Bodies of Water

The Philippines boast of many different kinds of natural water forms, such as bays, rivers,
lakes falls, gulfs, straits, and swamps. Because it is made up of islands, the country's
coastline, if laid end-to-end, would measure around 17.5 thousand kilometers. The
Philippines is blessed with excellent natural harbors for ports like Manila Bay. Other
excellent harbors with port potentials are found in Ilocos, Pangasinan, Visayas, and
Mindanao. The three largest rivers in the country are the Cagayan River in Northern Luzon,
the Rio Grande de Mindanao, and the Agusan River, also in Mindanao. Also noteworthy in
terms of size are the Agno, Pasig, Angat Pampanga, and Bicol rivers in Luzon. Most popular
among tourist is the famous underground river in Palawan. Aside from rivers, the country
also abounds with lakes. Easily the most famous is the heart-shaped Laguna de Bay. Other
famous lakes are Taal in Batangas, Sampaloc in Laguna, Buhi and Bulusan in Bicol, Naujan
in Mindoro oriental, and Lanao and Mainit in Mindanao. Generating power for the Nation‟s
growth are the magnificent waterfalls that serve as tourist attractions, as well. The biggest
is waterfalls is the Maria Cristina falls, it can be found in the North Western part of Lanao
province in Mindanao, while the most popular is Pagsanjan falls in Laguna, where
tourist came in droves.

Natural Resources
The Philippines is rich in natural resources. It has fertile,
arable lands, diverse flora and fauna, extensive coastlines, and
rich mineral deposits. About 30% of the land area of the
country was determined be geologically prospective by the
Philippine Mines and Geo-Sciences Bureau. But Only 1.5% of
country's land area is covered with mining permits. Despite
the rich natural resources of the Philippines, the government is
restricting its exploitation. A logging ban is imposed on many
areas of the country and only in select areas are "sustainable
logging" allowed. However illegal logging and small-scale
illegal mining continues is many areas. In July 2012, President
Benigno Aquino III ordered a stop to all mining activities in all
(78 areas) protected and eco-tourism sites. A positive step in
the right direction to protect the natural resources of the
Philippines.
Our Land
The Philippines‟ primary source of livelihood is its fertile land. Rich, wide plains suitable for
farming are found in the Cagayan Valley, Central Luzon, South western Bicol, Panay,
Negros, Davao, Cotabato, Agusan and Bukidnon. The country „s six major crops
are rice, corn, sugarcane, coconut, abaca and tobacco. Except for rice and corn, all these
products are exported, along with bananas and pineapples.

Our Forests
The Philippines also boasts of wide tracts of lush, green forests. In fact, almost half of the
country‟s total land area is forested. Sixty percent of these forests are found in Mindanao.

Mineral resources
Except for petroleum and a number of metals, mineral resources abound in Philippine soil.
The country‟s mineral deposits can be classified into metals and non-metals. Our metal
deposits are estimated at 21.5 billion metric tons, while non-metal deposits are projected at
19.3 billion metric tons. Nickel ranks first in terms of deposits and size, it is found in Surigao
del Norte, Davao, Palawan, Romblon and Samar. Iron is found in Ilocos Norte, Nueva Ecija,
Camarines Norte and Cotabato. While copper in Zambales, Batangas, Mindoro, Panay and
Negros. Among non-metal deposits, the most abundant are cement, lime, and marble.
Other non-metals include asbestos, clay, guano, asphalt, feldspar, sulfur, talc, silicon,
phosphate, and marble.

Fishery Resources
With its territorial waters measuring as much as 1.67 million square kilometers and located
in the worlds fishing center, the Philippines is definitely rich in marine resources. Of the
2,400 fish species found in the country. 65 have good commercial value. Other marine
products include corals, pearls, crabs and seaweeds. Some of the countries best salt water
fishing area‟s are found in Sintangki Island in Sulu Estancia in Bohol, Malampaya in
Palawan, Lingayen Gulf in Pangasinan, San Miguel lake in Camarines Norte, Bantayan
Channel in Cebu, and the seas of Quezon and Sorsogon.

On the other hand, among our biggest fisher water fishing areas are Laguna de Bay,
Bombon Lake in Batangas, Bato Lake in Canmarines Sur, Naujan Lake in Mindoro and Mainit
lake in Agusan del Norte.

The First “Filipinos”

Many historians and scientists believe that the first inhabitants of the Philippine islands
emerged during the Pleistocene period. There are two theories on where the inhabitants
(first Filipinos) came from namely: Beyer‟s “Migration Theory” and Jocano‟s “Evolution
Theory”. Noted social scientist Henry Otley Beyer believes that Filipinos descended from
different groups that came from Southeast Asia in successive waves of migration. Each
group had a distinct culture, with it‟s own customs and traditions. While
Jocano believes that Asians, including Filipinos are the result of a lengthy process of
evolution and migration.
Migration Theory
The first migrants were what Beyer caked the “Dawnmen” (or “cavemen” because they lived
in caves.). The Dawnmen resembled Java Man, Peking Man, and other Asian Home sapiens
who existed about 250,000 years ago. They did not have any knowledge of agriculture, and
lived by hunting and fishing. It was precisely in search of food that they came to the
Philippines by way of the land bridges that connected the Philippines and Indonesia. Owing
perhaps to their migratory nature, they eventually left the Philippines for destinations
unknown.

The second group of migrants was composed of dark-skinned pygmies called “Aetas‟ or
“Negritoes”. About 30,000 years ago, they crossed the
land bridged from Malaya, Borneo, and Australia until they reached
Palawan, Mindoro and Mindanao. They were pygmies who went
around practically naked and were good at hunting, fishing and food
gathering. They used spears and small flint stones weapons.

The Aetas were already in the Philippines when the land bridges
disappeared due to the thinning of the ice glaciers and the
subsequent increase in seawater level. This natural events “forced”
them to remain in the country and become its first permanent
inhabitants.

Because of the disappearance of the land bridges, the third wave of

migrants was necessarily skilled in seafaring. These were the
Indonesians, who came to the islands in boats. They were more
advanced than the Aetas in that: they had tools made out of stone and steel, which enabled
them to build sturdier houses: they engaged in farming and mining, and used materials
made of brass; they wore clothing and other body ornaments.

Last to migrate to the Philippines, according to Beyer, were Malays. They were believed to
have come from Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Malay Peninsula more than 2,000 years
ago. Like the Indonesians, they also traveled in boats.

The Malays were brown-skinned and of medium height, with straight black hair and flat
noses. Their technology was said to be more advanced than that of their predecessors. They
engaged in pottery, weaving, jewelry making and metal smelting, and introduced the
irrigation system in rice planting.

Jocano’s Theory

Renowned Filipino anthropologist Felipe Landa Jocano disputes Beyer‟s belief that Filipinos
descended from Negritoes and Malays who migrated to the Philippines thousands of years
ago. According to Jocano, it is difficult to prove that Negritoes were the first inhabitants of
this country. The only thing that can positively concluded from fossil evidence, he says is
that the first men who came to the Philippines also went to New Guinea, Java, Borneo, and
Australia.

In 1962, a skullcap and a portion of a jaw-presumed to be a human origin-were found in

the Tabon Caves of Palawan by archaeologist Robert Fox and Manuel Santiago, who both
worked for the National Museum. Carbon dating placed their age at 21,000 to 22,000 years.
This proves, Jocano argues, that man came earlier to the Philippines than to the Malay
Peninsula; therefore, the first inhabitants of our islands could not have come from the
region. The “Tabon Man” is said to resemble Java Man and Peking Man. He gathered fruits,
leaves and plants for his food. He hunted with weapons made of stone. Although further
research is still being done on his life and culture, evidence shows that he was already
capable of using his brain in order to survive and keep himself safe.

Instead of the Migration Theory, Jocano advances the Evolution Theory, as a better
explanation of how our country was first inhabited by human beings, Jocano believes that
the first people of Southeast Asia were products of a long process of evolution and
migration. His research indicates that they shared more or less the same culture, beliefs,
practices an even similar tools and implements. These people eventually went their separate
ways; some migrated to the Philippines, the others to New Guinea, Java and Borneo. Proof,
Jocano says, can be found in the fossils discovered in different parts of Southeast Asia, as
well as the recorded migrations of other peoples from the Asian mainland when
history began to unfold.
Spanish Expeditions to the Philippines

The Magellan Expedition

Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese in the service of the Spanish

crown, was looking for a westward route to the to the Spice
Islands of Indonesia. On March 16, 1521, Magellan's expedition
landed on Homonhon island in the Philippines. He was the first
European to reach the islands. Rajah Humabon of Cebu was
friendly with Magellan and embraced Christianity, but their
enemy, Lapu-Lapu was not. Humabon wanted Magellan to kill
Lapu-Lapu while Magellan wanted to convert Lapu-Lapu into
Christianity. On April 17, 1521, Magellan sailed to Mactan and
ensuing battle killed Magellan by the natives lead by Lapu-Lapu.
Out of the five ships and more than 300 men who left on the
Magellan expedition in 1519, only one ship (the Victoria) and 18
men returned to Seville, Spain on September 6, 1522.
Nevertheless, the said expedition was considered historic because
it marked the first circumnavigation of the globe and proved that the world was round.

Juan Sebastian de Elcano, the master of ship "Concepcion" took over the command of the
expedition after the death of Magellan and captained the ship "Victoria" back to Spain. He
and his men earned the distinction of being the first to circumnavigate the world in one full
journey. After Magellan's death in Cebu, it took 16 more months for Elcano to return to
Spain. The Magellan expedition started off through the westward route and returning to
Spain by going east; Magellan and Elcano's entire voyage took almost three years to
complete.

Spain sends other expedition

After the Spain had celebrated Elcano‟s return, King Charles I decided that Spain
should conquer the Philippines. Five subsequent expeditions were then sent to the
Islands. These were led by Garcia Jofre Loaisa (1525), Sebastian Cabot (1526), Alvaro de
Saavedra (1527), Rudy Lopez de Villalobos (1542) and Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (1564).
Only the last two actually reached the Philippines; and only Legazpi succeeded in colonizing
the Islands.
The Villalobos Expedition

Ruy Lopez de Villalobos set sail for the Philippines from Navidad, Mexico on November 1,
1542. He followed the route taken by Magellan and reached Mindanao on February 2, 1543.
He established a colony in Sarangani but could not stay long because of insufficient food
supply. His fleet left the island and landed on Tidore in the Moluccas, where they were
captured by the Portuguese.

Villalobos is remembered for naming our country “Islas Filipinas,” in honor of King Charles‟
son, Prince Philip, who later became king of Spain.

The Legazpi Expedition

Since none of the expedition after Magellan from Loaisa to

Villalobos had succeeded in taking over the Philippines, King
Charles I stopped sending colonizers to the Islands. However,
when Philip II succeeded his father to the throne in 1556, he
instructed Luis de Velasco, the viceroy of Mexico, to prepare a new
expedition – to be headed by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, who would
be accompanied by Andres de Urdaneta, a priest who had survived
the Loaisa mission.

On February 13, 1565, Legaspi's expedition landed in Cebu island. After a short struggle
with the natives, he proceeded to Leyte, then to Camiguin and to Bohol. There Legaspi
made a blood compact with the chieftain, Datu Sikatuna as a sign of friendship. Legaspi was
able to obtain spices and gold in Bohol due to his friendship with Sikatuna. On April 27,
1565, Legaspi returned to Cebu; destroyed the town of Raja Tupas and establish a
settlement. On orders of the King Philip II, 2,100 men arrived from Mexico. They built the
the port of Fuerza de San Pedro which became the Spanish trading outpost and stronghold
for the region.

Hearing of the riches of Manila, an expedition of 300 men headed by Martin de Goiti left
Cebu for Manila. They found the islands of Panay and Mindoro. Goiti arrived in Manila on
May 8, 1570. At first they were welcomed by the natives and formed an alliance with Rajah
Suliman, their Muslim king but as the locals sensed the true objectives of the Spaniards,
a battle between the troops of Suliman and the Spaniards erupted. Because the Spaniards
are more heavily armed, the Spaniards were able to conquer Manila. Soon after Miguel
Lopez de Legazpi arrived to join Goiti in Manila. Legaspi built alliances and made peace with
Rajahs Suliman, Lakandula and Matanda. In 1571, Legaspi ordered the construction of the
walled city of Intramuros and proclaimed it as the seat of government of the colony and the
capital of the islands. In 1572, Legaspi died and was buried at the San Agustin Church in
Intramuros. In 1574, Manila was bestowed the title "Insigne y Siempre Leal Ciudad de
España" (Distinguished and ever loyal city of Spain) by King Philip II of Spain.

Why the Philippines was easily conquered

Through largely outnumbered, the Spaniards who came to colonize the Philippines easily
took control of our country. How did this happen?

The best possible explanation is that the natives lacked unity and a centralized form of
government. Although the barangays already functioned as units of governance, each one
existed independently of the other, and the powers that each Datu enjoyed were confined
only to his own barangay. No higher institution united the barangays, and the Spaniards
took advantage of this situation. They used the barangays that were friendly to them in
order to subdue the barangays that were not.
The Spaniards as Colonial Masters
Spain reigned over the Philippines for 333 years, from 1565 to 1898. since Spain was far
from the country, the Spanish king ruled the Islands through the viceroy of Mexico, which
was then another Spanish colony. When Mexico regained its freedom in 1821, the Spanish
king ruled the Philippines through a governor general. A special government body that
oversaw matters, pertaining to the colonies assisted the king in this respect. This body
became known by many names. Council of the Indies (1565-1837), Overseas Council
(1837-1863), and Ministry of the Colonies (1863–1898). It is implemented the decrees and
legal codes Spain promulgated although many of its provisions could not apply to condition
in the colonies. It also exercised legislative and judicial powers.

The Political Structure

Spain established a centralized colonial government in the Philippines that was composed of
a national government and the local governments that administered provinces, cities, towns
and municipalities. With the cooperation of the local governments the national government
maintained peace and order, collected taxes and built schools and other public works.

The Governor General

As the King's representative and the highest-ranking official in the Philippines, the governor
general saw to it that royal decrees and laws emanating from Spain were implemented in
the Philippines. He had the power to appoint and dismiss public officials, except those
personally chosen by the King. He also supervised all government offices and the collection
of taxes.
The governor general exercised certain legislative powers, as well. He issued proclamations
to facilitate the implementation of laws.

The Residencia
This was a special judicial court that investigates the performance of a governor general
who was about to be replaced. The residencia, of which the incoming governor general was
usually a member, submitted a report of its findings to the King.

The Visita
The Council of the Indies in Spain sent a government official called the Vistador General to
observe conditions in the colony. The Visitador General reported his findings directly to the
King.

The Royal Audiencia

Apart from its judicial functions, the Royal Audiencia served as an advisory body to the
Governor General and had the power to check and a report on his abuses.
The Audiencia also audited the expenditures of the colonial government and sent a yearly
report to Spain. The Archbishop and other government officials could also report
the abuses of the colonial government to be Spanish king. Despite all these checks,
however, an abusive governor general often managed to escape stiff fines, suspension, or
dismissal by simply bribing the Visitador and other investigators.

The Provincial Government

The Spaniards created local government units to facilitate the country‟s administration.
There were two types of local government units – the alcadia and the corregimiento. The
alcadia, led by the alcalde mayor, governed the provinces that had been fully subjugated:
the corregimiento, headed by corregidor, governed the provinces that were not yet entirely
under Spanish control. The alcalde mayors represented the Spanish king and the governor
general in their respective provinces. They managed the day-to-day operations of the
provincial government, implemented laws and supervised the collection of taxes. Through
they were paid a small salary, they enjoyed privileges such as the indulto de comercio, or
the right to participate in the galleon trade.

The Municipal Government

Each province was divided into several towns or pueblos headed by Gobernadordcillos,
whose main concerns were efficient governance and tax collection. Four lieutenants aided
the Governardorcillo: the Teniente Mayor (chief lieutenant), the Teniente de Policia (police
lieutenant), the Teniente de Sementeras (lieutenant of the fields) and the Teniente de
Ganados (lieutenant of the livestock).

The Encomienda System

Spain owed the colonization of the Philippines to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, who valiantly and
loyally served the Spanish crown. To hasten the subjugation of the country, King Philip
II instructed Legazpi to divide the Philippines into large territories called encomiendas, to be
left to the management of designated encomenderos.

To show his gratitude to his conquistadors, the King made them the first encomenderos in
the colony. As the King‟s representatives in their respective encomiendas, the
encomenderos had the right to collect taxes. However, the encomiendas were not there to
own. The encomenderos were only territorial overseers who had the duty to: 1) protect the
people in the encomienda; (2) maintain peace and order; (3) promote education and health
programs; and (4) help the missionaries propagate Christianity.

The Galleon Trade

When the Spaniards came to the Philippines, our ancestors

were already trading with China, Japan, Siam, India,
Cambodia, Borneo and the Moluccas. The Spanish government
continued trade relations with these countries, and the Manila
became the center of commerce in the East. The Spaniards
closed the ports of Manila to all countries except Mexico.
Thus, the Manila–Acapulco Trade, better known as the
"Galleon Trade" was born. The Galleon Trade was a
government monopoly. Only two galleons were used: One
sailed from Acapulco to Manila with some 500,000 pesos
worth of goods, spending 120 days at sea; the other sailed
from Manila to Acapulco with some 250,000 pesos worth of
goods spending 90 days at sea.

Basco’s Reforms
Filipino farmers and traders finally had a taste of prosperity when Governor General Jose
Basco y Vargas instituted reforms intended to free the economy from its dependence on
Chinese and Mexican trade. Basco implemented a “general economic plan” aimed at making
the Philippines self sufficient. He established the “Economic Society of Friends of the
Country”, which gave incentives to farmers for planting cotton, spices, and sugarcane;
encouraged miners to extract gold, silver, tin, and copper; and rewarded investors for
scientific discoveries they made.

Tobacco Monopoly
The tobacco industry was placed under government control during the administration of
Governor General Basco. In 1781, a tobacco monopoly was implemented in the Cagayan
Valley, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union, Isabela, Abra, Nueva Ecija, and Marinduque. Each
of these provinces planted nothing but tobacco and sold their harvest only to the
government at a pre-designated price, leaving little for the farmers. No other province
was allowed to plant tobacco. The government exported the tobacco to other countries and
also part of it to the cigarette factories in Manila.

The tobacco monopoly successfully raised revenues for the colonial government and made
Philippine tobacco famous all over Asia.

The Secularization of Priests During Spanish Period

The Opening of the Suez Canal

The Suez Canal, which connected the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, was inaugurated
in 1869. It was built by a French engineer named Ferdinand de Lesseps. By passing
through the Canal, vessels journeying between Barcelona and Manila no longer had
to pass by the Cape of Good Hope, at the southern tip of Africa. Thus, they were able to
shorten their traveling time from three months to 32 days.

Thanks to the Suez Canal, trading in the Philippines became increasingly profitable. More
and more foreign merchants and businessmen came to the colony, bringing with them a lot
of progressive ideas. The Filipinos not only gained more knowledge and information about
the world at large; they also gained the desire for freedom and improvement in their lives.

The Secularization Controversy

Two kinds of priests served the Catholic Church in the Philippines. These were the regulars
and the seculars. Regular priests belonged to religious orders. Their main task was to
spread Christianity. Examples were the Franciscans,
Recollects, Dominicans, and Augustinians. Secular priests did not
belong to any religious order. They were trained specifically to
run the parishes and were under the supervision of the bishops.

Conflict began when the bishops insisted on visiting the parishes

that were being run by regular priests. It was their duty, they
argued, to check on the administration of these parishes. But the
regular priests refused these visits, saying that they were not under the bishop‟s
jurisdiction. They threatened to abandon their parishes if the bishops persisted.

In 1774, Archbishop Basilio Santa Justa decided to uphold the diocese‟s authority over the
parishes and accepted the resignations of the regular priests. He assigned secular priests to
take their place. Since there were not enough seculars to fill all the vacancies the
Archbishop hastened the ordination of Filipino seculars. A royal decree was also issued on
November 9, 1774, which provided for the secularization of all parishes or the transfer of
parochial administration from the regular friars to the secular priests.

The regulars resented the move because they considered the Filipinos unfit for the
priesthood. Among other reasons they cited the Filipinos‟ brown skin, lack of education, and
inadequate experience.

The controversy became more intense when the Jesuits returned to the Philippines. They
had been exiled from the country because of certain policies of the order that the Spanish
authorities did not like.

The issue soon took on a racial slant. The Spaniards were clearly favouring their own
regular priest over Filipino priests.

Monsignor Pedro Pelaez, ecclesiastical governor of the Church, sided with the Filipinos.
Unfortunately, he died in an earthquake that destroyed the Manila Cathedral in 1863. After
his death, other priests took his place in fighting for the secularization movement. Among
them were Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos and Jacinto Zamora.

The Death of Gomburza & The Propaganda Movement

In February 17, 1872, Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos and Jocinto Zamora
(Gomburza), all Filipino priest, was executed by the Spanish colonizers on charges of
subversion. The charges against Fathers Gomez, Burgos and Zamora was
their alleged complicity in the uprising of workers at the Cavite Naval Yard. The death of
Gomburza awakened strong feelings of anger and resentment among the Filipinos. They
questioned Spanish authorities and demanded reforms. The martyrdom of the three priests
apparently helped to inspire the organization of the Propaganda Movement, which aimed to
seek reforms and inform Spain of the abuses of its colonial government.

The illustrados led the Filipinos‟ quest for reforms. Because of their education and newly
acquired wealth, they felt more confident about voicing out popular grievances. However,
since the illustrados themselves were a result of the changes that the Spanish government
had been slowly implementing, the group could not really push very hard for the reforms it
wanted. The illustrados did not succeeded in easing the sufferings of the Filipinos; but from
this group arose another faction called the intelligentsia. The intelligentsia also wanted
reforms; but they were more systematic and used a peaceful means called the Propaganda
Movement.

Goals of the Propaganda Movement

Members of the Propaganda Movement were called propagandists or reformists. They

worked inside and outside the Philippines. Their objectives were to seek:

▪ Recognition of the Philippines as a province of Spain

▪ Equal status for both Filipinos and Spaniards
▪ Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes
▪ Secularization of Philippine parishes.
▪ Recognition of human rights

The Propaganda Movement never asked for Philippine independence because its
members believed that once Spain realized the pitiful state of the country, the Spaniards
would implement the changes the Filipinos were seeking.

The Propagandists

The Filipinos in Europe were much more active in seeking reforms than those in Manila.
They could be divided into three groups: The first included Filipinos who had been exiled to
the Marianas Islands in 1872 after being implicated in the Cavite Mutiny. After two many
years in the Marianas, they proceeded to Madrid
and Barcelona because they could no longer return to the
Philippines. The second group consisted of illustrados in the
Philippines who had been sent to Europe for their education. The
third group was composed of Filipinos who had fled their country
to avoid punishment for a crime, or simply because they could not
stand Spanish atrocities any longer. Still, not all Filipinos living in
Spain were members of the Propaganda Movement. Jose
Rizal, Graciano Lopez Jaena and Marcelo H. del Pilar were it most
prominent members.

Lopez Jaena was a brilliant orator who wrote such pieces as "Fray
Botod," "Esperanza," and "La Hija del Fraile," which all criticized
the abuses of Spanish friars in the Philippines. Del Pilar was an
excellent writer and speaker who put up the newspaper Diarion
Tagalog in 1882. His favorite topic was the friars. Some of his most
popular writings included "Caiingat Cayo", "Dasalan at Tocsohan," and "Ang Sampung
Kautusan ng mga Prayle". "Caingat Cayo" was a pamphlet answering the criticisms received
by Jose Rizal‟s novel Noli Me Tangere. "Dasalan…" was parody of the prayer books used by
the Church, while "Ang Sampung Kautusan…" was a satirical take on the
Ten Commandments, which highly ridiculed the Spanish friars.

Jose Rizal was recognized as the great novelist of the Propaganda Movement. He was the
first Filipino become famous for his written works. He wrote a poem entitled “Sa Aking mga
Kababata” when he was only eight years old. His novels, Noli Me Tangere and El
Filibusterismo, clearly depicted the sufferings of the Filipinos and the
rampant abuses committed by the friars in the colony. Because of his criticisms of the
government and the friars, Rizal made a lot of enemies. He was executed at Bagumbayan
(later renamed Luneta Park and now called Rizal Park) on December 30, 1896.

The writings produced by the Propaganda Movement inspired Andres Bonifacio and other
radicals to establish the Katipunan and set the Philippine Revolution in place.

La Liga Filipina

In 1892, Jose Rizal (full name: Jose Protacio Mercado Rizal y Alonzo)
returned to the Philippines and proposed the establishment of
a civic organization called “La Liga Filipina.” On July 3, 1892, the following
were elected as its officers: Ambrosio Salvador, president: Agustin dela
Rosa, fiscal; Bonifacio Arevalo, treasurer; and Deodato Arellano, secretary. Rizal functioned
as its adviser.

La Liga Filipina aimed to:

▪ Unite the whole country

▪ Protect and assist all members
▪ Fight violence and injustice
▪ Support education
▪ Study and implement reforms

La Liga Filipina had no intention of rising up in arms against the government; but
the Spanish officials still felt threatened. On July 6, 1892 only three days after La Liga
Filipina‟s establishment, Jose Rizal was secretly arrested. The next day, Governor General
Eulogio Despujol ordered Rizal‟s deportation to Dapitan, a small, secluded town in
Zamboanga.

La Liga Filipina's membership was active in the beginning; but later, they began to
drift apart. The rich members wanted to continue supporting the Propaganda Movement;
but the others seemed to have lost all hope that reforms could still be granted. Andres
Bonifacio was one of those who believed that the only way to achieve meaningful change
was through a bloody revolution.

La Solidaridad

In order to help achieve its goals, the Propaganda Movement put up its own newspaper,
called La Solidaridad. The Soli, as the reformists fondly called their official organ, came out
once every two weeks. The first issue saw print was published on November 15, 1895.

The Solidaridad‟s first editor was Graciano Lopez Jaena. Marcelo H. del Pilar took over in
October 1889. Del Pilar managed the Soli until it stopped publication due to lack of funds.

Why the Propaganda Movement Failed

The propaganda movement did not succeed in its pursuit of reforms. The colonial
government did not agree to any of its demands. Spain itself was undergoing a lot of
internal problems all that time, which could explain why the mother country failed to heed
the Filipino‟s petitions. The friars, on the other hand, were at the height of their power and
displayed even more arrogance in flaunting their influence. They had neither the time nor
the desire to listen to the voice of the people.

Many of the reformists showed a deep love for their country, although they still failed to
maintain a united front. Because most of them belonged to the upper middle class, they had
to exercise caution in order to safeguard their wealth and other private interests. Personal
differences and petty quarrels, apart from the lack of funds, were also a hindrance to the
movements success. Lastly, no other strong and charismatic leader emerged from the group
aside from Jose Rizal.
The Katipunan Finally Starts a Revolution
The Katipunan is born
Andres Bonifacio was also a member of La Liga Filipina, although he soon lost hope in
gaining reforms though peaceful means. This feeling was especially heightened when Jose
Rizal was exiled to Dapitan. Bonifacio became convinced that the only way
the Philippines could gain independence was through a revolution.

Bonifacio then founded the “Katastaasang Kagalanggalangang Katipuanan ng mga Anak ng

Bayan” (KKK) on July 7, 1892 in a house on Azcarraga street (now Claro M. Recto), in
Tondo Manila.

The Katipunan had colorful beginnings. As a symbol of the member‟s loyalty, they
performed the solemn rite of sanduguan (blood compact), wherein each one signed his
name with his own blood..

The members agreed to recruit more people using the “triangle system” of enlistment. Each
original member would recruit tow new members who were not related to each other. Each
new member would do the same thing, and so on down the line. Members were also asked
to contribute one Real (about 25 centavos) each month in order to raise funds for
the association.

The KKK members agreed on the following objectives:

▪ The political goal was to completely separate the Philippines from Spain after declaring the
country‟s independence.
▪ The moral goal was to teach the Filipinos good manners, cleanliness, hygiene, fine morals,
and how to guard themselves against religious fanaticism..
▪ The civic goal was to encourage Filipinos to help themselves and to defend the poor
oppressed.

The “Kataastaasang Sanggunian” (supreme council) was the highest governing body of the
Katipunan. It was headed by a supremo, or president. Each province had a “Sangguaniang
Bayan” (Provincial Council) and each town had a “Sangguniang Balangay” (Popular Council).

The Leaders of the Katipunan:

▪ Deodato Arellano -Supremo

▪ Ladislao Diwa -Fiscal
▪ Teodora Plata -Secretary
▪ Valentine Diaz -treasurer
▪ Andres Bonifacio -controller

Jose Rizal and the Katipunan

Jose Rizal never became involved in the organization and activities of the
Katipunan; but the Katipuneros still looked up to him as a leader. In fact,
Rizal‟s name was used as a password among the society‟s highest-ranking
members, who were called bayani.
Andres Bonifacio had already known Rizal during his La Liga Filipina days, although Rizal did
not know Bonifacio personally Nevertheless, Bonifacio so respected Rizal‟s intelligence and
talent that in June 1896, he sent Dr. Pio Valenzuela to Dapitan to seek Rizal‟s advice on the
planned revolution.

Rizal told Valenzuela that the timing was not right for a revolution. The people were not yet
ready and they did not have enough weapons. He suggested that the Katipunan obtain the
support of wealthy and influential Filipinos first, in order to gain financial assistance. He also
recommended Antonio Luna as commander of its armed forces, since Luna had much
knowledge and expertise in military tactics.

Valenzuela returned to Manila on June 26 and relayed Rizal‟s advice to Bonifacio, who
admitted that it would indeed be fatal for the Filipinos to fight without enough weapons.
However, there was no stopping the Revolution. Bonifacio ordered his men to prepare
for battle. He directed them to store enough food and other supplies. Battle plans were
made with the help of Emilio Jacinto. It was suggested that the revolutionary headquarters
be located near the seas or mountains to provide for an easy retreat, if necessary.

The Katipunan is Discovered

Rumors about a secret revolutionary society had long been in circulation, although no solid
evidence could be found to support them. The big break as far as the Spanish authorities
was concerned, came on August 19, 1896 when a KKK member, Teodoro Patiño told his
sister Honoria about the existence of the Katipunan. Patiño was a worker in the printing
press of Diario de Manila. Honoria was then living with nuns in a Mandaluyong orphanage.

The information upset Honoria so much that she told the orphanage‟s Mother Superior, Sor
Teresa de Jesus, what her brother had revealed. Sor Teresa suggested they seek
the advice of Father Mariano Gil, the parish priest of Tondo.

After hearing Patiño‟s revelations, Father Mariano Gil-accompanied by several Guardias

Civiles immediately searched the premises of Diario de Manila and found evidence of the
Katipunan‟s existence. The governor general was quickly informed. The printing press was
padlocked and hundreds of suspected KKK members were arrested

The Cry of Pugadlawin

News about the discovery of the Katipunan spread to Manila and nearby suburbs,
and Andres Bonifacio immediately called for a general meeting. Various wings of the
Katipunan gathered at the house of Juan Ramos in Pugadlawin on August 23, 1896. Ramos
was the son of Melchora Aquino, also known as “Tandang Sora” and was later acknowledged
as the Mother of the Katipunan."
Bonifacio asked his men whether they were willing to fight to the bitter end. Everyone
shouted their approval, except for Teodoro Plata, who though that it was too soon for a
revolution. Heartened by his men‟s response, Bonifacio then asked them to tear their
cedulas (residence certificates) to pieces, as a sign of their defiance and determination to
rise against the Spaniards. The men immediately tore up their cedulas, shouting, Mabuhay
ang Pilipinas (long live the Philippines) -known as the Cry of Pugadlawin.

The Katipunan in Cavite

Cavite soon became the center of the Revolution, and the Katipuneros there divided
themselves into the Magdalo and Magdiwang factions. Baldomero Aguinaldo, brother of
Emilio Aguinaldo, headed the Magdalo group, which was stationed in Kawit. General Mariano
Alvarez led the Magdiwang group, which was stationed in Noveleta.

The two groups fought in separate battles. Emilio Aguinaldo overran

Kawit on August 31, 1896, while Alvarez attacked Noveleta. In Bacoor,
Aguinaldo tried to intercept Spanish reinforcements coming from
Manila; but he was repulsed and forced to retreat to nearby Imus.
Here, on the morning of September 5, he defeated the Spanish troops
under the command of General Aguirre. A hundred Spaniards were
killed and 60 weapons were confiscated. Aguinaldo was hailed as a
hero. The adoring Caviteños referred to him as “General Miong” and
no longer “Kapitan Miong.”

General Aguinaldo‟s numerous victories in the battlefield made him

the acknowledged revolutionary leader in Cavite. He issued a proclamation on October 31,
1896 enjoining the people to take courage and continue fighting for Philippine
independence.

Owing to the defeat of the Spaniards in Cavite, Camilo de Polavieja replaced Ramon Blanco
as governor general on December 13, 1896. Polavieja was more successful than his
predecessor and slowly regained one-third of the province.

Andres Bonifacio's Execution

While Aguinaldo was recognized as leader by the Magdalo faction, Bonifacio was recognized
as the leader of the Katipunan by the Magdiwang faction. An assembly was held in Imus,
Cavite on December 31, 1897 to settle the leadership issue but was not successful. Then on
March 22, another assembly was held at Tejeros (known as the Tejeros Convention) to elect
officers of the revolutionary government. Aguinaldo won as president while Bonifacio was
relegated as the Director of the Interior. Bonifacio rejected the elections and declared it
void. Bonifacio later formed the Naic Military Agreement, essentially creating a government
contending Aguinaldo's. Soon after, Bonifacio was captured, stood trial, and was sentenced
to death by a War Council of Aguinaldo's government. Aguinaldo initially commuted the
sentence to deportation but later reversed the commutation upon pressure from Pio Del
Pilar and other officers. On orders from General Mariano Noriel, Andres Bonifacio was
executed at the foothills of Mt. Buntis by Major Lazaro Makapagal on May 10, 1897.

The Revolution Continues

Bonifacio‟s death did not deter the Filipinos from fighting for their freedom. The Spanish
government, for its part, doubled its efforts in trying to control Cavite, which was
considered the seat of the Revolution. When Governor General Primo de Rivera
replaced Camilo Polavieja on April 27, 1897, he immediately marched to Naic, Cavite to
persuade the Filipinos to surrender. The rebels, however, stood their ground.

Aguinaldo realized that Cavite was no longer safe for his men. They moved to Batangas,
where they temporarily set up camp in the town of Talisay. However, Spanish soldiers were
able to pursue them there. Thus, they retreated to Morong on June 10, 1897 and proceeded
to Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan.

The Biak-na Bato Republic

Emilio Aguinaldo established his headquarters in Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan province. The

news immediately spread throughout the country, and the revolutionaries were once more
in high spirits. General llanera, who was in Nueva Ecija, declared his support for Aguinaldo.
In July 1897, Aguinaldo established the Biak-na-Bato Republic and issued a proclamation
stating the following demands:

Expulsion of the friars and the return of the friar lands to the Filipinos
▪ Representation of the Philippines in the Spanish Cortes
▪ Freedom of the press and of religion
▪ Abolition of the government‟s power to banish Filipinos
▪ Equality for all before the law.

A charter based on the Cuban Constitution was also drafted by Felix Ferrer and Isabelo
Artacho. It was signed on November 1, 1897. The Biak-na-Bato Constitution provided for
the establishment of a Supreme council that would serve as the highest governing body of
the Republic. It also outlined certain basic human rights, such as freedom of religion,
freedom of the press, and the right to education. Emilio Aguinaldo and Mariano Trias were
elected Supreme Council president and vice president, respectively.

The Pact of Biak-na-Bato

Pedro Paterno, a Spaniard born in the
Philippines volunteered to act as negotiator
between Aguinaldo and Gov. Primo de
Rivera in order to end the clashes.
Paterno‟s effort paid off when on,
December 15, 1897, the Pact he sign the
Pact as the representative of
the revolutionaries, and de Rivera as the
representative of the Spanish government.
The Leaders are: Emilio Aguinaldo-
President, Mariano Trias-Vice President,
Antonio Montenegro-Secretary, Baldomero
Aguinaldo-Treasurer, and Emilio Riego de
Dios.

On December 23, 1897, Generals Celestino Tejero and Ricardo Monet of the Spanish
army arrived in Biak-na-Bato and became hostages of the rebels.
A ceasefire was declared by both camps and an agreement between Aguinaldo and the
Spanish forces was made -that the Spanish government will grant self-rule to the
Philippines in 3 years if Aguinaldo went to exile and surrender his arms. In exchange,
Aguinaldo will receive P800,000 (Mexican Pesos) as remuneration to the revolutionaries and
an amnesty. After receiving a partial payment of P400,000, Aguinaldo left for Hong Kong on
December 27, 1897. Some Filipino generals, however, did not believe in the sincerity of the
Spaniards. They refused to surrender their arms. Nevertheless, the Te Deum was still sung
on January 23, 1898.

The Biak-na-Bato Pact Fails

The Filipino‟s and the Spaniards did not trust each other. As a result, periodic clashes
between the two groups still took place even after Aguinaldo‟s departure from the country.
The Spanish did not pay the entire agreed amount.

The Spanish-American War

The US Helps Cuba

One year before the historic Cry of Pugad Lawin, a revolution broke out in Cuba -another
Spanish Colony that rose against the rampant abuses of the Spaniards. It became
independent in 1898 after three years of revolt, with the help of United States. The
Americans were supportive of the Cubans for various reasons:

▪ First- the US is a free country and Advocated democracy and freedom.

▪ 2nd- the US wants to protect its huge economic interest in Cuba, in the amount of
$50,000,000.
▪ 3rd- a lot of stories reached the United States about Spanish maltreatment of Americans
living in Cuba and this greatly angered the US citizens.
▪ Finally, since Cuba was located very near the US it was deemed covered by the protective
mantle of the Monroe Doctrine.

The US interest in the Philippines

At that time, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt,

wanted a war to erupt between the US and Spain so he could strengthen
and expand the US Navy, he immediately put his plan into place. On
February 25, 1896, he ordered Commodore George Dewey to
make Hong Kong the headquarters of the American Asiatic Squadron. He
also directed Dewey to attack Manila Bay and destroy the Spanish fleet,
the moment hostilities between Spain and US break out.

The Spanish-American War

Spain did not relish American intervention in its affairs. However, with
the Philippine and Cuban revolutions going on, it could not afford to add the Americans to
its enemy list, especially since the United States had more advanced technology and
weaponry. In the face of Spain‟s declining power, it tried to repair its rift with the US in
order to avoid a disastrous war. On February 15, 1898, how ever a fateful event accrued in
Cuba. The American warship Maine was blown up in Havana harbor, resulting in the death
of its 260 officers and crewmembers. Although it was not proven that the Spaniards had
sunk the Maine, the Americans called for war against Spain. Roosevelt was one of many US
officials who considered the destruction of the Maine as act of treason and supported the
declaration of war.

Spain declared war on the United States on April 23, 1898. The United Sates declared war
against Spain on April 25, 1898. On May 1, 1898, the United States Navy lead by
Commodore George Dewey crushed the Spanish squadron in Manila Bay and the Spanish
naval base at Sangley Point in Cavite. By June, 1898, the American had control of portions
of the Philippine islands. The Spanish-American War ended with the Treaty of Paris signed
on December 10, 1898. The treaty conferred ownership of the Spanish colonies of Guam,
Puerto Rico and the Philippines to the United States. In turn, the U.S. paid Spain US$ 20
million.

The Battle of Manila Bay

George Dewey, then a Commodore United States

Navy‟s Asiatic Squadron was waiting in Hong Kong when He received
a cable from the then secretary of Navy, Theodore Roosevelt, stating
that the war had begun between the US and Spain. Dewey sailed
from Hong Kong on board his flagship Olympia with six other
heavily armed ships. He brought with him a report on the location of the
Spanish ships in Corregidor and Manila at dawn of May 1,
1898. Dewey entered Manila Bay almost undetected. When he saw the
Spanish ships, which were under the command of General Patricio
Montoya, he ordered his men to fire. The battle began at 5:41 in the
morning and by 12:30 of the same day, the Spaniards were raising the
white flag in surrender. Although The Spanish ships outnumbered those
of the Americans; the weapons of the Americans were far more superior to those of the
Spaniards. The battle proved to be too costly for the Spaniards, who lost 167 men and had
214 others wounded. As for the Americans, no ships were destroyed, and no soldier was
killed or injured. The Battle of Manila Bay is considered one of the easiest encounters ever
won in world history.

The Siege of Manila

By June 1898, General Emilio Aguinaldo had captured the whole of Luzon and was ready to
storm Manila with the help of Gregorio del Pilar, Artemio Recarte, Antonio Montenegro,
Pantaleon Garcia, and many other able generals. At that time, the term “Manila” referred to
the walled city of Intramuros. Aguinaldo‟s men surrounded the walls of Intramuros. Nearby
areas like Tondo, Sta. Cruz, San Juan, and Caloocan were likewise secured. The Spaniards
stubbornly hoped for the arrival of reinforcements from the Spanish mainland, but none
ever came. Aguinaldo on the other hand, was firmly convinced that it just was a matter of
days before the Spaniards surrendered. Therefore, he started planning for the declaration of
Philippine independence.

The Philippine Revolutionary Government

The Malolos Congress

 The Philippine Revolutionary Government

The Malolos Congress

Emilio Aguinaldo issued a decree on July 18, 1898

asking for the election of delegates to the revolutionary
congress, another decree was promulgated five days
later, which declared that Aguinaldo would appoint
representatives of congress because holding elections
is not practical at that time. He appointed 50 delegates
in all (but this number fluctuated from time to time).
In accordance with these two decrees, Aguinaldo
assembled the Revolutionary Congress at the Brasoain
Church in Malolos, Bulacan on September 15, 1898.

The atmosphere was festive and the Pasig Band played the national anthem. After
Aguinaldo had read his speech congressional elections were held among the delegates
present. The following were among the most important achievements of the Malolos
Congress:

1. In September 29, 1898, ratified the declaration of Philippine independence held at Kawit,
Cavite on June 12, 1898
2. Passage of a law that allowed the Philippines to borrow P 20 million from banks for
government expenses
3. Establishment of the Universidad Literatura de Filipinas and other schools
4. Drafting of the Philippine Constitution
5. Declaring war against the United States on June 12, 1899

Malolos Constitution

A committee headed by Felipe Calderon and aided by Cayetano Arellano, the constitution
was drafted, for the first time by representatives of the Filipino people and it is the first
republican constitution in Asia. The constitution was inspired by the constitutions of Mexico,
Guatemala, Costa Rica, Brazil, Belgium and France. After some minor revisions (mainly due
to the objections of Apolinario Mabini), the final draft of the constitution was presented to
Aguinaldo. This paved the way to launching the first Philippine Republic. It established a
democratic, republication government with three branches - the Executive, Legislative and
the Judicial branches. It called for the separation of church and state. The executive powers
were to be exercise by the president of the republic with the help of his cabinet. Judicial
powers were given to the Supreme Court and other lower courts to be created by law. The
Chief justice of the Supreme Court was to be elected by the legislature
with the concurrence of the President and his Cabinet.

First Philippine Republic

The first Philippine Republic was inaugurated in Malolos, Bulacan on

January 21, 1899. After being proclaimed president, Emilio Aguinaldo
took his oath of office. The constitution was read article by article and
followed by a military parade. Apolinario Mabini was elected as a prime
minister. The other cabinet secretaries were: Teodoro Sandico, interior;
Baldomero Aguinaldo, war; Gen. Mariano Trias, finance & war;
Apolinario Mabini, foreign affairs; Gracio Gonzaga for welfare, Aguedo Velarde,
public instruction; Maximo Paterno, public works & communication; and Leon María
Guerrero for agriculture, trade & commerce.

The Philippine National Anthem

Aguinaldo commissioned Julian Felipe, a composer from Cavite province was asked to write
an an instrumental march for the proclamation of independence ceremony. The original title
was "Marcha Filipina Magdalo". This was later changed to "Marcha Nacional Filipina". The
lyrics was added in August 1899 based on the poem titled "Filipinas" by Jose Palma. The
original lyrics was written in Spanish, then to English (when the Flag Law was abolished
during the American period) then later, was translated to Tagalog, which underwent another
change of title to “Lupang Hinirang”, the Philippine National Anthem.

The Philippine Commonwealth Era

The Commonwealth era is the 10 year transitional period in Philippine history from 1935 to
1945 in preparation for independence from the United States as provided for under the
Philippine Independence Act or more popularly known as the Tydings-
McDuffie Law. The Commonwealth era was interrupted when the
Japanese occupied the Philippines in January 2, 1942. The
Commonwealth government, lead by Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio S.
Osmeña went into exile in the U.S., Quezon died of tuberculosis while
in exile and Osmeña took over as president. At the same time, the
Japanese forces installed a puppet government in Manila headed by
Jose P. Laurel as president. This government is known as the Second
Philippine Republic. On October 20, 1944, the Allied forces led by Gen.
Douglas MacArthur landed on the island of Leyte to liberate the
Philippines from the Japanese. Japan formally surrendered in
September 2, 1945.

After liberation, the Commonwealth government was restored. Congress convened in its
first regular session on July 9, 1945. It was the first time the people‟s representatives
have assembled since their election on November 11, 1941. Manuel Roxas was elected
Senate President, and Elpidio Quirino was chosen President Pro Tempore. Jose Zulueta was
speaker of the house, while Prospero Sanidad became speaker pro Tempore. The first law of
this congress, enacted as commonwealth act 672, organized the central bank of the
Philippines. The commonwealth deal also tackled the issue of collaboration. In September
1945 the counter intelligence corps presented the people who were accused of having
collaborated with, or given aid to, the Japanese. Included were prominent Filipinos who had
been active in the puppet government that the Japanese had been established. ”A Peoples
Court" was created to investigate and decide on the issue.

Amidst this sad state of affairs, the third commonwealth elections were held on April 23,
1946. Sergio Osmeña and Manuel Roxas vied for the Presidency. Roxas won thus becoming
the last president of the Philippine Commonwealth. The Commonwealth era formally ended
when the United States granted independence to the Philippines, as scheduled on July 4,
1946.
Important legislations and events during the American period that made the Philippines a
commonwealth of the United States:

The Philippine Bill of 1902 - Cooper Act

United States Congressman Henry Allen Cooper sponsored the Philippine Bill of 1902, also
known as the Cooper Act. The bill proposed the creation and administration of a civil
government in the Philippines. President Theodore Roosevelt signed it into law in July 2,
1902.

Here are some of the more important provisions of the Cooper Act:

▪ Ratification of all changes introduced in the Philippine government by the president of the
U.S., such as the establishment of the Philippine Commission, the office of the civil governor
and the Supreme court
▪ Extension of the American Bill of Rights to the Filipinos except the right of trial by jury
▪ Creation of bicameral legislative body, with the Philippine Commission as the upper house
and a still-to-be-elected Philippine Assembly as the Lower House
▪ Retention of the executive powers of the civil governor, who was also president of the
Philippine Commission
▪ Designation of the Philippine Commission as the legislating authority for non-Christian
tribes
▪ Retention of the Judicial powers of the Supreme court and other lower courts
▪ Appointment of two Filipino resident commissioners who would represent the Philippines in
the US Congress but would not enjoy voting rights
▪ Conservation of Philippine natural resources

The bill contained 3 provisions that had to be fulfilled first before the
Philippine Assembly could be establishing these were the:

▪ Complete restoration of peace and order in the Philippines

▪ Accomplishment of a Nationwide census
▪ Two years of peace and order after the publication of the census

The Philippine Assembly

The assembly was inaugurated on October 16, 1907 at the Manila

Grand Opera House, with US secretary of War William Howard Taft as
guest of honor. Sergio Osmeña was elected Speaker while Manuel
Quezon was elected Majority Floor leader. The Recognition of the
Philippine Assembly paved the way for the establishment of the
bicameral Philippine Legislature. The Assembly functioned as the lower
House, while the Philippine Commission served as the upper house.

Resident Commissioners

Benito Legarda and Pablo Ocampo were the first commissioners. Other Filipinos who
occupied this position included Manuel Quezon, Jaime de Veyra, Teodoro Yangco, Isaro
Gabaldon, and Camilo Osias.
The Jones Law

To further train the Filipinos in the art of government, the U.S. Congress enacted the Jones
Law on August 29, 1916. It was the first official document that clearly promised the
Philippine independence, as stated in its preamble, as soon as a stable government was
established. The Jones Law or the Philippine Autonomy act, Replace the Philippine bill of
1902 as the framework of the Philippine government. It provide for the creation of the
executive powers. The vice governor general, assisted by his Cabinet, would exercise
executive powers. The vice governor would act concurrently as the Secretary of Education.

Creation of the Council of State

Upon the recommendation of Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, Governor General
Francis Burton Harrison issued an executive order on October 16, 1981, creating the first
Council of State in the Philippines. It was the Council‟s duty to advise the governor general
on matters such as the creation of policies for administering government offices.

The Council held meetings once a week and whenever the governor general called for one.
It was composed of the governor general, the department secretaries, the speaker of the
Lower House, and the Senate president. During Harrison‟s term, the executive and
legislative branches of government worked harmoniously with each other.

The Os-Rox Mission

One delegation, however, that met with partial success was the Os-Rox Mission, so called
because it was headed by Sergio Osmeña and Manuel Roxas. The Os-Rox group went to the
United States in 1931 and was able to influence the U.S. Congress to pass a pro-
independence bill by Representative Butter Hare, Senator Henry Hawes, and Senator Bronso
Cutting. The Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law provided for a 10-year transition period before
the United States would recognize Philippine independence. U.S. President Herbert
Hoover did not sign the bill; but both Houses of Congress ratified it. When the Os-Rox
Mission presented the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law to the Philippine Legislature, it was rejected
by a the American High Commissioner representing the US president in the country and the
Philippine Senate, specifically the provision that gave the U.S. president the right to
maintain land and other properties reserved for military use. Manuel Quezon was tasked to
head another independence mission to the united States.

The Tydings-McDuffie Law

In December 1933, Manuel L. Quezon returned to the Philippines from the United States
with a slightly amended version of the Hare-Hawes-Cutting bill authored by Senator Milliard
Tydings and representative McDuffie. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the new U.S.
president, signed it into law on March 24, 1934. The Tydings-McDuffie Act (officially the
Philippine Independence Act of the United States Congress; Public Law 73-127) or more
popularly known as the The Tydings-McDuffie Law provided for the establishment of the
Commonwealth government for a period of ten years preparatory to the granting of
Independence.
 The Philippines During Martial Law

Proclamation of Martial Law: On September 21, 1972, President

Ferdinand E. Marcos placed the Philippines under Martial Law. The
declaration issued under Proclamation 1081 suspended the civil rights
and imposed military authority in the country. Marcos defended the
declaration stressing the need for extra powers to quell the rising wave
of violence allegedly caused by communists. The emergency rule was
also intended to eradicate the roots of rebellion and promote a rapid
trend for national development. The autocrat assured the country of the
legality of Martial Law emphasizing the need for control over civil
disobedience that displays lawlessness. Marcos explained citing the
provisions from the Philippine Constitution that Martial Law is a
strategic approach to legally defend the Constitution and protect the welfare of the Filipino
people from the dangerous threats posed by Muslim rebel groups and Christian vigilantes
that places national security at risk during the time. Marcos explained that martial law was
not a military takeover but was then the only option to resolve the country‟s dilemma on
rebellion that stages national chaos threatening the peace and order of the country. The
emergency rule, according to Marcos‟s plan, was to lead the country into what he calls a
“New Society”.

Marcos used several events to justify martial law. Threat to the country‟s security was
intensifying following the re-establishment of the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP)
in 1968. Supporters of CPP‟s military arm, the New People‟s Army, also grew in numbers in
Tarlac and other parts of the country. The alleged attempt to the life of then Minister of
Defense Juan Ponce Enrile gave Marcos a window to declare Martial Law. Marcos announced
the emergency rule the day after the shooting incident. Marcos also declared insurgency in
the south caused by the clash between Muslims and Christians, which Marcos considered as
a threat to national security. The Muslims were defending their ancestral land against the
control of Christians who migrated in the area. The minority group organized the Moro
National Liberation Front (MNLF) in Malaysia and pushed for the
autonomy of Mindanao from the national government.

The move was initially supported by most Filipinos and was viewed by
some critics as a change that solved the massive corruption in the
country. Martial law ceased the clash between the executive and
legislative branches of the government and a bureaucracy characterized
by special interest. Marcos started to implement reforms on social and
political values that hindered effective modernization. To match the
accomplishments of its Asian neighbors, Marcos imposed the need for
self-sacrifice for the attainment of national welfare. His reforms targeted his rivals within
the elite depriving them of their power and patronage but did not affect their supporters (US
Library of Congress, Martial Law and the Aftermath).

Thirty-thousand opposition figures including Senator Benigno Aquino,

journalists, student and labor activists were detained at military compounds under the
President‟s command (Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law). The army and the Philippine
Constabulary seized weapons and disbanded private armies controlled by prominent
politicians and other influential figures (Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law). Marcos took
control of the legislature and closed the Philippine Congress (Proclamation 1081 and Martial
Law). Numerous media outfits were either closed down or operated under tight control
(Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law). Marcos also allegedly funnelled millions of the
country‟s money by placing some of his trusted supporters in strategic economic positions
to channel resources to him. Experts call this the “crony capitalism.”

The deterioration of the political and economic condition in the

Philippines triggered the decline of support on Marcos‟ plans. More and
more Filipinos took arms to dislodge the regime. Urban poor
communities in the country‟s capital were organized by the Philippine
Ecumenical Council for Community and were soon conducting protest
masses and prayer rallies. These efforts including the exposure of
numerous human rights violations pushed Marcos to hold an election in
1978 and 1981 in an aim to stabilize the country‟s chaotic condition.
Marcos, in both events, won the election; however, his extended term as
President of the Republic of the Philippines elicited an extensive
opposition against his regime. Social unrest reached its height after former Senator
Benigno Aquino was murdered. The incident sent thousands of Filipinos to the streets calling
for Marcos‟ removal from post. Turning again to his electoral strategy, Marcos held a snap
election in 1986 but what he hoped will satisfy the masses only increased their
determination to end his rule that seated Corazon Aquino, widow of Benigno Aquino,
as President of the Philippines ousting Marcos from Malacañang Palace and ending the
twenty-one years of tyrant rule.