer nights).

~
O A
I E

II
A

3.1

4.1 4.2 4.3

.1
--::;: - - . -~~

5.1 5.2 5.3

The Kolakovica house at Blagaj

De velopme n t of t he h o u s e comp le x i n Mo s t a r

116 117
 The sccija is placed usually against two, but often against three walls. The width of
the secija is 80-90 ern and its height is 20-50 CIn. It is basically a wooden sofa, cov-
ered with a straw mattress (mincler) on which are placed cushions filled with wool
Korub.ll,V.logiC»
(siUe). Thick straw-filled pillows. placed upright against the wall, are used as the back
icA
hlujic. Had£iom.r..... of the secija. The jatnbezi, a long band of fine white linen with embroidered often zig-
zag edges, is placed over the top of the back pillows as a decoration. The seat of the
secija is covered by a piece of linen or cloth. or a rug with an attractive design. The
matertals used for covering the sccija are always highly embellie hed.

M"mino~ica,
KoloNoVico•...

homondiik,bonjic·o.
duhklUk
_ dolo!
. ~~~
_ o d to ~

KojlOIOYQ

The top of the musaridera reached to about 20-30 CIn below the ceiling. It was used
as a shelf (rqn on which decorative copper dishes were kept and fragrant fruits dried
in wintertime. At about the same height silnilarly decorated shelves were usually fixed
onto the other walls of the room as well. There were also one or more smaller built-in
clolafs in the room, in addition to the one in the rnusandera.

In Muslirn houses there was also a washstand tobdesilulci used for ablutions, obliga- Secija
tory before the daily prayers, recitmg the Qur'an, etc .... It was usually located in a
separate alcove in the hall and has its own outlet for used water.

Musandera The rooms fireplace, dolaf and raf

122 12J
A house was often occupied by an extended family consisting of several rnarrted ' --
.~ - ._'"":::< - _/. /~ -----....--
-- -....-.- .-- ~,
brothers and their children. The Ottoman multipurpose room enabled individual nu-
clear Ia milies to maintain their independence and privacy as the room contained eve-
rything needed for day-to-day living.

It is interesting to note that many of the old houses are still used for living and that
the old fixtures in the rooms are functional even today. Only the hamamdzik is often
converted into a moderri shower bathroom.
ii
\
! .

The eathernware stove close to the hamamdeik:

A room in the Bisceoica house in Mostcir Chimneys

124 ]25
The hall. The conunon space in the house used by all members of the extended farn-
ily was the hall or liajat: It is in fact, one spatial 'e n t ity spread over two floors with a
connecting staircase, placed by the wall opposite the open part of the hajat.
A part of the first floor haja: which was not usually walked on was raised about a foot
abovea floor level and made into a veranda called a yazlulc (from Turkish yaz
's umrner) or kamerija (from Arabic al leamer 'the moon'), As can be seen from its two
names. this space was used for relaxation and socializing in the summer, especially
on 11100nlit nights. The jazluk was often partly closed on the outside by a tnitsebak: - a '
lattice structure of criss-crossing diagonally laid slats. Because of the warm climate of
Hercegovina the jazluk in this, area was generally larger and more ornate.
One of the basic functions of the hajat was to provide a pleasant view which would
enC0111paSS as much of the surrounding area as possible.
The hajat: staircase in the Cisica house in Mostar and the upper floor in
the Kajtazova house in Mostar
126
Furniture and Household Equipment
The most beautiful pieces of furniture have been damaged in the last hundred years
so that collecting and evaluating this aspect of Ottoman housing culture in Bosnia
and Hercegovina has been rather difficult.
Furniture and household items in general developed under the influence of the aarne
factors which conditioned the layout of the house as well as its spatial and formal
features. For example, sleeping on mattresses spread over the floor and sitting on the
secija required the windows to be low, so that the overall horizon beca rne lower. Also
the rOOI11 height was generally only 210 to 230 ern, which caused the door to be quite
low. The rooms on the upper floor were usually higher and bigger. Because of the low
ceiling, however, all the rooms looked larger and I110re spacious.
Various household items were stored mostly in the musandera, especially in the dolaf
rind on the raf.
People sat on the secija or on the floor, often using the sille to sit on. At mealtime eve-
rybody sat around a very low wooden table ieintja or soJra), which, when not in use,
was hung on the wall of the hajat or was put in the rnutfak.
The room interior in the Velagica house at Blagaj
VVOIl1en'S clothes were stored in wooden chests (sahara), kept either in the rnultlpur-
pose room or In a closet room called ciler or hucizera, Men's clothes were placed over
the pole (srg) in the room or in the upper part and covered with a sheet to protect
them from dust.
127
All wooden fixtures in the interior of rich persons' houses were decorated with orna-
mental carvings. The motifs were most frequently drawn from the local tradition in
the art of wood carving. It is worthy of note that furniture with traditional carving is
still kept as a mark of distinction, even in modern houses and flats.

The following containers were used for water: iestija, an earthenware pitcher with a
spout, djuqurn. and ibrik; a big and small copper container shaped like a pitcher, the
small one with a narrow curved spout, and ledjen, a copper wash-basin with a lid.
Turkish coffee was made in a cizezoa, a small metal (usually copper) pot with a long
handle, or sometimes in a small ibrik: (see above), and drunk out of e fild ain, a small Furniture: chairs
enamel cup without a handle. The coffee was served on a sometimes very ornate tray
Burning pinewood, an oil lamp made of sheet metal, oil cans, and candles on a can-
called a iabak; Many well-off familles owned a mangala, a big copper bowl fitted on an
dlesticks were used for lighting. These utensils are not found in today's houses, ex-
often highly ornarnerited copper stand. The bowl could be filled with burning charco~l
cept for a small number kept as souvenirs and objects d'art.
to make coffee on or to keep it warm as well as to generate some heat; when not In
use the marigala was kept in the middle of the rOOIn as the most important decorative
piece. The main entrance door (lcapija) is a very important element of the house from a
functional and decorative point of view. The kapija was usually a large double door
Kitchen utensils included the pothook , a kettle, a copper cauldron ibakrac'; a three big enough for a horse with a load to go through. It consisted of a structural skeleton
- a frame built in the wall and one or more separate flaps, each with own frame
legged iron support for the kettle (sacliale), a grill, cooking pots and pans, coal and
crossed by two or three horizontal bars. The inidividual flaps were made of vertical
cooking tongs. a dough tray, ladles, copper plates with lids (sahan), milk and SOllP
panels fastened to the crossbars by big nails whose enlarged heads, densely lined up
bowls (casa), round baking copper pans (lepsija) , a large and round copper tray for
prod uce an impression of great safety.
serving food (demirlija), and an iron pan for baking bread (sac).

128 129

Different kinds of the kapija
A special kind of door is the ceJcnle dolo], a movable cupboard for passing from the
men's to the women's part of the house. In all. the housing complexes that we have
o b se rved there was only one example of this gate , in the house of the Kolakovica fam-
ily at Blagaj.
The door between the courtyard and the garden is called a 1capidzilc ('srnall door'). It
was particularly frequent in the houses close to the Buna and Radobolja rivers.
Decoration commonly consisted of stylized floral motifs which covered most surfaces
of the house open to view, in some cases through repetition or interlacing. There are
a ls o many examples of calligraphy used for decorative purposes. Drawings aim at
symmetry based on an ornamental net and are often made of a simple unbroken line.
Fabrics were the most frequent domestic handicraft products, which had both a
practical and a decorative purpose. They included carpets, rugs, quilts, mattress cov-
e rs, pillow cases, and towels. . house is a genuine sanctuary which must be cherished with utmost care. It is above
Carpets covered the floors of the rooms completely. Carpet weaving had been a well
developed craft in Bosnia even in the pre-Ottoman period but gained mo rneritum
during Ottoman times.
130
New motifs were brought from the East, especially from Persia and other parts of the
vast Ottoman Empire. Each workshop did something distinctive, which encouraged
people to decorate different rooms with carpets of different designs. This practice
continued after the Ottoman rule , and people in Bosnia and Hercegovina are still very
particular in their choice of carpets.
Popular embroidery usually represents the most characterisitic art of an ethnic group.
It was specially developed in Muslim families, both with regard to quantity and vari-
ety, because Mus lim women mostly stayed at home, and embrotdering was the most
COI1UllOn way of passing the time. Almost every piece of fabric or cloth regularly used
was ernbro idered.
Plant motifs are the most frequent patterns embroidered in Bosnia and Hercegovina. They
represent many varieties of flowers with a "source" flower in the middle . Animal fig-
ures are also found, though they are not so common. Urban embroided ornaments
borrowed from typical folk elements but made them more elaborate and 'r e gu la r. The
naive symmetry of rural embroidery was enhanced by a simple adaptation of the em-
broidery technique in accordance with the material. Urban embroidery represents a
lyric expression of the spiritual superstructure of the urban milieu. Embroidery is
also applied to write Qur'anic verses in sophisticated calligraphy on pieces of fabric
that were framed and hung on walls much like paintings in Western houses.
Wood was used for almost all elements of the interior: doors and windows, shutters,
Inusanderas, musebaks, wall panelling, floors , ceiling, chests.
Decorative wood-carving was done on numerous varieties of wood (beech, walnut,
linden, maple , fir), with many different motifs (purely geometric, floral, calligraphic),
and using different techniques. Wood-carving had a very rich tradition in this area be-
fore the arrival of the Ottomans. During their dominance, however , this tradition was
enriched by influences coming from the larger Mediterranean area.
Glass, crystal and ceramic articles were not produced in this area. They were usually
acquired in Istanbul, though some were of Western origin, too, and were iInported by
merchants from Dubrovnik.
Burning pieces of pinewood , oil lamps made of sheet metal, and candles on a can-
dlesticks were used for lighting. These utensils are not found in today's houses, ex-
cept for fragrant pinewood, which is sometimes used during religious ceremonies.
Influences and Relationships
Islamic influences. Muslims have .been in the majorrty in the Bosnian popialation
ever since the first decade of the 16th century. Islam has had a strong impact on all
aspects of life in Bosnia and Hercegovina. but it is in the area of housing that its in-
fluence has been the most conspicious.
Islam also brought with it a new relationship between housing and outside space. The
all the domain of the woman , whom Islam tends to separate from public and com-
mercial life, thus protecting her from the outer world. It is also a relatively autono-
motis unit both from a social and a religious point of view, because every household
master is like an imam to his family. This is reflected directly in architecture.
131
A house was closed to the view of the people in the street, because both women were
hidden from strangers and for reasons of hygiene. In the bigger housing complexes
there were usually two courtyards: an "economic" one and a second intimate family
courtyard .
In an Is larnic society every dwelling and every other clean place is, in principle, a po-
tential place of worship, and may be used in the manner of a mosque. This means
that architecture in general and all decorative arts and crafts have a religious aspect.
Is larn's prohibition of the presentation of hurnan figures in the visual arts has been
no doubt responsible for the unprecedented flowering of decorative art, which was
applied to almost every artifact and to all the spaces within the iInmediate human
environrnen t.
Is lam brought to the Bosnian house the abdestluJc (place for ablutions) and the lia-
mamd iik: (small bathroom).
The warm climate with its balmy air in the southern parts of Bosnia and Hercegovina
made it possible to transfer many of the house functions to the courtyard, as was
done in many other Mediterranean and eastern countries. Thus, Ottoman-Islamic and
indigenous aspects of living intermingled with Mediterranean influences to create a
unique new way of life.
Relation with nature. A house was fitted into its natural environment by the use of
local building materials combined with remarkable skill in a harmonious ensemble.
The house was horizontally placed so as to follow the contours of surrounding roads,
while always respecting the neighbor's right to a pleasant view. Care was also taken
to have the house surrounded by plenty of greenery as well as to locate it in an area
accentuated by a minaret, preferably among tall pine trees.
Sarajevo: positions of houses on the terrain
132
"On e day the owner of the neighboring garden brought a carpenter to the site and told
hun to build a house.
They stopped on a spot where the ground sloped gently downwards. The carpenter
had a look at the trees , the ground, and the town in the valley. Then he proceeded to
extract aome pegs from his tool-bag, paced off the distances , and marked them with
the pegs.
Thus he carne to his main task. He asked the owner which trees might be sacrificed,
moved the pegs for a few feet, nodded and seemed satisfied. He found that the new
house would not obstruct the view of the valley from the neighboring structures.
Then the carpenter reflected whether the new house would have enough light and
sun. When he found that the east wall of the house would be far enough, from the
neighboring structure, he proceeded to examine the site for water. There was a spring
nearby but the ground was inclined and he said that water would do no harm to the
house. Having satisfied hirnself on all these points, he concluded his reasoning by
saying that he was willing to erect the house. In view of the above we must ask: what
is the use of a drawing board ?"55
If water was in the vicinity an approach was built to it and, if possible, it was drawn
up to one's garden (as in the gardens along the Radobolja in Mostar) or even within
the house complex (as in theVelagica house at Blagaj).
Great efforts were made to fit the house into its natural surroundings, which were
somettmes blended into the house complex as its integral part. In this process of
blending, however, nature was left untouched and was caught as if by a net in the
spaces of the house, producing a high degree of unity.
Ottoman houses in different parts of the Balkans. The creation of the Ottoman
Balkan house was influenced by the already existing houses and their elements,
which originated with the coming of the Slavs to the Balkan peninsula and which de-
veloped further under local influences. The Slavs brought their own conception of the
house, dominated by the log cabin; their way of life and their social organization; their
own building materials and construction techniques. They then adapted all these to
the Illyrian and Roman conceptions and methods which they encountered in the Bal-
kans and which had, in turn, already been adapted 't o the previous ly existing local
conditions.
Since the Ottoman State covered most of the territory of the Balkan peninsula, in-
habited by different ethnic group with their different cultures, the Ottoman building
tradition was variously influenced by the various indigenous cultures. In the north-
ern and northwestern parts Western and Central European influences are amply evi-
dent, while the areas closer to the Adriatic coast were affected by the Mediterranean
housing culture. The European influence is reflected in the houses being smaller and
nearer the street with the rooms on the upper floor facing the street projecting over
the ground floor. Moreover the roofs are usually covered with wooden slates or roof
tiles , and there is generally a loft above the first floor. In the s unnier regions of the
Balkan peninsula, however, the gardens and the open areas within the house were
more spacious. The roofs were often covered with stone slates because of strong
winds, and there was frequently no loft, the roof itself being the ceiling to the rooms
(hall or kitchen) below it.
55 cl.Ba h: "Ar h ite k t closer Pospisil" , Htuatska rellya XVII 1943, pp . 596-597.
133
Relation to the house in Christian Europe. The medieval city of western Europe
usually consisted of several settlernents, each enjoying some degree of autonomy. The
city was divided into districts and each of them had its church or churches, very often
its own rnarketplace and a water supply systern. The city district was often similar to
a country parish.

Medieval Venice is good example of this type of urban set-up. The underlying struc-
o
ture of the area of San Marco is repeated on a minor scale in every other quarter of
Venice: each has a square, a church, a fountain, a school, and sometimes also a
guild 's council building. Channels both separated and connected the different settle-
merrts.P" Thus, the urban structure typified by Venice in many ways resembles the
structure of an Ottornan city.

Dubrovnik, a city republic with a long history of independence was a large trade cen-
ter on theborder of Ottoman Bosnia and a good exarnple of a city with a high level of
organization by the rnedieval standards of Christian Europe. It therefore seems ap-
propriate to compare the urban structure of Bosnian towns with that of Dubrovnik.

In Dubrovnik, houses were densely built into a small space within the city walls.
There was a close connection between economic activity and dornestic life: the
ground-floor was used for business, while the rnain floor served as living quarters for Similarity between houses in Mostar and Dubrovnik
Zimonjica palace at Rijeka Dubrooablca, and Muslibegovida house in Mostar
the family and , possibly, workers employed in the business. The kitchen was usually
in the attic, next to the servants ' room.
Other Kind of Housing Structures
In addition to the single-family dwelling houses, there were also other kinds of hous-
At the beginrung houses had only one storey and were built in rows, along either side ing structures: twin houses, l.e. two separate apartments on the first floor, and row
of the street. Later they becarne higher and more dense. Airing the rooms became houses, each with up to three apartrnents under one roof, of which the third one
rnore difficult and the amount of sunlight reaching them decreased considerably. The originated by an adaptation of the twin house. These other structures were laid out in
interior space was not differentiated cornpletely according to its function. the sa me basic way as the smgle-famtly house and they were made of the sarne mate-
rials. Although the different elernents of these houses often originated at different
tunes, they appeared as if they had been built according to a single plan.
It is thus qurte clear that houses in Dubrovnik were totally different frorn Ottoman
houses in Bosnia and Hercegovina in terms of their urban setting, position in imme-
diate environment, and with regard to their internal organization.
.i I

In contrast to the house within the city walls of Dubrovnik, mansions in the sur-
roundings of that city share some features with the Ottoman housing complexes, es-
pecially those in Hercegovina , because they have gardens and courtyards as well as a
nurnber of auxiliary structures. Dubrovnik mansions also resemble Ottoman houses '
< . . . .. . ..

In their spatial set-up: the ground floor and the first floor have an identical arrange- · ·1

merrt of roorns (usually two rooms on either side of a big hall).57 Furthermore , houses
around Dubrovnik and those in Mostar, Trebinje, and Stolac provide privacy and
plenty of comfort.

Western influences came to Bosnia mainly through Dubrovnik but also, beginning in
the 1830s, as a result of increased trade with the west, especially by way of Trieste.
Sorne Western influences came to Bosnia even from Istanbul , which had by this time
adopted many Western (a lafran/ca) fashions.

56 Luis Mumford. 'Ilic Cit!! ill fiistor!.l. its Origill, .its 'Iiansjomuuions' ami its Prospects. Translation in Croa tian: qraa II Iiistori]! Zagreb
l Y71 , pp.31 4-364.
Row houses at Cernica in Mostar Groundfloor and southfacade
57 Ivan Zd ravko vic, 'fJ1I6rOl'at Rj duorci, Beograd 1951.

134 135
A specific kind of housing structure is represented by the residences of high officials
of the Ottornan State, called leanale or sara). These buildings were built in the capital
cities of the Bosnian Beglerbegluk: Sarajevo, Banja Luka, and Travnik. The only
example of this type of structure, the Konak in Sarajevo, is also the latest to be built
in Bosnia and Hercegovina.
SI. l. ~ i 3. Vali iski konak u Trav nih. Tlocrt oricem i i,
{sredi na] i kara (,~: o rc) te puprecn i orr-sick .d c l it;;
SI. i i .j , Valijski kOI1Jk u Tr avniku . Juin:l i
SI. 6 i 7. Valiiski konak u Travniku, Sievcrna i zanadna strana
Saray in Travnik
1. Ground-floor. 2. photo 1946, 3 First.floor, 4. Section,
5. South side, 6. East side, 8. North side, 9. West side
136
Hercegovina enjoyed the status of a pasalule from 1831 until 1851. During this time a
konak was built in Mostar on a hill overlooking the Old Bridge, and a surnmer saraj
at Buna, both for Ali Pasa Rizvanbegovic. In addition to their residential function
these buildings were used for administrative purposes.
The house of the Ej u bovic family at the Majdan square in Mostar was a specific
structure in that it was a complex consisting of a house occupied .b y the judge
(lcadija) and a separate unit for the courtroom (medz!1ana).
Housing complexes outside the city consisted from a semi-fortified tower (kula) and a
two-storey building (adzale). They were built by feudal lords on their estates outside
the city. The fortified cities of medieval Bosnia were used as models for these struc-
tures. Addition of Ottoman-style housing elements is what transformed them into a
specific Ottoman structure known as leula.
The kula with the odzak was a single compound structure. An odzak was, in fact, the
residental unit built next to a kula. There was a spacious courtyard encircled by a
high wall around or next to a kula and adjoining the odzak. All auxiliary structures of
the housing complex were placed in the courtyard. The tower itself was built of stone,
with vaulted ceilings for each level and metal shutters pn the door and the windows.
istp~·nJ.· \t~ti3.
RetliepuSiifamily complex, Caj/to near Nevesillje
The towers lay on square foundations and often included as many as three floors and
a cellar Some towers had a top story made of wood , with corner porches on one or
more sides . The entrance to the tower was usually raised above the' ground for secu-
rity reasons and was accessible only by a staircase. It had a small sturdily built door.
137
Every t hing necessary for day-to-day living - the musandera with the hamamdztk, fire-
place, the toilet, etc - was located wi thin the kula it s e lf so that those defending it
could withstand a lo n g siege.

Several hundred kulas have been identificed in Bosnia-Hercegovina. Prominent among them are the
Firdus-begova kula inLivno, the Husein-Kapetan Gradascevic in Gradacac, Redzepasic kula atCajno
near Nevesinje, the Cengic kula at Rataji near Foca, the Cengi« kula at Odzak near Ustikolina, the
Sulejmapasic kula near Bugojno, the Kulenovic kula near Mrkonjic grad. 58

I I

The kula in Biiuui

According to our in ves t iga t ion s t h e re were two kulas in Mostar: both were on the left
bank of the Neretva and belonged to t h e families Kreso and Hadzic. In the vicinity of
the city there are 12 towers.v" still in use. 26 other kulas 6 0 have been preserved well
enough to be worthy of reconstruction.

The most important towers in the surroundings Mostar are: the Alajbegovica tower in
Vrapclct. the Dzabica in the Suhi Do , and the Cemalovica tower at Buna. The Ce-
malovica tower at Buna is famous for its interesting built-in furniture made of carved
wood . It is kept as an exibit at the National Museum in Sarajevo.

58 See A. Bej tic , "Spo m e nici osman lijske a r hltekt ure u bos ru i Hercegovinl.", POF 3- 4. Sarajevo 1952-53.
59 Hadrovlca. Golica at Gnj ojnj ice. Lju bovlca at Hod bln a , Catlca. Allk al flca . a nd Temim a at Ilicl . Zallhica
at Vlhovic l. Fazllbegovica. a nd Glav ovida at Lljevce, Alaj begovtca at Vrapcic i. and Dza blca at the S u hi
Do.
60 K os tc a at B laga], H asa n agt ca at Hodblna, Cemalovica at Buna, Peco at Ortijes. Kahvtn a , Blllda. and S e-
The Cemalovica kula at Buna
fica at Rodo c , Cisica. and Fazil at Donja Jasen ica. Djlki ca . Djozllca and Kara hasanaglna at ZHomislici.
Hurnlna (21, a nd S ablca at C im , Tlp u r tna, Bubal o, a nd Fej lca at Lljevce. E fica a t S tu dena c . Ha djalica at Axonometry and schema of complex
Mal o Polje . Pestelova at Hodbin a , Ce larova. Laktst ca , a n d Fa ztlo va at Ba cevt ct, Cevrina at Vlhovlcl, ( 1 . Kula, 3. OdZak, 4. & 6. Rooms, 5.Hajat ,7.&2. Toilets,
Lakisi c a a n d Co rdina at Ras tanl . 8. M u ifa k, 9. eiler, 11. Water cistern, 12. Storage)

138 139
 v
BUILDINGS AND BUILDERS

Materials and Structures

Ottoman buildings are generally divided into two groups on the basis of construction
materials an~ predominant types of structures: monumental public buildings made of
stone, with a number of domes and arches as well as elaborate decorative elements,
and residential buildings more independent in shape, adjusted to human needs, and
made of less durable material.

Construction of the dome represents the highlight of material use and building tech-
nique. The architecture of domed mosques and other buildings with domes and
arches found in this area bore a close resemblance to similar structures in the rest of
the Ottoman State with regard to materials used, building techniques and types of
structures. In fact, in many cases there was cornplete identity between individual
buildings of the same kind in the European part of the Ottoman State and in Asia
Minor. The basic building materials are stone and brick, and lead for roof covering,
with occasional use of special matertals and techniques.

Squinches or pendentives were used as transitional structures to rest the circular

dOlne onto the square base below it. The size of the domes was in a harmonious rela-
tion to the total height of the mosque, their spans being usually much wider than
those of the cupolas used in earlier medieval domed structures.

Mosque facades in ' Macedonia and Serbia were different from those in Bosnia and
Hercegovina because they were constructed by applying the ancient Byzantine
technique of picturesque alternation of layers of brick and stone, as well as by
inserting bricks between cut stones in the cloisonne manner.

But Ottoman architecture in Bosnia and Hercegovina also took on regional

characteristic as well. 61 Thus, facades were sometimes covered with a layer of mortar
and then whitewashed.

Mosques without domes generally preserve all the other elements of domed mosques .
Along with domed mosques, a series of smaller mosques with hip roofs and minarets
shaped like bell-towers with a square cross section were built in the eastern part of
Hercegovina. The construction of the roof and the covering is exactly the same as in
the residential buildings of the area. The local building tradition is best exemplified
by simple wooden mosques in the villages of central and northern Bosnia. The mate-
rials used mos tly come from the immediate vicinity of the building site. Because of
'this. structures made of wood are usually located in mountain regions, while stone
buildings are regularly found in coastal areas.

61 Andrej Andrej evlcrIstarnskc tnonumentalno: umjetuost XVI ueka II Jugoslaoiji, B eograd 1984. p . 118 .

141

Tf7ADITJONAL STfiUCT URt 5
WIT!-1 TROMPES EXPOSED
M','D NOT EXPOSED OUTS/Uf
(THF DOME IS GENEl1ALLY
WITI-/()UT A DRUM)
SOUARE -BASE WITH
PENDENTIVES
Domes, squinches and pendentives
The construction of a two-storey family house is very simple: one wall on top of an-
other wall, a room over another room, resulting in the floor above usually being a
replica of the ground floor. The house had a rnassive ground floor and a more loosely
constructed floor above.
As housing space in cities became scarcer towards the end of the 19th century, peo-
ple began to make cellars and rooms in the attic; this new type of house gradually
supplanted the traditional str.ucture with only two storeys.
The foundation was a crude stone filling of at least 60 em in depth, with lime plaster
used ,?-S the binding medium. The main walls were also built of rubble, very much like
the foundation, but care was taken to place large, well-shaped pieces of stone on the
outward side of the wall. The treatment of the surface of the wall was twofold: mortar
was applied either to cover it completely or only to fill the spaces between contiguous
pieces of stone. The use of cut stone was generally restricted to marginal structures
such as wall corners, window frames, arches, and doorways. Wood, on the other
hand, kept its natural appearance and structure and represented both a construction
ne. pendentive, a geomerrical an:illysis. element and architectural decoration.
Walls were reinforced as well as made more flexible by means of two horizontal beams
(hatula) connected with wooden crossbars and placed along either edge of a wall,
creating a space between them to be filled with rubble and mortar. There might have
been two or three such structures within a room-high wall. This kind of reinforcement
was also used above doors and windows, unless their tops were vaulted.
TRADITIONAL STRUCTURE
Twin horizontal beams were used to support very heavy structures and, in case of
WfTH TROMPES'NOT
EXPOSED OUTSIDE extremely large spans, columns with reinforced tops were placed halfway along the '
bearn to fortify it.
The floors were made of wooden joists which were' often reinforced with cross slats
dovetailed into each other and fitted into grooves on the sides of two neighboring
joists. The floor structures without the reinforcing cross slats had joists with a rnuch
bigger cross section and boards fastened to both the upper and the lower side of the
joists. Floorboards 16 to 20 em wide were fastened onto the upper sides of the joists.
If the floor structure separated two storeys and thus served also as the ceiling of the
story underneath it, the visible parts of the joists and the slats were often painted to
prod uce an attractive decorative ceiling. The ceilings were most frequently decorated
with carvings. Sometirnes a central round section of the ceiling was highlighted with
different elaborate decorations; this piece is called ortaluJc and is found in the Kajta-
zova house in Mostar, in the Kolakovica house at Blagaj, and the Cemalovica kula at
Buna.
As boards in the ceiling assumed part of the overall stress, it was possible to use
beams with a small cross section. Masters saw to it that each element in a structure
had a role in the neutralization of stress.
OCTAGONAl. ·E3ASE WITH HEXAGONAL-BASE WITH
If the above elements were not used then the joists would be bigger and were covered
rnOMPES T/iOMPES by boards from the bottom which were 15-20 em wide.
142 143
 B

B
ot-~
05 1 2m

~* Q'l.Z'.(~~~
h:---"1
I
\
-

15-19
~ _b-
.. -y'
\
- :.:;,-
I!
,
\ B-2\l \
-'j -~-

Details of the ceiling

The staircase ibasamacu, connecting the two levels of a hajat, consists of two slanting
beams fitted with treads. The banister, called trobozani, is a series of wooden colon-
nettes under a handrail. Very often, the two or three bottom steps were made of stone.
Sornettmes the opening 'on the ceiling of the stairs is closed by a horizontal door
which, when opened, leans against the upstairs wall. The upper-floor space above the
. ,
staircase is fenced off, and there is usually a large shelf tahiapes over the bottom part
of the staircase, which is used for keeping valuable dishes and similar household ar-
ticles.

The first floor often has a projection on the side facing the street. This so called dok-
sat or cosale adds to the aesthetic value of the house as well as provtding extra space
on its more important first floor.

Staircases: forms and details

144 145
 The structure of the doksat

The Biscevica house in Mostar

In the largest number of cases the walls on the first floor are identical to the walls on
the ground floor. Doors and windows are usually laid out in the same way as on the
ground floor, except that they are often somewhat higher. Thin beamed walls called
catma functioned as partition walls, but also as outside walls on the doksat. These
walls were constructed of vertical beams reinforced by horizontal ones. the space be-
tween the beams and the struts being filled with different materials. The wooden
skeleton of the hajat was regularly constructed of very thin piers or of only one sturdy
column with a bolster reinforcing its connection to the wall. Small struts carrying the
attic floor are connected diagonally to this wooden skeleton.

The ceiling on the first floor is constructed in the same way as the ground-floor ceil-
ing. except that the top side of the first floor ceiling did not have floorboards because.
unlike the ground -floor ceiling. it is not used as a floor.

The doksat of the Kajtazova house in Mostar

147
146
 I

-l-
0
......
I 8 0-120
Muleb aks on the hajat L/'I
ClO G5- ss
Windows were short and few in stone walls, but taller and more numerous in other
lJemi ri
kinds of walls. A window was made of a w ooden frame with usually four oblong single - 0-

sheet of glass fitted into it. It lined up with the outer side of the wall, but if it had a
wooden lattice (musebalc) or an iron grid (demir) it was set in toward the inside . In
addition to the predorninant type of window with two parts opening sideways some
houses had sash windows (na s u r m u ), which were opened by moving the b ottom half
over the top one. If there were iron bars on the window, these were built either into
-t 7D-90

f loor
~
;\-
Structure of the window
the wall or into the wooden frame-fitted inside the window.

The roof was supported by a wooden structure consisting of pole plates (h a tu la), raf-
ters, purlins, tie beams, and struts if the roof had eaves. The individual elements of
this structure were always shaped with hand tools a t the actual building site .

The roof cladding consisted of either stone slates or clay tiles (ceranlida), or, in
mouritatns regions, of wooden slates. It is, thus, a criterion in defining the type of
house and region . The matertal for roof cladding was usual~ extracted from nearby
quarries. Clay tiles were manufactured in Sarajevo and Foca. 2

Th e size of stone plates was 30 ern by 80 crn, and their thickness was 2 -3 ern. They
were placed diagonally and in an overlapping arrangement, the lines of their mutual
contact being overlaid with lime mortar. The rnain facade of the house was usually
marked by projecting eaves supported with slanting struts. The wide eaves and the
slight roof slope made a gutter superfluous .

Certain difficulties arose' when a house was inserted among neighboring structures,
as this meant that two walls could not be used fo r openings. In such a house a s e c -
tion of the ground floor immedtately behind the entrance was made into a cov.ered
courtyard (ara lulc ) and the total number of rooms was reduced.

Windows 62 S ee Allja Bejtic:"Spomenici Osmanlijske arhitekture u Bosn.i i Hercegovtnl'', POF 3-4, Sarajevo 1952-53 ,
p.239 .

148 149
 Builders

Drf::b
At,. I ...."----I<i.i'JI:2.~
f--'===-O;"------"=:: +
Builders are the bearers of creativity in architecture. In its beginning architecture de-
veloped without architects. Building was carried but by the entire family, tribe, or
23 cornmuntty. It was based on common knowledge and was accompanied by complex
'------+
rituals, such as consecration of the roof, sacrifice, the hanging of gifts on rafters, and

~
.6.E;~"c~TA
+
20
..."---='---_---Y
the burying of cult items. All the inventive achievements of architecture, from its
natural and organic functions to the 'r a t io n a l solutions and perfected craft details,
+.,,+ were respected in the process of building. These characteristics were retained almost
+ -18 + -16-+ throughout the Ottoman times, especially in the residential sector.

Building was a well organized activity in the Ottoman State. There were special de-
partments within the administrative system of Ottoman Turkey, from the Sultan's ,
court to the district administration, that financed and carried out all types of con-
struction, from roads and bridges to monumental sacral buildings. Builders were
known to receive titles of nobility and land for their services. This indicates to us that
architecture held a high position in the socioeconomic and state system of the Otto-
man State.

The Ottornan monumental art and craftsmanship of the 16th century represented the
peak of artistic creativity of the Islamic world. Irnperial in character and urban in
spirit, the highly developed art of this rigidly centralized State dominated Islamic
artistic expression for about 400 years, Ottoman culture and art dominated all over
the Ottornan lands extending from East to West, from North to South, namely fom
Eastern Europe to the Gulf, and artistic ideas originating in the Ottoman-Turkish
culture reigned s uprerne in Bosnia and Hercegovina.
A roof - supporting ,s t r u c t u re
The phases through which Ottoman morrumental art went from the beginning of the
16th century until the end of Mimar Sinan's activity in 1588 manifested variations of
solemnlty and power, which were reflected throughout the Balkan Peninsula. The
dorned edifices endowed to their own land by representatives of the new establish-
merit - the pashas, the begs, and other dignitaries - with their noble spatial and con-
structive qualities and the stylistic purity of their stone ornaments and wall paintings
\OO~ secnol'1 were to be the real interpreters of the new Turkish-Islamic ideology in the recently oc-
cupied regions and were rneant to overshadow all that had previously been con-
structed in this part of Southern Europe.

Ottoman monumental art appears over a very broad territory of the Balkan Peninsula,
from Thessaloniki, Edirne, and Sofia In the Southeast to Temisoara, Budim, and
Banja Luka in the Northwest, generally displaying the same basic qualities. The logi-
cal explanation of this uniformity is to be found not, only in the fact that both the
founders and the artists shared the same Ottoman-Islamic culture, but also in the
dominant schools of architecture whose adherents were all educated on models in the
State's capital city with its nurnerous works bearing the same hallmarks. If there were
cerQfY'I,da
any differences, they were mostly reflected in dimensions, building techniques, storie
ornaments, and particular wall-painting motifs. rather than in the spatial concept,
construction design, or general artistry.

The architect's role. We do not exactly know how significant the role of architects
was in the erection of residential buildings in Ottoman Turkey in the period between
the 16th and 19th century, but it was certainly not the role that the architect has to-
day. It is very difficult to find documentary evidence on this subject.
Different. kinds of roof covering: stone slates and eeramida

150
151
In the past the architect probably detennined the basic structure of the building and
methods of construction in the early phase of a project. and would subsequently
delegate further work to qualified craftsmen. He would also supervise the craftsmen
and workers at the building site, and sometimes design the main decorative elements
of the more important buildings.
Those were times when structural and decorative arts were so closely connected and
standardized that they had common esthetic norms, making the personal influence of
individuals almost unnecessary. Until the very end of traditional Ottoman
architecture , architects, craftsmen, and masons shared the common artistic trends of
their epoch.
The architect (miTnar. muhendis) or in case of lesser structures, the builder or simply
a dundjer (a craftsman who was skilled at all the crafts applied in building a house)
would first set the basic shape of a house, making a simple plan based on generally
accepted laws and fonnulas. The craftsmen tended to adhere to these norms rather
strictly, which resulted in most architectural elements, including, for instance, win-
dows. doors. and ceilings, retaining much the same shapes for several centuries. The
high level of standardization demanded a high level of cooperation between the differ-
ent craft-guilds in the course of a construction project. The traditional Ottoman
house was most frequently the work of the "craftsman-of-all-trades", the dundjer. The
building techniques and styles changed slowly. We can classify them according to
plans and structures.
It is hard to find a residential building or even part of a building that can be con-
nected to the name of an architect. The situation is somewhat different regarding
monumental architecture. In general, although the name of the particular builder
may be known. it is usually only the main imperial ' architect of the period who was
credited with a large-scale project.
The Ottoman architect and other artists brought to Bosnia and Hercegovina the
building influences of the Islamic East. The builders from Istanbul and Asia Minor
carne to various parts of the Balkan peninsula in the 16th century, when most of the
building took place, producing the most valuable monurnents of the Ottoman period.
Amongst the builders Kodza Mimar Sinan was certainly the best known. He was the
greatest Ottoman builder of all times. He built the famous bridge in Visegrad. the
irnaret and the saraj in Sarajevo. and the Karadjozbegova Mosque in Mostar.P-' Adjem
Esir Ali, Mimar Sinan's predecessor, built the Gazi Husrevbegova Mosque, the rnedre-
sa and the library in Sarajevo.P" Hajrudin, the builder of the Old Bridge in Mos tar,
built the Husein Pasa Boljarevic Mosque in Plevlja, and fortification in Makaraka.v-" :
Ramadan Aga built the Aladza 'Mosque in Foca. 66
63 Aptullah Kur an, :Jd imarS iua1I, Istanbul 1986., Zeki Somn ez. 9Y(il1lar Sillall,
64 Husref Red zi c, St urfijc a Ldnms/igj 6nXtilli, Sar ajevo 1983 , p. 169-209.
65 Zeki Sonm ez, ibid p.
66
Andr ej Andrej ev ie ' Jq(aaf.a rf::.a mijau j'oCi, Beograd 1972 , p. 53, 57-64.
152
[Ic ifgift tari/i.i, yazma(ar-'!Icfgck r,
There are numerous records about the connections between builders in Bosnia and Her-
cegovina and Dalmatia. Thus, in the pre-Ottoman period 't h e Dubrovnlk builder An-
tun and his son built a well for Duke Sandalj Hranic in the Sokol fortress in 1417,67
and in 1452 the Du brovrilk government sent four masons with assistants to Duke
. Ivanis Vlatkovic to build a fortified bridge over the Neretva river. In the same year
builder Juraj Dalmatinac was sent to Vladislav, He rceg Stjepan's son, probably to ex-
amine the Gorica fortification. 68
It is believed that the Dubrovnik government also sent its state builder Paskoje
Milicevic to supervise the building of the bridge over the Neretva river at Pocltelj in
1469 , where the Hungarian king Matija Korvin wanted to make a strong fortification
against the invading Ottoman Turks. Stone masons from Popovo polje are mentioned
as apprentices in Dubrovnlk in. the 14th century. 69
Under the Ottoman rule in Bosnia and Hercegovina these connections were intens i-
fied. In 1509 two masons and four craftsmen came to Sarajevo to assis t Ferizbeg in
t h e building of a public bath, and in 1530 five stone masons were sent to Gazi Hus-
revbeg to assist in the buildin.g of his mosque. Master builders and stone masons
from Dubrovnik also took part in works on numerous others structures: the Ferhadija
Mosque in Banja Luka, the Tas lihan, the Gazi Husrevbegov bezistan and the big ha-
mam in Sarajevo, the Aladza Mosque in Foca, the Stari Most (Old Bridge), and the
Karadjozbegova Mosque in Mostar. In the summer of 1568 twelve well-known rn a s ons
from Dubrovnik worked on the Arslanaglca bridge. 7 0 Workers from Imotski partici-
pated in the construction of the Mostar bridge. 7 1
The rn ovem e n ts of smaller groups of village builders from Hercegovina, Dalmatia, and
western Bosnia, who worked as miarant workers, had an influence in shaping many
Bosnian-Ottoman houses. Dedijer=72 notes examples of migrating masters from
Mokrina at Boka, Krusevtce and Ravno in Popovo Polje. For the greater part of the
year they would travel through different Ottoman-held areas. The masters from Pop-
ovo Polje are rnentioned as builders of the Gazi Husrevbegova Mosque in Sarajevo, the
Aladza rnosque in Foca and the Stari Most in Mostar. 73 This resultated in Mediterra-
nean influences. mostly in the form of Rornanesque-Gothic elements , visible on many
buildings in Bosnia. The influence, however, was reciprocal. Thus, there a re many ex-
amples of Christian structures in Bosnia and Hercegovina with Is lamic architectural
and decorative elements.
Even through the role of Ottoman and Dubrovnik masters was important, the loc a l
builders carried the main burden of construction not only as co-workers but also as
designers and creators of the largest number of structures especially in the rea lm of
residential architecture. In accepting t h e ottoman architecture, the lo cal Muslim
builders always managed to adapt it to the domestic traditions and potentials of the
environrnent, thus creating .a n architectural expression of their own. The domestic
builders did not build large and complicated structures because by the 16th century
they had not mastered the art of construction and in the later centuries there was no
ec on om ic basis sufficient for large building projects.
67 Cvito Ftskovlc, Nasi qradttelj! i kipari XV i XVI s iolj ec a 11 Dubrooniku . Zagreb 1947. p.52.
68 J.S tojanovic- Makslmovlc. "Racl Djordja Sibencanina u Dubrovnlk u", Nauiini priloz i studetiata Filozofskog
fakult eta 1I Beogradu, 1949 . p.135 .
69 Cvito Ftskovlc, Ibid, p.19.
70 Oz. L:eli c-M. Muj eztnovtc, Start tnostoui u Bosni i H erceqooini; Saraj evo 1969 . 245 .
71 Ibid, p. 49. .
Istanbul 1988. 72 .I . Dedlj er. H erceqonina. Klljiga XII. Naselja, Knjiga VI. Beo gr ad 1909. 165.
73 A. Andej evlc. Aiaciza cizo m ija 11 FoCi. Beograd 1972. pp . 57-63 . a n d A. Po lim a c. "Novi dokumenti 0
Starom mostu. " Most . 14-15, p . 114.
153
In the oldest preserved records by a judge from Mostar, dating from 1633-34, there is
a reference to d undjer, carpenters, and masons. In a document from 1 762 mention is
lnade of a builders ' gUild 7 4 whose members were builders , carpenters, masons, wa-
terworks maintenance men and merchants dealing in building materials.
The Mostar masters worked outside of Mostar, too . It is known that they worked in
Bosanski Novi, Tuzla , Zvornik, Kresevo , Ljubuskt, and even in Budim.
Because stone was the main building material, stone masons were in great demand.
There were also many carpenters. In 1875 Mostar had four carpenter workshops with
20 masters and 40 workmen. The waterwork builders and maintenance men worked
in Mostar from the 17th century till the construction of a new waterworks system.
Between 1701 and 170 4 they completed all major work on the expansion and repair
of the city's waterworks.
The Neretva river, running roughly along a north-south line, was the border between
eastern and western influences , a border between the Christian Orthodox and Catho-
lic churches , and a border between two dialects of the Bosnian language. It is there-
fore natural that its valley, and especially the city of Mostar located on its banks,
should have been fertile ground for cross-cultural influences of every kind. There was
also a major communication line running right through Hercegovina: from Dubrovnik
on to the valley of Neretva, then along and across the valley to Foca, from where it
linked up with the road to Istanbul. It was this thoroughfare that ennobled Mostar to
reach out to faraway lands and their influence.

Builder
Masons, stone-masons, and carpenters were also referred to as dundjers, so that the
entire guild was named the dundjers1ci esna].
Hercegovina, especially the Neretva river valley, attracted many migrants from neigh-
boring areas. It was also a passage for people migrating further northward . There were
two rnain mlgratton lines: one , originating in Montenegro, came from the east and
southeast and led towards the Neretva and further upstream, and another connected
central Dalmatia and the Neretva valley.
Influences on the Neretva river
In the latter part of the Ottoman period, however the Muslim population in the Bal-
kans was less prone to outside influences. Having by now developed an architectural
style of their own, they were more inclined to preserve and improve it in ways that
suited their own requirements. This is another reason why residential architecture of
the period acquired features common to a larger Balkan area.

74 Hamdija Kresevljakovtc, Esnofi i obrt i u BOSI1 ( i Herc eqooint. II Mostar /1463-1878/, Zagreb 1951 . pp . 78-
80.

154 155
 VI

DECORATIVE ARTS

In the traditional Islamic culture religion is totally integrated with daily life. Islamic
art is not restricted to a liturgical function or to a privileged class of people. Rather, it
was meant to contribute to the establishment of a satlstying human environment by
encornpasstng and combtnlng architecture, interior decoration, carpets, books, and
many other objects of daily use. As their specific vocabulary is based on geometric
patterns, calligraphy, and arabesques, Islamic arts and crafts found universal appli-
cation in all fields of human existence. The utilitarian and aesthetic functions of an
object are viewed as absolutely inseparable: if a thing is not beautiful, it is useless.

Calligraphy

Along with architecture, calligraphy is the most significant art in Islam, as it was also
the source of decorative art which refined architecture. In Islamic architecture and
calligraphy, as well as in all the visual arts, geometric and organic lines merge, mak-
ing a comprehensive entity.

The Arabic alphabet had been in use for several centuries before The Prophet's mis-
sion. It had been used in the writing of famous II Muallecate" , and had been the me-
d iurn of a thriving poetic tradition; There had been regular annual festivals including .
poetry contests. The best poems were exhibited on the Ka'ba walls, and poets were
granted the respect and honor dueto war heroes and other distinguished persons.

It seems hard to fmd another nation in the world which showed such enthusiasm and
admiration for literary expression as the Arabs did. No other culture appears to cher-
ish as much the written and the spoken word. It is unlikely that any other language
exerts such a deep influence on the souls of.those who use it as does the Arabic lan-
guage. Rhythm, rhyme, and linguistic music produce in the listener an effect that
they name II permitted magic II'.

A calligraphic inscription (the gur'an, CXlI)

in the Aladza Mosque in Foca

157
When the Prophet had conquered Mecca, he ordered that all the 360 idols and wall
paintings on the Ka'ba be removed and destroyed. This fact demonstrates the
mearring of Muslirn aniconism. "Therefore, the destruction of idols, and, by extension,
the putting aside of every image likely to become an idol, is the clearest possible par-
able of the Islamic teaching that' the 'one thing necessary' which is the purification of
the heart for the sake of tawhid, the bearing of witness or the awareness that 'there is
no divinity save God ' . "75

The monotheistic belief and the rejection of idolatry, emphasized in the Qur'an, led to
the absence of the representation of living beings as 'w e ll as sculptures in Islamic art.

This explains why no pictures. of hurnan beings can be found in a mosque, although
we do occasionally find them on palace walls and in books. In rulers' palaces, wall
fresco-painting was generally- used from the earliest times to depict scenes from leg-
ends and history, court life, tournaments, and love poetry. Sirnilar scenes are found
on mtnlarure paintings used as illustrations of manuscripts of the rnost diversified
content.

Calligraphic inscription in circular fonn

The original source of Islamic decorative art can be traced to the Muslims love of the
I
Qur'an. In copying the holy book, they wrote as beautifully and with as much grace
as possible. In the process they developed new systems of writing and created new
strokes in calligraphy, which served as a major inspiration for the developmerrt of
other kinds of decorative art.
The emphatically lyrical Qur'anic language has inspired Muslirns to write with pas-
sion and warmth in order to produce the rhythm and grace in the form of the written
Qur'anic word, worthy of its content. We find Muslim artists accentuating line more
than 'a n y t h in g else. A powerful and colorful line born of a strong inovement can ac-
quire fascinating forms that pulsate with charm, that enchant. "Line" is what matters;
everything else can provide for itself. No matter whether it is a straight or a curved
line, it is always designed to produce an aesthetic spell. It is the supreme criterion of
beauty.
at the Sinanova tekija in Sarajevo
Calligraphy is, in fact, artistic expression by means of an alphabet. In Arabic culture,
it goes back to the alphabet, which; as is known, evolved from an old cuneiform
script. But when the need appeared to preserve the Qur'an in written form,
calligraphy identified itself with the alphabet and the artistic pursuit of a calligraphy
with a quest for spiritual perfection: Because of its task of immortalizing God's word,
calligraphic art was encouraged from the earliest days of Islam.
At the beginning of the Islamic art calligraphy was equated with ornamentation, while
in the later period it was largely associated with the illumination of manuscripts.
Irnportant developments in the art of calligraphy occurred in the second and third
centuries of the Muslim era. Due to the previously mentioned approach on painting,
calligraphy,soon developed into one of the leading Islamic arts.

Ornarnental writing in Islam is a code whose message is as clear to a Muslim as that

The inclination to paint evidently existed in Islamic communities, as it no doubt ex-
ists with all groups of human beings. However, at the very beginning cif the Islamic
epoch, this inclination was subdued by religious requirement and redirected towards
a new approach that has manifested itself in arabesque and in floral and geometrical
ornarnentation.
of figurative religious art of the West is to a Christian. Calligraphy is a truly Islamic
art. Through it Muslims have given vent to their aesthetic sense, which could not be
expressed by means of the representation of living beings.
In architectural decoration and in the art of book production, calligraphic inscriptions
are frequently intertwined with arabesques.

Through its renunciation of naturalistic representation of objects, by definition lim-
ited ill scope, Islamic art opened itself to the infinity of abstract geometric patterns
and floral arabesques and, thereby, to the possibility of conveying a timeless message.
A calligrapher had a much more elevated and respected position than a painter.. Even
the rulers strove to gain religious merits by copying the Qur'an. Historic and literary
works were preserved with special reverence and their authors were honored and
remembered, while the names of numerous architects, painters, and engravers were
mos tly ignored.

7S T. Burckhardt: Rrt ~f Is{am, Lallguageand 9.[CCWillg ,p. S.

158 159
Arabic letters were suitable for decorative purposes and therefore b ecame a major
medium of Islamic art. They became, moreover, religious symbols . The Arabic alpha-
bet has twelve basic types of letters , which have been elaborated into 180 calligraphic
styles, although, in principle, endless variations are p ossible .
The basic types of the Arabic alphabet are : Kufic , Naskhi, Sulus, Ta'lik, Muhaqqaq, .
Shikeste, Siyakat, Reyhany, Maghrtbi, Diwani, Riq'a, and Riqaa.
> 0 <
Calligraphic i nscriptions in the Sinanova t ekija in Sarajevo
Calligraphy in the Ottoman State. Muslim Turkish culture is a c omplex mixture of
different a n d diversified elements
160
During the reign of Sultan Mehrned II, the Re naissance infl u e n ces were beginning to
be felt in Is t a n b u l. The example of Gentille Bellini s hows with what re s p e ct they were
re ceived there. Artists frOITI It aly and Persia, Moldavia and Hungary, from t he Balkans
a n d Anatolia , as well as Arab Iands contributed to the quick development of Otto man
a r t, which a c h ieved its classical perfection in the 16th ce n t u ry .
Callig ra p h y also occupied a significant place in the Ottoman educat ional system.
The most famous calligrapher was Sejh Hamedullah. Hafiz OSlTIan a nd Mustafa
Ra krm. who had their own schools of calligraphy, also rank high in the his tory of
Is la mic calligraphy.
Calligraphic i n s c rip tions i n t h e Sinanova tekija i n Sarajevo
The bes t-known Ottoman Illuminat ed manuscrip t "Hu ne r n a rn e ", a b oo k about t he
bra ve deeds of Ottoman sultans , was illustrated in 1577 by two artists : Mirza Ali and
Osman , who were of Bos nian origin.
The tugra. the sultan's official monogram, represents an interesting exarnple of callig-
raphy and shows how a monarch's name could become a heraldic syrnbol. .
Ottoman calligraphy does not differ essentially from eastern Arabic calligraphy. Its
p e culiarity, however, is a kind of magic "knot" - a graphic emblem created by sym-
metric reduplication of lines .
In parts of the Balkan peninsula dominated by the Ottornans calligraphy was prac-
t iced in the educational institutions of the big towns but also, to a significant extent.
by large numbers of artisans in the bazaars. Naturally. calligraphy created in these
regions had a ll the fea tures of the Ottornan tradition in this art.
161
There are rrurnero us data about well-known calligraphers in Bosnia from the 16th
century onwards. The leading calligrapher was Muhammad el Hjurani, whose pseu-
donyrn was Mejli and who lived in the 18th century. Two narnes also stand out:
Husein Is larnovic , who lived in the 19th century and worked on the Gazi Hus revbe-
gova Mosque, and Esref Kovacevic, born in 1924 and still living.
A calligraphic inscription by Esref Kovacevic
in the dome of the Alacaa Mosque in Foca
Ornamental Art
One iInportant consequence of religious regulation of artistic expression in Is larnlc
visual arts was a canonical organization of artistic experience, which made the indi-
vidual artist's personality less prominent. In fact, there was no artist called painter.
Rather, it was the craftsmen themselves who created works of art in a constant en-
deavor to ernbellish everything that they produced or constructed. Sculpture resulted
from formative possibilities of stone, metal, ceramics, and glass, used in architecture
or in the manufacture of various utensils.
With the arrival of Ottoman Turks in Bosnia and Hercegovina the existmg crafts de-
veloped very qu ickly and many new ones were introduced. Craftsmen practicing the
same craft - Mus lims, Christians, and Jews - worked in the same guild, although
there were aorne differences in artistic expression . The old motifs, originating from
Romaricsq uc, Gothic, Renaissance, and Byzantine influences, were combined with
the new motifs brought by Ottomans, which greatly contributed to an enrtchrnent and
diversification of the artistic craftsmanshlp as practiced in Bosnia and Hercegovina.
The Is larnic influence was the major factor in the development of the crafts. The Ot-
toman Turks relied on their Arabic and Persian heritage in the formation of their own
artistic style .
162
Arabic orriameritation has a mathematically defined line at its base which, though
drawn with Imagination, follows a geometrical exactness that can be traced in the
min utes t detail. Persian ornamentattcn is also oriented to logically ordered ensern -
bles, but more frequently involves elements of plant life.
Ottoman ornarneritatio n is, in fact, an artistic transformation of the surrounding
world. The forms are taken from Nature but are siInplified to the point of losing any
direct connection with the model, There remained only the essential features . A large
variety of models were used.
Interlacing is another conspicuous feature of Islamic art . It first appeared in sculp-
tured trellises on the outside of mosque windows, but was later applied more broadly.
Interlacing: windows of a Mosque in Pocitelj
To the decorator-craftsman geotnetrical interlacing probably represents the intellec-
tually rnost rewarding art, as -i t challenges hirn to seek harmony in the multiplicity of
forms.
The Rlll111 and the Hataji styles, along with geometrical models, were the most fre-
q uently used ornamental patterns in Ottoman decorative art. The Rurni style of deco-
ration was of Selj uk origin, and its motifs originated from both the plant and the ani-
mal worlds. The Hataji style has a Chinese origin and is characterized by a predornl-
nance of plant motifs, realistic lines, and by accents on individual sections of a deco-
rative ensemble.
163

Geometric decorative motifs
Floral decorative motifs
Unfortunately, few of the original ornaments in the structures built in western parts
of the Ottoman State have been preserved as most of rhern were painted over as part
of rernode llng or renovation projects. A remarkable exception was the wall orna-
mentation of the Aladza Mosque in Foca, The motifs are mostly floral and represent a
c o m b ln a t to ri of the Rumy and Hataji styles.
The Hataji and Rumi styles in the AlaclZa Mosque in Foca
164
Book art. Book art combines calligraphy, Illuminated manuscripts, miniature paint-
ing, and book-binding.
The art of miniature could not be used in any religious context because of the Islamic
a nicorrisrn . but it played an important role in the creation of an Islarnic spiritual at-
mos phere by representing real events from the life of Mus lims ,
The Qur'an: manuscript written by Mizan Sharani
(The Gazi Husrevbegova Library, Sarajevo)
Ottoman miniature painting in the 16th century was characterized by two trends:
cultivation of indigenous styles by artists from the Balkans and Asia Minor, and in-
troduction of Persian elements by artists frorn Persia and their local followers. Begin-
ning with Murat II, artists from the West, especially from Italy, were welcome visitors
to the Saray, bringing the spirit of the Renaissance with them. In addition, important
cultural rnorrurnerits of the conquered regions were accessible to illurninators.
Amorig farno us miriiaturts ts from the second half of the 16th century were Matrakci
Nas uh. the artist of the miniatures in Suleyman-name , Kasirn, Mehrnet, Iskender. Per-
vane. Hasan. and Ferhat, said to have come from Bosnia. The greatest Ottoman
miruaturtst of that period, Osman Nakas (also known as Ali Osman) was a Bosnian,
too .?" Os man Nakass rniniatures are characterized by realism, studious coruposition ,
a nrl rr-markably ltfe-Iike movements of the characters.
76 The biggest co llec ti on of his miniatures is found in the m anuscript Hourncrnomu, a famous book of ('m-
pvrors . co m pos ed in the period of the Grand Vizi er Mehmed Pasa Sokollu (Soko lovl cl. between 1579
and 1584 . Osman painted 65 of a total of 107 miniatures in the manuscript. For d etails see Dzernal
t :elic<: "Minijaturie! Osmun Nakas ," Odjek-L«, Saraj evo 1975.
165
Most of the manuscripts found on the territory of Bosnia and Hercegovina, were
c o m p os e d during the Ottoman times and were products of a very active regional
school of copyists and illuminators. 77
A manuscript on astrology
(The I nstit ute for Or iental Studies, Sarajevo)
Manuscripts were mostly decorated with the stylized floral ornamentation known as
Rurny as well as with other types of plant decoration close to natural models . In the
18th and the 19th centuries this naturalistic decoration was t ransformed into
roughly drawn small vines with interspersed rose-like flowers . This type of ornament
was largely limited to decorative titles (unvan), usually occupying the whole of the
upper third of the page and composed in the shape of a portal, a crown. or a cupola.
There was also a narrow strip "u n d e r the title, embellished by ornaments making up a
little cartouche for headings or su.btitles.
Dornes tic masters . calligraphers, and Illuminators were rather eclectic in that they
based their work on models from different periods of Islamic art. while at the sarne
time atternpting to realize their own artistic ideas . The palette of their manuscripts
was limited to ten colors. Tempera and water colors were used most frequently. Gold
and silver also played a prominent role in the decoration of manuscrtpts. often being
used to create a foundation layer which helped to highlight the drawings. " torna n textile ind us try were Ottoman silk brocade, velvet and velvet brocade. highly
77
T he main coll ecti on s of Is lami c manuscripts from Bosnia an d Hercego vin a are in the St ate A rchi ves in Zagreb (coll ection of
Ba ro n O ttc nfe ls) , the Gazi Hu srevb egova Library in Saraj evo, the Archive of the Yugoslav (Croatian) Academ y of Art and
Sc ie nc es in Zagreb (th e Or ie ntal collecti on ). the Si.ue Archives in Skopj e, the University Library "S . Markovic" in Belgrade,
the Be lg rade Mu seum of Appli ed Arts, and the Institute for Oriental Studies in Saraj evo. The Institute was burnt down on
Ma y. 17. 1992 in a S erbi an-terrorist rocket attack. For detail s see IR CICA Newsl ett er No. 29. April 1992.
166
The number of manuscripts illustrated with miniatures is relatively small.
"·1
An illustration of the book-binding craft
In Bosnia and Hercegovina leather was alrnost the exclusive material used for binding
books. The ornarnentation on leather was drawn in relief, formed by fine chiseling,
embroidery. color. and gilding.
The book-binders in Ottoman Bosnia were called mudzeliti, a word borrowed from
Turkish. Two streets in the Sarajevo bazaar are still called Velilci mucizeiiti and Mali
mucizeliti, rneaning "t h e big book- binders' street" and "the small book-binders' street".
Two streets filled with book-binders' shops: what other testimony is needed to show
the importance given to books and learning by Bosnians as long as "500 years ago?
The best known book-binders from Sarajevo were Memi-Kalif from the 17th century,
a n d Dino, Mustafa, and Hadzi Salih from the 18th century,
Textiles, embroideries, and carpets. Among the most important products of the Ot-
valued for their quality and ornamentation. They were mostly used to make table "
c lot h s, covers, and curtains.
Making knotted carpets is the nomadic art par excellence. Though carpets from the
beginning of the Islamlc era have not come down to us. we can find them pictured in
later rniniatures and paintings. Carpets are perhaps the best preserved aspect of no-
madic art in Islamic culture.
167
Once adopted into the urban environment, carpets underwent a swift transformation
in different schools of style. Ornamentattori was in the shape of a bouquet of carna-
tions or s pear-Iike leaves arranged strictly symmetrically in intenninable rows. Pat-
terns were always stylized , sometimes even geometrical, and because of this Ottoman
fabrics differed from those of Persia, in which naturalistic patterns prevailed. Ottoman
fabrics were produced mainly in the imperial works hops and in individual house-
holds. Carpets and covers from Turkey were highly appreciated in the west . Artists
fr0111 Venice Imitated Ottoman masters and this art spread all over Europe.

Well-known centers of carpet manufacture in Bosnia and Hercegovina were in Stolac,

Gacko, F'oca, Livno, Sarajevo. and Visegrad. Carpets from these towns differed, both
in the use of colors and in decorative mottfs .

Embroideries

Embroidery was also used to write Qur'anic verses or wise sayings on usually rectan-
gular pieces of cloth (levf1a), which were framed and hung on walls. much like pic-
tures in Western houses. Sometimes the inscription was combined with additional
decorative elements.

Carpets

Embroidery was perhaps the most "popular" art in the sense that almost every woman
practiced it . It is also an art that goes back to the oldest of folk traditions of all the
ethnic groups inhabiting the Balkans. Although it was not introduced by the Otto-
maris , they contributed to a flowering of the art of embroidery by introducing new
patterns and styles .

Almost every frequently used household article made of cloth was embroidered, but
especially towels, pillows, belts, wedding gifts, womena' shirts and kerchiefs. The
materials used for embroidery were fine silk and cotton thread, as well as gold and
silver wire , while those to which embroidery was applied were, in the beginning, fine
oriental linen, cotton, or silk, but later also transparent manufactured fabrics.
Urban embroidery represents a lyric expression of the spiritual superstructure of an
urban milieu . Urban embroidered ornamentation was different from the traditional
kind found in villages . The naive symmetry of rural embroidery was gradually trans-
fonned by adaptation of embroidery techniques to new materials acquired fr0111 cities .
Levhafrom the Karabegova house in Mostar
In general, however. embroidered motifs mos tly represented different varieties of flow-
e r s with a big one in the middle. the tree of life, or, less frequently animal figures as
well . Embroidery never covered the entire piece of fabric. It usually had a predorni-
nantly vertical or horizontal layout, with the main pattern filling up the center of the
piece and composed of a single unbroken line producing the illusion of an endless
How.

16K 169
In a d d it io n to dornes tic fabrics. a very la rge number of textile products brought from Fine examples of wood carving with calligraphic inscript ions are fo und at t he Begovi-
the eas t e r n parts of the State were in everyday use. Domed structures housing ex- na in Stolac. the Kolakovica house at Blagaj, the Celnalovica kula at Buria, a nd the
clusively textile shops (bez isian) testify to the highly developed textile trade in Bosnia Gavran -Kapetariovtca house at Pocitelj . The last was done by the Christian mas ter
and H ercegovina during the Ottoman period. Zimja Pejan, who no doubt had a knowledge of Arabic. Other inte resting examples of
th is k ind of carving a r e the lev h a s carved in wood by Ha s an Kafi from Prusac (17t h
Wood carving. There is a long and rich tradition of wood c a rvin g in densely forested c e n t u ry ).7 8
Bosnia. with its beginnings going as far back as the Neolithic Age . With the arrival of
the Ottornans , this tradition was enriched with elements and styles stemming from
other Is larnic regions . from India to Nor t h Afr ic a . De c o ra ti ve wood carving was done .
on many k in d s of wood (b e e c h . walnut, linden. maple , etc.), using many d ifferent mo -
tifs (purely geolnetric, floral, but also animal and even human figures ) and different
t e chniq ues .

W ood was used for making almost all the elements of a house : several kinds of wall
structures. doors , window frames and shutters. lattice (musebalc), fixed cupboards
(11lusancle ra), wall paneling. roofs and floors . In mosques, s taircase used for Friday
noon-prayer sennon (m inber), . the gallery (ma /l [i l) and the lectern (curs ) were regularly
made of wood. as was the sarcophagus in a ma uso leum. Most household articles and
persona l effects - from chests to Cigarette-holders - we re als o regularly made of wood .
All these wooden structures and objects were richly decorated with carvings , espe -
ci a lly if they were open to view and belonged to a rich house.

S Ol11e of the most interesting wood carvings found on the territory of Bosnia and Her -
ce go vin a are in the Suburina house in Sarajevo (1 7th century), the Krslakova house
in '-',Ja.ic e ( 18th c entury), the CelnaloviCa kula at Buna (19th century), the Svrzina
h ou s e in Sarajevo. the Kajtazova house in Mostar, the Ko lakovica house at Blagaj. t h e
RizvanbegoviCa houses in Sto lac, t h e Res ulbegoviCa house in Tre b lnj e , as well as on
the doors of t h e Gazi Husrevbegova Mosque in Sarajevo, and the Mosque at Pocitelj .

T he tekija at Blagaj: Decora t ion of t he ceiling

Metal work. In Ottoman Bos nia side arms and firearms , d ishes. jewelry, a nd decora-
tive objects were made of metal. Decoration of weapons had been done before the ar-
rival of Ottomans . Gold work had also been developed. but t he coppers mtth's c raft
was brought in by the Ottomans .

Techniq ues of engraving. emboss ing, encrustation . and ftligree wo rk were u s e d fo r

decoration of metal things . Th e main metals used in decoration were steel, copper,
brass , silver , and gold. Engravers used copper-tin plating on whic h the drawing was
carve d . mostly for decoration of utensils.
The d oor in the Kajtazova house in Mo star
78 Sl't' Dzern a! h~lk : "D rv or ezba II Bos n l i !-!t'rc pgovini ". Most - 1 1. M os tnr l 9 7 6 .

170 171
 Engraved copper dishes

The e m b o s s ing of ornaments on copper or silver sheet metal , was a technique of deco-
ration also introduced by the Ottomans . Encrustation is a distinctly Middle-Eastern
technique and involves carving recesses in wood, steel. or ivory, and then filling them
with silver and gold wires or mother-of-pearl. It was used very often in decoration of
side anus and firearms.

Filigree work. also known as "moriasrery work", was mainly practiced by Christian
c r a ft s m e n and therefore included a variety of styles i.n the decorative patterns: Ro-
manesque. Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, and Byzantine, with Is larnic motifs brought
in by the Ottomans . Several examples of metal handiwork

Silver was the most frequently used decorative metal, though gold is often found on
very precious objects. Well-known centers for the manufacture of side arms - short
c u r ve d daggers (l1andiar) or double curved sabers Uaiagan) - were Foca, Travnik,
Prizren. and Skopje. Rifles were made i.n Skopje, Fojnica, and Foca. The best-known
mas t ers of engraving and erubossing were from Sarajevo, Travnik , and Mostar, while
goldsrlliths and filigree workers of wider repute were !o be found in Sko~~e, Prizren,
Banja Luka , Foca, Sarajevo, Mos tar, Fojnica. Kresevo , Cajnice, and Livno.
79 For dr-tatls ~·;t-'e M. Kararnehmedovic: Uiujctn lckc: o b racla tn etala, Saraj evo 1980.
Swords. long knives, old-fashioned guns (lcubura) were the basic anus, but they were
not considered valuable unless they had the designer's narne engraved on them. A few
have been preserved with engravings of a remarkable precision and subtlety, display-
ing the manufacturer's name and aurname , place and the date of making. as well as
and the purchaser's riarne. About two thirds of the entire surface of a saber or dagger
were covered with engravings. Guns were also engraved with s imilar inscriptions,
which often covered everything but the barrel. Iron was also used for decoration.
Worked in geometrtc or floral patterns , it often embellished - and additionally pro-
tected - gates. doors. and windows .

172 173
Stone decorations. De c o r a t ion s in lirnestone or marble were frequently used for
prominent parts of the buildings: the mihrab, the mimber, portals, window frames,
pillars, arches, ceramics.Tattlce on windows, fences. a nd fountains.
Stone decorations were very often colored . Because of the great iInportance Islarn at-
taches to the written word both for ritual and decorative reasons, all important
structures had Inscrtpttons on them (laril1), containing infonnation about the builder,
the year of c onstruction, 'and the person to whom it was dedicated. A very large rrurn -
ber of inscriptions have been preserved ill mosques, schools, dervish 101Ms, bridges,
fountains and other public structures, but especially on tombstones . The large
nurnber of epitaphs in Muslim graveyards represent a rich repository of historical
facts about people a n rl t he ti11lPS i ll whic-h t hev l lved

Fountain in the cou rtyar d the AladZa Mosque in Foca

The main decorative device was the stalactite - a combination of prismatic and py-
rarnida l forms making up a geOlnetrical relief of an arabesque type.

'!
!

'1
I .I
!
i
I
1

Dec oration o n stone pillars: the Sisman A gina M o sque in PoCitelj Dec oration in sto n e : d etai ls from m osques

80 See M . Muj eztnovki Is tums i«: eptq raftk« IJ Bos ni i Herccqouint. I &. II &. Ill. Sarajevo 1977-1982 .

174 175
 .------~
,.
I

'I :1
I. ,I
j

entrance ooor

I I I
', -,
. - - _._ -' '' - ' ' . - -
. ~ ..
c:olumn

..,.I

window
' - - - - - - - - -- ._ - - - - - - . . -__- - - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - -
..

Dec o ration in s to ne:

the Ka radjo z b eg ova Mo s que in Mostar D ec oration in s to ne: t ombstones

176 177
 Decorations on glass, ceramics, gypsum and stucco-gypsum. Turkish influences in
arts involving ceramics and glass have not been considerable in Bosnia. Ceramics has
not advanced significantly since the Middle Ages. Faience remained an import
corumodity d urtng the whole period 'o f Ottoman domination and was mainly used for
wall cladding in architecture.

EJ 'I ~ Glass was not produced in South Slavic regions under the Ottoman reign. Glass
~----4 '. i lamps for mosques , multicolored glass bottles for the nargila (a pipe for cooling tobac-
I ~ I ;
co smoke) and stained-window glass were imported both from East and west.

Gypsum and stucco-gypsum were used for flat and relief ornaments in luxurious
buildings, for cornice trimming, for making stalactite ornaments, and for delicate
treatment of internal walls.

The influence of Arabic script in fresco painting of medieval Serbia should also be
merrtioried. Ornaments on 'fr es coes developed from the Kufic script and appeared on
the IUOSt important medieval monuments. They originated under different influences'
and were copied from different models .

.T t: ~ I
o 0.5 l.Om

DD
BB
~~

Decoration in stone: doors and windows on storehouses

178 179
 VII

CHARACTERISTICS OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE IN BOS NIA AND

HERCEGOVINA

Our objective is t o establish specific features of Islamic architectu re in Bosnia and

Hercegovina, as an integral part of the social and cultural life of the Ottoman State. At
this point, wE; want to throw more light on the intermingling of pre-Ottoman, Ot-
tornan, Christian, Is la m ic , Mediterranean and Middle Eastern influences . We want to
address ourselves to the questions of identification of the pre-Ottoman features of
this architecture, it s genuine Islamic component, and its characteristics resulting
from Mediterranean and broader European influences.

A srnall group of architectural c reations with monumental characteristics were built

following a pattern d evelo p ed and standardized in Istanbul and several other centers.

A rn u c h larger group consisting of shops in the bazaars, mosques in the mahalas, and
private houses, while sharing the basic features of Islarnic architecture, manifested
marked regional characteristics produced by specific environmental and cultural fac -
tors.

Convertion to Isla m . Islam appeared and developed in an historically important

area , frorn which it spread on t o three continents. Since its advent it has been one of
the rnost significant factors in the life and developrnent of many nations in Asia, Af-
r ica, and Europe, especially in Bosnia and Hercegovina, Kosovo, Macedonia, and
Albania. -

A large rnajority of the Bosnian population converted to Islam in the century after the
arrival of the Ottornans in Bosnia. Islam was accepted in place of the Bogomil faith, a
dualistic religion which started out as a Christian heresy but later developed into a
religious system which had more in common with Islam than with Christianity. Islam
was not only a new religion; it regulated the way of life and the behavior of its follow-
ers, causing p rofound changes in both the material and spiritual aspects of life in
Bosnia.

The majority of the people ltvtng in Bosnia and Hercegovina by their origin, upbring-
ing, and education relate to Islamic culture and civilization, mirrored not so much
through religious rnanifestations as through a complex spiritual physiognomy. Be-
cause of the large number ofMuslims in Bosnia and Hercegovina this physiognomy
has also affected the non-Muslim inhabitants and environment of Bosnia and
Hercegovina.

The le xic al infl uence of Islam. The Qur'an has always been the p rime linking factor
in Islamic culture. The religious impact of the Qur'an as the basis of Islam and the
greatest authority in spiritual and ethical matters represents only one of its aspects.
Muslims con s id e r theology, law, and science as different aspects of the same
underlying subject. The Qur'an is considered as the perfect example in literature.

- - - -~

181
 Ottoman Turks had previously accepted an eastern conception of housing and ap-
plied it in the Balkans, while at the same time assimilating ideas from the Slavic
people with whom they came in contact and adapting them to their needs. On the
other hand, the local Muslim population continued to live in their old houses,
gradually adapting individual elements to the requirements of the Islamic way of life.
The organization of an Ottoman Balkan settlement was carried out on the basis of a
clear differentiation of purpose so that the residential areas (mahala) were strictly
separated from the business section, the bazaar.

The gur'an, example from Ga~i Husrevbegova library, Sarajevo

Hill

The long period of Ottoman domination in the Balkans, especially in Bosnia and Her-
Main road
cegovina, left a deep impression on the Bosnian language. This influence was mostly \
mediated by Bosnians who were educated in Turkey, rather than by relatively small
members of Turks who lived in Bosnia. Upon their return to their homeland, they felt River
that their native language was not equipped to handle many aspects of the Turkish
culture with which they had familiarized themselves and, naturally, introduced
Turkish words, which gradually became fully assimilated to the Bosnian language.

Another domain of strong Ottoman influence was music. Muslim folk-songs acquired
a typical Ottornari- Turkish sound, itself a product of the different tuneful styles in
which the Qur'an is recited. The music of Muslim folk-songs later became a frequent
source of inspirations for Yugoslav composere.s! Garden Hill
Many Turkish words relating to Ottoman architecture and housing culture in general
have been borrowed into Bosnian, e.g. carsija, mahala, oda (room on the first floor),
kios k:, konak, and sofa.

It is interesting that aome Bosnian words have also found their way into Turkish, e.g.
saba, pee (stove) are used in the area where the Bosnaks lives around Istanbul.V The MOSTAR (16th C.)
rmrnber of Bosnian words of Turkish origin has been estimated at about 6,000. 83

Settlements and houses. After the arrival of Ottoman Turks the Balkan Peninsula
radically changed its economic, social, and cultural make-up. The local population
Structure of a settlement - Mostar
continued to live in their settlements and non-Muslim subjects called "raja" were
- - • - - -Border of dwelling areas
burdened with rnore and more taxes. With the establishment of Ottoman administra- 1. Mejdan (The first Mahala);
tion. however, many new settlements were erected in which Ottoman standards of
2. Musala;
housing, dressing, and eating habits prevailed.
3. At Mejdan;
4. Konak [Military Headquarters);
81 Stevan Mokranjac, '1(Jd;gvct za tnjc10rJiti hor iz 'Bosne. 5. Complex of the Orthodox Church;
82 S.H.Eldeni ,'Triri(;£vi- Osmanlt aonetnit, p. 47. 6 . Complex of the Catholic Church
83 See A. Skaljic, tTurciz m i IIsrpsK;griruatsK;gtnjeziK,]I, Sarajevo 1965.

182 183
 The best examples of the Islamic influence on Christian art are the Old Orthodox
Church in Sarajevo, built in the 16th century, the Church of the Moscaruca Monas -

1 . · JtvztUlL~
~!l,71.. tery built in 1540, the Papraca Church from 1540, and the Lomnica Church built in
1587. In the orthodox churches in Mostar and Sarajevo, the galleries on the first
floor , reserved for women, are partitioned with a wooden lattice, a clear example of
Is lamic influence.
S~
Ornaments on Orthodox illum.inated manuscripts from the 14th and 15th centuries
had a large number of Is lamic motifs.v? The best-known example of a Christian book
written in the Cyrillic alphabet and decorated with typically Islam.ic elements is the
Gospel of Karan from 1608.

SiInilar Islam.ic style ornaments also appeared on religious household articles made of
metal, wood, cloth, and leather. This was especially true of articles of rural, folk
provcnance.P''

Structure of a housing complex

The m ain unifying feature of the various types of Ottoman houses in Bosnia and Her-
cegovina is the basic layout of the different functional units. The largest number of
houses contain the same essential elements of composition, structure, and volume,
with variables reflecting the social and econom.ic level of the house owner. A survey of
the housing structures in different regions of the Ottoman State reveals that there are
some distinctions in the appearance of the house in Anatolia, B ulgaria, Greece, the
Morava Basin in Serbia, Macedonia, and Hercegovina. 84
2.
Islamic e lemen ts in Ch ristian archite cture. Christian art in the Balkans had in a
minor way been influenced by Islam even before the arrival of the Ottomans to the
Balkans in the 15th century.85

In 1557 the Patriarchate of Pee was renewed as the supreme authority ofthe Serbian o ' 0
population, in the Balkans, and a t ole ra n t policy toward the Franciscan order result-
ed in the improvement of llving conditions of the Catholic population.Y' This con-
tributed to an enhancement of mutual influences between the Christian and Muslim
c o m m u nit ies in all spheres of life, but particularly in architecture.
000
The period of the greatest influence of the Islamic artistic tradition on Christian art
4.
was the 16th century and ' early 17th century. The first Islam.ic elements in Christian
religious art were evident in the wood-carvings on the iconostasis. The Islam.ic Sara-
cen arch, semi-circular vaults, as well as shallow and small rosettes were pictured in
a large riurnber of Orthodox icons. Sim.ilar phenomena were evident in other artistic Is la m ic elements in Orthodox monument: ,
fields , especially ill the interior decoration of churches. Calligraphic m o t ifs onfresco i n Serbia, 1 3 th century:
1. The Studenica Monastery, 1265; 2 . The Djurdjevi Stubovi Mona s t e ry, 1 2 71 ;
84 For details see Chapter IV. 3. The Sopocani Churc h, 1265; 4. The Bogorodica Periv leta Church, 1295
85 See : Zagorka Jane, Ornamenttfresoka iz Srbije i Makeclontje oci 12. do sredine 15. ueka, Beograd 1961.
86 On May 28. 1463 Sultan Mehrned II issued a d ecree tadhnamev granting fr eedom of activity to the
Fran ciscan order. on the territory of his Empire. S ee : M.Orsolic. Sedamstoljetno dj eioranje franjeuaca 11
Bosni i H erceqouinl. Zagreb 1988 . 87 Sv. Radoj cic, Star e srpske tninijatur e, Beograd 1950, p. 14.
88 Zagorka Jane , Is/all/ski rukopisi u ju goslavenskim kolekcijama, Beograd 1956' p.20.

184 185
 Influ enc e s fro m the pre -Ottoman period. These influences have been identified on
the basis of archeological evidence, archives , historical records, studies of graphic
arts, and data taken from the Bogomil to mbstones (stecalc).

For a long time prior to the a rrival of the Ottomans , Bosnia was a meeting p lace of dif-
ferent, indeed at tunes mutually opposed cultural elements: Greek and Latin alpha-
bets, Byzantine and pre-Rornanesque artistic traditions, Romanesque and Gothic
s tyles, the Christian-Orthodox faith and Catholiclsm. Creative interrelating of a ll
these elements , which took place during the several centuries of the independent
Bosnian state, gave rise to a series of valuable cultural assets that Bosnia came to be
known for well beyond its borders: in the religion it was the Bosnian Bogomil Church,
rI-- ~ in the domain of literacy it was Bosnian Cyrillic and Glagolitic scripts , in graphic arts
it was the specifically Bosnian book illuminations.
" -__ 1 _
The majority of written records from medieval Bosnia were in a Cyrillic script called
Bosnian Cyrillic or Cyrillic cursive oj Bosnia (bosancica) because of its peculiar fea-
t u r es . The Cyrillic script took deep roots in the Ottoman period and was later to be-
come predomlnarit in adrninistrative documents. The Bosnian Cyrillic script was used
widely by the local Muslim population, as well as for diplomatic correspondence with
neighboring states , especially with Dubrovnik.

Islamic a rch i tect u ra l d etail in Orthodox c h u rches:

I.Niche in The Ozren Ch u rch 1587; 2 .A window, in the Old Orthodox Ch urch in S arajevo

Cyrillic cursive of Bosnia » "bosaniiica"

The Old Orth o dox Ch u rc h in Mo star

186 187
Architectural investigations of the pre-Ottoman period produced few results. There
are only fragmentary observations on surveys of the towns of Kljuc, Kamengrad, Sokol
on the Pliva river. and Visegrad in the travel-writing of Benedict Kurepesic from 1530,
illustrated by the Gennan painter Jorg Bren Jun. Historical evidence on visual arts is
also scarce.

The houses of medreva l Bosnia were dug in the ground so that ground rock repre-
sented one wall of the house. Housing structures were off small dimensions. the
usual ground-plan being in the shape of a single quadrangular space with only a
ground-floor structure. The construction material was tiInber; stone was used for
certain parts. together with Iime mortar.

The g reatest cultural achievement of pre-Ottoman Bosnia. however, is considered to

be the Bogomil tombstones with their large variety of stone reliefs.

Architectural motifs on stecalcs have also been studied for infonnation about the pre- .
Ottoman period. The architectural elements engraved on them are arcades, shingles,
log-cabins, net-like shelters, and fortified castles. The regional distribution of the
tombstone motifs is in correspondence with expected differences of the building styles
in the given regions: in log cabins and shingle covered roofs in the mountains. ar-
cades with Rmnanesque and Gothic arches in Hercegovina, especially in the contact
areas with the Dalmatian hinterland. There are, unfortunately, no written documents
contairung infonnation about the time and historical circumstances in which this
type of house beco rne prevalent. Romanesque elements on stecaks and Islamic houses

Romanesque arcades on Islamic houses

The elements of Western and Eastern cultural influences in the medieval Bosnia and
Hercegovina are abundant and sufficiently known. The country was obviously a
middle ground on which these influences both combined ,:nd clashed.

Architectural motifs on a stecak:
Most of the large fortified structures were built by landowners. They had very close
relations with the cities on the Adriatic coast, especially Dubrovnik. They constructed
their own villas in Du brovnik and educated their children there too. In that way they
farniliar ized themselves with the cultural and architectural creations of the Dubrovnik
milieu, especially with Romanesque and Gothic styles. The same families made pos-
sible a "painless" acceptance of Ottoman and Islamic influences by their conversion
from Christianity to the new religion of Islam.

188 189
 There are also conspicuous deviations from the standard format in the construction
Dornes tic builders and local .m a t e rta ls were the main linking factors between the Bal- of minarets. whose shapes range from the archaic short type (the Careva Mosque in
kan building tradition and Ottoman architecture. Construction materials used were Trebinje) to structures resembling Romanesque and Gothic campaniles (the Fatime
usually the ones available in the vicinity of the building site, as investors generally Kad un, the Cejvan-cehajina, and the Sinan Pasa Mosques in Mostar, as well as
lacked resources for purchasing and transporting materials from distant localities. mosques in Nevesinje, Bileca, Plana, Opllcict, Dabrica, Bijeljina and even special
In medieval Bosnia the people of Dubrovnik controlled most of the commercial, fi- variations of a cylindrical tower at Donja Dreznica and Kotezi near Ljubinje).
nancial, and organizational activities related to large business ventures. They built
their own usually separate structures for housing and warehousing, applying their
own architectural models. The involvement of Dubrovnik merchants and builders in
Bosnia did not stop or even decrease with the coming of the Ottomans; they remained
a perrnarierrt cultural and architectural influence in the area of Hercegovina, and be-
yond.
The city of Dubrovnik was, thus, constantly the main window of Bosma and Hercegovina
towards Western European culture, both during the Bosnian kings and in the course
of over 400 years of Ottoman rule. Together with other Croatian towns on the Adriatic
coast, it played either a direct or an intermediary role in bringing features of Euro-
pean art - especially pre-Romanesque, Romanesque, Gothic, and Renaissance - to
Bosnia and Hercegovina. Whatever the influences, however, we can observe a basic
continuity of the pre-Turkish building tradition even through the Ottoman period,
with changes affecting different types of structures in different degrees. For example,
a high level of continuity was maintained with regard to fortified structures.
In medieval Bosnia a "town" would begin as a fortified defensive structure. At the sec-
ond stage it would include housing for admtnlstrattve officials, landowners, and other
prominent individuals. As the number of inhabitants increased, it became necessary
to develop the infrastructure required to meet the living needs of a settlement. This
brought in a variety of craftsrnen and merchants and, eventually, a church was built
as a sign that the settlement indeed became a town
Elements of the important styles of Christian architecture were visible already in the
medieval towns of Bosnia. Rornanesque elements are manifested in the s lrnple
ground-plans with uniform space, low and narrow ramparts, and towers with rectan-
gular bases. These features persisted for a long tiIne. Gothic influence resulted in an
increased number of "interior" towers and their greater height, taller and thicker ram-
parts, introduction of couriterforts, and especially in the rounding of the main tower.
Characteristic constructional details and decorative ornamentation also emerged.
The Ottomans kept all the existtng defensive structures, reinforcing and enlarging
them if necessary. SometiInes, a former town remained as a separate entity and the
sertlemerit was enlarged by the addition of new housing units within or outside the
town walls.
Christian architectural elements in mosques. One would expect mosques to stay
away from pre-Is larnic influences. Since a place of worship is a spatial symbolization
of a separate ideological background of a society, it is usually built with a commit-
merit to some standard forms of construction.
However, although standard forms prevailed, there were also frequent deviations.
Thus, the Fethija Mosque in Bihac, a transformed former church kept many features
of the late-Gothic style in which the church had been built, such as a large ground-
°

plan, and high pointed stained-glass windows and rosette on the main facade. More-
over, the mosque was used as a model for almost all the mosques built in the Una
river basin. The spacious ground-floor was also used in the construction of the
Cejvan-cehajlna Mosque in Mostar, and the Careva Mosque in Stolac.
Christian architectural elements in mosques: atypical minarets
Bijeljani, Nevesinje, Predojeoica, Plana, Dabrica, and Kotezi

190 191
The influence of Italian campaniles and Dubrovnik town clock-towers is visible in the
construction of Ottoman-Bosnian clock-towers with a quadrangular one-piece body.
high windows and pyramidal roof. They are s imllar to the Romariesque bell-towers
built in Dalmatia during a later period. Such clock-towers were built in Sarajevo,
Banja Luka, Donji Vakuf, Gradacac, Mostar, Pocitelj, Neves inje, Livno, Prozor, Stolac,
and Travnik.

Christian architectural elements on clock towers

We can find Christian stylistic elements in SOIne other structures in the region of
Hercegovina. such as the Mosque of Nesuh-Aga Vucijakovic in Mostar, built in 1568.
with its porch consoles and window frames. designed under the influence of Dalma-
tian Renatssance.f'" the round windows at the Koski Mehrned Pasa caravanserai in
Mos tarv? and in the courtyard kitchen of the Kolakovica house at Blagaj . arcades on
the ground floor, and rows of windows with pointed arches on the facades of houses . Christian architectural elements on mosques:
closely resembling a row of Gothic arches. The Vucijakovica Mosque in Mostar

The cornice , the arch, and the windows with protruding pieces of stone in the clock-
89 Cvito Flskovic. Dalmatlnskl majstorl LI Bosnl i Hercegovin1. Muz ej Orada Zenice III. Zenlca 1973. p. 163. tower at Trebinje, built in the 18th century. clearly show that Islamic masters ac-
90 DZ. Ce lie . .I edna nouootkrtoena qradenina starijeg cloba 11 Mostatu , Nase starine S arajevo 1956. p. 262. cepted the Mediterranean forms of the Renaissance and Baroque styles.

192 193
Construction of churches in Bosnia and Hercegovina in the same period was also influ-
enced by trends in. European architecture that carne by way of Dalmatia. The church
of St. Nicholas in Gr abovs ko Polje, built in 1499. represents an early model for a
whole range of churches built in the following several centuries . These churches have
s imilar layouts and details. They are also characterized by pre-Rornanesque blind
arches and pilasters, as well as relief zones in the vaults, and represent the standard
for subsequently built churches in Hercegovina.
This period also saw certain changes in housing architecture brought about by tech-
nological and scientific advances in general. One example was the tendency to bring
more light to roorns , and another was the construction of chiInneys for fireplaces to
elirninate the harmful effects of srnoke produced by earlier open-hearth fires. Sorne
houses also began to use contemporary sanitary facilities. These changes were par-
ticularly apparent in the guest-house irnusofirhana ; of the tekija in Blagaj.P! and in
the Kola kovica family house. also in the same town.

There are n umero us sirnilar churches with a single-nave base and a serni-circular
apse with a srnall round window, the portal with a lunette above it and the bell in the
shape of a spinning wheel; these elements are clear evidence of the influence of Dal-
mattari Gothic.

Christian architectural elements:

circular forms of windows

The Orthodox churches of that period were characterized by a conspicuous tradi-

tioria lis m, with only minor influences frorn or via Dubrovnik. However, the irnpact of
the building schools of the Morava and Raska regions became stronger, along with The Musafirhana of the tekija in Blagaj
penetration of Ottoman Is lamic and oriental elements.
There were also major changes in the dornain of socio-economic relations, brought
Christian influences in housing construction. Western influences. which reached about by the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Hercegovina. As the value of
Bosnia and Hercegovina largely via Du brovnik, brought about a division of the large lanel increased, the sprawling Ottoman house became a luxury that few could afford.
Ottoman house into separate housing units. People started living in butld ings which no longer had a favorable orientation, ade-
quate exposure to the sun, ventilation, or spatial variety. The traditional urban
Another change in the houses built about the middle of the 19th century in Mostar
structure was also upset. There also appeared a transitional style in which the
and other towns in Bosnia and Hercegovina was a result of the influence of the decadent
ground-floor kept its earlier features, while the first floor was built according to a
Ottoman architecture prevalent in Istanbul at the time , itself a product of previous
European model.
influences of the Baroque and Rococo styles in architecture . This introduced over by
elaborate reliefs which clashed with the typically Is larnic decorative patterns: poly-
chrornatic decorations on wood, ineffective niches in the walls of rooms. plastic orria- 9\
Dz . (:elic':. "Mu snflrha na blagajsl«. tek ije''. Nase sturine II. Saraj evo 1954. p . 189.
merrts of an uninspired imagmatton instead of a calm searching for aes the'tic pleas-
ure.
194
195
Peculiarity of the house. We can clearly differentiate three basic types of houses in
Bosnia and Hercegovina durtrig the Ottoman period. The building materials used are
the most important factor detennining the differentiating characteristics of Bosnian-
Ottoman houses.

The type that we shall, for lack of a better term, call oriental is characterized by low,
square-based pyramidal roofs covered with ceramida, open porches facing an interior
garden, and a walled and cobbled courtyard. This type is found only in Sarajevo and
Foca. The Svrzina house in Sarajevo from the 17th cerrtury, with its fully decorated
interior, the Djerzeleza house and the Suburina house in the aarne city, the Avclagica
house in Foca and several others, are beautiful examples of Bosnian domes tic archi-
tecture.

Houses in -Jajce

A typical Mus lim house in Hercegovina is distinguished by its characteristic roof

made of stone slates. This region also has certain climatic advantages which make it
possible for llving functions to be moved to the courtyard, as is usually done in other
countries of the Mediterranean and the Near East region. Interesting examples of this
type are to be found in Stolac, particularly in the complex known as the Begovina, as
well as at Blagaj (the Kolakovica house, the Valagica house, and the musafirhana of
the tekija), in Pocitelj (the Gavran-Kapetanovica house), Trebinje (the Res ulbegovica
The Sureina. house in Sarajevo house), and in Mostar (the Biscevtca. the MuslibegoviCa, the Kajtazova house, the
Zn1iro, the Karabegova, and the Kapetanovina houses).
I

The Mus lim houses in northern and central Bosnia were shaped by influences both
fr0111 Is larnic and Alpine countries. This house is, as a rule, of a closed, sturdy, cubic
forrn. : with . a high timber roof and shingle-covering, without walled courtyards, or
open hajat. The Krs lak house in Jajce, the EminbegiCa house in Tesanj, the
Dusparina house in Kraljeva Sutjeska, and the Pozderac house in Cazin are well-
known examples of this type of ho ns».

The Dusparina house in Kraljeva Sutjeska

The Resulbeqouida house in Trebinje

196 197
The Ottoman house of Hercegovina, a splendid example of architecture suited to the
climate of the area, also bears evidence to the tolerant and open character of the Ot-
toman-Ialamic milleu: it readily accepts elements of previous architectural traditions
as well as the hand of the local master, with all the creative factors constantly evolv- VIII
ing through the several centuries of the Ottoman presence, remaining permanently
open to fresh influences. PRESERVATION OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
IN BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA
It is clear that Bosnia and Hercegovina. in spite of being the area of rnany conflicts
between the East and the West. has also been. perhaps longer than any other region At the time of the Ottoman arrival Bosnia had a large number of structures of a
in the world. the middle ground where the two worlds met in peace. where their artis- monumental character, which by and large remained unchanged throughout the Ot-
tic traditions intenningled to create unique styles and forms. torna n period. with regard to both form and function. Only a small number of
churches were transfonned into mosques , a case in point being the Fethija Mosque in
The following are the most important factors which have been Insrrumental in creat- Bihac.
ing a specific regional style of architecture in Bosnia and Hercegovina:
Most damage to urban settlements. especially to bazaars, was caused by fires, delib-
e ra t e ly set or started as part of military campaign. In 1697 Eugene of Savoy set fire to
the dominant religion of Is lam and the CUSt0111S associated with it; unifonnity of
the entire city of Sarajevo. It took the city a whole century to recover from this disas-
social and economic relations on the entire territory of the Ottoman Empire:
ter. In 1870 the Ottoman admlnis tration of Bosnia and Hercegovina issued a decree
specific urban set-up dictated by a specific economy:
ordering its officials to l~ake steps toward preservation of all historically valuable ob-
a tendency to preserve and cultivate the natural environment:
jects and structures.
a standard ground-plan of the house;
s pecific Islamic architectural details and household items: The change from Otto man to Austro-Hungarian rule. which occurred in 1878,
specific geographical and conditions; brought with it considerable intensification in all areas of construction as well as a
mainly domes tic masters and local materials and building technology; reorientation towards West-European building concepts, methods. and materials. In
a C01111110n life of Mus lims and Christians; 1879 a big fire. probably started with a blessing by the new admlnlstration. corn-
constant involvement of people frorn Dubrovnik iI1 building activities in both the pletely destroyed the central part of Sarajevo. enabling the construction of new
pre-Ottoman and Ottoman periods. buildings with an increased degree of land utilization and accumulation of profit.
In 1888 the Austro-Hungarian rulers began to organize their activities aimed at pres-
A specific regional architecture was thus created, leaving behind a series of character-
ervation of archeological remains, especially those related to classical antiquity. Part
istic architectural achievements. mostly modest by physical diInensions but of con-
of this organized drive was the construction and establislunent of the State Muse urn
siderable Imporrarice for the cultural history of its people. The creative process which
(ZemaljsJci muzej'; in Sarajevo. At the same time, however. rrurnero ns mo rrurnerrts from
produced t hern was a constant flow of various cultural influences which, like strearns
the med ieval and Ottoman periods , including some very old Catholic churches and
merging into a single river, become much more than a rnere total of the individual
monasteries, were demolished to make rOO1n for new structures built in pseudo-
contributing elernerrts. It became a significant new contribution to the world's artistic
Gothic or a neo-Renaissance style. The mosques and other Islamic buildings acquired
heritage and an example of cultural cooperation of people with different histories and
<1 n ewly invented pseudo Egyptian-Moorish style.
tradition.

The Town Hall in Sarajevo. 1892

designed in pseudo Egyptian-Moorish style

199
198
Ent ir e - fo r tified tow ns d ating fr om the Midd le Ages disappeared (Bihac , Derve rit a,
Bos anski No vi). B r idges we re alte r ed and "a d a p t ed " in a rather t a s t e les s rnarmer (e.g.
Seti erceh ajiua and LatinsJca cuprija in Sarajevo) . The same destructive and
"reno vative" p o licy was contin ued u nt il the e nd of World War II. Rare initiatives to-
w ards t he p reservatio n of t h e cu ltu ral h e r ita ge m ad e no p ro gr es s.
During t he Second World War the greatest dama ge wa s suffe red by bridges a nd tra d i-
t ional Bosnia n ho uses , m os t ly m a d e of w oo d. Imme d iate ly a fter t h e war , t he initial
"revoh. rtionary e rrt hus ia sm'' of t h e new socialist orde r was re s p onsible fo r t h e de-
struction of n u merous rnori urn ents w it h relig iou s fu n c t ion . As early as 1945, h o w-
eve r, t he new re g iln e p a s s ed a law about the p rot ectio n of the cu ltu ra l heritage a nd
set u p a specia l institution ent r usted with the care a nd preservatio n of t he c ultural
a n d n a tur a l he ritage of Bos nia and He rcegovin a . The new govern lnent und e r t o ok
plan n e d and organized activities on the preservatio n of cultural m onuments . As a
firs t s tep, individual m o num ents were selected to be placed u nder state p rotectio n
and restored , if n e c e s s ary . The restoration work p roceeded a t a varying pace, mostly
d epend ent on the general economic situation in the country.
Between the two World Wars the deterioration of the Sarajevo carsija continued. In
this period the oldest business facility in the bazaar , the Kolobara han , burnt down as
w ell.
In t h e years after World War II many local architects. influenced by Le COl-busier,
supported the view that individual structures of the carsija should be p reserved and
matntained a s InUSeUlTI exhibits in a park-like environment. But after the demolition
in 19 49 of a s eries of old shops called Trqouke, located right next to the central square
of the bazaar , it was realized that a removal s ection of the cars ija affected the most
importarrt aspect of its Ottoman character - its unique integrity. In consequence,
there was a sudden change of professional and public opinion in favor of a preserva-
tion of Bascars ija. This resulted in a conservation and restoration plan for the larger
a rea of all Bascars ija , whos e principal elements w ere carried out by the year 1975.
Thes e includ ed the Brusa b ezis tan, the Gazi Husrevbegov b ezistan, t h e Morica han,
t h e Trgovke , the D aire , and t he Gazi Husrevbegov hamarn.

In the p e r iod between 1945 and 1992 work was done on the p reservation of the fo l-
lowing types of monuments: archaeological sites: Illyrian fo rtifications, about thirty
basilicas fro m thelate antique period. and as many as 60,000 Bogornil t ombstone s
found on ov er 3 ,000 localities; m e d ieva l and Ottoman fortified settle ments: some 300
s u c h settlements. mos tly in r u ins , we re uncove red, with only a t h ir d of that n urnb er
b eing restoration worthy; t h e meet importan t restoration projects were carried o ut on
fortifi c ations in or around .Jajce, Maglaj, Doboj, Bobovac , Gradacac, Dobor , Travnik, i« I;;it.lULACIt:lNI PLAN BAl\iACIJE KCNZERVACI.J. ... • • TAURACI.J.

Po citelj , Sokol. and Kastel in Banja Luka: sacral structures erected in t h e Ottoman

.---
~ 1 .J. C L. o a
M"'.N. "',,1-4.
NA.

p eriod: nearly 2,000; 137 of them were· registered as state-protected monuments: 76 C . .... K ... T ...

m osq ues , 4 3 Christian Orthodox churches and monasteries, 16 Catholic churches _ =..7 - - "
a n d m onastertes. and two synagogues; sec u la r structures from the Ottoman period: m =..:=- '
these include five schools, the Sokolovica bridge a t Visegrad, The Stari Most (Old
Bridge) in Mostar, The Kukavica han in Foca, a hamam in Sarajevo, the Resulbegovi-
c a house in. Trebinje, the Dusparina house in Kraljeva Sutjeska, a nd the Gavran-
Kapetanovica house at Pocitelj: architecture of the Austro-Hungarian period, which
was included in preservation programs only in the last decade with the establtshrnent
of a n integral urban conservation policy, whose avowed goal was equal treatment of
a ll historical periods; monuments of socialist revolution and Partisan warfare memo-
ri al architecture.

Of a ll the preservation and restoration activities undertaken in the post-World-War II

p eriod, however, the most important are the large-scale project on the Bascarsija in
S arajevo and the Old Town in Mostar. These two Ottoman bazaar complexes had a
s irnilar htstory: because of the radical changes in the manner of production brought
about by the Austro-Hungarian rule, t h e old -style bazaars began to fall into disuse
and were rapidly deteriorating.

Sarajevo. The idea of legal protection of the carslja in Sarajevo was first conceived by
a r c h itec t Josip Pospisil in 1915. But as Bosnia was involved in the First World War at
the time. the idea could not even begin to be realized. Pospisil's proposal was , in fact,
a reaction to a long period of destruction of the carsija by fires and others means and
subsequent construction of multi-storey buildings in a deliberate attempt to do away
with the Ottoman character of old Sarajevo.
The Babcareij a. conservatio n a nd re storation plan, mad e in 197 2,

200 20 1
Mostar. The idea for the preservation of the old bazaar in Mostar, conceived some thirty
years ago, developed in time into a comprehensive project of conservation and restoration
of the histolical city core by taking into account all the relevant socio-economic factors.
This idea was institutionalized in 1977 with the establishment of the Stari Grad Institute,
which undertook to develop an integral concept of urban conservation. Toward this aim,
expelience from similar projects all over the world was collected, examined and tapped to
create a plan, which also paid due attention to the specific cultural and sociological
conditions of Mostar. After a peliod in which public opinion was mobilized in favor of the
project, the condition of the structures to be preserved was examined, basic technical
documentation was provided, and an evaluation was made of a number of competing
proposals C?n the actual steps to be taken in carrying out the project.
More than 200 different Interventions on the structures were undertaken as parallel ac-
tivities. The area covered by the whole project grew larger and larger: 0.10 sq. kID. in 1979,
2.8 sq. kID. in 1985, and 4.7 sq. kID. in 1991. In 1986 the Aga Khan Award for
Architecture was given to Stali Grad Institute for the remarkably conceived and realised
conservation of the entire sixteenth century Old Town in Mostar.
Mostar's Old Town conservation and restoration plan, proposal for Mostar 2004
202
Some interrelated components ofMostar's urban conservation project might be of value to
the development of urban conservation in general; they include:
1. Self-financing system by which funds were supplied by those persons, institutions,
and social structures which were to benefit most from the project;
2. Balance between the mix of people and uses of the space;
3. Education, which enabled the creation ofa specific tbeory of urban conservation.
These components helped to determine a special methodology of urban conservation,
which was successfully applied to the whole of Mostar, a city of 130,000 inhabitants, as
well as to several other towns in former Yugoslavia in the peliod from 1989 to 1992. We
believe that this methodology can be successfully applied to other towns, especially in the
rebuilding of Bosnia and Hercegovina to be undertaken after the war which began in
1992.
Contemporary Isla m ic architecture. In the last decade or so before the current war
there was a trend to modernize the construction of mosques and other Islamic struc-
tures in Bosnia and Hercegovina. This was a natural outcome of contemporary move-
merits in the architecture of former Yugoslavia, mostly of West-European provenance:
tnoderna between the two World War, socialist realism after World War II, under the
influence of Soviet Union, the international style in the sixties responsible for large
apartment buildings in the suburbs .
.While famtliartztng themselves with modern developments in architecture, Bosnian
architects continued to cultivate the values of the Bosnian-Ottoman building tradi-
tion. It was therefore natural for them to attempt a symbiosis of the two "schools" of
architecture. In a number of such attempts they produced some remarkable designs
not only of mosques but also of other public buildings, which have caught the atten-
tion of architects throughout the world. We have included three illustrations of this
peculiaty Bosnian modern trend in architecture: the department store in Jajce,92 the
Sejfudin Mosque, (also known as the Bijela Mosque) in Visoko,93 and the mosque in
Zagreb (Croatia l.P"
The shopping center in Jajee
designed by Radivoj Jadrie, Kika Karia, Nedzad Kurio, and Greta Ferusic
92 The project received the annual award for best architectural creation in Yugoslavia in 1976. awarded by
the Borba newspaper competition. Its authors were on the staff of the Faculty of Architecture. Univer-
sity of Sarajevo.
93 Its designer Zlatko Ugljen then a professor at the Faculty of Architecture of the University of Sarajevo.
received the Aga Khan Award for Architecture in 1983.
94 The designers Dzemal Celie and Mirza Golos were professors at the University of Sarajevo.
203
 Heritage destroyed in the 1992-94 war. The collapse of the former Yugoslavia began
in 199 I with the secession of two member republics, Slovenia and Croatia. When
Bosnia and Hercegovina declared its independence on the basis of a referendum held
in the beginning of 1992, it was brutally attacked by Serbian nationalists, who
wanted to keep it within the Serb-domtnated r urnp Yugoslavia consisting -of Serbia
and Montenegro. The predominantly Muslim population of Bosnia and Hercegovina
was totally unprepared for war and, in the months to come, became victims of untold
atrocities committed by the aggressors. The Bosnian Mus lims were to be killed or ex-
iled , and their five-centuries-old cultural heritage reduced to ashes. 95

Serbian forces besieged all the big towns in Bosnia and Hercegovina by taking positions
on surrounding hills and hitting them with the IUOSt destructive weapons at their
disposal.

As Serbian forces also attacked Croatian settlements in Bosnia and Hercegovina,

Mus lims and Croats became natural allies fighting a common eriemy. In the course of
fighting Croatian leaders declared an independent Croatian state within Bosnia and Her-
c egovina and started persecuting Muslims who lived on the territory which they arbi-
trar ily proclaimed as theirs. The Mus lims were thus forced to defend thernselves from
Croatian ex t r e m is t s while continuing to fight the much stronger Serbian forces.

At the present time Croatian forces have joined with the Serbian army in order to de-
stroy every aspect of the Is larnic cultural heritage. Having "chosen" the Muslim
populated Mostar for the capital of their mini state within Bosnia and Hercegovina,
they have made this historical city, a genuine repository of some of the greatest archi-
t ectural treas ures in the Balkans, the main target of their artillery attacks.
The Bijela Mosque in Visoko
built in 1980 and designed by Zlatko Ugljen

The Karadjozbegova Mosque in Mostar

The Mosque in Zagreb built in 1988 and in June 1992 and before the war
designed by Dz. Celie and M. Golos
95
S et" "List of d estroyed monuments in Bosnia a n d Hr-rcego vln a " in Appendix.

204 205
 The Jezero village near Jajce destroued. in June 1992.

Proposal for reconstruction and preservation. On the experiences of the preserva-

tion work in Bosnia and Hercegovina before the war, and on the world experience our
proposal for reconstruction and preservation of cultural heritage in Bosnia and
Hercegovina is based on following:

1 Heritage of Bosnia and ' Hercegovina is an integral multicultural heritage created

during five centuries of common living.
2. Organization of preservation work must be .ca rr ied out in small regional offices
connected in a network with a central information office.
3. All activities are an integral part of the general program for reconstruction both
economic structure and a social life of Bosnia and Hercegovina.
APPENDICES
4. All activities should be carried out by experts educated in a scientific-working
program.

The Old Bridge in Mostar,

Left: New Bridgefrom the restoration project; right: Bridge destroyed on November 9, 1993

206
 Appendix -2
34) Koza rac Mosque * ***
Destroyed Isla mic Heritage in Bosnia and Hercegovina 35 ) Deri Kozarae Mos que * ***
36) MutnicaKozarac .M osque * ***
April 1992-June 1993
Degree of Importance: * Loca l/Regional Deg ree of Destruction: * D amaged
37) Kamicani Mos que * **
* *: Nationa l ** Seve re D a mag es 38) Kozarusa M os que * **
** *: Very im portant *** To tally Destroy ed 39) Kozarusa Scho ol * **
40) Mu jkanovici Mosque * ***
4 1) Brdani Mosque * ***
Monuments Date of Impor- Degree
42) Ja ku pov ica Mo sque * **
construction tance of des -
43) Kevljaui Mosqu e * **
truction
44) Hrus tici M osque * **
BIHAC 45) Alici M osqu e * ***
1) Fethija Mosque 1492 ** ** 46) S red nj i Mosque * **
2) Kula *** * 47) Mahmuljini Mosque * **
3) Clock Tower *** * 48) Lisnja Mosque * *
4) Golubici Mosque * ** 49) Va kuf Buildings * ***
5) Jezero Mosque * *** 50) Isla Hu e Community Ho uses * ***
6) S rb lja ni Mosque * ** 5 1) Lib ra ry * ***
7) Cekrlije Mosque * ** 52) Zagrad Mosque * ***
8) Ve lika Zalozje Mosq ue * ** 53) S ta ri G rad Mosq ue * ***
9) Viniea Mos que * ** 54) Cela Mosq ue * *
10) Pokoj Mosque * ** 55) Brizicani Mos que * **
11) Baksais Mosque * ** 56) Zecovi Mos que * **
12) Pre kounjs ka Mosq ue * ** 57) Careva Mosque a t Ak ov o * **
13) Ku len Vakuf Mosque * ** 58) Ha nbar ine Mosque * **
14) Spahici Mos que * ** 59) Rizvauovici Mos que * **
15) Isla mic Community Center * ** 60) Biscaui Mosq ue * **
Cazin * * 61) Ccjreci Mosq ue * **
16) Miostrah Mosque * ** 62) Go ru ja Pu harsk a Mosque * **
17) Os trozac Mosq ue * ** 63) Do nja Puhars ka Mosque * **
18) Prosici Mosque * ** 64) Lju bija Mosq ue * **
19) Ma jestici Mosque * ** Bosanski Novi
20) Glogovac Mosque * :f: 65) Vill age Mos que 1820/1 * **
21) Stijena Mos que * * 66) S red nji Mosq ue 1883 * *
Bosanska Krupa 67) V ido uij a Mosqu e 1870 ** ***
22) Mosque 18th.e . * *** BANJA LUKA 3 * *
23) Ha dzi Dzemaluddin Caus evi c Mosq ue * * 68) Arnavudi ja M osqu e wi th Sadrvan 1694/5 *** ***
24) Mos ques in Bosanska Otoka * ** 69) Fe rhat Pasa Mosque 1579 *** ***
25) Mos ques in Bosanska Otoka * ** 70 ) Fe rhat Pas ino Tu rbe *** ***
26) Isla mie Co mm unity Cen ter * ** 7 1) Fe rhat Pasa Sadrvan *** ***
27) Du bov ka Mosque * ** 72 ) Ferhat Pasina Tow e r *** ***
28) Ara pusa Mosque * *** 73) Gazaufe rb eg ov a Mos que *** ***
29) Ba bici Mos que * *** 74) Gaza nfer Beg Turbe *** . ***
30) Klisa Mosque * *** 75) Ba rka ta r Tu rbe *** ***
31) Bes ici Mos que * * 76) Sa ri Kadm Turbe *** ***
Ostrozac * * 77) Ha lil Pasa Tu rbe 159 0 *** ***
32) Mosque * * Kotor Varos
PRUEDOR 78) Vrba njci Mosque * **
33) Carsijs ka Mosque * *** 79) Hrvacaui Mos que * ***

212 213
 80) Vecici Mosque * *** 122) Mustafa La la Pas ina Mosque ** *
81) Vecil~.i Nova Mosque * ** 123) Mustafa Aga Milosnik Mosque ** *
82) Han ifici Mosque 1990 * ** 124) MustafaAga Milosnik Fountains ** *
83) Donia Yaros Mosque * ** 125) Piri Agina Kula ** *
84) Cars iiska Mosque * ** Glamoc
85) Seven Vakuf Buildings * *** 126) Omer Basaga Tomb *** *
86) Kotor Mosque * ** BUGO.JNO
87) Ravne Mosque * ** 127) II.Sultanahmet Mosque 1693 ** **
88) Vranic Mosque * ** 128) Medressa and cemetery * **
89) Hadrovci Mosque * * 129) Kopcici Mosgue * **
90) Garici Mos que * ** 130) Kopcici Comlex * ***
91) Siprage Mosque * ** 131) Plan inci Mosque * ***
92) Olovo Mosque * ** 13?) Drvetina Mosque * **
Sanski most * * 133) Kupres Mosgue * ***
93) Bosa nska Krajina Mosq ue * * 134) Veselo Mosque * ***
94) Bosanska Krajina Vakuf houses * * 135) Poril~ Mosque * *
95) Trnova Mosque * * I'rusac
96) Kamen Grad Mosque * * 136) Haudan Aga Mosque 16.c.. ** **
Slatina 137) Sejh Hasan Kafi Mosque ** **
97) Slatina Mosque * *** 138) Sejh Hasan Kafi Complex *** **
JATCE 139) AlayBeg Malkoc Beg Mosque ** *
98) Dizdarusa Mos que 16th - 18 12/3 ** *** 140) Clock Tower ** *
99) Esmahan S ultan Mosque 1749/50 *** *** 141) Ali Beg Kopcica Mosque * ***
100) Hadzi Muharembegova Mosque ** *** 142) Carsijska Mosq ue * *
101) Ra rnaza nbegova Mos que * * 143) VakufHouse * **
102) Sinan -begova Mosque ** ** 144) Ajvatovica Mosque *** **
103) Tekija with musafirhane and imaret ** * 145) Cemetery * **
104) Ibra himbegova Mosque 17.c. * * Donji Vakuf
105) Vinac Mosque 1972 * . *** 146) Duzic Mosque * ***
106) Sipovo Mosque * *** 147) Hadzi Yusuf Mosque * ***
107) Sipovo, Four Vakuf House * *** 148) Scherdtik Mosque * ***
108) Vrazic Mos que * ** 149) Korjenidi Mosque * ***
109) Pliva Mosq ue * *** 150) Jema nlici Mosque * ***
110) Doganovci Mosq ue * *** 151) Sta ro Sclo Mosque * ***
111) Divca ui Mosque * * 152) Torla kovac Mesdzid * ***
112) Hadadan Mosque * * 153) Dobra Brdo Mesdzid * ***
113) Bcsnjevo Mosque * * 154) Sokolina Mesdzid * ***
Kljuc 155) Ceha iil{i Mesdzid * ***
114) Gra dska Mosque ** * 156) Suhodol Mesdzid * *
115) Pudin Han Mosque *** * 157) Balhodzici Mesdzid * *
Mrkonj ic Grad GUADA(:AC
116) M ustafa Agina Mosque ** * 158) Husein Kapetan-Gradascevica Mosque 1826 ** **
Bosanski Petrovac 159) Husein Kapetau-Gradascevica Turbe * *
117) Donja Mosque * * 1(0) Clock Tower ** *
118) Gornja Mosque * * 1(1) Medjedja Mosque * **
LIVNO 162) Zeliuja Gornja Mosque * **
119)Balagina Mosque 1514/5 *** * 1(3) Zelinja Donja Mosque * *
120) Hadzi Ahmet Bega Mosque at Glavica 1587 *** * 1(4) Ledeuica Mosque * *
121) Clock Tower *** * 1(5) Krecevina Mosque * *
1(6) Omeragici Mosque * *

214 215
 167) Mionica Mosque * * 211) Borovnica Mosque * **
168) Lukavica Mosque * ** 212) Oseiaui Mosque * **
1(9) Rajska Mosque * * 213) Vozuca Mosque * **
170) Vuckovci Mosque * * 214) Rujnica Mosque * **
171) Sviracka Mosque IS .c. * *** 215) Carsiiska Mosque * **
172) Medresa 18.c. * *** Tesli c
173) Kapetan Muratova Medersa 1812/21 * ** 216) Teslit Mosque * *
174) Bukovaca Mosque * ** 217) Vakuf House * **
175) Nova Beg ova Mosque * ** 218) Hr a nkovici Mosque * ***
176) Okanovica Mosque * ** 219) Ruzevici Mosque * **
177) Library of Islamic community * *** 220) Pribini<.{ Mosque * **
178) Lukovac Donia Mosque 1990 * ** 221) Kamenica Mosque * ***
Bosanski Brod 222) Ma rica Mosque 1985 * **
179) Husein Beg Mosque * * 223) Ba ric'i Mosque * **
180) Sultan Azaz Mosque * * 224) Gornii Mosque * **
181) Don ie Kolibe Mosque * ** 225) T rnovaca Mosque * ***
Bosanskl Samac T esan]
182) Mosque * *** 226) Debbazhhane Mosq ue ** *
183) Vakuf Houses * *** 227) Ferhadbegova (Carsijska) Mosq ue 16 .c. ** **
184) Is lamic Community Center * *** 228) Cas tle *** *
Derventa 229) Lepenica Mosq ue * **
185) Gradska Mosque ** *** 230) Milianovci Mosque * **
186) Sejh Omer Mausoleum 16.c. * * Maglaj
187) Islamic Community Center * *** 231) Kalavun Yusuf Pasina Mosque * **
188) Omerazici Mosque * * 232) Sukij a Carsiis ka Mosque * **
189) Nova Mosque * *** 233) Clock Tower * *
190) Doniacka Mosque * ** 234) FazIJ Pasa Mosque * **
Modrica 235) Ulisniak Mosque * **
191) Sta fa Mosque IS .c. * *** TRAVNIK
192) Osma nbegova Mosque 19 .c. * *** 236) Hadzi A libegova Mosque 1763-1865 ** *
193) Hadzi Alibegova Mosque * ** 237) Hasa n Agi na Mosque . 1550 ** .*
194) Terevica Mosque * ** 238) Sulejman Pasina Mosque 181 5/6 *** *
195) Vakuf Building * *** 239) Muhsinzade Abdu lla h turbe *** *
196) Islam Yaros Mosque * ** 240) Dzela l Pasino Tu rbe * *
197) Goruji Tarevci Mosque * ** 241) Sarena Mosque *** ***
198) Modrica Lug Mosque * ** 242) Fevziie Medersa * *
199) Jakes Mosque * ** 243) Karaula Mosque * *
DOBOJ 244) Mudrike Mosque * **
2(0) Carsijska Mosque * ** 245) Goles Mosque ' * *** .
2(1) Oras je Mosque * *** 246) Bijelo Buce Mosque * **
2(2) Kotorsko Gornja Mosque * *** 247) Prusac Stara Mosque * *
2(3) Kotorsko Donia Mosque * *** 248) Prusac Mosque * **
2(4) Severliia Mosque * . *** Zeni ca
205) Sije Mosque * *** 249) Sultan Ahmet Mosque XVIII .c.. ** *
206) Odzak Mosque * *** Vit ez
2(7) Islamic Community Center * * 250) Vitez Mosque * **
2(8) Graca nica New Mosque * ** 251) Ahmici Mosque * ***
209) Bosansko Suho Polie Mosque * * Bijela
210) Garpska Mosque * *** 252) Bijela Mosque * **
Zavidovici KO NJIC *

216 217
 253) Repovacka Mosque * 299) Sila htar Y usuf Pasa Hamam ** *
254) Mehmet Cavus Mosque at Tekije 1648/XVIIc.. * * 300) Ali Pasa Rizvanbegovica House *** *
255) Prknija Mosque * * 3(1) O ld House (Museum) *** *
256) Vardacka Mosque * * 302) Dzulhauumina House *** *
257) Rc povacka M osq ue * * Pocitelj
258) Kon iic Medersa * * 303) Sisman Ibrahim Pasa Mosque 1562 *** ***
259) B ielinici Mosque * ** 304) Sisman Ibrahim Pasa Medersa *** ***
260) Glavicini Nova Mosque * ** 305) Sisman Ibrahim Pasin Han *** ***
MOSTAR *** *** 306) Si s ma n Ibrahim Pasa Hama m *** ***
2(1) Baba Besirova Mos que 1631 ** *** 307) Gavran-Kapetanovica house *** ***
2(2) D e rv is Pasa Bejazidagica Mosque 159 7 * *** Ljubuski
263) Hadzi Balina Mosque. 1612 * *** 308) Nasuh-age Vucijakovica Mosque 1558 * ***
264) Hadfi Kurtova Mosque 16th c . * *** VISOKO
2(5) Hadzi Ahmet Aga Lakisica Mosque 1651 ** *** 3(9) G raca nica Mos que * *
2(6) Hadzi Mernije Cernice Mosque 16th .c . ** *** 310) Sadirva n Mosque * **
2(7) Hadzi lahia Mosque 1620 * *** 311) SaraCica Mos que * **
2(8) Karadjozbegova Mosque (designed by Mimar S ina n) 1557/8 * *** 312) Tabhana Mosque * **
2(9) Karadjozbegova Medresa * ** 313) B ijela Mosq ue * ***
2 70) Cejvan Ceha ja Mos que 1552/3 *** *** 314) Pertaca Mos que * **
271) Cejvan Cehajin Mekteb (Museum) res . 1895 .. * *** Kiseljak
272) Koski Mehmet Pasina Mosque 1618/9 *** *** 315) O ld Mosq ue ** *
273) Koski Mehmed Pasina Medresa 17th c . * *** Breza
2 74) Koski Mehmet Pasa S ad rva n 1618/9 ** ** 316) Vratnica Mos que * *
2 75) Ko tlina Mosque 1768 * *** 31 7) Vrbovik Mosque * **
276) Kjose Jah ja Mosque 17th c .. * *** 318) Izbod Mos que * **
277) Ahmeta Curci je Mosque 16th c .. * *** 319) Mahala Mosque * *
278) Hadzi Lafina Mosque 1633 ** *** SARAJEVO *** ***
2 79) Nasuh-age Vucija kovica Mosque 1528/9 *** *** 320) D iva n Katib Hajdarova (B ijela) Mosq ue 16th c .. *** *
280) Ibrahim-age S a rica Mosque 1637 *** *** 32 1) D ivan Katib Hajdarovo Turbe ** *
281) Sevri Hasan Mosq ue 1633 * *** 322) Turbe ** *
282) Yavuz S u lta n . Selimov Mesdzid 1520 ** *** 323) Ali Fakih(Veki liharc Mustafa Ef.) Mosque ** *
283) Stari Most (Old Bridge) designed by Hajrudin 1566 *** *** 324) Ali Fakih turbe ** *
284) Kujundziluk Carsija 15th-19th cc . ** *** 325) Ali Pasa Mosque . 1560 *** **
285) C lock Tower 17th c. ** *** 326) Ali Pas ino Turbe *** *
286) Bridge a bove the Radobolja River b .1566 *** *** 327) Ba li Be ,g (Malkoc) Mesdzid ** ?i:
287) Roznamedzi Ibrahim Ef. Mosque 1620 ** *** 328) Ba li Beg Hamam ** *
288) Musala with surrounding buildings 17th -19th cc . * *** 329) Bascarsi jska Hodza Du rakova Mosque *** *
289) Imam's hea dquarters 1932 * *** 330) Boza dzi Hadzi Hasan Mos que 1557/8 ** *
290) Biscevica s treet wi th several houses 17th c . ** *** 331) Cekrekdzi M us luhiddin Mosque 1526 ** **
291) Bjelusine dwelling complexes 1557/8 * *** 332) Coban Hasan Vojvoda Mosque 1562 ** *
Blagaj 333) Coha dii Sulejmauova Mosque 1565 ** *
292) Ca reva Mosque ** *** 334) Cobadzi Sulejman Saban D ed ino Turbe * *
293) Tekija's musafirha na 171 7 *** *** 335) Cohadzi Sulejmau Yedi ler T ur be 17th c .. ** *
294) Gnojnice Mosque * *** 336) Dova nh Hadzi Ibrahim Mesdzid 17.c. * *
Buna 337) Dovanli Hadzi Ibrahim Turbe *** *
295) Ali Pasa Rizvanbegovica Mosque 1812 *** ** 338) Ferha tbegova (Ferhadija) Mosque 1561/2 *** **
STOLAC 339) Gazi Husrevbegova Mosque 1530 *** **
296) Hadzi S alihova M os que 1732/3 ** * 340) Gazi H usrevbegova Medersa *** *
297) Hadzi AJijina Mosque ** * 341) Gazi H usrevbegova Hanikah *** *
298) S ulta n Se Jim Javuz Mosque ** * 342) Gazi Husrevbegova Bezistau *** *

218 219
343) Gazi Husrevbegov Hamam *** * 393) Had zi Sinanova Tekija 17th c .. *** **
344) Gazi Husrevbegovo Turbe *** * 394) Hadzi S ina n and Sakine Hatun Turbe ** *
345) Kursumlija Medresa 1537 * * 395) Sante Ismail Mesdzid ** *
346) Muratbegovo Turbe *** * 396) S ina n Voivodina Mo sque 1552 ** *
347) Merica Ha n *** * 39 7) Se jh Faruk (Abde sthane) Mesdzid 1541 ** *
348) Clock Tower *** * 398) Se jh Faruk Hamam ** *
349) Gazi Mehmetbegova Mosque 148 5 ** * 399) Magrlbija Mosque 15.c. ** ***
350) Hadzi Ali Kazgani Mesdzid * * 400) Se jh Muslihiddin Mesdzid * *
351) Hadzi Dzafer Mosque 16th c .. * * 4(1) Terzibasi Mesdzid 1524 ** *
352) Kulovil! Esad Efeudijino Turbe ** * 4(2) Timurhan Mesdzid 1602 * *
353) Hadzi Hajdar (Sarae) Mesdzid 16th e .. * * 4(3) Tokmozade Evnehan Mesdzid 1580 * *
354) Balic Hadzi Mehmet Mesdzid 16th e.. ** * 4(4) Uskuda rli Ahmed e elebi Mesdzid 1528 * *
355) Hadzi Sejdi Mesdzid 1562 * * 4(5) Ja hia Pas a Mosque 1482/3 ** *
356) Hadzi Timurhau Mesdzid 1562 * * 4(6) Za.g rkci Me sdzid 1516 * *
35 7) Hadzi Turhan Mesdzid 1588 * * 4(7) Brusa Bezistan 1551 *** *
358) Hitri Sulejman Mesdzid 1578 * * 4(8) Svrzina House 19th .c .. *** *
359) Hadzi Ahmet Mesdzid 1598 * * 4(9) Hadzi Os man Mesdzid 1591/2 * ***
3(0) Hubjar Aga Mcsdzid 1545 * * 41 0) Dzinovi ca Mos que 17.c. * *
361) Car Fatih S .Han Mo sque 1565/7 *** * 411) Sc hool of Islamic Law (C ity Museum) *** **
3( 2) Sultan Fatih sadrvan * * 412) Kobi lja G lava Mosque * **
3(3) Ibrahim Efendija Bistirigi Turbe * * 413) Ugorsko Mosque * *
3(4) Ivekov Hadzi Mehmed Mesdzid 1528/40 1528/40 ** ** 414) Semizovae Mosque * *
365) Kad: Hasan Mosque 17th.c.. ** * 415) Buljakova Potok Mosque * *
3(6) Kadl Abdulfetah Dedino Turbe * * 416) So lolje Mosque * **
36 7) Kara Fetah Mesdzid 155 7 ** * 4 17) Briiesce Mosque * **
368) Ka ra FcUa h Turbe * * 4 18) Butmir Mosque ** ***
3(9) Kant Fcttnh Rufai Tekija * * 419) Kotorac Mosque * ***
370) Kasapovic Ibra hima Mesdzid 16.c. ** * 420) Hadzi Ilhan Aza (L ubo) Mosque 152 5 * *
371) Kasapovica Mosque * * 421) Trnovo Mosque * ***
372)
373)
Catib Kasnna Mesdzid
Kazgani Hadzi Ali Mesdzid 1561
*
*
. *
*
422)
423)
Grivic Mosque
Sv ra kino se lo Mosque
*
*
**
**
374) Kcccdzi Sinan Mosque 1544 ** * 424) Kovacl Mosque * **
375) Kecedzi Sinan Mausoleum * * 425) So kol ovic Ko lonija Mosque * **
376) Komatin Hadzi Memi Mesdzid 16th.c.. * * 426) Brcka Mosque * ***
377) Kjose Sina n Mesdzid ** * 42 7) Islamic Comm unity Leader's building * *
3 78) Kulin Hadzi Balin Mesdzid 16th.e.. ** * 428) Islamic Co mm unity L1W Building 1887 * **
379) Kucuk Katip Mesdzi d 1528 ** * 429) Hrasno Mosque * *
380) Mimar S inan Mesdzid 1528 ** * 430) Sv rakiua Mosque * **
381) Mimar Davut Mesdzid * * 43 1) Uzorsko Mosque * *
382) Makrozade Ha dzi Si nan Mesdzid 1600 * * 432) Hrasnica Mosque * .*
383) Nebirdi lo Hadzi Ali Mesdiid 1531 ** * 433) Bakaric Mosque * **
384) Nedta r Ibrahim Mesdzid ** * nH.c:KO
385) Pacadzi Hadzi Nasuh Me sdzid 1556 * * 434) Dizdarusa M osqu e * **
386) Pel tek Husamettin Mesdzid 1556 * * 43 5) Celin ei Mosqu e * ***
38 7) Razozade Mes dzid 1700 * * 436) Th ree Mosq ues in Kora j * ***
388) Ragoza de T urbe * * 43 7) Gorn ji Rahici Mosq ue * ***
389) Sa ir Had zi Ali Mesd zid 1549 * * Bijeljina
39 0) Sagrd zi Hadzi Mahmut Mesd zid .. * * 438) Sulta n Su le jmanova Mo sque * **
39 1) Sa rae A li M osq ue 1528 ** * 439) Sali hbeg ovica Mo sque * **
392) Sa rae Ali Tekija ** *

220 221
TUZIA * * 486) Pataca ri Mosque * *
440) Bijela Mosque * * 487) Osmace Mosque * *
441) Austrurja Mosque ** * 488) Luka Mosque * *
442) Cindzi Mosque ** * 489) Suceska Mosque * *
443) Hadzi Hasanova (Carsijska) Mosque ** * 490) Klotijevac Mosque * *
444) Stara Mosque * * 491) Pribidoli Mekteb * **
445) HafIz Harum Mosque , * ** 492) Pribidoli Mosque * **
446) Tur Alibegova Mosque * ** 493) Slapovici Mosque * ***
447) Gradska Mosque 16th c. * * 494) Pe<.~ Old Mosque * **
448) Mehmet Aga Mosque 1548 * ** 495) Pe<.~ New Mosque * **
Zvomik * 496) Trubari Mosque * **
449) Dere Hadzi Mahmuta Mosque ** * 497) Sase Mosque * **
450) Zvornik Mosque ** * 498) Kara cici School and Mesdzid * *
451) NovaMosque * * Bratunac * .*
452) Rijecanska Mosque 1988 * ** 499) Bratunac Mosque * **
453) Zamlaz Mosque * *** 500) Glogovo Mosque * **
454) Beksuja Mosque * ** 501) Jogodnja Mosque * **
455) Divic Mosque * *** 5(2) Zapolje Mosque * ***
456) Tekija in Divic, * *** 503) Voljevica Mosque * **
457) Tekija in Divic * *** 5(4) Hrucici Mosque * *
458) Vakuf House in Divic * *** 505) Pobude Mosque * **
459) Drinjaca Mosque * *** Nova Kasaha
4(0) Dulici Mosque * ** 5(6) Musa Pasina Mosque ** *
461) Kozlucka Mosque * ** Vlasenica
4(2) Skocic Mosque * ** 507) Starn (Hajrija) Mosque * *
463) Sepek Mosque * ** 5(8) Pomol Mosque ** .
464) Gradska Mosque at Kula * *** K1adanj
465) Sapni Mosque * . ** 5(9) Hadzi Balina Mosque ** *
466) Glumini Mosque * ** 510) Glavna Mosque ** *
467) Islamic Community Center& Archives * *** GORAZDE 18
468) Klisa Mosque * ** 511) Sij ercic SinanBeg Mosque ** ***
Kalesija 512) Sij ercic Mausoleum ** *
469) Ajvazi Mosque * * 513) AlayBeg Mehmet Beg Mausoleum ** *
470) Prnjavor Mosque ** *** 514) Ustipraca Mosque * ***
471) Kalesija Mosque ** *** 515) Usripraca Imam's House * ***
472) Memici Mosque * ** 516) Brijest Mosque * ***
473) Caparde Mosque * ** 517) Donji Rajinci Mosque * *
474) Seher Mosque * *** 518) Vrauica Mosque * **
475) Jelovo Brdo Mosque * *** 519) Resetnica Mosque * *
476) Rajinci Mosque * ** 520) Ilovara Mosque * ***
477) Miljanovci Mosque * *** 521) Osjccaui Mosque * ***
SREBRENICA * * 522) Osjecani, Imam's House * ***
478) Bijela Mosque *** * 523) Obara k Mektebi * **
479) Carsijska Mosque ** * Visegrad
480) Skelani Mosque * ** 524) Gazanferbegova Atik Mosque 17.c. ** ***
481) Ljesca Mosque * ** 525) Careva Mosque ** ***
482) Daljegosta Mosque * *** 526) Mehmet Pasa Sokolovic Bridge *** *
483) Osatnica Mosque * * 527) Sijercica Turbe ** *
484) Tokoljaci Mosque * * 528) Medjedja Mosque ** ***
485) Vidikovac Mosque * ** 529) Dobrun Stara Mosque 15.c. ** ***

222 223
530) Zlijeb Mosque * *** Ustikolina
531) D rins ko Mosque * *** 576) Turha nhegova Mosque 1448/9 ** ***
Rogatica TREDINJE
532) S ellls udin (Carsijska) Mosque * * 577) Os ma n Pasa Resu lbegovica Mos que * *
533) Husein Begova (Arnavudija) Mosque ** * 578) 1I1.Sult an a hmet Mosque 1719 ** ***
534) t epa Mosque * * 579) Ars lanagica Br idge *** *
535) Po dzeplje Mosque * * 58 0) Resulbegovica House *** *
536) Godimilja Mosque * * Gacko
53 7) Kramer Mosque * * 581) Kazanc i Mosq ue 17.c . * **
538) Dedovici Mosque * * 582) Ga c ko Mosque * *
539) Kovanj Mosque * * 583) Fazlagic Kula * ***
Caj 11ice 584) KJjuc Mosq ue * *
540) S ina n Pasina Mosque ** ** llileca
541) Sinan Pasiuo Turbe *** * 588) Bijeljaui Telarevic Mosq ue 17th.c. **
542) S ina n Pasa Sons Turbe *** * 583) Polj e Mosque **
Knezina Nevesinje
543) S ulta n Selim Mosque ** * 584) Sulta n Bejazit Mosque 15th c . ** *
FOCA 585) Ha dzi Veli jina Mos que 1515 ** ***
544) Aladza Mosque 1550 *** *** 586) S ina n Ded ina (Cucukova) Mosque XVI c.. * ***
545) Aladza Fountain *** * 587) Ce leb ici Mosque XVI c.. * **
546) Dev Sulejman Beg Mosque 1633/4 ** ** 588) KJjuni Mosq ue * ***
547) Atik Ali Pasa Mosque 1546 ** * 589) Krusevljani Mosque * **
548) Car ll.Beyazit Mosque 1500/1 *** *** 590) Zulji Mos que * **
549) Kadr Osman Ef. Scjh Mosque 1593 /4 ** * 5 9 1) Mc ktcb * *
550) Mehmet Kukavica Pasa Mosque 1751 /2 *** ***
551) Mehmet Kukavica Pasa Medersa *** **
552) Mehmet Kukavica Pasa Inn *** *
553) Mehmet Kukavica Pasa Clock Tower ** *
554) Defterdar Memis Mosque 16.c./1569 ** *
555) Mumin Beg Mesdzid 16.c. * *
556) Sejh Pirija Mesdzid 16.c. ** *
557) Mustafa Pasa Mosque 16 .c./1554 ** *
558) Novi Mesdzid * **
559) O ld Mosque 15.c. * *
5(0) Hamza Beg Mesdzid 1470/5 * *
561) Naksibendi Tekija 1991 * *
562) Ja buka Mosque * *
563) Kratine Mosque * *
5(4) Izbisan Mosque 1990 * **
565) Sadici Mosque * **
566) Popov Most School * ***
56 7) Viko(l. Mosque * **
568) Godijevno Mosque * ***
569) Godijevno School * ***
570) God ijevno imam's House * ***
571) Borovnici S c hool * ***
572) S uljc i Mesdzid * ***
573) Susjesuo Mesdzid * ***
574) AJi Cohodor Mosque * **
575) Cohodor School * ***

224 225

Appendix -3
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Important studies of Islamic architecture in the Balkans did not appear until the third
decade of this century. In 1923 Henry Minetti wrote a survey of Islamic architecture in the
Balkans and produced detailed descriptions of several structures in Serbia and Macedonia.vl'he
second major book appeared thirty years later with the publication of Alija Bejtic's detailed
account of the Ottoman architectural monuments in Bosnia and Hercegovina.
The Turkish historian of architecture Ekrem Hakki Ayverdi published two important
books on Turkish monuments and vakifs in former Yugoslavia, one in 1956 and another in
1981, the latter being a valuable and comprehensive work on the structures built by Ottoman
master-builders on Yugoslav territory.
In 1956 Dusan Grabrijan published a very good book about the housing architecture in
Bosnia and Hercegovina. Smail Tihic wrote the chapter on Islamic art in Yugoslavia that was
published as a supplement to the Yugoslav edition of the well-known book rrFie Worfa of Islam;
edited by Bernard Lewis. ,
Mehmed Mujezinovic collected and annotated three volumes of Islamic epigraphy in
Bosnia and Hercegovina, a rich source of data for the study of Islamic culture in general.
Between 1967 and 1973 Husref Redzic produced several valuable publications devoted
to Islamic architecture, urban planning, and the conservation of Islamic monuments.
A valid contribution to the study of Islamic monumental art in Yugoslavia was also
made by Andrej Andrejevic in his work published between 1970 and 1984.
The work of Dzernal Celie, a professor onthe architectural faculty in Sarajevo, needs to
be singled out both for its outstanding quality and its thematic breadth. Hi,S most importrant
publications are ora StOlle 'Bricfges in 'Bosnia ana :J{ercegOlJina (co-authored with M. Mujezinovic)
and the section on Islamic art in the 1987 book JIrt in 'Bosnia. and.Herceqooinu..
In addition to the above-mentioned publications focussing on Islamic architecture, there
is also an abundance of writings about other aspects of life in Bosnia and Hercegovina in
Ottoman times . Many of them contain useful information relevant to our topic.
The noted Turkish travel -writer Evliya <;;elebi journeyed through Bosniain 1663 and
recorded many important facts about its administrative system, its climate, the appearance of its
urban settlements and their important buildings and public facilities . Some of his data are
exaggerated - the number of mosques, housing units, and vinyards, for example - but his
writings are full of interesting descriptions and comments.
226
Of the many endowment charters (lIa/(Jtfname) and court records (sic£iif), containing
information useful for our topic, unfortunately only a small number have been preserved to this
day . '
Both before and after the arrival of Ottomans to the Balkan peninsula, merchants from
the city-republic of Dubrovnik travelled to Bosnia and recorded their observations in numerous
reports preserved in the Dubrovnik Archives. Important notes were left to. posterity by
Parnucina, Cokorilo, and Skenderova, witnesses of, and participants in, significant events that
took place in Bosnia in the first half of the 19th century. . '
At about the same time a Russian traveler by the name of Gilferding visited Mostar and
described the town and its population, especially with regard to their different religions and
with particular reference to the Serbian population.
Arthur Evans, a well-known Eng lish scholar of the time, stayed briefly in Bosnia and
Hercegovina in 1875. In an account of his Bosnian experience he claims to have "discovered"
features of distinct Roman and Byzantine styles in the architecture of the region.
In 1891 Carl Peez produced what may be considered the most complete description of
Mostar to date . He provided a lot of important data which make his work extremely valuable to
anyone studying the history of the city. The travel writings of Robert Michael contain a more
poetic description of Mostar.
Fewer but nevertheless valuable data for a history of Bosnia and Hercegovina are also
to be found in the work of Radimsky, K.Patch, Lj. Stepanovic, Ciro Truhelka, K.,Jirichek and
some others .
Of the many local authors who studied and wrote about the history of Bosnia and
Hercegovina, three deserve special mention: Vladimir Corovic Hamdija Kresevljakovic, and
Hivzija Hasandedic, Their comprehensive accounts of the Ottoman days contain detailed
information about the social history of the area and are therefore valuable as sources for the
study of its architecture.
227

BIBLIOGRAPHY (Main)
Andrejevic, Andrej: Is{amsl(g monumentalna utnjetnost X'V! 'lJe/(g uJugosfa'lJiji. Beograd 1984.
Ayverdi, Ekrem Hakki: 5f.'llrupa'aa Osnuuili mimari 'Eserieri, 'Yugos{a'llya. II-III cild, 3.kitab Istanbul
1981.
Basler, Djuro; Begic, Azra; Celie, Dzemal; Kajmakovic, Zdravko: l1tnjetniiRg 6{ago Bosne
Herceqouine . Sarajevo 1987.
Bejtic, Alija: "Banja Luka pod turskom vladavinom", g{aJe sturine I. Sarajevo 1953.
, "Povijest i umjetnost Foce na Drini", g{ase sturine III i IV . Sarajevo 1956,57.
"Spomenici osmanlijske arhitekture Bosne i Hercegovine", Priiozi e a otiientalnu.
fiCo{ogiju, 3-4. Sarajevo 1952-53. '
Becirbegovic, Madzida: Prosuietni 06jekJi is{amsK:s- arfiitekJure a Bosni i Herceqouini. Sarajevo 1974.
Bianco, Stefano; Angawi, Sami: "Common Principles in the Domestic Architecture of Islam:
An Inroduction to a Current Research Project", Islamic art, Common Principles, Forms,
and Themes, Damascus 1989.
Burckhardt, Titus: Art of Is{am,.£anguage anag.,,{eaning, World of Islam festival Trust, 1976.
Celie, Dzemal: "Uticaj Turaka na materijalnu kulturu jugoslavenskih naroda", EJ, 8. Zagreb
1971.
, Mujezinovic Mehmed: Stan mostoui II 'Bosni. i Herceqouini. Sarajevo 1969.
, "Drvorezba u Bosni i Hercegovini" , g.,,{ost broj 11. Mostar 1976.
, : "Ne 'orijentalni' , ni bilo koji drugi vee, bosansko hercegovacki spomenici",
Os{060 djettje , 1.maj.1978.
- - - - -, "Pocitelj na Neretvi" , g{aJe sturine VII, Sarajevo 1960..
, "Tip kuce u Hercegovini", 1(aa IX 'J(ongresa fo{l(forista Jugos{avije. Mostar-Trebinje
1962.
Celie, Dzernal ; Jadric, Radivoje; Redzic, Husref: "Restauracija i revitalizacija sredisnjeg dijela
sarajevske carsije", g{aSe sturine 12. Sarajevo 1978.
Corovic, Vladimir: 5'vfostar i ltjegO'lJa srpsRg prauosliuma opstitia. Beograd, 1933.
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Trifunovski, Jovan: "0 tekijama u donjem slivu Bregalnice". Ptiio.zi. za orijentuinu. fiIo[ogiju, 12-
13.- Sarajevo 1962-63.

Ulungin, F.: "La configuration geomerrique des plans de stalactites", First International
Congress of Turkish Arts-Communications. Ankara 1961.
Upham Pope, Arthur: Persian5'I.rcliitecture. Shiraz 1969.

Dnsal, Behcct: Tur/(,isli Islamic 5'I.rcliiteetllre, Seiju/(to Ottoman. New York 1973.

Vasic, Milan: "0 gradnji starog mosta u Mostaru", Baicanica VIII. Beograd 1977.
- - - - - , "Uticaj ratova na naselja i privredu osmanskog granicnog podrucja u Srbiji i Bosni
(1480-1536)", :J(aao'ui:Fi[ozofs!@gfa!Gt[tetauSamjevu 0/1. Sarajevo 1971.
Vego, Marko: :A£aseija sreefttjolje/(t}vne oosanskJ. eftiave. Sarajevo 1957.
Vogt-Gbknil, Ulya: grandS courants de I'archiiecture islamique - !Jv[osquees. Paris 1975.
- - - - - , Tur/(iscfze moscheen. Zurich 1953.
- - - - - , Turquie ottomane. Fribourg 1965.

234 235
 Ap pe ndix-a 3.n 1. Development of spatial structure of the mosque
3.02. Space of the mosque: interior
3.03. Basic plan of domed mosques
List of illustrations 3.04. The Aladza Mosque in Foca:
3.05. The Ferhat Pasina Mosque in Banja Luka
3.06 The Gazi Husrevbegova Mosque in Sarajevo
1.01. Position of Bosnia-Hercegovina in Europe 3.07. Sulejmanija Mosque in Travnik
1.02. Map of medieval Bosnia 3.08. The Sejh Bagdadijin Mesdzid in Sarajevo
1.03. Bosnia-Hercegovina as a part of the Ottoman Empire 3.09. The Sarica Mosque, Mostar
1.04. Bosnia-Hercegovina as a part of Austro-Hungarian monarchy 3.10. The Predojevic'a Mosque, Plana near Btlcca
1.05. Settlement founded in pre-Ottoman times: Vranduk 3.11. Stone decoration: the Aladza Mosque Fora
3.12. Wall painting:' Aladza Mosque in Foca
2.01. Medieval fortress and towns: Sokol, Blagaj, Ljubuski, and Stolac 3.13. The Karadjozbegova Mosque
2.02. Travnik 3.14. The Karadjozbegova Mosque: interior
2.03. Maglaj, Tesanj, Stolac, and Visegrad 3.15. The Karadjozbegova Mosque: a layout of wall painting
2.04. Gradacac 3.16. The Karadjozbegova Mosque: wall painting
2.05 .Poc.itelj, urban scheme and view 3.17. Nisans
2.06. Trebinje, urban scheme and view 3.18. The Seih Jujino turbe, Mostar,
2.07. Maglaj on the Bosna river 3.19. The turbe of Ibrahim Beg in Foca
2.08. Bosnia-Hercegovina: position of the chosen settlements 3.20. The Sejh Jujino turbe in Mostar, survey
2.09. Kresevo 3.21. Turbeh of Halil Basa in Banja Luka
2.10. Foca, map 3.22. Turbes of Gazi Husrevbega and Muradbega in Sarajevo
2.11.Foca (Photo published in 9{jraa, 1895) 3.23. Al ifakovac, Sarajevo
2.12. Livno, mosque and clock tower at Glavica 3.24. Various position of the mekteb in relation to the mosque
2.13. Travnik 3.25. The Gazi Husrevbegova Medresa in Sarajevo
2.14. Banja Luka 3.26. The Kukavicina Medresa with Mosque in Foea
2.15 . Sarajevo, 1452 3.27. The Sisman Agina Medresa in Pocitelj
2.16 . Sarajevo, a panoramic view 3.28. The Koski Mehmed Pasina Medrese in Mostar, reconstructed in 1979
2.17. Sarajevo: the Old Orthodox :Church and the Jewish Synagogue 3.29. The Koski Mehmed Pasina Medresa in Mostar
2.18. Sarajevo, 1882 3.30. The Sinanova Tekija in Sarajevo
2.19. The Stari Most in Mostar 3.31. The tekija in Blagaj
2.20. Mostar: a panoramic view, 1908 3.32. Circulation network
2.21. Mostar: urban scheme 3.33. Different types of streets in Mostar
2.22. Mostar 1895: a view [rom the south 3.34. The traffic network in one mahala
2.23. Mostar: urban development 3.35. Stolac: an example of a simple stone bridge
2.24. Sarajevo: Bascarsija 3.36. The Mehmed Pasa Sokolovica Bridge on the Drina River, Visegrad
2.25. Carsija in Mostar in 1905 3.37. The Arslanagica Bridge on the Trebisnjica river
2.26. The sadrvan the Hafiz Havadze Mosque, Mostar 1905. 3.38. The Stari Most in Mostar, downstream side, and sections
2.27. The Velagica house close to the Buna river in Blagaj 3.39. The Stari Most in Mostar, urban position:
2.28. Banja Luka: Mahalas in central part of the town 3.40 The Stari Most in Mostar
2.29. Foea: 17 mahalas 3.41. Cesma
2.30. Mostar: the Roznamedzijina mahala, above the river Neretva 3.42. The sadrvan in the mosque courtyard
2.31. Mostar: mahalas 3.43. The hamam in Stolac
2.32. Mostar: several mahalas 3.44. The Gazi Husrevbegov Hamam in Sarajevo
2.33. Mosque complex: nucleus of settlement 3.45. The Cejvan Begov Hamam in Mostar
2.34. The Gazi Husrevbegova Mosque complex, Sarajevo 3.46. The clock-tower in Travnik
2.35. The Karadjozbegova Mosque complex Mostar 3.47. The clock-tower in Sarajevo
3.48. The clock-tower in Mostar
3.49. The Kukavicin han in Foca
3.50. The Morica han in Sarajevo

236 237
3.51.The Hind in han and the Nezir Aga Mosque in Mostar 4.35. The saraj in Travnik
3.52 T heBrusa be zistan 4.36. The Pasic family complex, Cajno near Nevesinje
3.53 . The Br usa be zistan in Sa rajevo 4.37. The kula in Bihac
3.54. The Gazi Husrevbegov bezistan 4.38. The Cemalovica kula at Buna
3.55. Bczistan under the Sulej manija Mosque in Travnik
3.56 . S hops in Sarajevo 5.01. Domes, squinches, and pendentives
3.5 7. The shop in Mostar 5.02. Detail s of the ceiling
3.58. S tore houses in Mostar 5.03. Staircase: forms and details
3.59. The bazaa r in Mostar, 1905 . 5.04. The comer porch : the Biscevica house in Mostar
3.60. The da ire, Sarajevo 5.05. The structure of the corner porch
3.n 1 .Wa termiIIs on the Radobo lja river in the bazaar of Mostar 5.06. The comer porch of the Kajtazova house
3.62 . Houses wi th bakeries in Sarajevo 5.07. Musebak
5.08. Windo ws
4.01 The residential complex : basic structures 5.09. Structure of the window
4.02 . The residential complex : principles of organization 5.10. The roof supporting structure
4.03 . Ho usehold utilities in the co urtyard 5.11. Different kinds of roof coverings
4.04. T he Alajbegovica house in Mostar 5.12. Builder
4.05 . Co urtyard : the Karabeg house in Mostar 5.13. Influences on the Neretva river
4.06. Co urtyard : the Biscevica house in Mostar
4.07. Kapi ja 6.01. Calligraphic inscription (the Qur'an, CXII), Aladza Mosque in Foca
4.08. A comparison: a tent and a room (After to 6. Kucukkerman) 6.02. Calligraphic inscription in circular form in the Sinanova tekija in Sarajevo
4.09 . Bosnia-Hercegovina: Clima tic zones 6.03. Calligraphic inscriptions from the Sinan tekija, Sarajevo
4.12 . Basic types of housing pla n 6.04. Calligraphic inscriptions from Sinanova tekija in Sarajevo
4. 11. Review of houses in di fferent regions of the Balka n (Safranbolu, Turkey , and Sarajevo, 6.05. Calligraphic inscription in the Aladza Mosque, Foca
Bosnia) 6.06. Interlacement: windows from the mosque in Pocitelj
4.12 . Rev iew of houses in d ifferent reg ions of the Balkan (P lodviv, Bulgaria, Tetovo, 6.07. Geometric decorative motifs
Macedonia, and Djakovica, Kosovo) 6.08. Floral decorative motifs
4.13. Review of houses in different regions of the Balkan ( Epirus, Greece, Ohrid, Macedonia) 6.09. The Rumi and Hatay style of decoration in Aladza Mosque in Foca
4.14 . Development of the house complex in Mostar 6.10. The Qur'an , from the Gazi Husrevbegova Library in Sarajevo
4.15. The Kolakovica house at Blagaj 6.11. A manuscript on astrology in the Institute for Oriental Studies in Sarajevo
4.16. Development of the house in Mostar 6.12. An example of the bookbinding craft
4.17. The Kajtaz house in Mostar 6.13. Carpets
4.18 . The Kajtaz house in Mostar 6.14. Embroideries
4.19. The room 6.15. Levha , the Karabegova house in Mostar
4.20. Seve ral kinds of musandera 6.16. Wood-carving: the door in the Kajtaz house in Mo star
4.21 . Musa ndera 6.17. Wood-carving: a decoration of the ceiling in tekija at Blagaj
4.22. Sec ija 6.18. Engraved copper dishes
4.23 . The odzak, the dolaf and the raf 6.19. Several examples of metal work
4.24 . The room in the Biscevica House in Mostar 6.20. Stone decoration : the fountain, the Aladza Mosque, Foca
4.25. Fireplace 6.21. Stone decoration: details from a mosque
4.26. Chimneys 6.22. Stone decoration : pillars
4.2 7. Hajat: a staircase in 'the Cisica house in Mostar, and the upper floor in Kajtazova house 6.23. Stone decor ation : The Karadjozbegova Mosque in Mostar
in Mostar 6.24. Stone decorations : nisans
4.28 . T he interior of the Velagica hous e at Blagaj 6.25 .Stone decorations : doors and windows on storehou ses
4.29 . Di fferent kinds of dishes in Bosnia-Hercegov ina
4.30. Cha irs 7.01. The Qur'an , the Gazi Husrevbeg ova Library , Sarajevo
4.31. Gate de tails 7.02. Organization of the settlement
4.32. Pos itions of the house on the terrain in Sarajevo 7.03. Organization of the hou sing complex
4.33 . S im ilarity between houses in Mostar and Dubrovnik 7.04. Islamic elements in Orthodox monuments: motifs on fresco , Serbia, 13th c.
4.34. Rowho uses in Mostar 7.05. Islamic details on Orthodo x churche s

23~
7.06. The Old Orthodox church in Mostar Cernal Eidem contributed photographs number 4.24 and 7.15.
7.07. Cyrillic cursive of Bosnia-6osancica Zlatkn Tulic contributed photographs number 8.07. and 3.40.
7.08. Architectural motifs on stefa/( Several photographs in this book are from the Aga Khan Program Archives in Rotch Visual
7.09. Romanesque elements on stecaks and Islamic houses Collection at M.LT., Cambridge Massachusetts. Contribution by students of the Aga Khan
7.10. Romanesque arcades on Islamic houses Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard and M.LT., Cambridge are: Kayed 1. Lakhia
7.11. Christian architectural elements on mosques: minarets (4.27a and 6.22), Kathy Chia (3.22), Geneveva Fruet (4.27b), Aaarati Kanekar (3.57), Peck
7.12. Christian architectural elements on clock-towers Vee Tan (5.04) and Mohamed Radziah (8.05).
7.13. Christian architectural elements: the Vucijakovica Mosque
7.14. Christian architectural elements: circular forms of windows Photograph 3.17 taken in October 1989 by Barbre M.Ek.
7.15. The musafirhane of the tekija at Blagaj
7.16. The Svrzina house in Sarajevo.
7.17. The Dusparina house in Kraljeva Sutjeska
7.18. Houses from Jajce
7.19. The Resulbegovica house, Trebinje

8.01. The town hall in Sarajevo built in 1897.

8.02. Sarajevo Bascarsija: Plan for rehabilitation and restoration, 1972
8.03. A plan for restoration of the historic city core of Mostar: proposals for intervention
8.04. The shopping center in Jajce
8.05. The Bijela Mosque in Visoko
8.06. The mosque in Zagreb
8.07. The Karadjozbegova Mosque in Mostar: destruction of the heritage of Bosnia and
Hercegovina:
8.08. The Jezero village near Jajce: destruction of the heritage of Bosnia and Hercegovina:
8.09. Bridge destroyed in November 9, 1993 and the New Bridge from the restoration project

Acknowledgements for illustrations:

I wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to my students, later my colleagues, Milan Beatovic,

Tihomir Rozic, Darko Minarik, Seeo Dziho, Srecko Stanojevic, Senad Brkan, Mihajlo Andric,
Esad Humo, and others too numerous to mention. .

2.02, 2.12, 2.29, 2.34, 3.50, 3.53, and 7.18 are published by Husref Redzic, in the StUifije °
isUUllS/(gj 6astini, Sarajevo 1983.
2.09, 3.04b, 3.05b, 7.16. 7.17, and 8.4 are published in the book; 'U1ftjetnu/(g 6u7£lo Bosne i
J{~rcego1.tillel Sarajevo 1987, by Djuro Basler, Azra Begic, Dzernal Celie, and Zdravko
Kajmakovic,
3.04a, 3.05a, 3.06, 3.11, 6.01, 6.06, 6.08 are done on the basis of illustrations published by
Andrej Andrejevic in the Is[a11ls/(g- monumentaina umetnost 16 ve/(g- uJugos[aviji, Beograd 1984.
2.19,2.35,3.09,3.13,3.14,3.18,3.29,3.41,4.15, 4.17, 4.18, 4.31, 4.36, 6.16, 6.17, 6.24,
7.06, 7.08, 7.09, 7.10, 7.11, and 7.12 are published in my book Prifog proucaaanju is[a11ls/(gg
statnbenoq graaiteijstva u. Jugos[mJiji, Mostar 1991. Photographs are from the archives of the Stari
Grad Institute in Mostar, taken by eiro Rajic.
3.44, 3.52, 3.62, 4.2, 4,3, 4.11b - after Dusan Grabrian (Ylrnite/(}u..ra 130sne i put u saoremena,
Ljubljana 1957).
2.10, 3.08, 3.26, 3.49, 6.03, 6.04 - after Alija Bejtic; 4.08 - after Onder Kiicukkerman; 4.10. -
after Sedad Haki EIdem, 4.11a and 5.01a - after Reha Gunay; 2.12 and 4.13 - after Branislav
Kojic; 3.46, 3.38 and 3.39, - after Dzemal Celic, 7.05, - after Zagorka Jane,

240 241
 Glossary elQnef;fija baker

fi 1u{z an small ceramic coffee cup with no handle

a6aestfuJ( wash stound used for ablution
aga master, landlord liaais saying by the Prophet Muhammad
aliur stable liajat hall in a house
lia{'{Jat a bathing room in a hamam
6atrai, a copper cauldron Iuutuun. public bath
banjica wash closet (liamamtfzil() liamamcfiil( wash closet, as part of musandera
6aJa archaic variant of pasa lian inn
6aJca garden Iuuii/(gJi a higher school of Sufi philosophy
6aJflll( tombstone, gravestone hurenuuI( .protected private part of a large house reserved for family, also called a
6eg nobleman, bey "women's part"
6egfer6egful( province ruled by a governor-general Iuuuia beam, joist, built into a wall
bezistati a large, usually domed structure housing clothes and textile shops liueflera small storage room (same as fifer)
bosaniica Bosnian cyrillic cursive script J{atay styfe a decoration of Chinese origin
bostan.dei basa supervisor of gardeners and masons hutba sermon given at dzuma, Friday noon prayer

carsija bazaar, market imam leader of communal prayers who stands in front of the faithful.
cek::!/le doia] ' a movable cupboard for passing from the men's to the women's part of the imaret a public kitchen where free meals could be obtained
house
ceS71le drinking fountain, public water tap jambeei a long band of fine white linen with embroidery
jaz,ful( a part of the liajat (hall) on the first floor used as veranda (also I(gmerija)
fasa milk or soup bowl
cepenal( "horizontal" door used as a front cover for shops 1(a'6a the edifice situated in Mecca which is the liturgical center of Islam 'and towards
ceramiaa clay tiles used for roof covering whichMuslims turn when praying.
tiler closet room (liuef.tera) f(Cfai sharia judge
Co sal( corner; a bay window in Bosnia. /(gmerija see ja.zful(
Eultuui a room with furnace in a hamam. /(gpaful( a transitional warming up space in a hamam
curs a raised fenced seat for a lecturer in a mosque. /(gpija main door for a housing complex, gate, entrance, doorway
/(gpiailil( gate on the garden fence
daire series of storehouses under one roof and a courtyard in the middle. l(asa6a provincial town with a market place
aar-uf- Eadis college of advanced religious studies l@1Jce a big ladle
aar-ul-Opr'ati house for the readers of the Qur'an f(~)efz,a old; large, great, famous
defter a census book /(smal( see: saraj
demir iron {yfa tower
demiriija big, round copper tray for serving food /Qltu6Iian.a library'
detsana lecture hall /Ql6e dome
diuanhuna verandah on the upper story, part of a liajat, or, in some areas, the liajat itself. /Q9 uncfl.ija goldsmith '
dola] bookholder
diuian. shop framed inscription in Arabic, usually hung on the wall.
cftmdjer builder, person skilled at all crafts applied in building a house.
cfttlel([ul( bedding, part of a musandera magaz,a storehouse
tf1.ami a mosque with minaret; a Friday (~uma) mosque with a mimber from which the maliafa a housing micro-region
Hatib may preach the weekly sermon or hutbe mahfi! gallery
cf.lez1Ja small metal (usually copper) pot with a long handle used for making coffee tnedresa Muslim theological school; high school or college.
djugum big copper container shaped like a pitcher. 11le/(Je6 elementary school
tnejdan square; common anteroom in hamam

242 243
mihrab the imam niche in the mosque a word of Hungarian origin used in Bosnia to denote a settlement at the foot of
tnimat architect a fort, with a church and a square
tnitnber pulpit in the form of a staircase with a roofed landing uaz lecture
ininder mattress '[la [ijl~ governor of a province
tnuhen.dis engineer '[J(j'liotfa (police) chief
tnusafirhana building for guests
tnusala special square for group prayers !Jurt a kind of tent
tnusan.dera. a wooden internally partitioned closet along a wall.
mlfse6a( lattice

oaaja room on the first t100r

odJ:a/(. fireplace; residental unit built next to the tower (/(y-fa) in a housing complex in
the country

the highest title of civil and military officials

marketplace

raf shelf

sanrf.ia.( sanjak,subdivision of a province

samj palace, residence of high official of the Ottoman Empire
seiija. built-in bench with cushions, settee
sehara wooden chest
sefam!u/(. the part of a large house reserved for men, business contacts, also called "men's
part"
sinija. low round wooden table
sof a. hall, anteroom, stone bench
sofra dining table; wooden or metal tray serving as a table
SlfI horizontal pole under the ceiling for hanging mens clothes
steca( Bogomil tombstone in medieval Bosnia
susa( water jug

seher large town

sejfi head of a religious order
serefet balcony around a minaret
si!te cushion filled with wool

tuhtape] a wooden board above a staircase

tarih. chronogram
tatuhid bearing of witness that there no divinity save God; the consciousness or
doctrine of Divine Unity
te/(jja dervish lodge
teneliia a type of limestone
timurdija blacksmith, locksmith, saber-maker
turbe mausoleum

'lJafQif religious endowment, waqf

'{IafQifnama. deed of religious endowment

244 245
 INDEX

Austro Hungarian occupation, 32, 34,

A 47,50,95
Austro Hungarian occupation of Bosnia
and Hercegovina, 195
Abdestluk, 122, 132
Austro Hungarian rule, 199, 200
Adjem Esir Ali, 152
Austro Hungarian rulers, 199
Adriatic coast, 22, 189, 190
Austro Hungarian survey, 40
Aegean islands, 109
Avdagica House, 196
Africa, 170, 181
Avlija, 103, 104, 105, 117
Ahar, 103
Ayaz Beg, 28
Ahmet Pasa (Hercegzade), 16
Ahmeta Curcije, 48, 49
Ajim Esir Ali, 28
AladzaMosque, 23,58,59, 65,66, 152, B
153,157,162,164,174
Alajbegovica House, 105 Baba Besirova, 48
Alajbegovica Tower, 138 Bajazit Havadzina, 48
Albania, 181 Bakeries, 102
Ali Aga Dedic, 37 Bakrac, 128
Ali Aga Voljevica, 37 Balkan area, 14, 56, 155
Ali Havadzina, 48 Balkan Islamic dwelling, 18, 19
Ali Osman, 165 Balkan Islamic structures, 62
Ali Pasa Rizvanbegovic, 38, 48, 137 Balkan Muslim dwelling, 103
Ali Pasina, 46, 48 Balkan Peninsula, 62, 65, 113, 114, 115,
Ali Pasina Mosque, 28 133,151,152,161,182
Alifakovac, 73, 74 Balkan politics, 6
Anatolia, 109, 161, 184 Balkan region, 86
Anatolian, 109 Balkans, 6, 13, 22, 32, 58, 62, 65, 75,
Anatolian House, 109 84,133,155,161,165,168,
Anatolian Turkish House, 109 ,. 182,183,184,205
Antun , 153' Baltin han, 95
Arab lands, 161 Ban Kulin, 6
Arab Mosque, 54 Banja Luka, 8, 15, 17, 20, 26, 41,45,
Arabesque, 158, 174 55,57,60,62,72,73,75,89,
Arabesques, 157, 158, 159 90,96,136,151,153,172,192,
Arabia, 13, 108 200
Arabic, 51, 171 Banovina of Croatia, 10
Arabic alphabet, 51, 157, 160, 161 Bar, 86
Arabic heritage, 162 Baroque, 32, 172, 193, 195
Arabic language, 157 Basamaci, 144
Arabic letters, 43, 160 Basas,37
Arabic ornamentation, 163 Bascarsija, 27, 28, sz, 40, 200; 201
Arabic script, 179 Bathroom, 121,124,132
Arabs, 87, 94, 157 Baths, 13, 42, 87
Araluk, 104, 118, 149 Bayazit II, 16
Architect, 28, 53, 54, 82, 84, 151, 152, Bazaar, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19,27,28,32,
200 33,38,40,41,42,43,44,46,
Architects, 54, 57, 151, 152, 159, 201, 48,49,53,68,80,98,100,101,
203 102,103,167,183,201,202
Architectural motifs, 188 Beg,8
Architecture of the Austro-Hungarian Beglerbeg of Bosnia, 26
period,200 Begovina, 18, 171, 197
Arslanagic Bridge, 82, 83, 153 Belgrade, 41, 115
Art of miniature, 165 Bellini, Gentille, 161
Asia, 108, 181 Benedict Kurepesic, 188
Asia Minor, 58, 62, 94, 141, 152, 165 Bezistan, 26, 28,40,56,62,96,97, 1,70
Atik,46 Bezistans, 57, 96, 97
Atik mahala, 23, 33 Bihac, 17, 64, 138, 190, 199, 200
Austria Hungary, 10, 38, 46 Bijela Mosque, 203, 204
Austrians, 49 Bijeljina, 191
Austro Hungarian administration, 44 Bileca, 64, 191
Austro Hungarian monarchy, 10 Biscevica, 197

247
 Cehotina, 22, 23 Constitution of 1974, 11
Biscevica House, 106, 124, 146 Bosnian words, 182 Convertion to Islam, 181
Ceiling, 98,121,122,127 ,131 ,133,
Bishop, 35 Bosnians , 51, 167, 182 Corbusier, 201
143 ,144,146,171
Bistrik,32 Bosnia's feudal lords, 9 Cosak,144
Cejvan cehaja, 41 , 95
Bjelusine, 33 , 43 , 50 , 117 Bo§naks, 182 Cejvan cehajina, 48, 77 , 191 Courtyard, 13,43, 76, 77 , 87,93,94 , 95,
Blagaj, 14,33,34,44,79,87,117 ,118, Brankovac,33,48,50,117 Cejvan Begov Hamam, 89 97,101,103,104,105,106,
127,130,133,143,170,171, Brankovic, Djuradj, 33 Cekme Dolaf, 130 111,117,130,132,137,149,
.192 , 195, 197 Bridge, 19,20,26,27,28,32,33,34, Celic , Dz., 204 174,192,196,197
Bobovac,20,200 37,38,41,44,46,67,82,84, Cemalovica Kula , 139 , 143, 170 , 171 Courtyards, 43,44, 73 ,86,94,95,104,
Bogomil faith, 181 85,137,152,153,206 Cemetery, 51 132 ,134,196
Bogomil Tombstones, 51,187,188,200 Bridges, 34, 53 , 82, 83, 84, 151, 174, Cengica Kula , 138 Craft, 167
Bogorodica Perivleta Church , 185 200 Central European civilization, 10 Crafts, 15,24,34,35,41, 53,132,152,
Boka, 153 Brodac, 27 , 32 Central European influences , 92 157,162
Book binding, 165, 167 Brodac village, 27 Central European Romanesque , 7 Craftsman , 163
Bosancica, 187 Brusa Bezistan , 28 , 96, 201 Cepenak,42,98 Craftsmen, 15, 32 , 40 , 41 , 44, 100 , 152,
Bosanski Novi, 154, 200 Budim, 151, 154 Ceramida, 196 153 ,162,190
Bosna river valley, 19 Bugarska, 114 Croatia, 10, 11, 203, 205
Cernica, 44, 48, 49 , 50, 117, 135
Bosnia, 6,7,8,9, 10, 13,28,62,82, Bugojno, 138
Cesma, 44, 86, 105 Croatian extremists, 205
113, 130, 134 , 153, 162, 165, Buka, 77
Cevrina, 48 Croatian forces, 205
170 , 179 , 181, 182, 187, 190, Bulgaria, 11 , 108, 184 Croatian leaders, 205
.Cha nnels, 134
196,199,200 Buna, 18,38,44,83,117,130,137, Croatian settlements in Bosnia and
Chimneys, 76 , 125 , 195
Bosnia and Hercegovina, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 138 ,139,143,170,171 Hercegovina, 205
Chinese origin, 163
28,35,38,40,53,57,58,62, Bursa, 56 , 62, 67 Croat ian towns, 190
Christian, 8, 24 , 50, 181
66 ,71 ,75,82,90,95 ,108,110, Buzadzi Hadzi Hasanova Mosque, 28
Christian architectural elements, 190, Croats, 10, 11, 205
116 , 127, 128, 131, 132 , 134, Byzantine, 7, 9, 32, 54 , 55, 56, 57, 62, Crusaders, 13
191, 192, 193, 194
136, 138 , 141, 151 , 152, 153, 141, 162,172, 187 Culhan,87
Christian architecture , 184, 190
162 ,166,167,168,170,181, Byzantine art, 7 Christian art , 184, 185 Cultural heritage, 87 , 200 , 205, 206
182 ,184,189,190,194,195, Byzantine Baroque style, 32 Christian book, 185 Curs, 170
196,198,199,200,203,205, Byzantine Empire, 54 Christian commun ity, 184 Cvetkovic Macek agreement, 10
206 Byzantine influence, 55, 162 Christian Craftsmen, 172 Cyrillic, 28
Bosnia beglerbegluk, 31 Byzantine technique, 62 , 141
Christian denom inations, 9 Cyrillic alphabet, 185
Bosn ian , 165 Byzantine times, 56
Christian feudal lords , 8 Cyrillic script, 187
Bosnian Islamic character, 9 Byzantine traditioms, 57
Christian house, 50
Bosnian Islamic urban and architectural Byzantium, 56 Christian households, 24
characteristic, 25
Bosnian Ottoman building tradition, 203
Christian influence , 181
Christian influences in housing
o
Bosnian Ottoman houses, 196 c construction , 194
Bosnian architects, 203 Christian master, 171 Dabrica, 191
Bosnian autonomy, 9 Christian Orthodox, 155, 200 Daire, 32 , 40, 101, 201
Cadrin han, 95
Bosnian Beglerbegluk, 9, 25 , 26 , 36 , Chr istian Orthodox churches, 200 Dalmatia, 116, 153 , 154, 194
Cajnice, 75, 172
136 Christian Orthodox quarter, 27 Dalmatian Gothic, 194
Calligrapher, 159, 161, 162
Bosn ian Bogomil Church , 187 Christian religious art , 184 Dalmatian hinterland, 188
Call igraphers, 162, 166
Bosnian book illuminations, 187 Christian structures, 153 Dalmatian influence, 42,92
Calligraphic inscriptions, 159, 160, 161 ,
Bosnian caravanserais, 57 Christian stylistic elements, 192 Dalmatian Renaissance, 192
171
Bosnian Church, 9 Christianity, 67, 181, 189 Decorative motifs, 51, 109, 164, 168
Calligraphic motifs, 185
Bosnian Cyrillic and Glagolitic scripts, Christians , 8, 35 ,47, 49 ,162, 198 Demirlija, 128
Calligraphy, 66, 70 , 130 , 131, 157, 158,
187 Church , 7, 9,21 ,22,27,29,32,35, 64, Derventa, 200
159 ,160,161,165
Bosnian Cyrillic or Cyrillic cursive of Dervis Pasa Bajezidagic, 85
Caravanserai, 95 134,185,186,190
Bosnia (bosancica) , 187 Church of St. Nicholas, 194 Dervis Pasina, 48, 77
Caravanserais, 28, 32 , 57, 86, 93, 94
Bosnian Cyrillic script, 187 Church organization, 9 Dervish Lodge, 78
Careva cuprija, 27, 32
Bosnian domestic architecture, 196 Churches, 7,35, 64, 134, 184, 194, 199, Dino (book binder) , 167
Careva Mosque, 28, 76, 190, 191
Bosnian House, 132, 200 200 Divanhane, 18
Carina, 44, 50, 117
Bosn ian Kingdom, 8, 28 Cifte ham am , 28 Dizdar,37
Carpet, 56 , 67, 130, 168
Bosn ian language, 155 , 182 Ciler , 105 , 117 , 127 , 139 Djakovica, 57 , 62, 114
Carpets, 130 , 131, 157, 167, 168
Bosn ian life , 9 Cisica House, 126 Djerzeleza House, 196
Carsija, 13, 17, 22 , 40, 90, 182 , 200 ,
Bosnian modern trend in architecture , Citadels , 14 , 19 Djevojacke vode, 44
201
203 City , 13, 14, 15, 16, 17,27,28,32,33, Djinovica han, 95
Casa, 128
Bosn ian Muslims, 9, 205 34 ,35,37,38,41 ,42,43,44, Djugum, 128
Cathedral,35
Bosnian origin , 16 , 161 46 ,48,49,50,51,57,80,81, Djurdjevi Stubovi Monastery, 185
Catholic church, 21 ,32
Bosnian .Ottoman-style,98 84,85 ,103,110,117,134,137, Doboj ,200
Catho lic church of Our Lady , 22
Bosnian population, 8, 9, 131, 181 Dobor, 200
Catholic churches, 155, 199 , 200 138, 151,154,155,190,196,
Bosnian sandzak, 21 199 ,202,203,205 Dobrun,93
Catholic population, 35, 184
Bosnian society, 10 Clocktower, 24, 89, 90, 91 , 92 , 192, 193 Doksa, 144
Catholicism , 9, 187
Bosnian state, 6, 20 , 187 Congress of Berlin , 10 Doksat, 147
Catholics, 35, 47
Bosnian towns, 134 Conservation and restoration plan , 202 Dolaf , 111, 121 , 123, 127
Caucasus, 108
Bosnian valleys, 7 Constantine the Great, 57
Cazin, 196
Bosn ian viziers, 25

248 249
Dome,28,54,55,56,62,66,68,69,76, Ferhad Pasa Vukovic Desisalic Gothic church , 64 Herceg of St. Sava, 6
87,141,162 Mosque, 28 Gothic influence, 162 Herceg Stjepan, 16
Domes, 55 ,56,62,64,96, 141, 142 Ferhat Pasina, 55 Gothic styles, 64 Hercegovic, Vladislav, 33
Ferhad Pasina Mosque, 60 Grabovsko Polje, 194 Hercego~na,6,33t43, 64,82, 86, 126,
Donja Dreznica, 191
Donja Mahala, 117 Ferhadija Mosque, 66 , 153 Grab riajan, Do, 102, 104, 113 134,137,141 ,153,155,188,
Ferizbeg, 153 Gracanica,90 190 ,192,194,197,198
Donji vakuf, 90, 192
Ferusic, Greta, 203 Gradacac, 17,90,138,192,200 Hercegovinian Sandzak, 36
Door , 98 , 100, 101 , 104 , 117 , 121,127,
Fethi ja Mosque, 64, 190 , 199 Grand Vizier , 8, 16 Heritage of Bosnia and Hercegovina,
129 ,130,137,144,170
Fildzan , 128 Greece , 87, 108 , 115 ,184 206
Doors , 104, 111 , 131, 143 , 146 , 152 ,
Firdus beg ova Kula, 138 Greek alphabet, 187 Hindin han, 95
170 ,173,178
Fireplace, 121, 123 Greek colonies, 5 Hittites, 111
Drina, 7, 22 , 23, 82, 83
Fireplaces, 93 ,195 Greeks, 111 Hodidjed, 27
Dubrovnik, 21, 22, 27, 32,33,116,131,
134,135,153,155,187,189, Firuz Beg, 28 Groundfloor,99 Hodidjed fortress, 27
190,192,194,198 Floor , 18,42,58,62 ,87,93,95, 104, Gulf ,151 Holy Alliance War , 37
Ducan ,98 111,117,121,126,127,133, Gunay, R, 113 House, 19,27,33,41,44,50,56,78,
Duke Ivan is Vlatkovic, 153 134 , 135, 136, 143 , 144, 146, 103 ,104,105,107,108,109,
Duke Sandalj Hranic, 153 149 ,182,185,188,190,192, 111 , 112, 113, 116, 117, 118,
Dundjer, 152 195 H 121,124,126,127,129,130,
Dusekluk, 111 , 121 Floors , 62 ,111 ,126,130,131,137, 131 ,132,133,134,135,137,
Dusparina house, 196, 200 143 ,170 143,144,149,152,170,184,
Hadun Mosque, 57, 62
Dzabica, 138 ' Foca, 19,20,22,23,36,45,46,58,59, 188,195,196,197,198
Hadzi Ahmet Begova, 48
Dzafer Celebijina, 46 65,66,72,75,76,82,90,93, Household, 44, 100, 103, 104, 127, 131,
Hadzi Balina, 48, 49, 77
138,149,152,153,155,157, 144,168,170,185,198
Dzaferagina, 45 Hadzi Ibrahima Cevre, 48
162 ,164,168,172,174,196, Houses, 13, 18,22,33,38,41,43,44,
Dzaferbegova, 46 Hadzi Kalfa, 85
200 45,46,47 ,49,50,51,70,73,
Dzezva, 128 Hadzi Lafina, 48
Fojnica, 20, 21, 172 74 ,86,93,102,108,109,110,
Hadzi Mehmedbeg Karadjozbeg , 41
Fountain , 174 111, 112 , 113 , 114, 115, 116,
Hadzi Memijina , 48
Fountains, 25 , 43, 44, 65, 77, 86 ,174 117,118,122,124,128,129,
E Hadzi Mustafa, 46
Franciscan order, 184 130 ,131,132,133,134,135,
Hadzi Osmanova, 46
Franciscans, 9, 21 148,153,169,181,182,183,
East bank, 49 , 108 Hadzi Salih (book binder), 167
184,188,192,195,196,197
Eastern Europe, 151 Hadzi Sefe rova, 46
Housing architecture, 195
Edirne, 54 , 62 , 109, 151 Hadzi Velijina, 48
G Hudzera, 117
Egyptian Moorish sty le , 199 Hadzibegova, 45
Hum, 49
Ejubovic family , 137 Hadzic, 138
Humcarija, 45
Eidem, S oH., 112 Gacko , 168 Haf iz Havadze, 49
Hungarian influence, 6
Embroideries , 167 , 169 Garasanin, lIija, 10 Haf iz Havadze's Mosque, 43
Hungarian king, 153
Embroidery, 131, 167 , 168 , 169 Gardens , 33, 44,108 ,133,134 Hafiz Havadzina, 48
Hungarians , 7, 8
Eminbegica house, 196 Gavran Kapetanovica House, 171, 197, Hag ia Sophia, 54
Hungary, 161
Epirus, 115 200 Hajat, 109 , 126, 127, 139, 144 , 146 ,
Husein Havadze, 49
Esref Kovacevic, 162 Gazi Husrevbeg, 73, 153 148,196
Husein Havadzina, 48
Europe, 40, 50, 57, 108, 134, 168 , 181 Gazi Husrevbeg Ferhatpasic, 28 Hajrudin , 82 , 32 , 152
Husein Islamovic, 162
European architecture, 194 Gazi Hus revbeg Hamam, 88, 201 Halebija, 38
Husein Kapetana Gradascevica, 9, 138
European art, 190 Gazi Husrevbega, 73 Halebija tower, 41
Husein Pasa Boljarevic Mosque, 152
European cultures, 7 Gaz i Husrevbegov, 87 Hall , 18,76,110,111 ,112 ,113 ,117,
European influence, 133, 181 Gazi Husrevbegov Bezistan, 97,153 , 118,122,126,133,134
European model, 195 201 Halvat,87
European part of Turkey, 62 Gazi Husrevbegova (Kursumlija) Hamam , 26, 27, 28, 40, 41,44,56,86,
European powers , 10 medresa,75 87,88,153 ,200
European style army, 37 Gaz i Husrevbegova Library, 165 , 182 Hamamdzik, 121, 124, 125, 132 Ibrahim efendija Roznamedzija, 44
Evliya Qelebi, 41, 44, 46 , 85, 86 Gazi Husrevbegova Medresa, 75 Hamams, 28, 34, 35, 41 , 42, 44, 57, 66, lbrik, 121, 128
Gazi Husrevbegova Mosque, 32, 51,55, 67,87 lIici,44
57,61,62,76,152 ,162,170 Hamedullah. Hafiz Osman , 161 lIidza,45
Gazi Husrevbegova Musafirhana, 78 Hamzabegova, 46 Illumination, 159
F Han , 95 Illuminators, 165, 166
Gazi Isa Beg Mosque, 56
Germany, 11 Hans ,32,93,94,95 IIlyrian and Roman conceptions, 133
Facades, 18,62,99, 141 , 192 Glavica Mosque, 24 Haremluk, 111 IIlyrian fortifications , 200
Fatih Mosque, 56 Gold work, 171 Hasan (artist), 165 Imotski, 153
Fatih Sultan Mehmet's rule, 34 Golos, Mo, 204 Hasan Kafi, 171 Independent Croatian state, 205
Fatima Kadun, 48, 191 Gorica fortification, 153 Hasan Nazirova, 46 Indonesia, 13
Fatime Sultan , 46 Gornji Seher, 45 Hasanagina Mosque, 57 Influence of Arabic script, 179
Ferhat (artist) , 165 Gornji vakuf, 90 Hataji style, 163 , 164 Institute for Oriental Studies, 166
Ferhat Pasa, 73 Gospel of Karan , 185 Hatula, 143 Inter Republic tensions, 11
Ferhad Pasa Sokolovic, 26 Gost Radivoje, 33 Havadza Durak, 28 Iraq, 108
Ferhad Pasa Sokolovic Mosque, 57 , 62 Gothic, 7, 64,162 ,172,187,188,189, Hellenistic architecture, 94 Isa Beg , 27, 28
190, 191, 192 , 199 Herceg , 7 Isa Beg Isakovic, 27 , 97

250 251
Isak Beg Mosq ue , 56 Jankovic, Stojan , 37 Kosevo stream , 28 Master, 41,131 ,153,198
Iskende r (artist), 165 Javuz Selim II, 48 Koski Mehmed Pasa Cara vanserai, 192 Masters, 71 , 85 , 143 , 153 , 154, 166 ,
Islam . People meeting , 44 Jaz luk , 117 , 126 Kosk i Mehmed Pasina, 77 172, 193,198
Islamic and Alpine cou ntries , 196 Jew ish refugees, 9 Koski Mehmed Pasina Han , 95 Matra kci Nasuh , 165
Islamic and Midd le Eastern character, 9 Jew ish Synagogue , 29 Kosk i Mehmed Pasina Medresa, 77 Mausoleums, 26 , 67, 72
Islamic aniconism , 165 Jews , 32, 47,162 Koski Mehmed Pasina Mosque, 41, 48 Mazici,58
Islamic architectural and decorative Jezero village , 206 Kosovo , 56 , 57 , 114 , 181 Mazoljice, 33
elements, 153 J6rg Bren Jun German painter) , 188 Kotez i, 191 Mecca , 56, 66 , 158
Islamic architectural deta ils , 198 Juraj Dalm atinac, 153 Kotlev ina , 48 Medieval Bosnia, 6, 7, 9, 24 , 137 , 187 ,
Islamic arch itecture, 53, 54, 57 , 103, Kotlina,48 188,189,190
157 ,181 ,199,203 Kraljev a Sutjeska, 20 , 196 ,200 Medieval Bosnian, 6, 7, 22
Islamic Art , 53 , 66, 108, 157 , 158, 159 , K Kresevo, 20, 21 ,154,172 Medina, 56 , 66
160 ,163,166 Kreso, 138 Mediterranean, 110
Islam ic artistic tradition , 184 Krslak house , 196 Mediterranean and Central European
Ka'ba , 157 , 158
Islami c arts , 159 Krslakova house, 170 world ,9
Kadi Osman, 46 Krusevice , 153
Islamic arts and crafts , 157 Mediterranean and eastern countries,
Kadija , 36, 75 , 137 Kubandoga, 45 132
Islamic buildings , 24, 199
Kadiluk , 36 , 38 Kubura, 173 Mediterranean climate , 33
Islamic calligraphy, 161
Kajtazova House , 119 , 120, 126, 143, Kufa, 4 Mediterranean countries, 94
Islamic commun ity , 103
147,170, 197 Kujundziluk, 95 Mediterra nean forms , 193
Islamic countries , 53
Kamber Agina , 48 Kukav ica han , 200 Mediterranean influence, 181
Islamic cultu re , 29 , 167 , 181
Kamengrad , 188 Kukavici n han , 93 Mediterranean influences, 132 , 153
Islamic cus tom , 111
Kamer , 126 Kula, 137, 138 , 139
Islamic decorative patterns, 195 Mediterranean region , 197
Kame rija , 117 , 126
Isla mic East , 152 Kuleno vica Kula , 138 Mediterra nean Romanesque , 7
Kapaluk ,87
Islam ic education in the Balkans, 75 Kurto , Nedzad , 203 Medresa , 13, 18,26,28,56,68 ,75 ,76 ,
Kapetanovica Kula , 137
Islamic elements, 184 Kucukerrnan, 0 , 109 77,152
Kapetanovina, 37
Islamic epoch, 158 Medresas , 25, 35, 41, 44, 5 1, 75, 77
Kapetanovina house , 197
Islamic era , 167
Kapidz ik, 130
L Medzhana, 137
Islam ic features , 51 Mehmed II, 9 , 161
Kapija , 104, 105, 107, 129, 130
Islamic Houses, 189 Mehmed Beg, 28 , 97
Karabegova, 197 Latin alphabet, 187
Islamic images of heavenly landscapes , Mehmed Beg Minatovic, 28
Karabegova House , 106 , 169 Latinluk quarter, 27 , 28 , 32
66 Mehmed Begova, 46
Karadjosbeg, 67 Latinska cuprija, 32, 200
Islamic influence, 181 Mehmed Cehajina, 48
Karadjozbeg , 41, 67 Ledjen , 128
Islamic influences, 131 Mehmed Pasa Kukavicina Mosque, 76
Karadjozbegov han , 95 Lelekov han , 95
Islamic monumental arc hitecture, 57 Mehmed Pasa Sokolovic, 16, 82
Karadjozbegova, 34, 48, 49, 52 , 57 , 66 , Levha , 169
Islamic motifs, 172 , 185 Mehmed Pasa Sokolovica Bridge , 83
67 ,68,69,76,77,153 Lexical influence of Islam , 181
Islam ic residential culture , 108 Mehmed Pasa (Sofu) , 26
Karadjozbegova Medresa, 77 Livno , 24, 45,66,90, 138 , 168 , 172 , 192
Islam ic Saracen, 184 Mehmet (artist), 165
Karadjozbegova Mosque, 34 , 52 , 57 , Ljubinje, 191
Islami c settlements, 13 M~danr44 146 ,80 ,87 ..~ ~
66 ,67,68,69,87,152,153, Ljubus ki, 14, 154
Isla mic society , 132 Mejli,162 .'
176 ,205 Londza hill, 26
Islamic spir itual atmosphere, 165 Mekteb , 13, 18,26,51 ,68, 74; 75 ,I:, ,'
Karic, Kiko , 203 Luka , 8,15,17,20,26,45,50,62 ,72 ,
Islamic style Ornaments, 185 Mektebs , 25 , 29 , 35 , 41 ,74 :', .
Karlov ci,37 89 ,96, 117 ,172
Islamic teaching , 158 Memi Havadzina, 48 '..
Kasim (artist) , 165
Islami c tenets, 15 Memi Kalif, 167
Kastel,200
Islam ic tradition , 86 Metal work , 171
Isla mic vis ual arts , 162
Kevce, 121 M Mezzenigo, 37
King of the Serbs and Bosnia and the
Islamic way of life, 183 Middle Eastern cha racter , 15
Coast land ,6 Middle Eastern influence, 181
Islamic world, 41 , 108 , 151 Macedonia, 11,56,57,58,62 ,86,108 ,
Kingdom of Serbs , 10 114,115,141 ,181 ,184 Middle Eastern technique, 172
Istanbul , 9, 34, 41 , 50 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 62 ,
Kingdom of Yugoslavia, 10, 11 Magaza, 42, 98 Mihrab, 56,58,62,66,67,69,174
66,109,113,131,134,152,
Kiosk ,182 Milicevic, Paskoje, 153
155 , 161, 181, 182, 195 Maglaj, 16, 19, 90 , 200
Kitchen, 27,68, 78 ,103,104,105,117,
Italian campaniles , 192 Magreb, 13 Miljacka,28
128 ,133,134,192
Italy, 11 , 161, +65 Magribija Mosque , 63 Miljacka river, 27, 28, 32
Kjose Jahija Hodzina, 48
iznik,67 Mahala, 18, 23 , 33, 45, 46, 47 , 48 , 49, Miljacka river valley, 27
Klis,24
50 ,51,74,81 ,182,183 Miljacka valley, 28
Kljuc, 188
Mahalas , 24, 28, 41 , 43 , 45, 4 6, 48 , 49 , Mills, 27, 28, 41, 44,101
Kojic, B., 114 , 115
J Kolakovica family, 130
50 ,51 ,81,85,86 ,102,181 Mimar , 152
Mahfil, 56 ,69, 170 Mimar Aga , 37
Kolakovica fam ily House, 195
Majdan , 137 Mimar Hajrudin, 38
Jadric, Radivoj, 203 Kolakovica house, 117 , 118, 143, 170 , Makarska, 152 Mimar Sinan , 53 , 54 , 62 , 67 , 82 , 84 ,
Jahija Esfelova, 48 171 , 192 , 197 Mala Tepa, 41 151, 152
Jah ija Mosque , 63 Koloba ra han , 27, 94, 201 Malaysia, 13 Minaret, 18, 55, 56 , 58 , 68 , 76, 132
Jahja Pasina Mosque, 62 Konak, 17, 18,32,38, 136, 137 , 182 Mali mudzeliti , 167 Minarets , 29 , 64 , 65 , 141 , 191
Jajce, 25 , 26 , 32 , 90 ,170,196, 197 , Konak at Bistrik, 32 Manuscripts, 7,158,159,165,166,167, Minber, 56 , 67 , 69, 170
200 ,203,206 Korvin , Matija, 153 185 Minder , 123
Jambezi, 123 Kosaca, 7 Marke tplace , 27, 134 Miniature painting , 165

252 253
Miniature paintings, 158 Muslim districts, 109 Ornaments, 65, 66, 70, 131, 151, 164, Ottoman Islamic and indigenous
Mirza Ali, 161 Muslim families, 131 166,172,179,185,195 aspects , 132
Mizan Sharani, 165 Muslim folk songs, 182 Ortakolo mahala, 23 Ottoman Islamic and Oriental Elements,
Mokrina, 153 Muslim graveyards, 70 Orthodox, 7, 9, 22 ,27, 29, 32, 35 ,43, 194
Moldavia, 161 Muslim households, 24 47,184,185,187,200 Ottoman Islamic Architecture, 53, 57
Monasteries, 21, 199, 200 Muslim houses, 196 Orthodox church, 22, 27, 29, 32, 35 , Ottoman Islamic culture, 151
Monotheistic belief, 158 Muslim lords, 9 185,186 Ottoman Islamic milieu, 198
Montenegro, 11, 86, 154 , 205 Muslim mahalas, 24 Orthodox churches, 185, 186, 194 Ottoman Islamic settlement, 17
Monuments, 16,34,58,62,65,70,152, Muslim populated Mostar, 205 Orthodox land owners, 9 Ottoman Lands, 151
165,179,199,200 Muslim population, 16, 17, 35, 155, 183, Orthodox monument, 185 Ottoman Masters, 153, 168
Morava, 194 187,205 Orthodox parish, 95 Ottoman Miniature Painting, 165
Morica han, 94, 95, 201 Muslim tombstone, 70 Orthodox population, 32 Ottoman Miniaturist, 165
Mortar mills, 101 Muslim Turkish culture, 160 Orthodox Serb, 9 Ottoman Monumental art, 151
Moscanica Monastery, 185 Muslim women, 131 Osman (artists) , 161 Ottoman Monumental public
Mosque at Pocitelj, 170 Muslims, 8, 9,11,21,35,43,47,49, Osman Nakas, 165 architecture, 95
Mosque complex, 40 , 50, 51, 54, 74 131 , 158, 159, 162, 165, 181 , Osman Sahdi efendi library, 76 Ottoman Multipurpose Room, 124
Mosque Facades, 141 198 ,205 Osman Seih, 45 Ottoman Ornamentation, 163
Mosque in Pocitelj, 163 Mustafa (book binder), 167 Ottoman Administration, 182, 199 Ottoman Period, 9, 10, 13, 20, 23,24,
Mosque in Zagreb, 204 Mustafa Pasa, 46 Ottoman Anatolian House, 108 35,37,53,90,152,153,155 ,
Mosque of Nesuh Aga Vucijakovic, 192 Mustafa Pasa Mosque, 56 Ottoman And Islamic influences, 189 170,187,188,190,196,198,
Mosques, 13 ,25,28,29,34,35,41,42, Mustafa Hakim , 161 Ottoman Architect, 152, 82 199 ,200
44,45,46,48,51,53,54,55, Mustaj Beg , 28 Ottoman Architects, 54 Ottoman Presence, 198
56,57,58,62,63,64,65,66, Mutlak, 103, 127 , 139 Ottoman Architecture , 34 , 53, 62, 70, Ottoman Provincial officials , 62
67,70,72,74,86,141,170, 141 ,152,153,182 ,190,195 Ottoman Reign, 179
174,179,181,190,191 ,193, Ottoman Armies , 8 Ottoman Rule, 9, 10, 21, 84, 131, 153,
199,200,203 N Ottoman Army, 53 190,199
Mostar, 18, 19,20,33,34,35,36,37, Ottoman Arrival, 199 Ottoman Rulers , 24
38,39,41,42,43,46,47,48, Ottoman Art, 65, 161 Ottoman Silk Brocade, 167
Na surmu , 148
49,52,57 ,63,64,66,67,71 , Ottoman Balkan settlement, 183 Ottoman Social Order, 8
Nacertanije, 10
72,73,75,76,77,81,82,84, Ottoman Balkan tombstones, 51 Ottoman Sources, 24
Naples, 7
85,86 ,87,89,90,92,95,99, Ottoman Balkan town, 50 Ottoman Spahi timar feudal system, 8
Nargila , 179
100, 101, 105 , 106, 108, 116, Ottoman Balkan urban pattern, 15 Ottoman Standards of housing, 182
Nasuh Aga Vucijakovic, 41
117,118,119,120,124,126, Ottoman Bazaar, 200 Ottoman State, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20,21,
Nasuh Aga Vuciakovic Mosque, 48
133 ,134,135,137,138,143, Ottoman Bosn ia, 134 , 167 , 171 34,38,45,53,57,87,108,109,
National Museum, 138
146,147,152,153,154,155, Ottoman Bosnian clock towers, 192 112,131,133,136,141,151,
Nazi rule , 11
169,170,172,176,185,186, Ottoman Bosnian dwelling, 121 160, 164, 181, 184, 198
Near East of Europe, 109
190 , 191, 192, 193, 195 , 197, Ottoman Bosnian House, 118 Ottoman Style, 108, 109
Near East region, 197
200,202,203,205,206 Ottoman Calligraphy, 161 Ottoman Style housing elements, 137
Neretva river, 7, 33, 34, 37, 41, 43, 44,
Mostar Bridge, 153 Ottoman Character, 200 Ottoman Sultan, 7
47,49,50,84,86,108,118,
Mrkonj ic grad, 138 Ottoman Characteristics, 24 , 201 Ottoman Sultans, 161
138 ,153,154,155
Muallecate, 157 Ottoman City, 80, 81 Ottoman Textile industry, 167
Nevesinje, 64, 90, 191, 192
Mudzeliti, 167 Ottoman Conquerors, 7 Ottoman Time , 53, 128
New Brldge,27,38,206
Muftija,35 Ottoman Conquest, 9 Ottoman Times, 32, 45, 130, 151 , 166
Nezir Agina, 48
Muhammad el Hjurani , 162 Ottoman Cultural centers, 57 Ottoman Town, 22, 41
Nis, 19, 57, 58
Muhendis , 152 Ottoman Culture, 108 Ottoman Towns, 15,50
Nisans,70
Multicultural heritage, 206 Ottoman Days, 92 Ottoman Tradition of calligraphy, 161
Nomadic art, 167
Mumin Begova, 46 Ottoman Decorative art, 163 Ottoman Turkey, 151
Nomads, 56, 109
Murat Beg, 73 Ottoman Domination, 179 Ottoman Turkish settlements, 108
Non Muslim subjects, 182
Murat II, 56, 165 Ottoman Domination in the Balkans, 182 Ottoman Turkish sound, 182
Northern Bosnia, 64, 141
Musafirhana, 13, 27, 28, 78, 195 , 197 Ottoman Educational system, 161 Ottoman Turks , 162, 182
Novi Pazar, 58
Musafirhanas, 78 Ottoman Era, 62 Ottoman Type of House, 108
Musala,90 Ottoman Fabrics, 168 Ottoman Type settlements, 21
Musandera, 111, 121, 122, 170 Ottoman Fortified Settlements, 200 Ottoman Water supply line, 86
Musebak, 126, 148 , 170 o Ottoman Governor (sandzak beg) of Ottomans, 7,8,9,13,14,15,21,22,23,
Musebaks, 148 Bosnia, 27 25,26,28,34,38,54,56,86,
Musellim,37 Odzak, 121, 137, 138, 139 Ottoman House, 56 , 108, 111, 121, 152, 87,94,109,111,131,162,168,
Music, 157, 182 Ohrid,115 194,195,198 170,171 ,172,181,184,187,
Music of Muslim folk songs, 182 Old Bridge, 19, 34, 38, 41 , 44, 46, 67 , Ottoman Houses, 109 , 133, 134, 153, 190
Muslibeqovic fam ily household, 44 82,84,85,86,137,152,153, 184 Ozren Church , 186
Muslibegovica, 197 200,206 Ottoman Housing Complexes, 134
Muslibegovica House, 135 Old Orthodox church , 32 Ottoman Housing Culture, 127
Muslihudin Cekrekcija, 28 Old Town, 13,33,50, 117, 200, 202 Ottoman Illuminated Manuscript p
Musl im an icon ism, 158 Omer Pasa Latas, 38 "Hunernarne", 161
Muslim artists , 158 Oplicici, 191 Ottoman Influence, 181, 182
Pan Serbian hegemony, 10
Muslim builders, 153 Ornamentation, 158, 159, 163, 164, 166, Ottoman Influences, 64
Papraca Church, 185
Muslim community, 184 167,168,190

254 255
Pasaluk, 137 R s Sijavus Pasa , 32
Patriarchate of Pec, 184 Silte, 123, 127
Pavlovic, 7 Sinan Pasa Mosque, 191
Radobolja, 33, 41, 43,44,49,101,108, Sac , 128
Pazariste, 22, 23 Sinan Pasina, 48, 49
133 Sadrvan, 43,44, 76, 87
Pec , 182 Sinan Pasina mahala, 33
Radobolja rivers, 130 Sadzak,128
Pec Patriarchate, 9, 32 Sinan Pasina Mosque, 41, 44
Raf, 122, 123, 127 Safranbolu, 113
Pejan, Zimja, 171 Sahan , 128 Sinan's monumental structures, 65
Raja, 182
Persia , 131, 161 , 165, 168 Sinan 's tekija, 73
Raljevina, 48 San Marco , 134
Persian, 51 Sinanova Tekija, 78, 159 , 160, 161
Ramadan Aga , 152 Sandzak,56,64
Persian area, 94 Sandzak beg , 27, 28 , 36 Sinija, 127
Raska, 194
Persian elements, 165 Sisman Agina Medresa, 76
Rataji, 138 Saraj, 136 , 137
Persian heritage, 162 Sisman Agina Mosque, 175
Ravno, 153 Sar~evo,8 ,9 , 17, 19,20,26,27,28,
Persian ornamentation, 163 Skender, 34
Reconstruction and preservation, 206 29 ,31 ,32,40,45,51 ,55,57,
Persian type of House, 108 Skender Pasa, 28
Reconstruction and preservation of 61 ,62,63,66,73,74,75 ,76,
Pervane (artist), 165 Skender Pasa Mihajlovic, 28
cultural heritage, 206 78,80,87,88,90,91 ,94,95,
Plana, 191 Skenderija, 28
Renaissance, 161 , 162, 165, 172, 190 , 96 ,97,98,101 ,102,113,132 ,
Plevlja, 152 Skenderija Bridge, 32
193,199 136 ,138,149,152,153,159,
Pliva river, 188 Skopje, 19, 56, 58 , 62 , 63, 86, 89 , 172
Renaissance influence, 162 160, 161 , 165, 166 , 167, 168 ,
Plovdiv, 114 Slav state, 6
Restoration project, 206 170 ,172,182,185,186,192,
Pocitel], 18, 19, 20 , 76, 86, 87, 90 , 92 , Slavic origin, 9
Resulbegovica house, 170, 197, 200 196 ,199,200,201
93 ,153,170,171,175,192, Slavic people, 183
Rialto, 85 Saray, 27, 28 ,136,165
197 ,200 Slavic world , 6
Ricina,48 Sa ray ovasi , 28
Podhum, 35, 44, 50 Slavs , 10, 133
Rijeka Dubrovacka, 135 Sarica, 48, 63
Popovo, 153 Slovenes, 10
Rizvanbegovica houses, 170 Sa rica Mosque, 64
Popovo Polje , 153 Slovenia, 11, 205
Rococo, 195 Savoy, Eugene of , 32 , 199
Pospisil, Jos ip, 200 Soba, 182
Rogovo,57,62 Secija, 121 , 123, 127
Pospisil's proposal , 200 Socialist Federal Republic of
Roman colonia, 27 Sections, 23 , 41, 66 , 84 , 87, 96 , 99 , 118,
Poulet, A., 85 Yugoslavia, 11
Roman days, 33 163
Pozderac house, 196 Sofa, 84, 121, 123, 182
Roman settlement, 33 Sedrenik hill , 28
Pre Islamic influences, 190 Sofas, 110, 112
Roman termae, 87 Sefardic Jews, 32
Pre Islamic period, 54 Sofia, 151
Romanesque, 7,64,153,162,172,187, Seher Cehajina, 200
Pre Ottoman aspects , 15 Sofra, 127
188,189,190,191,192,194 Seher Cehajina cuprija, 32
Pre Ottoman Bosnia, 188 Sofu Mehmed Pasa, 45
Romanesque and Gothic styles, 189 Sehitluk, 45
Pre Ottoman features, 181 Sokol , 14, 153, 188, 200
Romanesque bell towers, 192 Seih Pirijina Tabaci, 46
Pre Ottoman influence, 181 Sokolovica bridge, 200
Romanesque Ghotic elements, 153 Sejfudin Mosque, 203
Pre Ottoman period, 130, 188, 198 Sopocani Church, 185
Romanesque influence, 162 Sejh , 63 , 71 , 72, 73 , 78, 161
Pre Ottoman times , 11 , 32 South east of Europe, 109
Rome, 87 Sejh Bagdadijin mesdzid, 63
Pre Ottomans gravestone, 71 South Slavic regions, 179
Roof,41,42,56,62,63,68, 73, 77,95, Sejh Jujino turbe, 71 , 73
Pre Romanesque, 187 South Slavs , 10
98 , 101, 110, 112, 133, 135, Selamluk, 111
Pre Romanesque blind arches, 194 Southeastern Bosnia, 23
141,149,150,151,192,196, Se lim 11 ,48 ,54
Pre Turkish building tradition, 190 Southern Europe, 151
197 Se ljuk origin, 163
Predojevica, 191 Soviet Union , 203
Roofu,29,42,64, 76,133,141,170, Seljuk period, 56
Prijecka, 41 Spain , 9, 32
188 ,196 Seljuk type of mosque, 54
Prijecka Carsija, 22, 99 Spread of Islam, 54
Room , 41,42 ,56,74,87,92,93,94, Seljuk Ulu Mosque, 54
Prijeka Carsija, 22 Squares, 80 , 86
100 , 102, 103, 105, 109, 11 0, Seljuks, 87, 94
Pristina, 19 , 56
111,117,118,121,122,123, Serbia , 9, 10, 11, 56 , 57 , 58, 62, 108, St. Nicholas, 194
Prizren , 62, 172
124,127,128,134,143,182, 115 , 141, 179 , 184, 185, 205 St. Petersburg Academy of Arts and
Prophet, 56 , 157, 158 Science, 6
199 Serbian , 11
Prophet's mission, 157 Staircase, 56, 69, 89, 112, 113, 126 ,
Rooms , 18,74,76,77,78,87,93,94, Serbian actions , 11
Prozor, 90, 192 137 ,144,170
95, 103 , 109, 110, 111 , 112 , Serbian aggression, 11
Prusac , 90, 171 Staircases, 18, 111 , 113 , 145
113 , 117 , 118, 124, 127, 130, Serbian army, 205
131,133,134,139,143,149, Serb ian Emp ire , 6 Stara Varos, 27
195 Serbian forces, 205 Stara Varos quarter, 28
Q Row Houses, 135 Serbian king , 33 Stari Grad Institute, 202
Roznamedzijina, 48, 49, 77 Serbian nationalists, 11, 205 Stari Most, 19,34,41,42,43,84,85,
Our 'an , 43 , 56, 66 , 122 , 157 , 158, 159 , Roznamedzijina Mosque, 63 Serbs , 6, 10, 11 153,200
165 , 181, 182 Rumi and Hatay ornaments, 66 Serdar,36 Stari Trg, 58
Our'anic language, 158 Rumi style, 163 , 164 Sevin han, 95 State Museum (Zemaljski muzej) , 199
Our 'anic verses, 169 Rustem Pasa, 96 Sevri Had zi Hasanova, 48 State of Croatia, 11
Our 'anic word, 158 Rustem Pasa Hrvat, 16, 82 Shopping center, 203 Stecak, 7,51 , 71,187,188
Rustem Pasa Vizier, 67 Shops, 13, 17,22,26,27,28,32,38, Stecaks, 188, 189
40,41 ,42,45,51 ,80,96,97, S~epan, Herceg, 33, 153
. 98,99,100,167,170,181,201 Stjepan Vukcic, Herceg, 33
Sibovo ,26 Stolac, 14, 16, 18,33,49,64,82 ,87,
Siege of Vienna, 9 88,90,134,168,170,171,190,
192,197

256 257
Stone decoration, 174
Storehouses, 42 ,96,97, 98 ,99, 178
Trieste, 134
Tugra, 161
w Windows, 18, 42, 64, 65 , 66 , 69, 98,'
111 ,118,121,127,131 ,137,
Storeroom, 105 Turbe, 26, 70, 71, 72, 73
143,146,148,152,163,173,
Smrey, 74,93,94,95,134,137,143 , Turbes, 72, 73 Wall, 13, 19,56,58,66,69,70,73,80,
174,178,190,192,193,194
200 Turkey, 62 , 113, 151, 168, 182 81,84,100,104,111,121,123,
Wood carving , 128, 170 , 171
Storeys , 143 Turkish , 51 , 182 126 ,127,129,131,133,137,
World War 1,10,200
Studenica Monastery, 185 Turkish culture, 151, 182 143,144,146,148,151,158,
World War 11 ,11 ,200,201,203
Suburina House, 196 Turkish House, 109 , 110 164 ,170,179,188
World Wars , 10,201
Suburina house, 170 Turkish influence, 108 Walls, 13 , 14, 19,38,41 ,42,46,66,67,
Sufi philosophy, 28 Turkish influences, 179 68,69 ,73,80,93,98 ,111 ,121,
Turkish Islamic ideology, 151 122 ,123,131,134,143,146,
Suhi 00 ,138 y
Suhodolina, 38 Turkish origin, 182 148,149,157,158,169,179,
Sulejman Begova, 46 Turkish style window shapes, 64 190,195
Suleyman-name, 165 Turkish word, 27 Water, 14, 17, 18 ,23,25,26,27,28,41, Yazluk,126
Suleyman the Magnificent, 16, 34 , 82 Turkish words, 182 43,44,49,51,53,76,84,86, Yugoslav composers, 182
Sulejmanija, 55 , 62 Turks, 7,15,153,162 ,182,183 87,94, 101 , 103, 105 , 108 , 111, Yugoslavia, 10, 11, 203 , 205
Sulejmanija Mosque, 55 , 63 , 97 Tuzla, 154 121 ,122,128,133,134,139, Yurt, 56
Sulejmapasica Kula, 138 Tvrtko I Kotromanic, 6 166
Suturlija stream , 26 Water cistern , 139 z
Svrzina House, 170, 196 Water mills, 27 , 28, 41, 44 , 101
Synagogues , 200 u Westbank,33, 37,41, 44,108
Zadruga,8
Syria, 108 West European building concepts, 199
Zagreb , 203, 204
West European influences, 32
Ugljen , Ziatko, 204 Zahum, 50
West European provenance, 203
Ulu Mosque, 96 Zepa,82
Western and Eastern cultural
T Ulu mosque style, 57 Zimonjica palace, 135
influences, 189
Una river valley, 64 Zirajina, 48
Western European culture, 190
Tabaci ,45 University of Sarajevo , 75 Zmiro, 197
Western influences, 194
Tabacica Mosque , 41, 48 Urban settlement, 13, 16, 102 , 103 Zvornik, 154
Window, 64,143,148,149,170,174,
Tabak,128 Ustikolina, 138 179,186,190,192,194
Tabhana,41
Tabija,38
Tahtapes, 144 v
Tara , 38
Tasli han , 94
Vakuf, 13, 15, 17,32, 53
Taslihan ,97,153
Valagica house, 197
Tawhid, 158
Varas, 46
Tekija, 18,27, 28 , 73 , 78, 79 , 171 , 195 ,
Velagica House, 44 , 127 , 133
197
Velez mountain , 33
Tekijas , 28, 29, 66, 78
Velika Tepa, 41
Tekke, 78
Veliki mudzeliti, 167
Temisoara, 151
Venetians, 7
Tent,54,56, 72 ,109
Venice, 37, 85, 134 , 168
Tepsija, 128
Veranda, 117
Tere Jahijina, 48
Village, 22, 27,32,44, 62, 153
Tesanj, 90 ,196
Vineyard ,33
Testija, 128
Visegrad, 16,82,83,152,168,188,200
Tetovo , 114
Visoko, 203,204
Textiles, 53 , 67 ,96,167
Vitina, 137
Thessaloniki, 151
Vlachs, 9, 24
Tito 's death in 1980, 11
Vlachs groups, 9
Tito's Partisans , 11
Vladislav, 7,153
Tombstone, 51,70, 188
Vranduk,11
Tombstones, 7 , 51, 70 , 71,174,177
Vrapcici , 138
Tower,26,41 ,86,90, 137, 138, 190,
Vratnik, 17, 19
191
Vrbas river, 26
Towers , 19 ,38,64,84,89,90,137,138,
Vucijakovic, 37
141, 190
Vucijakovica Mosque, 34, 193
Town Hall , 199
Vukcic, Stefan, 6
Travnik, 8 , 15 , 17 , 18,20, 25 ,32, 55 , 62,
VUkodol,35
63 ,73,90,96,97,136,172,
192,200
Trebinje, 15, 19,82,90,92, 134, 170,
191 ,193,197,200
Treb isnjica river , 83
Trgovke , 201

258 259